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Jurassic to Early Paleogene sedimentation in the Amazon region of Ecuador:

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DOI: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103555

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Article
Sedimentology, Provenance and Radiometric
Dating of the Silante Formation: Implications
for the Cenozoic Evolution of the Western Andes
of Ecuador
Cristian Vallejo 1,2,*, Santiago Almagor 1, Christian Romero 3, Jose L. Herrera 4,5,
Vanessa Escobar 1, Richard A. Spikings 6, Wilfried Winkler 7 and Pieter Vermeesch 4
1 Departamento de Geología, Facultad de Ingeniería en Geología y Petróleos, Escuela Politécnica Nacional,
Quito 170517, Ecuador; [email protected] (S.A.); [email protected] (V.E.)
2 Geostrat SA. Jorge Drom N39-188 y Jose Arizaga, Quito 170507, Ecuador

3 Instituto de Investigación Geológico Energético (IIGE), Quito 170518, Ecuador;

[email protected]
4 Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK;

[email protected] (J.L.H.); [email protected] (P.V.)

5 GIDAC, Instituto de Investigaciones, Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo,

Riobamba 060155, Ecuador

6 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland;

[email protected]
7 Department of Earth Sciences, ETH-Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland; [email protected]

* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +593-998726188

Received: 31 August 2020; Accepted: 10 October 2020; Published: 21 October 2020

Abstract: The Silante Formation is a thick series of continental deposits, exposed along a trench-
parallel distance of approximately 300 km within the Western Cordillera of Ecuador. The origin,
tectonic setting, age and stratigraphic relationships are poorly known, although these are key to
understand the Cenozoic evolution of the Ecuadorian Andes. We present new sedimentological,
stratigraphic, petrographic, radiometric and provenance data from the Silante Formation and
underlying rocks. The detailed stratigraphic analysis shows that the Silante Formation
unconformably overlies Paleocene submarine fan deposits of the Pilalo Formation, which was
coeval with submarine tholeiitic volcanism. The lithofacies of the Silante Formation suggest that the
sediments were deposited in a debris flow dominated alluvial fan. Provenance analysis including
heavy mineral assemblages and detrital zircon U-Pb ages indicate that sediments of the Silante
Formation were derived from the erosion of a continental, calc-alkaline volcanic arc, pointing to the
Oligocene to Miocene San Juan de Lachas volcanic arc. Thermochronological data and regional
correlations suggest that deposition of the Silante Formation was coeval with regional rock and
surface uplift of the Andean margin that deposited alluvial fans in intermontane and back-arc
domains.

Keywords: provenance analysis; Western Andes; Miocene; Silante Formation; Ecuador

1. Introduction
The Western Andes of Ecuador located between 1N to 3S along the active margin of South
America (Figure 1) are composed of allochthonous oceanic blocks, which accreted in the late
Cretaceous period [1,2]. The events of accretion are partly considered to influence orogenic processes,
and the chemical composition of arc volcanism in the Northern Andes [3,4]. Previous studies of the
Western Cordillera of Ecuador improved our understanding of the tectonic and stratigraphic

Minerals 2020, 10, 929; doi:10.3390/min10100929 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2020, 10, 929 2 of 30

evolution of this accretionary complex [5–11]. However, the Cenozoic sedimentary and tectonic
evolution of the Western Andes of Ecuador remains poorly understood.
The Paleocene to Miocene period is particularly significant because several ore deposits formed
over a large latitudinal range (0° to 3°30′ S) within the Western Cordillera during the Cenozoic (42–6
Ma; [12,13]). Thus, a reconstruction of the areal distribution and temporal framework of magmatism
and its volcanic products will improve our understanding of the spatial distribution of mineral
deposits.

Figure 1. Lithotectonic map of Ecuador (modified from Luzieux et al. [1]) and location of the study
area.

The Silante Formation is a ~2000-m-thick series of red beds with intercalated conglomerates and
sandstones rich in volcanic material [14]. It occupies a large area within the Western Cordillera,
extending from 1° North to 1° South (Figure 2). The Silante Formation is intruded by mafic (diorite
and andesite) dikes and sills [7,15]. Several authors have proposed different stratigraphic and
geodynamic interpretations for the origin of these thick continental deposits [5–7,11–18]; however,
the stratigraphic relationships of the Silante Formation remain unsolved, mainly because of the
discontinuous rock exposures, and the absence of a coherent chronostratigraphic framework.
This study presents new sedimentological, stratigraphic, structural and geochronological data
from several exposures of the Silante Formation and the underlying rocks. These data are used to
determine the history of sedimentation and the tectonic regime. Radiometric dating and provenance
studies including heavy minerals and single grain geochemistry are used to constrain the age,
mineralogical composition and approximate location of the sediment source regions, which facilitates
tectonic reconstructions and stratigraphic correlations [2]. This study addresses the geological
evolution of a segment of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador and includes a detailed description of
rock outcrops exposed along east to west road sections that traverse the Western Cordillera (Figure
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 3 of 30

2). These traverses are the Nono–Tandayapa, Calacalí–Nanegalito, Quito–Santo Domingo, Quito–
Chiriboga and Otavalo–Selva Alegre road sections.

Figure 2. Geological map of the Western Cordillera from 1° North to 1° South, showing the main
geological units (modified after [18]) and radiometric ages from the literature [10,11,16,17] and this
study.

2. Regional Geology
Ecuador can be subdivided into five morphotectonic regions (Figure 1). (1) The coastal forearc
is composed of mafic oceanic crust [1,3,19] and is covered by Paleogene to Neogene forearc deposits
[2]. (2) The Western Cordillera (Figure 2) consists of mafic and intermediate extrusive and intrusive
rocks that are tectonically juxtaposed with sedimentary rocks of Late Cretaceous to Miocene age
[2,9,11]. (3) The Interandean Valley or Interandean Depression is located between the Western and
Eastern cordilleras and is covered by thick Quaternary volcanic deposits [20], which are underlain by
a crystalline basement composed of metamorphic and mafic rocks [20–22]. On its western flank, the
Interandean Valley is bound by the Calacalí–Pujilí Fault [2,23]. This fault system (Figure 2) defines a
suture between the South American continental margin and the accreted oceanic rocks [2,23]. (4) The
Eastern Cordillera is formed by Paleozoic to Jurassic metamorphic rocks, and Mesozoic granitoids
[10,24]. The Eastern Cordillera is separated from the Interandean Valley by the Peltetec Fault, which
is the southward continuation of the Silvia-Pijao Fault of Colombia [22,25]. The east verging Cosanga
Fault corresponds to the eastern limit of the Eastern Cordillera [24]. (5) The Oriente Basin is a Late
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 4 of 30

Cretaceous–Quaternary retroarc foreland basin that developed on the South American plate margin
in response to the weight of the adjacent Eastern Cordillera [26–28].

2.1. The Western Cordillera

The Western Cordillera of Ecuador consists of oceanic mafic rocks interpreted to have accreted
to South America during the Late Cretaceous [2,19,29]. Sedimentary and volcano-sedimentary units
overlying the allochthonous basement have a complex structural organization (Figure 2) due to the
activity of NS striking faults [2,23]. The juxtaposition of turbidite successions and volcano-
sedimentary rocks of similar lithologies albeit contrasting depositional ages has complicated
stratigraphic correlations and tectonic reconstructions [2].

