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Contents Page

Theme 1: Measuring development ……………………………………………………….3

Topic 1.1 Development ……………………………………………………………………… 3
Topic 1.2 Sustainable development ……………………………………………………….. 14
Theme 2: Namibian Development Plans ………………………………………………. 19
Topic 2.1 Namibia Vision 2030 ………………………………………………………………19
Topic 2.2 National Development Plan and Harambee Prosperity Plan ………………... 21
Theme 3: Production ………………………...……………………………………………. 23
Theme 4: Industrialiasation and Urbanisation ………………………………………... 36
Topic 4.1 Industrialisation …………………………………………………………………... 36
Topic 4.2 Urbanisation ………………………………………………………………………. 52
Theme 5: Rural Development ……………………………………………………………. 60
Topic 5.1 Rural development ………………………………………………………………. 60
Theme 6: Women and Development ……………………………………………………. 74
Topic 6.1 Role of women in traditional and pre-colonial societies ……….…………….. 74
Topic 6.2 Role of women in development in modern society …………………………… 76
Theme 7: Population, Health and Education ………………………………………….. 86
Topic 7.1 Population …………………………………………………………….…………... 86
Topic 7.2 Health ……………………………………………………………………………… 99
Topic 7.3 Education …………………………………………………………………………107
Theme 8: Politics and Development …………………………………………………... 117
Topic Politics and development …………………………………………………………... 117
Theme 9: Trade and Aid …………………………………………………………………. 129
Topic 9.1 Trade ……………………………………………………………………………. .129
Topic 9.2 Foreign investment and aid ……………………………………………………..141
Topic 9.3 Regional and global co –operation …………………………………………… 145
Theme 10: Research Techniques ……………………………………………………….152

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THEME 1: MEASURING DEVELOPMENT

Topic 1.1: Development

Define the term “development” with reference to social, economic, political and
environmental aspect

 Development is a process of change and growth which usually leads to

improvement in people’s lives
 Development is a positive change which improves people’s lives where the
needs and wants of people are satisfied

Needs - Are things that people cannot live without e.g. food, shelter/housing, water, and
clothing.
Wants - Are things that make life easier but people can still survive without them e.g.
cell phone, TV, car, jewelry etc.
NB! When development takes place, it does not affect everyone the same even in the most
developed countries.

Advantages or benefits of Development

• It leads to improvement in health/education services
• Increases job opportunities/better standard of living
• Improves infrastructure
• Improved access to clean water supply
• Access to new technology
• Improved sanitation/hygiene

Disadvantages or problems associated with development

• Put pressure on resources like water, housing, electricity.

• It may lead to environmental problems such as air /water pollution and
deforestation.
• It may lead to overcrowding in urban areas.
• It may increase the crime rate.
• Shortage of housing/land/relocate people to pave way for development.
• Shortage of jobs/increase unemployment

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Describe the broad pattern of the world development

The North-South division

 The Brandt line divides the rich/developed countries from the poor/developing
countries.
 Developed countries are found in the north of the Brandt line.
 Developing countries are found in the south of the Brandt line.
 There are also countries that are known as Newly Industrialiazed Countries
(NICs). These countries are mostly found in Asia and South America e.g. Mexico,
Brazil, Thailand, Singapore, India.

Characteristics of NICs
 Established export oriented industries
 Great investment in education/high skilled work force
 Access to advanced technology

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The developing countries and developed countries are sometimes referred to as:
Developing countries Developed countries
• The South • The North
• Less Economically Developed Countries • More Economically Developed Countries
(LEDCs) (MEDCs)
• Non industrialized • Industrialized
• Third world • First world

The division of the world since 1945

 The Capitalist world, also called First World. This included the Western Europe
and the United States of America
 The Communist world, also called the Second World. This included USSR and
Eastern Europe
 The Third World, also called Mixed economies (they are partly capitalist and
partly communist). These are undeveloped world or LDCs. (Less Economically
Developed Countries).

What is the difference between Capitalist and Communist countries?

Capitalist Country Communist Country

Unplanned economy Planned economy

Free economies Socialist economies

Market economies Centralized economies

Laissez-faire system Collective economies

NB! Laissez-faire-is an economic system in which the government is not involved in the
business affairs of the people.

