Mediaeval History of Bengal
Focused areas:
1. Political History Mediaeval Bengal
2. Glory of Mediaeval Bengal
Political History Mediaeval Bengal
Early Sultanate Period The Muslim rule in Bengal had its beginning in the
opening years of the thirteenth century (1204 AD). Long before this, the Arab
Muslims had contact with Bengal, which was primarily commercial and religious
in nature and limited to the coastal regions.
The process of Muslim expansion in Bengal began with the military exploits
of BAKHTIYAR KHALJI, who made a sudden attack on Bengal in 1204-05 AD
and captured NADIA, the temporary capital of king Laksmanasena. He then
captured GAUR, the traditional capital of Bengal, made it his capital and
spent there about two years in making administrative settlement of his newly
conquered territories.
He established a kind of clannish feudalism in his territory. He parceled out
the conquered area into units and placed them in charge of his trusted
generals. Besides administrative settlements Bakhtiyar also found time to lay
the foundation of Muslim society in Bengal by establishing mosques for
congregation, madrasas for the schooling of Muslim children, and Khanqahs
for the Sufis to preach religion.
Independent Sultanate: In 1338 Bahram Khan died. On his death at
Sonargaon his armour-bearer (Silhadar) Fakhruddin captured power,
proclaimed independence and assumed the title of Sultan Fakhruddin
Mubarak Shah. This acted as a signal for a new series of struggles for power
which ultimately led to the establishment of ilyas shahi rule in Bengal. It
heralded the beginning of the Independent Sultanate that continued for two
hundred years' (1338-1538).
Iliyas Shahi Period
The dynasty founded by ILIYAS SHAH ruled Bengal for nearly one hundred and fifty
years (1342-1487 AD). The period of Iliyas Shahi rule is important and significant.
The Independent Sultanate, inaugurated by FAKHRUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH, was
consolidated and witnessed widespread expansion. The Muslim administration was
given a distinct shape in this period. Arts and literature, particularly Bangla
literature, flourished. The Muslim rulers were obliged to take the local people into
confidence and opened the door for their participation in the administration of the
country. Thus the process of transformation of an alien Muslim rule into Bengali
Muslim rule was started during this period. Above all, the whole territory, which
was hitherto known not by any unitary name but by its different regional names
such as Vanga, Gauda etc, came to be designated as Bangalah.
Haji Iliyas, the founder of the dynasty and the real founder of the Independent
Sultanate of Bengal. Iliyas Shah was a vigorous and efficient ruler and by his
sagacity and political acumen earned for himself the titles of Shah-i-Bangalah,
Shah-i-Bangaliyan and Sultan-i-Bangalah. The period from 1342 to 1487
witnessed remarkable expansion of the territory of the Bengal Sultanate under Ilyas
Shah, Sikandar Shah, Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah,
Ruknuddin Barbak Shah, Yusuf Shah and Jalaluddin Fath Shah. Practically the
whole of Bengal and some adjacent territories in the west and north-east came
under the Bengal Sultanate.
Habshi Rule Towards the close of the reign of Sultan Jalaluddin Fath Shah, the
Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slaves became a dangerously powerful element in the court
of Bengal. Shahzada, a Habshi eunuch and the leader of the Abyssinian slaves
usurped the throne by murdering Jalaluddin Fath Shah, the last ruler of the house
of Iliyas Shah in 893 AH/1487 AD.
The rule of the Habshis (Abyssinians) in Bengal lasted nearly six years (893 AH/
1487 AD to 899 AH /1493 AD.
Husain Shahi Rule (1494-1538 AD) occupies a significant place in the medieval
history of Bengal. The founder of the dynasty, Alauddin HUSAIN SHAH, occupied
the throne by assassinating the Habshi Sultan Shamsuddin MUZAFFAR SHAH, under
whom he had served as wazir. He was elected sultan by the leading nobles in 1494
AD. His reign witnessed the territorial expansion of the Sultanate of Bengal.
Having conquered KAMARUPA and KAMTA, his troops advanced further into the
upper Brahmaputra valley of Assam. He attained some temporary success in his
hostilities against the king of Orissa and inscribed the legend 'conqueror of Kamru
and Kamta, and Jajnagar and Orissa' on his coins. He succeeded in annexing a part
of Tippera to his kingdom. Chittagong formed an integral part of his kingdom.
Towards the end of Husain Shah's reign a Portuguese mission came to Bengal to
establish diplomatic links. Husain's reign ended in 1519 AD. The country enjoyed
undisturbed peace and VIJAYA GUPTA, the contemporary poet mentioned him as
nrpati-tilaka (the tilak-mark of kings), jagatabhusana (the adornment of the
universe) and Krsna-avatara (the incarnation of Krsna).