2.2. The Pallatanga Block and the Allochthonous Basement of Western Ecuador
The Pallatanga block corresponds to the allochthonous basement of the Western Cordillera of
Ecuador and includes sedimentary and volcanic formations, which can be grouped into: (1) Basement
rocks including basalts of the Pallatanga Formation and ultramafic rock of the San Juan complex (2)
Late Cretaceous submarine basaltic lavas and volcaniclastic rocks of the Rio Cala arc; (3) Volcanic
and subvolcanic rocks of the Tandapi unit of latest Maastrichtian to Paleocene age [2]; (4) Paleocene–
Eocene submarine deposits of the Angamarca Group [23]; and (5) Oligocene–Miocene subaerial
volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of calc-alkaline affinity [2,18]. Oligocene–Miocene volcanism
includes the San Juan de Lachas Formation in northern Ecuador [18,30], and the Saraguro Formation
in southern Ecuador [31].
The Pallatanga Formation is the basement of the Western Cordillera and includes submarine
basaltic lavas and dolerites. The basalts display flat primitive mantle- and chondrite-normalized REE
patterns, very similar in chemical composition to basalts from the Caribbean Plateau [1,8], interpreted
to have formed in an intraoceanic setting. Oceanic plateaus have thicknesses that are usually more
than 10 km, and can exceed 30 km [32], which renders them difficult to subduct due to excessive
positive buoyancy. Consequently, oceanic plateau fragments can be incorporated to the continental
margin.
The San Juan ultramafic complex is exposed southwest of Quito and includes peridotites,
dunites, and layered gabbros. REE geochemistry and isotopic data suggest that the San Juan complex
represents the intrusive components of an oceanic plateau [2,33]. Radiometric ages obtained from
gabbros of the San Juan complex include a zircon U-Pb age of 87.1 ± 1.7 Ma [11], which is considered
to be the most accurate estimate of the crystallization age of the oceanic plateau basement of the
Western Cordillera.

2.3. The Yunguilla Formation.

The Yunguilla Formation [34], is exposed on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Occidental
(Figure 2) and lithologically includes relatively thin beds ranging from 10 to 20 cm in thickness, which
display a rhythmic stratification pattern of massive siltstones and fine-grained sandstones that
alternate with mudstones. The sandstones contain quartz and display Tbde turbidite subdivisions,
interpreted as intermediate to distal parts of a submarine fan [17]. Mapping of the Yunguilla
Formation along the Western Cordillera is sparse and is mostly based on lithological characteristics,
therefore it can be confused with Paleocene and Eocene turbidites of the Angamarca Group.
The presence of ammonites Phylloceras sp. and Exiteloceras sp. suggest a Late Campanian to Early
Maastrichtian age [9]. Heavy mineral assemblages in the Yunguilla Formation include zircon,
tourmaline, rutile, garnet and epidote with minor amounts of titanite, anatase and brookite, which
indicate significant input of granitic and metamorphic detritus, derived from the reworking of older
formations of the present-day Eastern Cordillera [2]. The Yunguilla Formation was deposited in a
north–south oriented forearc basin along the South American continental margin [2] and has a
tectonic contact with the underlying Pallatanga Formation [23].
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 5 of 30

2.4. The Tandapi Unit

The Tandapi unit [5] includes a sequence of volcanic rocks, tuffs and conglomerates exposed
along the Alóag–Santo Domingo highway. Egüez [7] defined the Tandapi unit as a sequence of
andesites and volcanic breccias in transitional contact with the overlying red beds of the Silante
Formation.
Lithologically, the Tandapi unit corresponds to andesites and breccias, which have a greenish-
grey stain, porphyritic texture and a fresh appearance [5]. The lavas are porphyritic andesites with
plagioclase, hornblende and pyroxene within a pilotaxic or hyalopilitic matrix, formed by microliths
of plagioclase and alteration minerals. Isotopic data obtained from andesites and basalts of the
Tandapi unit in the Alóag–Santo Domingo road indicate that the volcanic rocks erupted through
isotopically juvenile rocks [22,35].
Egüez [7] proposed a Paleocene to Eocene age for the Tandapi unit because it was considered to
overlie the Upper Cretaceous Pilaton Formation. Vallejo et al. [11] correlated the Tandapi unit with
igneous rocks in contact with red beds of the Silante Formation along the Nono–Tandayapa and
Calacalí–Nanegalito sections (Figure 4). These authors reported 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 58.1 ± 1.95
Ma (groundmass), 61 ± 1.09 Ma (groundmass) and 63.96 ± 10.7 Ma (plagioclase), suggesting that the
volcanic rocks of the Tandapi unit were deposited during the late Maastrichtian to early Paleocene.

2.5. The Angamarca Group and the Pilaló Formation

The Angamarca Group is a basin fill sequence composed of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks that
include turbiditic sandstones, conglomerates and limestone intervals that were deposited from the
Paleocene to Oligocene [17]. From base to top the Angamarca Group is subdivided into the Pilalo,
Saquisilí, Apagua, Unacota and Rumi Cruz formations [17,22].
The Pilalo Formation was defined by Egüez and Bourgeois [36] as “Volcánicos Pilalo”. It
contains coarse-grained turbiditic sandstones, black shales, siltstones, reworked tuffs and matrix
supported breccias with andesitic fragments. Egüez and Bourgeois [36] reported a lower member of
the Pilalo Formation that includes volcanic rocks with green and red detritus, and intercalated lavas,
whereas the upper part includes calcareous siltstones. The Pilalo Formation is overlain by Eocene
limestones of the Unacota Fm., which is interpreted as a concordant contact [7,22]. Vallejo [22]
reported the presence of the Pilalo Formation to the northwest of Quito along the Nono–Tandayapa
road section. At this locality, Savoyat et al. [37] described the foraminiferal fauna Epigonal Rzehakina
within two samples collected near the Alambí River, which indicates a Paleocene age [22]. Vallejo
[22] reported a 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 34.81 ± 1.35 Ma from an andesitic dyke that crosscuts marine
sedimentary rocks of the Pilalo Formation, and 65.68 ± 4.36 Ma (groundmass) from lavas at the top
of the Pilalo Formation along the Nono–Tandayapa road section (Figure 2).
The Saquisilí Formation includes dark grey micaceous sandstones, siltstones and some
calcareous strata [9,17] that were deposited as turbidites. The Saquisilí Formation is limited by faults
to the East and West [17] and rests discordantly on pelagic chert of the Campanian-Maastrichtian
Yunguilla Formation. Hughes and Bermudez [17] proposed an early to middle Paleocene age based
on the presence of foraminifera microfossils collected close to the type locality.
The Apagua Formation overlies the Saquisili Formation consists of medium-grained sandstones,
siltstones and shales forming turbiditic beds. The sandstones contain quartz, mafic minerals, lithic
fragments and feldspar [2,22]. Foraminiferal fauna from this unit indicate a middle Paleocene to
middle Eocene age [17].
The Rumi Cruz unit is the youngest part of the Angamarca Group and includes quartz-rich
sandstones with cross-stratification, red mudstones and massive conglomerates, that were probably
deposited in a fan delta system [17]. The lithofacies association suggest that the Angamarca Group
represents an upward-shallowing progradational succession that records a shift from a submarine
fan to fan delta environment [2,22].
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 6 of 30

2.6. The Oligocene to Miocene San Juan De Lachas Continental Arc

The San Juan de Lachas Formation integrates matrix supported breccias with intercalations of
andesitic lavas and volcanoclastic deposits. It unconformably overlies the volcanoclastic rocks of the
Late Cretaceous Pilatón Formation [18] and is exposed in the northern part of the Western Cordillera
(Figure 2). The San Juan de Lachas Formation was extensively analysed by Van Thournout [38] who
reported a K-Ar age (hornblende) of 32.6 Ma from an andesitic dike that crosscuts a sequence of lava
and agglomerates of similar composition. Boland [18] reported two K-Ar ages (hornblende) of 19.8 ±
3 Ma and 36.3 ± 2 Ma of andesites rich in hornblende and plagioclase. Samples collected in the
Guayllabamba River yield zircon fission track ages of 23.5 ± 1.5 Ma and 24.5 ± 3.1 Ma [18]. Vallejo [22]
obtained an 40Ar/39Ar plateau age (hornblende) of 32.9 ± 1.2 Ma, from an andesite collected east of the
towns of Jijón and Caamaño. Geochemical analysis of the andesitic lavas shows that they are calc-
alkaline in composition, and hence probably erupted in a continental arc setting [18,22].

