Culture . values, and artifacts Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language. beliefs that are part of any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas and symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type. called nonmaterial culture also known as symbolic culture. includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that define a society. The second type, called material culture, includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation. These elements of culture are discussed next. Symbols Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are in fact material objects. As the symbolic interactionist perspective discussed in Chapter | “Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” (Links to an external site.) emphasizes. shared symbols make social interaction possible. Let’s look at nonverbal symbols first. A common one is shaking hands. which is done in some societies but not in others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and departure. Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the hands, arms, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions. However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in another society (Axtell, 1998). In the United States, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and if we shake it back and forth, we mean no. In Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking our head back and forth means yes! In the United States. if we make an “O” by putting our thumb and forefinger together, we mean “OK.” but the same gesture in certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the United States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia it means the same thing as extending the middle finger in the United States. Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw you using your left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for bathroom hygiene.pe Sno ararant symbols are objects. Here the U.S. flag isa prime te the flag is not just a piece of cloth with red and white thoes ran against a field of blue. Instead. it is a symbol of freedom, ee atelier Ansiet values and, accordingly. inspires pride and pants. During the Vietnam War, however, the flag became to many Americans a ca ees ‘imperialism. Some burned the flag in protest, prompting angry y bystanders and negative coverage by the news media Head examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal communication and ngible objects, are an importarit part of any culture but also can lead to misunderstandings and even hostility. These problems underscore the sig symbols for social interaction and meaning, ificance of Language Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English. the word chair means something we sit on. In Spanish, the word silla means the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the same token, differences in languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. For example, imagine you are in a foreign country where you do not know the language and the country’s citizens do not know yours. Worse yet, you forgot to bring your dictionary that translates their language into yours. and vice versa, and your iPhone battery has died. You become lost. How will you get help? What will you do? Is there any way to communicate your plight? ‘As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to communication and thus to any society's culture. Children lear language from their culture just as they learn about shaking hands, about gestures, and about the significance of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal species possesses Our capacity for language in (um helps make our complex culture possible ‘To what extent does language influence how we think and how we perceive the social and physical worlds? The famous but controversial Sapir-Whort hypothesis, named after two linguistic anthropologists, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, argues that people cannot easily understand concepts and objects untess their langue contains words for these items (Whorf, 1956). They explained that language structures thought, Language thus influences how we understand the world around usAnother illustrati js the use of make a Sapit-Whorf hypothesis is seen in sexist language. on which 3008). In older children: Pronouns shapes how we think about the world (Mikes ee ee books. words like firemon and mailer are common. ator these re nile jobs. ieee jobs. and critics say they send a message to chikdren that should put Oo jobs. Ifa teacher tells a secord-grate class, “t very parila m4 s under his desk.” the teacher obviously means students of May be sending a subtle message that boys mutter more than girls. For these i (one! several guidebooks promote the use of nonsexist language (Maggio. Norms Cultures differ widely in their norms, of standards and expectations for behav img We already saw that the nature of drunken behavior depends on society's expectations of how people should behave when drunk, Norms of drunken behavior influence how we behave when we drink too much. ‘Norms are the formal and informal rules regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture. eNorms are specific to a culture, time period and sitstion Norms are often divided into two types. formal norms and informal norms. Formal norms, also called mores (MOOR-ay2) and laws. refer to the standards of behavior considered the most important in any society. Examples in the United States include traffic laws, criminal codes, and, ina college context, student behay jot codes addressing such things as cheating and hate speech Informal norms, alse called folhways and ‘custonss,cefer to sandards of behas wor that are commidered hess important but still influence how we behave. Table manners are a common example of informal norms, a> are such everyday behaviors as how we interat with a cashier and how we ride in an elevator Other evidence for cultural variation in noms comes Hen the sfudy of how men and women are expected fo behave in various societies For example, many traditional societies are simple hunting-and-gathering societies. Ln ment of these. mca fend hunt and women tend to gather. Many observer attribute this yonder dillerener to at least two biological differences between the sexes. First mica tex Ko Be Digest and stronger than women and are thus better suited for hunting. Second, women become pregnant and bear children and are less able te tnt, Yet a different pattern emerges i some hunting-and-gathering societies. Among a group of Australian aborigines called the Tini and a tribal society in the Philippines called the Agts. both sexes hunt. Alter bebecoming pregnant, Agta women continu st of their pre gta women continue to hu enant, tf : resume hunting after their child is born (Brettell & S: ; nt 3 aba gent, 2009). Rituals Different cultures a e diffe ‘i See aeeun hie ciel rituals, o established procedures and famine ansitions in the life course, As such, rituals both reflect Gradtation chilies nor i and other elements from one generation to the next. cokehon ena ie leges and universities are familiar examples of time- toate ote any societies, rituals help signify one’s gender identity. For example. gil aroun the world undergo various types of initiation ceremonies to \eir transition to adulthood. Among the Bemba of Zambia, girls undergo a month-long initiation ceremony called the chisungu, in which gitls learn songs, dances, and secret terms that only women know (Maybury-Lewis. 1998 an in industrial ones such as the anthropologist Horace Miner more been developed to Are rituals more common in traditional societies thi United States? Consider the Nacirema, studied by than 50 years ago (Miner, 1956). In this society. many rituals ha deal with the culture’s fundamental belief that the human body is ugly and in danger of suffering many diseases. Reflecting this belief, every household has at least one shrine in which various rituals are performed to cleanse the body. Often these shrines contain magic potions acquired from medicine men, The Nacirema are especially concerned about diseases of the mouth. Miner writes, “Were it not for the rituals of the mouth, they believe that their teeth would fall out, their gums bleed. their jaws shrink, their friends desert them, and their lovers reject them” (p. 505). Many Nacirema engage in “mouth-rites” and see a “holy-mouth-man’” once or tw ‘ice yearly. n ward and you will see that Miner was describing America Instead, ests, rituals are not limited to preindustrial societies. f societies to mark transitions in the life course and to from one generation to the next Spell Nacirema back culture. As his satire sug they function in many kinds | transmit the norms of the culture Changing Norms and Beliefs Our examples show that different cultures have different norms, even if they share other types of practices and beliefs. It is also true that norms change over time within agiven culture, Two obvious examples here are haitstyles and clothing styles. When the Beatles first became popular in the early 1960s, their hair barely covered their ears, but parents of teenagers back then were aghast at how they looked. If anything,Values Value Individualism in the United St The Work Ethicrespondents ‘aid they would continue to work eve e e J continue to work even if oni nif they got enoug! as comfortably as they would like for the rest of their lives. ot Artifacts The last element of ci eis i seen Se is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a fe tooleithe eect ices simple societies, artifacts are largely limited to s, ple live in, and the clothing they wear. One of t ‘ sa ; they wear. One of the most important inventions in the evolution of society was the wheel. h money to live aie anor - a great invention, artifacts are much more numerous and x strial societies. Because of technological advances during the past Wwo decades, many such societies today may be said to have aw smartphones, netbooks and laptops, and GPS devices now dominate so much of modern life. The artifacts associated with this culture were unknown a generation ago, Technological development created these artifacts and new language (0 describe them and the functions they perform. Today's wireless artifacts in turn help reinforce our ‘own cominitment to wireless technology as a way of life, if only because children are now growing up with them, often even before they can read and write ireless culture, as Sometimes people in one society may find it difficult to understand the artifacts that are an important part of another society’s culture. Ifa member of a tribal society who hhad never seen a cell phone. or who had never even used batteries or electricity, were somehow to visit the United States, she or he would obviously have no idea of what a cell phone was or ofits importance in almost everything we do these days. Conversely. if we were 10 visit that persons society. We might not appreciate the importance of son e of its artifacts. fees ae The major elements of culture are symbols, language, norms, values, and artifacts. Language makes effective social interaction possible and influences how people conceive of concepts and objects. ‘Major values that distinguish the ‘United States include individualism, competition, and a commitment to the work ethic.