Towards the end of 1521 two Portuguese missions came to the court of Nusrat to
establish diplomatic relations with Bengal. The PORTUGUESE were active during his
reign in the Bay of Bengal. His governors in Chittagong had to deal on several
occasions with the Portuguese 'menace' in the coastal area off Chittagong. While
visiting his father's tomb at Gaur, one of his slaves is said to have killed him.
Afghan Rule, 1539-1576 started in Bengal in 1539 after the discomfiture
of HUMAYUN at Chausa at the hands of Sher Khan and ended in 1576 with the
Mughal victory at RAJMAHAL over DAUD KARRANI. Bengal under the Sur
governors (1539-53 AD) Realising justly the importance of Bengal for his empire
building, Sher Shah paid his utmost attention for its proper administrative
reorganisation. He deposed his first governor Khizir Khan for treacherous activities
within a span of two years and, as a novel scheme, subdivided Bengal including
Chittagong into a number of smaller units, each under a separate MUQTA. He
appointed Qazi Fadilat, a learned scholar of Agra, as the supreme superintendent
with a jurisdiction on all the subordinate muqtas. Sher Shah's plan worked well and
the Afghans became so permanently domiciled in Bengal that its climate and
culture had transformed them almost beyond recognition vis-a-vis the non-Afghan
Bengalis.
Mughal period upto 1757 Mughal rule was established in Bengal after the defeat
of the Karrani Afghan Sultan Daud Khan in the battle of Rajmahal, 12 July 1576 at
the hands of Khan Jahan. With Khan Jahan's victory over Daud Khan, the Mughals
made determined and sustained efforts to establish their authority over Bengal, till
ultimately in 1612, Islam Khan Chishti, the subahdar of JAHANGIR, brought the
whole of Bengal (except Chittagong) under the Mughal control.
With Daud Khan's defeat ended the Sultanate rule in Bengal, but this in no way
meant the end of Bengali resistance to the imperial power. Different military
chieftains and bhuiyans, some of whom were powerful enough to be styled as rajas
(kings), controlled different pockets of Bengal. They tried to resist the Mughal
aggression as independent or semi-independent chieftains. Among those who
resisted the Mughals, some bhuiyans, known as BARA-BHUIYANS (twelve territorial
landholders) stand out prominent.
The rajas, bhuiyans and the zamindars who put up stubborn resistance to the
Mughals were many, about 36. The bara-bhuiyans resisted the Mughal aggresion
for several decades. The chief of the bara-bhuiyans was Isa Khan who assumed the
title of Masnad-i-Ala. He combined with other bhuiyans and led them in the
struggle against the Mughals till his death in 1599. Isa Khan's son MUSA KHAN took
the leadership of the bara-bhuiyans and put up a stubborn resistance to the
Mughals. But they were at last forced to submit to the imperial armies led by
Subahdar Islam Khan Chishti in the reign of Emperor Jahangir.
After Jahangir's accession, Islam Khan took up the task of subjugating the remnant
resisting elements. For political reason, he transferred the capital from Rajmahal to
Dhaka. The bara-bhuiyans were then finally defeated. As a political strategy, the
defeated bhuiyans and chiefs were not allowed to retain their principalities under
their control.
Sirajuddaula, the new nawab was only 23 when he ascended the throne of
Bengal. Soon he found himself surrounded by enemies, local and foreign. In his
own house his greatest enemy was GHASETI BEGUM (Meherun-Nisa), the eldest
sister of his mother. shawkat jang, his cousin, living in Purnia, was another great
rival. Then there was MIR JAFAR ALI KHAN who was the commander-in-chief of
Alivardi's army. He also was the husband of a half-sister of Alivardi Khan. Most
dangerous was the Jagath Sheth family which controlled the Bengal money market
and who had many sympathisers in the Durbar. The greatest enemy was the
English East India Company, which was quite openly ignoring the nawab. Without
taking any permission from the nawab they were fortifying the FORT WILLIAM of
Calcutta and taking other military preparations. The Fort William was made a safe
haven for the criminals and violators of the law of the land.