3. The Silante Formation and Its Stratigraphic Problem

The Silante Formation is a continental sedimentary sequence, which includes volcanic-rich
sandstones, conglomerates and red mudstones [14]. The Silante Formation is exposed along the
Western Cordillera of Ecuador, from the Alóag–Santo Domingo road northward to the Colombian
border [2]. Most of the sedimentary rocks of the Silante Formation have experienced very little
transport, as revealed by high angularity and poor sorting of crystal grains and the clasts [2,17]. The
volcanic-rich sandstones have a purple color and contain crystalline fragments of plagioclase,
pyroxene, hornblende, zircon, quartz and abundant lithic fragments. Clasts in conglomerates of the
Silante Formation are lithologically similar to the Yunguilla, Rio Cala and Pallatanga formations,
suggesting reworking of older sedimentary and volcanic rocks [2]. A three-meter sequence of yellow
laminated shales, with the presence of well-preserved angiosperm leaves are reported by Boland et
al. [18] in the Calacalí–Nanegalito section. The laminated shales were deposited in a terrestrial
environment [18].
There are significant differences in the stratigraphic position, age and depositional environment
attributed by different authors (Figure 3). Savoyat et al. [37] proposed a Paleocene age for the Silante
Formation based on the presence of foraminifera Gaudryina aff. laevigata Franke, Globotruncana sp. and
Cibicides sp., which were found in the Silante Formation and were presumably reworked from the
Paleocene Pilalo Formation. Henderson [6] indicated the presence of lavas at the top of the Silante
Formation and mentions that base and top criteria would indicate that the Silante Formation is
covered by the Yunguilla Formation along the Nono–Tandayapa road section (Figure 3). However,
the base and top criteria are not clearly described or shown with photographic or stratigraphic
evidence. Kehrer and Van der Kaaden [5] proposed a Paleocene to early Eocene age for the Silante
Formation and correlated it with Paleocene molasse type deposits of the Tiyuyacu Formation of
eastern Ecuador.
Egüez [7] proposed that Silante Formation is transitionally overlying the Tandapi Unit along the
Quito–Santo Domingo road, and was contemporary with submarine deposits of the Eocene Apagua
Formation. This author also observed the presence of reworked detrital elements in the
conglomerates of the Silante Formation, whose lithologies correspond to calc-alkaline lavas similar
to the Tandapi unit. The transitional contact between the Tandapi unit and the Silante Formation
proposed by Egüez [7] was questioned by Van Thournout [38], who reinterpreted the sequence of
lavas and breccias of the Silante Formation and suggest they were deposited during the Oligocene.
The Silante Formation was redefined by Hughes and Bermudez [17] and Boland et al. [18]. These
authors included within the Silante Formation andesites, dacites and volcanic breccia intercalations
of calc-alkaline affinity, together with the continental red-bed sequence. The non-tectonic contact
between the Silante Formation and the mapped Yunguilla Formation along the Calacalí–Nanegalito
road was interpreted as a depositional hiatus (paraconformity), suggesting the Silante Formation is
post-Maastrichtian (Figure 3).
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 7 of 30

Figure 3. Stratigraphic position of the Silante Formation according to different authors [5–7,18,22].
Time scale from Cohen et al. [39].

Wallrabe-Adams [16] reported a K-Ar age of 52.7 ± 2.9 Ma (whole rock) from a lava collected
along the Nono–Tandayapa road. The rock is interpreted to represent the top of the Silante Formation
by the author. Hughes and Bermudez [17] assigned a depositional age of 16.8 ± 0.8 Ma, in which is a
zircon fission track date obtained from sedimentary rocks collected along the Calacalí–Nanegalito
road.
Vallejo [22] obtained 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages (groundmass and plagioclase) from igneous rocks
mapped by Boland et al. [18] within the Silante Formation. Based on the ~65.68 to 58.1 Ma obtained
from these rocks, this author proposed that the Silante Formation was deposited during the
Maastrichtian to early Paleocene times (Figure 3).

4. Methodology
Fifteen sandstone samples were used for the study of heavy minerals (Table 1). The sandstones
were treated following standard laboratory procedures, which included crushing, sieving and
density separation [40,41] using sodium politungstate (density = 2.89 g/cm3). The heavy minerals
were mounted on glass slides using piperine (refractive index = 1.68).
Heavy mineral identification was made based on the optical properties of individual minerals,
using a transmitted light Zeiss Primotech microscope. The mineral proportions were estimated by
counting 300 detrital grains, following the procedure described by Mange and Maurer [40].
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 8 of 30

Table 1. Sample locations, and analysis performed in this study.

Analysis
Sample Latitude Longitude Area Formation Lithology Clinopyroxene
Heavy Minerals QFL Analysis U-Pb Dating
Geochemistry
00RS26 0°25′6.94′′ S 78°47′27.77′′ W Aloag–Santo Domingo road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
JL17003 0°26′25.22′′ S 78°44′8.25′′ W Aloag–Santo Domingo road Silante quartzdiorite X
JL17002 0°26′18.81′′ S 78°42′24.19′′ W Aloag–Santo Domingo road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
01SA005 0°26′19.14′′ S 78°42′23.48′′ W Aloag–Santo Domingo road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X X
01SA008 0°26′19.14′′ S 78°42′23.48′′ W Aloag–Santo Domingo road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
02CV135 0°26′50.16′′ S 78°42′45.58′′ W Aloag–Santo Domingo road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
00RS34 0°0′22.84′′ N 78°34′48.29′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X X
00RS35 0°0′22.52′′ N 78°35′27.44′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X
02CV56 0°1′14.72′′ N 78°36′44.37′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
04SA049 0°1′19.56′′ N 78°36′52.71′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X X
02SA028 0°1′28.45′′ N 78°39′1.23′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
04SA042 0°0′24.21′′ N 78°35′28.54′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X
04SA053 0°0′14.16′′ N 78°35′22.04′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X X
04SA034 0°2′0.05′′ N 78°40′51.36′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
04SA051 0°1′29.39′′ N 78°37′5.60′′ W Calacali–Nanegalito road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
00RS4 2°39′31.22′′ S 79°26′47.30′′ W Cuenca–La Troncal road Yunguilla arkose sandstone X
00RS2 2°38′59.85′′ S 79°26′55.05′′ W Cuenca–La Troncal road Yunguilla arkose sandstone X
WW3311 3°5′7.77′′ S 79°0′29.94′′ W Cumbe Yunguilla arkose sandstone X
03CV172 0°1′49.69′′ S 78°33′35.47′′ W Nono Pilalo andesite X
02SA027 0°1′55.20′′ S 78°38′30.84′′ W Nono–Tandayapa road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X X
05SA075 0°1′25.03′′ S 78°38′43.42′′ W Nono–Tandayapa road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
02SA016 0°3′30.12′′ S 78°36′41.58′′ W Nono–Tandayapa road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X
02SA019 0°3′22.02′′ S 78°36′56.84′′ W Nono–Tandayapa road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X
05SA066 0°3′21.69′′ S 78°36′55.48′′ W Nono–Tandayapa road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X
05SA072 0°1′54.91′′ S 78°38′30.55′′ W Nono–Tandayapa road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
05SA074 0°1′25.03′′ S 78°38′43.42′′ W Nono–Tandayapa road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
02CV99 0°16′37.91′′ N 78°27′40.76′′ W Otavalo–Selva Alegre road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X X
CV380 0°17′6.93′′ N 78°29′58.32′′ W Otavalo–Selva Alegre road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
02SA029 0°16′42.49′′ S 78°42′31.86′′ W Quito–Chiriboga road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X X
06SA081 0°16′43.63′′ S 78°42′59.28′′ W Quito–Chiriboga road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X X
02CV33 0°17′51.60′′ S 78°38′56.46′′ W Quito–Chiriboga road Pilalo volcaniclastic sandstone X
06SA078 0°16′42.49′′ S 78°42′31.86′′ W Quito–Chiriboga road Silante volcaniclastic sandstone X
X symbol in the table corresponds to the analysis performed to each sample.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 9 of 30

