Introduction
In automation industry every mechatronic system has some sensors to measure
the status of the process variables.
The analogy between the human controlled system and a computer controlled
system is describe as follows:-
-The operator observes the behavior of the system, makes a decision and then,
using his muscular power to take a particular control action is taken.
-The sensors replaces the eyes for observation, actuators replace the muscle,
and the computer replaces the human brain.
Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT903, Sensor Technology
Electronics and Electrical Engineering Department 1
Brain for decision making
Eye for sensing
Muscles for actuation
Input Output
Process
Input Output
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Every computer controlled system has these four basic functional blocks:-
1- Process to be controlled.
2- Actuators.
3- Sensors.
4- Controller.
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The main components of any automated system; mechanical structure, sensors,
actuators decision making, power sources and human interface.
Mechanical Process
Solenoids Strain Gauge Input Signal
Thermocouple Conditioning
Actuators Sensors Filters
Accelerometer Amplifiers
DC Motors Potentiometer A/D,D/D
Output Digital Control
Display Signal Logic circuits
LED, LCD,CRT Conditioning PLC
A/D,D/D PWM Microcontroller
Amplifiers
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Sensors
Sensors are used to
-Inspect work
-Evaluate the conditions of work under progress.
-Facilitate the higher level monitoring of the manufacturing operation.
-Are used to translate a physical phenomenon into an acceptable signal that can be
analyzed for decision making
Sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of
sensing of a physical phenomenon.
Sensors are also referred as a transducer
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The basic concept of a measurement device
-The measurement device is called the sensor.
-The sensor is placed in the environment where a variable is to be measured.
-The sensor is exposed to the effect of the measured variable.
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The operation of sensor is effected by the following phenomenon's
-The change of the absolute value in the measured physical variable ( pressure,
temperature, displacement….etc. is translated into a change in the property
(capacitance, resistance magnetic) coupling of the sensor. This is called
transduction.
-The change in the property of the sensor is translated into a low power level
electrical signal in the form of voltage or current.
-This low power signal is amplified, conditioned and transmitted to an intelligent
device for processing
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Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts a signal from one physical form to a
corresponding signal that has a different physical form
Input Transducer Different
Level output Level
- Electrical - Mechanical
-Thermal - Optical
Complex control systems have introduced a need of faster, sensitive and precise
measuring devices. Due top these demands sensors are being implemented in a
solid state
Two important components in modern control systems are sensors and
transducers. They are known as primary elements, convert varying information
into another form.
The maximum accuracy is controlled by the sensitivity of the sensor and the
internally generated noise of the sensor itself. ELCT903, Sensor Technology
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source Sensor detector Signal conditioner Display
Sensor
Controller
Energy source
Sensor detector :- to sense the information of interest and convert this
information into an acceptable form of signal conditioner.
Signal conditioner:- to accept the signal from the detector and to modify it in a
way acceptable to the display unit.
Display :- to present the information in a displayable fashion.
Output:- can be in the form of reading or a printer, or passed to the controller, or
implemented and feedback to the source
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Displacement Force Weight Temp. Pressure Flow Digital
Primary elements Sensor Transducer
Signal conditioning
Signal processing
I/O module Interface and control
Applications
Instrumentation used for general sensing applications
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Primary Elements:- sense and convert information into a form suitable to be
handed by the measurement system
Signal conditioning :- for processing and modifying the information.
I/Output :- for interface and control with the external process
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Sensor Classification
Classification Sensor
Signal characteristic Analog
Digital
Power Supply Active
Passive
Mode of operation Null Type
Deflection Type
Subject of Measurement Acoustic
Biological
Chemical
Electric
Mechanical
Optical
Radiation
Terminal
……..others ELCT903, Sensor Technology
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Analog Sensors:- to convey the meaning of a continuous, uninterrupted, unbroken
series of events. Typically have an output that is proportional to the variable being
measured.
The output changes in a continuous way and this information is obtained on the basis
of amplitude. The output is supplied to the controller by analog or digital converter.
Digital Sensors:- digital refers to a sequence of discrete events. Each event is
separate from the previous and the next event. The sensors are digital if their level
outputs are of a digital nature. they are accurate and precision and don't require
converters,
Active Sensors:- most of the output is produced from a separate power source. The
external signal is modified by the sensor to produce the output signal .
The active sensors require external power for their operation, which is
called an excitation signal.
example, a thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor. It does not generate any
electric signal, but by passing an electric current through it (excitation signal), its
resistance can be measured by detecting variations in current and/or voltage
across the thermistor.
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Passive Sensors:- the output is produced from the input parameters. The
passive sensor (self generating) produce an electrical signal in response to an
external stimulus.
Example :- piezoelectric, thermocouple, photodiode and radioactive.
A passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly
generates an electric signal in response to an external stimulus; that is, the
input stimulus energy is converted by the sensor into the output signal.
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Deflection Type :- are used in a physical setup where the output is proportional to the
measured quantity that is displayed.
Example:- potentiometer
Null Type:- any deflection due to the measured quantity is balanced by the opposing
calibrated force so that any imbalance is detected.