To bring the English under law, Nawab Sirajuddaula attacked Calcutta. The
English left the city for Fulta wherefrom they came back being reinforced from
Madras. Colonel ROBERT CLIVE entered into a conspiracy with the disaffected
officials of the nawab, Mir Jafar, Jagat Sheth, RAJBALLABH and others. The Fort
William Council agreed to a secret treaty with Mir Jafar promising to place him on
the throne, and the latter agreeing to grant territorial, financial and trade facilities
to the English. Armed with this treaty and the treachery of Mir Jafar and others,
Clive arrived at Palashi and took position on 23 June 1757. Siraj also came to the
place to encounter the company's army. But to his dismay he found that the larger
part of his own army defied his command and stood silent. Siraj fled from the field,
but was captured and brought back to the capital and killed. Clive, in accordance
with the terms of the secret pact, placed Mir Jafar on the throne. The Mughal
sovereignty was virtually over with the event of Palashi though the English took a
decade more to assert real power.
Glory of Mediaeval Bengal
Economic Prosperity of Mediaeval Bengal:
Bengal reached the zenith of its economic affluence during medieval times, from
the 14th-17th centuries AD. It was known as one of the most prosperous lands in
the world.
The Moorish traveler Ibn Batuta who visited Bengal in the 14th-century described
Bengal as the wealthiest and cheap-est land in the world and stated that it was
known as “a hell full of bounties”.
In the same vein, the 17th-century French traveler Francois Bernier observed:
“Egypt has been represented in every age as the finest and most fruitful country in
the world and even our modern writers deny that there is any other land so
peculiarly favored by nature; but the knowledge I have acquired of Bengal during
two visits paid to that Kingdom inclines me to believe that the preeminence
ascribed to Egypt is rather due to Bengal”.
Because of its fertile land and the abundance of seasonal rainfall, Bengal was a
cornucopia of agricultural products. Famines and scarcity were virtually unknown
compared to other areas of Asia.
Bengal was a focal point of free trade in the Indian Ocean from the 14th century
onwards. It served as a virtual storehouse of silk and cotton, not only for India and
neighboring countries, but also for Europe.
The region occupying what is now Dhaka once produced the finest cotton in the
world. Large quantities of cotton cloth were produced in different areas of Bengal.
The best and most well-known varieties of muslin textiles were produced in
Dhaka. Some of the muslin garments were so fine that, as the 17th century traveler
Tavernier notes, “even if a 60 cubit long turban were held you would scarcely
know what it was that you had in your hand”. Some garments were so fine that a
full size muslin could be passed through a small ring. Bengal also exported an
extensive quantity of silk clothing.
According to Tavernier, Bengal silks were exported to other parts of India, Central
Asia, Japan, and Holland. The region was also one of the largest producers of
sugar, exporting to other parts of South Asia and the Middle East.
In trade and commerce, Bengal came to limelight in history by her international
trade. During the early Muslim-period, Bengal's products could be sold for money
to a small extent. The foreign merchants buying the goods were Chinese,
Malayese, Arabs and Persians. Among the European traders, the Portuguese came
first and opened trade in the first quarter of the 16th century. They first appeared at
Chittagong, and after many vicissitudes, got permission to trade with Bengal. But
they prospered when, with the permission from the Mughal emperor Akbar, they
established a settlement at Hugli in 1580. The Portuguese established their
supremacy in the sea, and being unrivalled got enormous profits out of their trade
with Bengal. But soon the Portuguese degenerated, by the first quarter of the 17th
century their power and trade began to decline. Their indulgence in piratical and
proselytising activities invited retaliation from the Mughals, but the main cause of
their decline was the competition with other European companies.
The Dutch East India Company started their trade with Bengal from their base at
Masaulipatam in the Coromandel coast in the beginning of the 17th century, the
English East India Company followed them. Both the companies prospered in their
trade with the privileges received from the Mughal government. They established
their factories near Hugli in the bank of river Bhagirathi, the Dutch at Chinsura and
the English at Hughli. Later the English moved to Calcutta, and when the French
company came, they established their factory at Chandernagar. During the
rebellion of Shobha Singh, all the companies fortified themselves against possible
attack, and with the permission of subahdar Azimuddin, the English purchased
from their owners the three villages of Sutanuti, Govindpur and Kolkata and laid
the foundation of the city of Calcutta. Later came the OSTEND COMPANY and from
17th to 18th centuries Bengal's overseas trade increased by leaps and bounds. The
companies exported from Bengal salt-petre, ingredients of making gunpowder,
abundantly available in Lalganj, North-Bihar. Other goods that were exported from
Bengal were fine cotton goods, coarse cotton textiles, silk and silk-textiles, indigo,
Lac, rice (for Asiatic countries and to be used as ballast).