The provenance analysis of this study included the petrographic modal analysis of 14
sandstones, determining the relative proportions of detrital grains, which can be used to estimate the
tectonics and paleogeography of the source regions [42,43]. The detrital components have been
divided into feldspar (F), total quartz (Q), polycrystalline quartz (Qp), monocrystalline quartz (Qm),
total lithic (Lt = L + Qp), lithic fragments (L), metamorphic lithic fragments (Lm), sedimentary lithic
fragments (Ls), and volcanic lithic fragments (Lv). A total of 300 points were counted for each thin
section using the Gazzi-Dickinson point-counting method [44,45]. The detrital components were
plotted in QmFLt, QFL and LvLmLs ternary discrimination diagrams proposed by Dickinson et al.
[46] and Dickinson [43]. Analyses were performed at the Petrology Laboratory of the Escuela
Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador.
Single grain clinopyroxenes geochemistry was used to define the volcanic affinity of the
volcaniclastic rocks of the Pilalo and Silante formations. Clinopyroxene grains were separated from
the heavy mineral concentrates using a Frantz magnetic separator. Individual grains were mounted
in an epoxy capsule and analyzed for major oxides and REE at ETH-Zürich [22]. Rock samples were
mechanically and chemically disaggregated and processed according to standard heavy mineral
separation techniques [28,40,41]. U-Pb ages of detrital zircons were obtained from four sandstones of
the Silante Formation and from an intrusion that crosscuts this formation. Zircons were picked up
from the non-magnetic fraction of the heavy minerals. Each sample was analyzed in a multi-selector
laser-coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS) at the University College London (UCL). All
ages were obtained using a New Wave 193 nm aperture-imaged frequency-quintupled laser ablation
system coupled to an Agilent 7700 quadrupole-based ICP-MS (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara,
CA, USA). Operating condition for zircon dating uses an energy density of ca 2.5 J/cm2 and a
repetition rate of 10 Hz. Repeated measurements of external zircon standard Plešovice [47]) and NIST
612 silicate glass [48] are used to correct for instrumental mass bias and depth-dependent inter-
element fractionation of Pb, Th and U. 91500 zircon [49] was used as secondary age standard. Data
were processed using GLITTER data reduction software (v. 4.4, Gemoc, Sydney, Australia). Final data
processing, statistical processing and graphs development were done using the software IsoplotR (v.
3.3, UCL, London, UK) online mode [50].
Maximum depositional ages for the Silante Formation were calculated using the minimum age
model of Galbraith [51], included with the radial plot functionality of RadialPlotter [52] and IsoplotR
[50]. The radial plot is a graphical device that was also invented by Galbraith [53] with the aim to
simultaneously visualize measurements and their uncertainties. The minimum age calculation
algorithm of Galbraith [51] converges to a specific value with increasing sample size.

5. Results

5.1. Stratigraphy of the Nono–Tandayapa and Calacalí–Nanegalito Road Sections

The Nono–Tandayapa and Calacalí–Nanegalito road sections include almost continuous
exposures of the Silante Formation and underlying series. In these sections Boland et al. [18] assumed
a non-tectonic contact between the Yunguilla and Silante formations. This contact was interpreted as
a possible depositional hiatus (discordance). However, biostratigraphic studies based on
foraminiferal fauna collected in the Alambi River by Savoyat et al. [36] yielded a Paleocene age
(Danian) for sedimentary rocks mapped as the Yunguilla Formation. Therefore, Vallejo [22] discarded
the presence of the Yunguilla Formation and proposed that the Paleocene rocks exposed in this area
are correlatable with the Paleocene Pilalo Formation rather than the Yunguilla Formation. In this
study, we follow the stratigraphy proposed by Vallejo [22] and present new stratigraphic and
sedimentological data from the Nono–Tandayapa and Calacalí–Nanegalito road sections (Figure 4).
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 10 of 30

Figure 4. (a) Geological map of the area of study, and (b) schematic cross sections of the Nono–
Tandayapa road section.

The western series along the Nono–Tandayapa road section corresponds to the Silante
Formation (Figure 4), while the central series is an igneous sequence (Tandapi unit) that intrudes a
submarine sedimentary sequence of ~1000 m in thickness, ascribed to the Pilalo Formation. In the
analyzed road sections, there is a tectonic contact between the Silante Formation and the Tandapi
unit, which is located between UTM 766182/2365 and 766106/2020 on the Calacalí–Nanegalito road
(Figure 4). In the Nono–Tandayapa section the tectonic contact between the Pilalo Formation and the
Silante Formation is located at los Cedros Creek (UTM 763032/9995645).
The Pilalo Formation is a coarsening-upwards submarine succession exposed at the eastern
border of the studied section (Figure 5). The sedimentary rocks are folded and intercalated with lavas
at the top. The intercalated andesitic to basaltic lavas yield a 39Ar/40Ar plateau age (groundmass) of
65.68 ± 4.36 Ma [2] that is coeval (within uncertainty) with the host sedimentary rocks.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 11 of 30

Figure 5. Composite stratigraphic column of the Nono–Tandayapa road section with lithofacies
described for the Pilalo and Silante formations (lithofacies codes are discussed in text). Radiometric
ages obtained by Vallejo [22] and this study are located with the proposed composite stratigraphic
column of the study area.

The rocks at the top of the sedimentary sequence of the Pilalo Formation have a reddish color
due to oxidation, and thus they were previously mapped as the Silante Formation [18]. However,
they resemble turbidite beds falling out from highly concentrated flows with Bouma Tade
subdivisions.
Porphyry type high level intrusions mapped as part of the Tandapi unit crosscut the Pilalo
Formation close to the contact with the Silante Formation (Figure 4). Vallejo [22] reported 39Ar/40Ar
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 12 of 30

plateau ages of two samples collected in the Calacalí–Nanegalito road (Figure 2) that yielded ages of
61 ± 1.09 Ma (groundmass) and 63.96 ± 10.74 Ma (plagioclase).
Our structural, biostratigraphic and radiometric ages obtained along the Calacalí–Nanegalito
and Nono–Tandayapa sections suggest that the previous stratigraphic contact between the Silante
and Yunguilla Formation, as proposed by Boland [18], does not exist. Sedimentary rocks of the
Yunguilla Formation were not identified in the present study area. Instead, the Pilalo Formation
together with the high-level intrusion of the coeval Tandapi unit were thrusted onto the Silante
Formation.

5.2. Sedimentology of the Pilalo Formation

The Pilalo Formation exposed along the Calacalí–Nanegalito and Nono–Tandayapa road
sections is a thick sequence composed of sedimentary rocks deposited in a submarine environment.
The bed-sets show an upward-coarsening and thickening trend, suggesting a progradational
sequence stratigraphic pattern (Figure 5). In the Pilalo Formation, we identified four lithofacies,
which are described in the following section. The acronym indicates the dominant lithology and the
most important sedimentological features (Table 2).

5.2.1. Lithofacies SMI: Siltstones with Mudstone Intercalations

The lithofacies consists of a sequence of rhythmically bedded dark grey mudstone with siltstones
(Figure 6a). The siltstones show parallel lamination and the beds range in thickness from 10 to 20 cm.
Sporadic calcareous cement is also observed in this lithofacies. Some of these beds are rich in marine
microfossil fauna, which are mostly foraminifera. This lithofacies dominates the lower part of the
succession (Figure 5).
Parallel lamination could be a result of two main processes: (1) decelerating turbidity currents
[54,55], or (2) bottom-current reworking [56,57]. The presence of parallel laminated siltstones with
mudstone intercalations suggests silty-muddy turbidites (Bouma Tde subdivisions) that were
generated by low-density turbidity currents in the distal part of a submarine fan [57].

5.2.2. Lithofacies MS: Massive Sandstones with Load Cast

Lithofacies MS consists of medium to coarse-grained sandstones composed of plagioclase,
pyroxene and amphibole, which are accompanied by a few dark-colored siltstones, and green
mudstone intrabasinal lithic fragments (Figure 6b). The bed thickness of this lithofacies varies
between 0.5 to 1 m. The base of the sandstone beds displays load cast, and ball-and-pillow structures.
The presence of load cast and ball-and-pillow structures suggest rapid deposition of water-rich
sediment by high-density turbidity currents (Bouma Ta subdivisions). Presumably, they represent fill
deposits in channels in a middle fan environment [55,57]. The presence of plagioclase, pyroxene and
amphibole suggests a volcanic source. The green color of the mudstones is a result of alteration of
volcanic glass to chlorite.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 13 of 30

Table 2. Lithofacies of the Pilalo and Silante formations.