Example:- Wheatstone bridge
Subject of measurement:- such subject includes acoustic, biological, chemical,
electric, magnetic, optical, mechanical, thermal……
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Parameter Measurement in Sensors and Transducers
sensor Transducer Signal conditioning
Measured Sensing Module Conversion Variable
Medium Module Manipulation
Data transmission Data display Observer
Sends signals Information
Sensing Module:- is the first element to receive a signal from the measured medium
and produces an output depending on the measured quantity. The measured
quantity gets distributed by the act of measurement, good instruments are normally
designed to minimize the error of measurement
Conversion Module:- Transducer Module - converts one physical variable to
another. In certain cases, the transduction of the input signal may take place in
stages such as primary, secondary, and tertiary transduction.
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Variable Manipulation Module:- usually involves signal conditioning; like
amplifiers, linkage mechanisms, gear boxes, . An electronic amplifier accepts a
small voltage signal as an input signal and generates a signal that is many times
larger than the input signal.
Data Transmission Module: sends a signal from one point to another, the
transmission element could be shaft device or could be complicated such as
transmitting signals from ground to satellite.
Data Display module:- produces information about the measured quantity in a form
that can be recognized
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Example 1 : Home Heating System
Temperature Set Point
20 25 30 Relay Fuel Burner Room
Pump Radiator
Temperature
Sensor
The block diagram represents the system components, the thermostat block
process two input signals, a room temperature and a temperature set point to
produce one output signal that is sent to a mechanical relay switch. The thermostat
acts as a primary sensor and transducer.
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Example 2 :- Pressure Sensor
Pressure Length
Pressure Source Piston Display
Cylinder
Volume Force
A pressure sensor in the form of a spring loaded piston. The pressure acts on the
piston and spring mechanism. The spring works as a primary sensor and variable
conversion element.
The deflection of the spring is transferred to the display as a movement of the dial
indicator
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Quality Parameters of an Instrumentation System
Sensors and transducers are often used under environmental conditions, they are
sensitive to environmental inputs such as pressure, motion, temperature, radiation and
magnetic fields.
Sensors characteristic are described in terms of seven properties:-
Sensitivity
Resolution
Accuracy
Precision
Backlash
Repeatability
Linearity
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Sensitivity:-
It is the ability of the measuring instrument to responded to the changes of the
measured quantity.
The ratio of change of output to change of input
I O
Transducer
Energy Source
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∆O
S=
∆I
Where
S is the sensitivity
∆O is the change in output
∆I is the change in input
Example , if a movement of 0.001mm causes an output voltage change of 0.02V,
the sensitivity of the measuring instrument is
∆O 0.02
S= = = 20V / mm
∆I 0.001 ELCT903, Sensor Technology
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Resolution:-
Is the smallest increment in the measured value that can be detected
The degree of fineness with which measurements can be made
Example , if a micrometer with a minimum graduation of 1mm is used to measure
to the nearest 0.5 mm, then by interpolation the resolution is estimated as 0.5mm
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Accuracy:-
Is the measure of the difference between the measured value and the actual value.
An experiment is said to be accurate if is unaffected by experimental error
Accuracy is defined as the percentage of the true value
measured value − true value
percentage of true value = (100 )
true value
The difference between the measured value and the true value is called bias
error
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The Figure shows an ideal or theoretical
transfer function. In the real world, any
sensor performs with some kind of
imperfection. A possible real transfer
function is represented by a thick line,
which generally may be neither linear
nor monotonic. A real function rarely
coincides with the ideal.
the real transfer functions must fall within
the limits of a specified accuracy.
These permissive limits differ from the ideal
transfer function line by
The real functions deviate from the ideal by
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The Figure shows that may be
more closely follow the real transfer
function, meaning better tolerances of
the sensor’s accuracy.
This can be accomplished by a
multiple-point calibration. Thus, the
specified accuracy limits are
established not around the theoretical
(ideal) transfer function, but around
the calibration curve, which is
determined during the actual
calibration procedure.
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Precision:-
It is the ability of the instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings within a
given accuracy. It is dependent on the reliability of the instrument
Example
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Backlash:-
Is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of a
mechanical system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion of
the attached part.
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Repeatability
Is the ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the same measured is
applied repeatedly under the same environmental conditions
Example
The repeatability of the analyzer, which can be expressed by the standard
deviation of readings in a single-point measurement, depends on the oil film
thickness.
In the case of cleaned cold-rolled steel the standard deviation is of the order of 1
g/m2. The influence of surface textures increases the standard deviation
when measurements are performed at separate points on the surface.
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Linearity:-
The output is a linear function of the input. Linearity is never completely achieved,
and the deviations from the ideal are termed linearity tolerances
Linearity of the measurement signal of an inductive
displacement sensor
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Linearity is expressed as the percentage of departure from the linear value .
i.e. maximum deviation of the output curve from the best fit straight line
during a calibration cycle
The non linearity is normally caused by nonlinear elements such as mechanical
hysteresis and electronic amplifiers
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General diagram for sensor characteristic and quality parameters
One measurement More than one measurement
Number of trails
Observed Values
Actual Value
Precision
Repeatability
Correct Value
Values
Accuracy
(Precision for one point)
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