Mughal rule in Bengal opened an era of peace and prosperity. The overseas trade,
the influx of gold and silver turned Bengal actually a Jannat-ul-Bilad, by which
name she had been designated by the upcountry Muslims. The foreign travellers
from Portugal, Italy, France, England and Holland started coming to Bengal from
the time she became open to the European ships. To name a few, they were Duarte
Barbosa, Varthema, Caesar Frederick, Sebastien Manrique, Ralph Fitch, Thomas
Bowrey, Niccolao Manucci, Francois Bernier, Tavernier, Stavorinus etc. Almost
all of them spoke very highly of Bengal's wealth, rich products and highly prized
manufactured goods. The rich exuberance of the country, together with the beauty
and amiable disposition of the native women, has given rise to a proverb in
common use among the Portuguese, English and Dutch, that the Kingdom of
Bengal has a hundred gates open for entrance, but not one for departure.
Social and Cultural Life in Medieval Bengal
The Medieval Age in Bengal began with the assumption of power by the Muslims.
Before the advent of the Muslims, people belonging to the Hindu and the Buddhist
religions lived in Bengal. The Muslims under the leadership of Bakhtiar Khalji
entered Bengal as a royal power in the beginning of the thirteenth century. Even
five to six hundred years before that the Arab Muslims who had come to do
business were living on the coastal belt in Southeast Bengal. The Sufis and the
Saints began to come to Bengal to preach Islam from the eleventh century. Many
of the common Hindus and Buddhists embraced Islam at the time. Thus, gradually
a Muslim social structure developed in Bengal. The Hindus and the Muslims lived
side by side all over Bengal at the time. As a result, a sort of mixture began to take
place between one another's thoughts and rituals. The culture which evolved in this
way is called the Bengali culture.
With the coming of the Mughals Bengal witnessed the working of certain new
forces in her social, economic and cultural life. These forces transformed Bengal's
life and thought and as has been nicely put by one scholar, 'the outer world came to
Bengal and Bengal went out of herself to the outer world. Unlike the previous
period, when she enjoyed independence, free from outside control, Bengal now
became a part, a province of the centralised Mughal government, under one
administration, one law, one official language, a uniform official cadre and
uniform currency. Muslims from various countries came to Bengal from the
beginning, but with the introduction of Mughal rule and with the prospect of peace,
prospect of employment opportunities also increased. So scholarly Muslims, i.e.
those who pursued peaceful life, like the ulama, teachers, poets, physicians and
merchants came to Bengal in larger number. There also came the Shia ulama and
scholars in the train of Shia political leaders, subahdars, diwans and others.
Some very prominent Mughal subahdars were Shias. Murshid Quli Khan had
practically established a Shia dynasty ever ready to welcome the talented and pious
Shias. Names of many Persian poets are found who either made Bengal their
permanent home or passed a part of their career in Bengal under the patronage of
the subahdars and other high officers.With the growth of trade and commerce came
the Marwari Banking families like the family of Jagat Sheth; some zamindars, for
example the zamindar of Burdwan also came from upper India. In trade and
commerce also Bengal's isolation was broken, she now took greater part in inter-
provincial trade, the inland trade carried Bengal goods to Patna, Agra, Delhi and to
Multan, while the sea-borne trade carried the goods to Balasore, Katak, Madras
and so on.
Language and Literature
The Sufis and the Saints had an important role in the expansion of the Muslim
society in Bengal. The abodes of the Sufis and the Saints were called 'Khankahs'.
Along with the establishment of the 'Khankah' the Sufis also established
almshouses, Maktabs, Madrashas. In fact, they created the proper atmosphere for
the establishment of a Muslim society in Bengal. The deprived Hindus during the
Sena period got the equal privilege of learning during the Muslim period. Hence,
some Hindu writers emerged in the society during the Muslim period. For example
'Karcha', 'Naladamyanti Kavya', 'and 'Devayan Upakhyana' were written by
goldsmith Govinda Das, barber Madhusudan and milkman Ram Narayan Gope
respectively. The Hindus and the Muslims had good relations with each other in
the Age of the Sultans. Many Hindus were appointed in high offices of the State.
When Sree Chaitnya preached the new 'Vaishnaba' religion, he received no
opposition from the Muslim Sultans.
The Sultans patronized the growth and expansion of the Bengali language and
literature. In this respect the first name that can be mentioned is Giasuddin Azam
Shah (1393 A.D-1411 A.D) of the Ilias Shah Dynasty. It was during his regin Shah
Mohammad Sagir wrote his famous poem 'Yusuf-Zulekha'. Barbak Shah of the
later Ilias Shahi Dynasty patronized Jashoraj Khan, composer of 'Sree Krishna
Vijoy'. Alauddin Hussain Shah had a reputation for inspiring the cultivation of
Bengali literature. He patronaged Maladhar Basu, Bipradasa, Vijayagupta and
other poets. Sultan Nasiruddin Nusrat Shah also has reputation for such patronage.