Lithofacies Description Interpretation

Pilalo Formation
Silty-muddy turbidites (Bouma Tde subdivisions) generated by
Intercalations of dark grey laminated
SMI low-density turbidity currents in the distal part of a submarine
siltstones and mudstones
fan
Massive sandstones with load cast, and Sandy turbidites generated by high-density turbidity current
MS
volcanic clasts infilling channels in the middle part of a submarine fan
Massive sandstones with floating clasts of Sandy debrites deposited by plastic flows in channels of the
DMS
volcanic origin middle part of a submarine fan
Conglomerates generated by debris flows. The common
Matrix-supported conglomerates with
MSC association with turbidites and sandy debrites suggests the
volcanic clasts
upper part of a submarine fan
Silante Formation
Reddish unstructured mudstones and
Reddish color in mudstones suggest floodplain deposits
MM siltstones with poorly developed parallel
deposited under oxidizing conditions
lamination.
Reddish siltstones and fine-grained Distal facies of alluvial fan margins in semi-arid continental
FMS
sandstones environments
Sandy lithofacies deposited by a hyper-concentrated flow in the
MSS Structureless fine-grained sandstones
middle part of an alluvial fan
Reddish to yellowish sandstones with Channels or sheet flood deposits deposited in the middle part of
SPL
parallel lamination an alluvial fan
Deposits produced by debris flows in the upper part of an
GMM1 Massive matrix-supported conglomerates
alluvial fan
Deposits formed by debris flows in the upper part of an alluvial
GCM1 Massive clast-supported conglomerates
fan system
Matrix-supported conglomerates, poorly Proximal facies of an alluvial fan depositional system, close to
GMM2
sorted the alluvial fan head

5.2.3. Lithofacies DMS: Massive Sandstones with Floating Clasts

This lithofacies is characterized by medium to coarse-grained sandstone beds that are 0.3 to 0.8
m thick, with a massive structure. The sandstones are green and include plagioclase, pyroxene,
chlorite and epidote crystals. It is common to find angular and sub-rounded volcanic and
sedimentary floating clasts. The main characteristic of this lithofacies are intrabasinal floating clasts
occurring at the top of the beds (Figure 6c).
Massive sands with floating clasts are either deposited by (1) high-density turbidity currents
[58], or (2) sandy debris flows where the transport mechanism is a plastic flow and deposition is
caused by mass freezing of sediments [59]. The abrupt freezing of the sediments impedes settling of
the clasts towards the bottom of the stratum. Floating clasts in sandstones interspersed with siltstones
and mudstones can be deposited by plastic flows defined as sandy debris flows [60]. This lithofacies
represents infilling deposits of channels in a middle fan environment. The presence of plagioclase
and pyroxene suggests a volcanic source. Epidote and chlorite formed via the alteration of mafic
minerals and volcanic glass, respectively.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 14 of 30

Figure 6. Photographs of representative lithofacies of the Pilalo Formation. (a) Lithofacies SMI,
siltstone with mud intercalations; (b) lithofacies MS, structureless sandstones; (c) lithofacies DMS,
massive sandstone with floating clasts; (d) lithofacies MSC, matrix supported conglomerates.

5.2.4. Lithofacies MSC: Matrix-Supported Conglomerates

Lithofacies MSC is characterized by the presence of green, matrix-supported conglomerates with
subangular, partially oxidized andesitic clasts, with clast sizes that vary from pebbles to granules,
and bed thickness that span between 1 to 2 m. The base of these deposits is erosive, forming a scour
surface on top of the underlying beds (Figure 6d). The matrix of the conglomerates is composed of
coarse-grained sandstone carrying plagioclase, amphibole, chlorite and epidote crystals.
The angularity of the clasts and the poorly sorted nature of the deposit reveals that they have
not been transported over long distances. The structureless nature, together with the immaturity of
clasts suggest a deposit generated by debris flows [61]. These flows are erosive and channelized,
forming scoured lower contacts, and settled very rapidly, resulting in massive and ungraded beds
[62]. The association with sandy debrites and turbidite beds (lithofacies DMS and MS) suggests that
MSC lithofacies was formed within a submarine upper fan environment [60]. The mineralogy of the
matrix and the clast lithology suggest a volcanic source.

5.3. Sedimentology of the Silante Formation

Alluvial fan sedimentary rocks of the Silante Formation are exposed along the Nono–Tandayapa
and Calacalí–Nanegalito sections. We recognized 7 lithofacies in the Silante Formation, which has a
thickness of approximately 900 m in this region (Figure 5).
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 15 of 30

5.3.1. Lithofacies MM: Mudstones

This lithofacies includes reddish couples of mudstones and siltstones (Figure 7a) with an
approximate thickness that range from 1 to 3 cm. The mudstones are unstructured, and the siltstones
include poorly developed parallel lamination. The beds have a tabular geometry and sharp basal
contacts. This lithofacies occurs intercalated with the FMS lithofacies (see below).
The reddish color of the mudstones suggests subaerial deposition in a terrestrial environment
under oxidizing conditions. Parallel lamination in the siltstones suggests they are floodplain deposits,
which can develop in an inactive part of the alluvial fan system that occasionally receives sediment
during flood events [63].

Figure 7. Photographs of representative lithofacies of the Silante Formation. (a) Lithofacies MM,
mudstones and siltstone;s (b) lithofacies FMS, structureless sandstones; (c) lithofacies MSS, massive
sandstone; (d) lithofacies SH, matrix supported conglomerates; (e) lithofacies GMM1, massive matrix
supported conglomerates; (f) lithofacies GCM1, massive clast supported conglomerates; (g)
lithofacies GMM2, matrix supported conglomerates; (h) representative outcrop of the Silante
Formation and the spatial distribution of the lithofacies.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 16 of 30

5.3.2. Lithofacies FMS: Massive Siltstones

The FMS lithofacies consists of reddish, unstructured beds that vary in grain size from silt to
fine-grained sandstones (Figure 7b), with bed thicknesses that range from 0.3 to 0.8 m. Individual
beds are tabular and associated with lithofacies MM.
The reddish siltstones and very fine-grained sandstones may represent distal facies of an alluvial
fan in a semi-arid continental environment [64–66]. The presence of thin beds of fine-grained
lithofacies suggests that they are distal facies of abandoned progradational lobes [64]. The association
of silt and very fine sandstones (FMS) suggests deposition within quiet segments of alluvial fans,
with sediments supplied during occasional flood events [67,68].

5.3.3. Lithofacies MSS: Massive Sandstones

The MSS lithofacies contains poorly sorted, ungraded fine sandstone beds with thicknesses up
to 1 m and a tabular geometry (Figure 7c). The most abundant minerals within the sandstones are
plagioclase, magnetite and mafic minerals, including pyroxene and amphibole. This lithofacies is
usually associated with the FMS and MM lithofacies.
The unstructured sandstones were probably deposited from hyper-concentrated flows that were
characterized by very high sediment to water ratios [69]. The lack of internal sedimentary structure
in these poorly sorted sandstones suggest an abrupt deceleration and quick deposition of sediment
with insufficient time to create bedforms [64,70]. This lithofacies commonly occurs within middle
alluvial fans proximal to the mountain front, where the flow becomes unconfined, dewaters, and
rapidly settles [71].

5.3.4. Lithofacies SPL: Sandstones with Parallel Lamination

The lithofacies SPL consists of reddish to yellow stained sandstones (Figure 7d), with grain sizes
that vary from coarse to very coarse (0.5 to 2 mm). The sandstones have parallel lamination and are
composed of plagioclase, pyroxenes, amphiboles and magnetite crystals.
The reddish color is considered to be a consequence of deposition in an oxidizing environment
[72,73]. The parallel lamination of the fine to coarse-grained sandstones indicates a common
transition to an upper-flow regime and deposition of planar bed flows in channels or sheet flood
deposits [64,68]. The SPL Lithofacies was deposited in a middle alluvial fan area [68,70].

5.3.5. Lithofacies GMM1: Massive Matrix Supported Conglomerates

Lithofacies GMM1 comprises matrix supported conglomerates with thicknesses varying
between 0.10 to 0.15 m. This lithofacies shows reddish and greyish colors with clast sizes ranging
from granules to pebbles (Figure 7e). The matrix supported fabric is mainly composed of medium to
coarse sand, which is rich in plagioclase and ferromagnesian minerals. Internally, the matrix-
supported conglomerates are unstructured, while the andesitic clasts are sub-rounded.
Matrix supported conglomerates are generally produced by debris flows [74]. Due to the
difficulty of transporting gravel clasts, these particles are concentrated at the base of a turbulent flow,
forming a dense inertial layer. Lithofacies GMM1 was deposited in a subaerial environment within
the upper part of an alluvial fan [68,73].

5.3.6. Lithofacies GCM1: Massive Clast Supported Conglomerates

The lithofacies GCM1 includes reddish, clast-supported conglomerate beds with thicknesses
ranging from 0.6 to 2 m. The layers show moderate sorting, sharp bases and rounded clasts that range
in size from granule to pebbles (2 to 32 mm), with high sphericity. The matrix is composed of fine to
very fine particles, without a preferential orientation (Figure 8f). The clasts are dominantly andesites,
with minor diorites.
Clast supported conglomerates within alluvial fans are formed when clast-rich debris flows are
deposited onto overlying beds that have a high permeability. The fine-grained fraction of the debris
flow percolates downwards through the pore spaces of the underlying strata, producing a clast-
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 17 of 30

supported conglomerate [68]. The GCM1 lithofacies infills channels in the upper part of an alluvial
fan system [68].

5.3.7. Lithofacies GMM2: Matrix Supported Conglomerates

Lithofacies GMM2 includes poorly sorted dark green conglomerates with clast sizes that vary
from granules to blocks, with edges varying from angular to sub-rounded. Most of the larger clasts
with sub-rounded to subangular edges are andesites and basaltic andesites (Figure 7g). The smaller
clasts with angular edges are similar to lithofacies FMS and MM. The matrix of this lithofacies is
composed of fairly well-preserved crystals, with sizes that range from coarse to very coarse sand (0.5
to 2 mm), which is rich in plagioclase, pyroxenes and amphiboles. Inverse grading was observed at
the base of the beds.
Poorly sorted and structureless conglomerates with angular clasts may represent the proximal
facies of an alluvial fan depositional system [68,75,76], close to the alluvial fan head.

5.4. Depositional Environment of the Pilalo and Silante Formations

The lithofacies association of the Pilalo Formation suggests that the sediments were deposited
within a submarine fan (Figure 8a). The distal fan deposits are intercalated with hemipelagic
sediments, which corresponds to the transition of a distal depositional lobe to the basin plain [54–57].
The middle fan includes sandy channel deposits [68]. The coarse-grained sediments were deposited
by debris flows in channels, which probably formed within the upper part of the fan [61,68]. In
addition, the presence of andesitic clasts and abundant mafic minerals suggests a nearby volcanic
arc.
Based on the observed lithofacies of the Silante Formation, we suggest that the sedimentary
rocks formed in a debris flow dominated alluvial fan (Figure 8b). The upper fan consists of
conglomeratic lithofacies deposited by debris flow process [67,68,74–76]. These deposits are mainly
exposed in the westernmost part of the Silante Formation. In the Calacalí–Nanegalito section, these
coarse deposits occur in greater proportions in the lower part of the stratigraphic column (Figure 5).
The middle fan includes reddish sandy channels or sheet flood sediments that were deposited by
water-laid processes [64,68–70,72]. The distal alluvial fan and flood plain deposits are represented by
interfingering of siltstones and mudstones [65,68,73,75]. These fine-grained deposits are commonly
observed in the eastern part of the Calacalí-Nanegalito and Nono-Tandayapa sections (Figure 4).

Figure 8. Depositional models for the Pilalo and Silante formations. (a) Submarine fan depositional
model of the Pilalo Formation, (b) debris flow dominated alluvial fan model of the Silante Formation.

5.5. Provenance Analysis of the Pilalo and Silante Formations

Provenance analyses of clastic deposits of the Pilalo and Silante formations is used to refine the
stratigraphic and tectonic interpretation by deciphering shifts in sediment source and source area
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 18 of 30

location. Provenance shifts are associated with the evolution of the sedimentary basins, and hence
the tectonic setting [2].
Here, we combine heavy mineral analyses, single grain geochemistry of clinopyroxenes and U-
Pb detrital zircon dates. The U-Pb ages of detrital zircons can be used to estimate the maximum
depositional age (MDA). Given that these units were deposited proximal to a magmatic arc, it is
reasonable to suggest that the zircon U-Pb dates are close approximations of the time of deposition
of the sedimentary rocks [77,78].

5.6. Heavy Mineral Data

The detrital assemblages of clastic sedimentary rocks reflect the mineralogical composition of
the source regions that fed the catchment basin and its depositional history [2,79–82]. In this study,
twelve sandstones of the Silante Formation and the underlying Pilalo Formation were selected for
heavy mineral analyses (Figure 9). For comparison, the heavy mineral assemblages of three samples
from the Campanian-Maastrichtian Yunguilla Formation are shown in Figure 9. Sample locations are
presented in Table 1.
All samples from the Pilalo Formation contain a high percentage of pyroxene (modal average of
26%), hornblende (average of 65%) and minerals of the epidote group (average ~4%). These samples
yield a null ZTR (zircon-tourmaline-rutile assemblages) index with the exception of rocks 02SA019
and 04SA053, which give a low ZTR index due to a higher percentage of zircons (~3%) and
tourmaline.
Samples from the Silante Formation contain a high amount of pyroxene (~27%), hornblende
(~64%) and minerals of the epidote group (~3%). In general, samples of the Silante Formation have a
very low ZTR index, and no metamorphic accessory minerals have been found. Rocks 01SA005 and
02SA029 contain euhedral zircon crystals (~1%), which are interpreted to have a volcanic origin. The
high amounts of pyroxene, hornblende and apatite (~64%) suggests that the source area was strongly
dominated by intermediate volcanic rocks [40].
For the Yunguilla Formation, the heavy minerals assemblages of sample WW3311 host a
significant ZTR assemblage (82%), with minor amounts of brookite, anatase and titanite (~5%). Garnet
and epidote represent ~13%. The heavy mineral in sample 00RS2 include pyroxenes and brown
hornblendes (50%) that dominate over smaller amounts of garnet (42%) and zircon (6%). Sample
00RS4 of the Yunguilla Formation contains abundant ZTR group minerals (55%), while pyroxene and
hornblende account for ~35%. The heavy minerals assemblages for the Yunguilla Formation suggest
that sediments were derived from the erosion of a mixed granitic, metamorphic, and volcanic source.
Overall, the heavy mineral assemblages (Figure 9) reveal a strong volcanic input into the Pilalo
and Silante formations, whereas the Yunguilla Formation was predominantly derived from the
erosion of granitic rocks and/or metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Cordillera.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 19 of 30

Figure 9. Composite stratigraphic column of the Yunguilla, Pilalo and Silante formations and heavy
mineral frequencies (right). A clear change is observed in the composition of the Pilalo and Silante
formations, which were derived from volcanic sources, whereas Campanian–Maastrichtian
sediments of the Yunguilla Formation were shed from granitic and metamorphic sources that formed
part of a continental plate, and now constitute the Eastern Cordillera.