During his time Kavindra Parameswar translated Mahabharata in Bengali. The
cultivation of not only Bengali, but also of Arabic and Persian works were widely
preactised during the Sultanate period.
Persian became the official language and not only Persian literature was produced
in the country but also Persian language influenced local Bengali language.
Bengali poets borrowed Persian themes and Persian words in large number have
entered into the local language. State revenue service was more elaborate than
before and so the zamindars, muqaddams, patwaris, i.e. all those locals connected
with the revenue service had to learn Persian language in which the accounts were
maintained. Unlike the Bengal sultans, Mughal subahdars came to Bengal for
particular terms. So they had neither the aptitude nor the time to learn local
language, and hence the agents of local zamindars stationed at the court had to be
masters of Persian language.
Dress and Ornaments
During the period of the Sultans, the aristocratic and rich men and women wore
expensive, decent and attractive dresses. The men wore 'ijar' (pyajama) and long
attire with round neck. A broad ribbon made of cloth was tied round the waist.
They wore the turban on their heads. They wore decorated leather shoes and socks.
Men with delicate taste used shoes with designs on them. The dress for the middle
class Muslims was pyajama, long shirt and turban. They wore shoes too. The
common Muslims wore 'lungi' (cloth worn from the waist to the ankles), 'nima'
(short shirt) and the cap on their heads. The aristocratic Muslim women wore short
'kamiz' and 'shalwar'. They used to wear the scarfs made of cotton or silk. They
wore costly sarees too. Common women wore sarees.
After the Muslim rule was established in Bengal a radical change took place in the
dresses of the Hindus in general, and the aristocratic Hindus in particular. The
influence of the Muslims on the dress of the aristocratic Hindus was so great that if
an aristocratic Hindu at that time did not wear 'tilak' (mark of sandal paste on the
forehead) and ear rings, it was difficult to differentiate him from an aristocratic
Muslim. The common Hindus used the 'dhoti' (long cloth from waist to the ankles)
and 'chadar' (wrapper). They also wore garment called 'angarakhi' which covered
the body down to the knee. They wore 'Kharam' (wooden sandal) on their feet. The
lower class Hindus wore only the 'dhoti'. This 'dhoti' was from the waist to the
knees. The common dress for the Hindu women was the 'saree'. They ware 'saree'
and scarf according to their social amd economic status. The poor wore the 'saree'
only. It is worth mentioning that the style of wearing the 'saree' changed after the
Muslims came to Bengal. The old system fused with the foreign custom and a new
manner of wearing the 'saree' was evolved.
Men and women, either Hindu or Muslim, both wore ornaments. However, the
women were more fond of ornaments. They wore the tiara and, 'sinthipathi' on the
head; earring, tops, jhumka, kushul, kanbala, balies in the ears; nose-ring in the
nose; necklace and hansuli in the neck; kankan' bangles' string' churi' khar' penchi'
angada in the hands; rings in the fingers; mekhala and kinkini in the waist; anklet'
bangle of bells for the ankle and pansuli in the toes. Both men and women used
various cosmetics. But women were more inclined and attentive to it. Women were
more careful about their hairdo. They used to make bun. They made their hair
twisted into braid and sometimes allowed to fall eh hair on the back. They also
used various kinds of perfumes. Noteworthy among them were musk, kumkum,
incense, camphor etc. Flower was invariably used for adoring oneself. They used
'surma' and 'kajal' in their eyes.To colour their hands they used a substance called
'hena'. To redden their lips they ate betels. The Hindu ladies also used Sandal paste
on their foreheads.
Architecture and Painting
Muslim architecture became quite developed in the Age of the Sultans.
Noteworthy examples are the 'Dakhil Darwaza' of Gaur, the 'Kotwali Darwaza', the
Chata Sona Masjid, the 'Adina Masjid', the 'Baro Sona Masjid', the 'Qadam Rasul',
the 'Shat Gambuj Masjid' etc. The craftspeople of Bengal were skilled in making,
pottery, plates, knives, scissors etc. High quality paper was made from the barks of
trees. Sea faring vessels were also built in the shipbuilding factories. Silver coins
were used as currency for buying and selling goods. The 'kari' a local medium of
exchange, was in use at the same time.