5.7. Clinopyroxene Single Grain Geochemistry of the Pilalo and Silante Formations
The chemical composition of clinopyroxene is directly related to the chemistry of their host lavas
[81,82] and varies according to the magma type, and hence the tectonic setting [81–84]. Beccaluva et
al. [84] proposed that the clinopyroxene compositional variability is mostly related to differences in
the bulk chemistry of the host magmas, and is only partially due to physical conditions of
crystallization, and magmatic fractionation.
We present major element compositions of clinopyroxenes from rocks of the Pilalo and the
Silante formations. Samples 00RS34 and 00RS35 of the Pilalo Formation were collected in the Calacalí-
Nanegalito road section, and andesite 03CV172 was collected to the north of the Nono locality (Figure
4). Three reddish volcanoclastic sandstones of the Silante Formation were sampled along the Alóag–
Santo Domingo road (00RS26), the Otavalo–Selva Alegre road (02CV99), and from the Calacalí–
Nanegalito road (02CV56). The full data of major element composition of clinopyroxene is available
in the online supplementary material (Table S1).
All analysed clinopyroxenes lack zoning and were optically and chemically homogeneous.
Major oxides geochemical data from the analysed clinopyroxenes yields diopsidic to augitic
compositions.
To determine the magmatic affinity of the source of the detrital clinopyroxenes we used the
discriminatory diagrams of Leterrier et al. [82] (Figure 10). The clinopyroxenes from sandstones of
the Silante Formation were derived from a subalkaline volcanic source, although the discriminatory
diagram of Al and Ti does not distinguish between a calc-alkaline or tholeiitic composition for these
samples (Figure 11). However, the low Al and magnesium numbers (0.62 to 0.65) suggest that the
source regions were composed of fractionated rocks, which generally supports a calc-alkaline affinity.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 20 of 30

Detrital clinopyroxenes of the Silante Formation plot in the field of subalkaline basalts (Ti < 0.025
apfu), which formed within a subduction zone setting (Figure 10). However, a comparison of Al and
Ti does not show a clear distinction between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline affinities. This can be due to
the presence of clasts of the Pallatanga Formation and Rio Cala Group, which have a tholeiitic affinity
[22].
Clinopyroxene from the Pilalo Formation gave a tholeiitic composition (Figure 10a,c) and
probably formed in a subduction zone setting (Figure 10b).
In addition, we used clinopyroxene REE compositions to decipher the geochemical affinity of
the magmatic source. The analysed samples include a lava within the Pilalo Formation (03CV172),
and two sandstone samples of the Silante Formation (00RS26, and 02CV56).
LREE enrichments (relative to HREE) is regularly found in rocks formed in continental volcanic
arcs, whereas a depletion of LREE, and flat REE patterns are more indicative of a primitive island arc,
MORB and mantle-plume related, volcanic rocks [85]. In order to determine the composition of the
clinopyroxene parent magmas, REE compositions of melts in equilibrium with these minerals were
calculated using experimentally derived partition coefficients for clinopyroxenes crystallizing in
basaltic rocks [86]. REE values of the analyzed samples were normalized using chondrite values
published by Sun and McDonough [87]. The full data of REE composition of clinopyroxene is
available in the online supplementary material (Table S2).
For sample 03CV172, the calculated melt in equilibrium with the clinopyroxenes yields a REE
chondrite normalized profile that is generally flat (Figure 10), and the (La/Yb)N ratio is ~1, suggesting
a primitive nature of the magmas in which the clinopyroxene crystallized. The calculated melt in
equilibrium with clinopyroxenes extracted from sandstones of the Silante Fm. shows LREE
enrichments up to 100 times chondritic values (Figure 10e,f). The (La/Yb)N ratios vary between 5.32
(00RS26) and 2.58 (02CV56), which are typical for arc rocks [86].

Figure 10. Geochemistry of detrital clinopyroxenes from the Silante and Pilalo formations. (a) Ti vs
Ca + Na discriminatory diagram from Leterrier et al. [82]. (b) Ti + Cr vs Ca discriminatory diagram
from Leterrier et al. [82]. (c) Ti vs Al discriminatory diagram from Leterrier et al. [82]. (d) Chondrite-
normalized REE plots of calculated melts in equilibrium with clinopyroxenes of a lava intercalated
within the Pilalo Formation (sample 03CV172). (e) Chondrite-normalized REE plots of calculated
melts in equilibrium with clinopyroxenes of the Silante Formation (sample 00RS26). (f) Chondrite-
normalized REE plots of calculated melts in equilibrium with clinopyroxenes of the Silante Formation
(sample 02CV56). Chondrite normalizing values after Sun and McDonough [87].
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 21 of 30

Summarizing, clinopyroxenes of the Silante Formation are compositionally distinct from

clinopyroxenes extracted from the Pilalo Formation. The enrichment of LREE and low Ti values of
detrital clinopyroxenes of the Silante Formation (Figure 10e,f) are probably the result of dehydration
of subducted oceanic crust, which released fluids that have low concentrations of Ti [82] and high
concentrations of REE. The LREE enrichment, together with the low to medium concentrations of Al
suggests that the volcanic source rocks of the Silante Formation is more evolved than the volcanic
source of the Pilalo Formation.

Figure 11. Sandstone ternary diagrams for the Pilalo and Silante formations. (a) Ternary diagram with
discrimination fields using the terminology of Folk [88]. (b) Ternary discriminatory diagram of
monocrystalline quartz (Qm), feldspar (F) and total lithics (Lt) after Dickinson [43]. (c) Ternary
discriminatory diagram of quartz (Qt), feldspar (F) and lithics (L) after Dickinson [42]. (d) Ternary
discriminatory diagram of metamorphic lithics (Lm), sedimentary lithics (Ls) and volcanic lithics (Lv)
after Dickinson [43].

5.8. QFL Analysis (Quartz-Feldspar-Lithic Fragments).

Fourteen petrographic thin sections of sandstones of the Pilalo and Silante formations were
analysed for modal sandstone composition. The relative proportions of detrital grains, including
feldspar (F), quartz (Q), and lithic fragments (L), combined with grain size, provide a formal name
for the sedimentary rock [41,88], and constrain the tectonic settings of the source regions [42].
According to the QFL classification diagram of Folk [88], sandstones of the Silante Formation are
classified as arkoses to lithic arkoses, whereas samples of the Pilalo Formation are lithic arkoses
(Figure 11a).
In the Qm-F-Lt discriminatory diagram (Figure 11b), samples of the Pilalo Formation plot in the
transitional arc field. Sedimentary rocks of the Silante Formation contain a greater amount of feldspar
grains and volcanic lithic fragments, and these rocks cluster in the transitional arc and basement fields
(Figure 11b,c). The LmLvLs diagrams for both formations reveal high contents of volcanic lithics and
small amounts of sedimentary lithoclasts (Figure 11d).
The relative proportions of quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragments in the Pilalo and Silante
formations reveal provenance shifts that can be related to changes in their sediment source areas.
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 22 of 30

Overall, the results imply that clastic sedimentary rocks in the Silante and Pilalo basins were supplied
from the erosion of volcanic arcs.

5.9. U-Pb Ages of the Silante Formation

U-Pb zircon dates were obtained from detrital zircons from sedimentary rocks of the Silante
Formation, including rocks 02SA027, 02SA028, 02SA029 and JL17002 (Table 1, Figure 2). We also
present zircon U-Pb analyses of quartz diorite (JL17003), which intrudes sedimentary rocks of the
Silante Formation to the southwest of Quito, along the Quito–Santo Domingo road (Figure 4). The
full LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon age data is available in the online supplementary material (Table S3).
Sandstone 02SA027 shows a unimodal peak at ~25 Ma (Figure 12a), with an MDA age of 25.017
± 0.07 Ma (2σ) (Oligocene). A single detrital zircon with an age of 553.9 ± 6.46 Ma was measured. This
zircon can be derived from the Brazilian belt (500–700 Ma), formed during the assembly of Gondwana
[41,89]. Furthermore, it is a common population in detrital zircons obtained within the Eocene
Angamarca Group of western Ecuador [2]. In sample 02SA028 a unimodal peak (Figure 12b), with an
MDA age of 24.64 ± 0.17 Ma (2σ) was obtained.

Figure 12. Frequency and probability density plots of detrital zircon U-Pb ages (left) and maximum
depositional ages (MDA, right) from samples of the Silante Formation (a) sample 02SA027; (b)
02SA028; (c) 02SA029; (d) JL1702. The t/ơ ratio on X-axis indicates the precision.

Sample 02SA029 also shows a unimodal peak at ~16 Ma (early Miocene). The MDA age obtained
(Figure 12c) is 16.51 ± 0.056 Ma (2σ). A single detrital zircon revealed an age of 42.6 ± 0.6 Ma which
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 23 of 30

can be correlated with the Macuchi volcanism of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador, dated at 42.62 ±
1.3 Ma with the U-Pb zircon dating method [90].
Sample JL17002 revealed a unimodal peak at ~16 Ma (early Miocene), and an MDA of 15.68 ±
0.11 (Figure 12d). In addition, two detrital zircons with ages of 68.9 ± 1.7 Ma, and 67.8 ± 2.6 Ma were
detected. These Maastrichtian zircons are probably derived from the erosion of the Pilalo and
Tandapi rocks.
Quartz diorite JL17003 intrudes sedimentary rocks of the Silante Formation and is exposed along
the Alóag–Santo Domingo road section (Figure 2). The sample yields a weighted mean zircon U-Pb
(LA-ICPMS) age of 10.31 ± 0.27 Ma (Figure 13), interpreted as crystallization age.

Figure 13. U-Pb LA-ICPMS zircon age of a quartz diorite intruding the Silante Formation (sample
JL17003), plotted on a concordia diagram. Errors are given at the 2ơ level.

6. Discussion: Paleogeographic and Paleotectonic Model

Sedimentological information and provenance analysis in the study area of the Western
Cordillera of Ecuador show that turbidite sedimentation prevailed during the Paleocene, with the
deposition of the Pilalo Formation. The main sedimentary source was a tholeiitic volcanic arc that
can be related to the Tandapi arc reported by Vallejo et al. [2], which formed on top of an oceanic
plateau basement. Therefore, the Paleocene sedimentary rocks described in this study do not correlate
with the Campanian to Maastrichtian Yunguilla Formation. The Yunguilla Formation was also
deposited in a submarine fan system, although provenance analysis indicates the sediments were
eroded from a continental crust block, which is probably currently represented by the Eastern
Cordillera.
The chronostratigraphic and sedimentological data suggest that the Silante Formation was
deposited during the late Oligocene to Miocene period (~25–16 Ma) within a debris flow dominated
alluvial fan system. The Silante Formation formed after a period of major rock uplift and erosion of
the Western Cordillera. The Paleocene to Eocene submarine fan deposits of the Angamarca Group
were probably partly eroded in the study area before deposition of the Silante Formation, and they
are exposed several kilometers to the north and south of the study area (Figure 2).
Single grain geochemistry and petrographic analysis show that the Silante Formation received
detrital material from a coeval calc-alkaline volcanic arc, which was presumably the San Juan de
Lachas continental arc located in the Western Cordillera, to the northwest of the current exposures of
the Silante Formation (Figure 2). A western location for the source of the Silante Formation is also
suggested by the abundance of coarse-grained deposits to the west of the studied sections (Figure 4).
Petrographic analysis and detrital U-Pb zircon ages reveal a minor contribution of sediment to
the Silante Formation from basement rocks, along with material from the erosion of the underlying
Pilalo Formation, and the Eocene Macuchi submarine arc. Clinopyroxene compositions show that
these were derived from calc-alkaline rocks, with a minor contribution from a tholeiitic volcanic
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 24 of 30

source. The latter is consistent with the presence of clasts from the Pallatanga and Rio Cala volcanic
rocks, suggesting the that basement was unroofed during sedimentation.
The Miocene period in Ecuador is generally characterized by the formation of large alluvial fan
systems, including the Biblian alluvial fan in southern Ecuador in an intramontane setting [31]. The
Arajuno Formation in the back-arc foreland basin also represents an alluvial fan system sourced from
the Andes [91] and has been dated at ~17–13 Ma using U-Pb ages of detrital zircons [28].
(U-Th)/He and 40Ar/39Ar, fission track data from the Andes of Ecuador [92] reveals rapid cooling
and exhumation during 25–18 Ma, which correlates with a change in the vector of the subducting
plate from ESE to E at 25 Ma, as a result of the breakup of the Farallon Plate [92–94], forming the
Nazca and Cocos plates. Compressional events have also been dated between 25 and 15 Ma in the
Andes of Bolivia and Peru [92–97]. Clearly, major plate rearrangements at 25 Ma affected the South
American Plate to the north and south of the Huancabamba Deflection [92]. In addition, middle to
late Miocene broadening of arc magmatism in the Eastern and Western Cordilleras [12,28] accounts
for appearance of syndepositional age signatures within the Western Cordillera and the back-arc
region [27,28].
Palinspastic constraints based on the results of this study are presented in Figure 14. During the
Paleocene, the Pilalo Formation was deposited in a submarine fan depositional environment, with
sediments sourced from the erosion of the tholeiitic Tandapi volcanic arc (Figure 14a). Igneous rocks
associated with this volcanic arc include the Tandapi volcanic and subvolcanic rocks that are exposed
in the study area with crystallization ages of ~65 to 61 Ma [11].

Figure 14. Tectonic evolution of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador during the Cenozoic. The initial
uplift started at the end of the Cretaceous. (a) Paleocene paleogeography of the Pilalo Formation
submarine fan with the coeval Tandapi arc; (b) Eocene Macuchi submarine arc and sedimentation of
Minerals 2020, 10, 929 25 of 30

the Angamarca Group; (c) during the Oligocene to Middle Miocene there is a rapid uplift of the
Eastern and Western Cordilleras, and the deposition of the Silante Formation in an intramontane
basin setting. SL: sea level.

Submarine sedimentation continued during most of the Eocene period with the submarine fan
of the Angamarca Group [22], depositing sediments that were mainly sourced from the Eastern
Cordillera (Figure 14b).
A change from submarine to subaerial sedimentation occurred in broad areas of the Western
Cordillera during the Oligocene [2], which coincides with a rapid rock uplift and exhumation of the
Eastern and Western cordilleras [2]. The San Juan de Lachas continental arc was active during this
period (Figure 14c) and extended into the Miocene [18], and supplied sediments to the Silante alluvial
fan, which was deposited in an intramontane basin setting (Figure 14c).
The last deformation event recorded in rocks of the Silante Formation postdates the intrusion of
the quartz diorite dated in this study, which yields a U-Pb crystallization age of 10.31 ± 0.27 Ma. This
deformation phase may coincide with a latest Miocene-Pliocene phase of deformation, prior to the
deposition of Quaternary volcanic ash of the Cangahua Formation [2,92,98].

7. Conclusions
Stratigraphic and sedimentological analyses of the Pilalo Formation, which is in fault contact
with the Silante Formation, indicate that the sediments were deposited in the distal parts of a
submarine fan. The Pilalo Formation was coeval with the latest Maastrichtian to Paleocene Tandapi
volcanic arc, which formed on top of the accreted terranes of western Ecuador.
Radiometric dating indicates the Silante Formation in the study region was deposited during
the late Oligocene to middle Miocene, subsequent to local erosion of the Eocene Angamarca Group.
Stratigraphic and sedimentologic analyses of the Silante Formation show that the sediments
were deposited in a continental alluvial fan system that was dominated by debris flow processes and
formed in an intramontane setting. Petrographic and provenance analyses of the same sediments
suggest they were derived from the erosion of an andesitic continental volcanic arc, which was
probably the Oligocene San Juan de Lachas arc.
Thermochronological data and regional correlations suggest that deposition of the Silante
Formation was coeval with regional rock uplift and exhumation of the Andean margin, which gave
rise to alluvial fans in intermontane and back-arc domains. This phase of regional deformation is
temporally correlated with a phase of major plate reorganization during the breakup of the Farallon
Plate.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/10/10/929/s1, LA-

ICP-MS U-Pb zircon age data and clinopyroxene geochemistry. Table S1. Chemical composition and structural
formula of clinopyroxene phenocrysts. Table S2. REE elements composition of clinopyroxenes from the Western
Cordillera. Table S3. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb dating data of detrital zircons sample

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.V., S.A., V.E. and C.R.; methodology, C.V. and J.L.H.; software,
V.E.; validation, R.S. and W.W.; formal analysis, P.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.

Funding: This work is part of the EPN project PIS-18-04. The authors would like to express their gratitude to the
company Geostrat S.A. Ecuador for the partial financial support of this project.

Acknowledgments: We thank Bernardo Beate and Brian K. Horton for fruitful discussions about the geology of
Ecuador and the Western Cordillera. Fieldwork benefited from the knowledge of Efrain Montenegro, Michel
Toro and Arturo Egüez.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Minerals 2020, 10, 929 26 of 30

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