United Nations also divide countries into:

LEDCs: Less Economically Developed Countries
MEDCs: More Economically Developed Countries
OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. E.g. Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Iran

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The World Bank divides countries into

 Low income
 Middle income
 High income
 NIC - Newly Industrialized /Industrializing Countries

Explain how environmental, political, social and economic indicators can used to
measure development.

The four processes/aspects of development:

 Economic Development: There is an increase in goods and services produced
making the country to have more money.
 Social Development: This is when people have access to things that improve
their lives e.g. enough food, clean water, electricity, health and education etc.
Basic needs and wants are satisfied.
 Political Development: This means people have freedom and they are enjoying
their rights without any fear, intimidation or persecution from anyone or the
authority.
 Environmental Conservation: This is development that encourages the
protection and management of the natural resources through various measures.

How do we determine the level of development of different countries?

We use indicators that may be grouped into Economic, Social, Political and
Environmental.

Economic indicators:
 Energy consumption
- Looks at the quantity of energy used.
- Developing countries use less energy compared to developed countries
because there are more industries in developed countries.

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  Employment
- We look at the number of people employed in each sector of the economy.
- Developed countries have more people employed in the service and industry
sectors of the economy.
- Developing countries have more people employed in agriculture.

 GNP(Gross National Product)/GDP( Gross Domestic Product)

GNP: is the total wealth of a country produced in a year including earnings from
abroad.
GDP: is the total wealth of a country produced in a year excluding earnings
from abroad.
GDP/GNP per capita: is the average income each individual can receive if the
money was equally shared/total wealth of the country divided by the population.

GNP per capita is the same as GNP per head or per person

How GNP/GDP per capita calculated?

The total GDP of the country divided by the total population. Take a look at the example
below.

Country Total GNP ($) Total Population GNP/Capita

(millions) (millions)
Namibia 12000 2.480 $4838.71
South Africa 307000 55.909 $5491
USA 18357000 323.127 $567810

The usefulness of GNP/GDP as indictors of development

 It highlights international wealth difference
 It is a standardized measure to compare countries
 Data is available from institutions such as banks
 It is easy to calculate from government figures

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Why GNP/GDP is not a good indicator of development/limitations
 It does not show how income is shared/ it is just an average.
 It does not show the gap between the rich and the poor.
 Not all income is recorded/does not include all production.
 Statistics in developing countries may be inaccurate.
 It ignores the quality of life

Social indicators
 Employment
- We look at the rate of employment, unemployment and underemployment.
- The more developed the country is the higher the employment rate and vice
versa.

 Health
- We use life expectancy, Infant Mortality Rate, Morbidity rate.
Life expectancy - is the number of years a person is expected to live from the
time they are born.
Infant Mortality Rate - is the number of babies per 1000 who die before the age
of 1 per year.
Morbidity rate - is the speed at which diseases spread within the population.

 Education
- We look at literacy rate, school enrolment, and tertiary education enrolment.
Literacy - is the ability to read and write

Political indicators
 Freedom and Justice
- Percentage of people who vote.
- Percentage of women in managerial positions.
- Human rights rating.

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  War and conflict
- War and conflict slows down development because it leads to destruction of
infrastructure, decrease in production and trade.

Why are political indicators such as freedom and justice difficult to measure?

 Because you cannot see or touch it.

 You cannot assign value to them.

Environmental indicators
 We observe the balance between development and environmental
damage/looking at how the environment is conserved.

Examples of environmental indicators:

 Deforestation
 Soil erosion
 Pollution
 Overgrazing
 Overfishing etc.

Describe the characteristics of countries at different levels of development

Developed countries/MEDCs Developing countries/LEDCs

Higher GNP Lower GNP
Lower population growth rate Higher population growth rate
Quality housing Poor housing
More people employed in the industry More people employed in primary sector
and service sectors. e.g. agriculture, mining and fishing.
Large number of people have access to Less people have access to balanced
balanced died diet
Longer life expectancy Shorter life expectancy
Higher literacy rate/level of Lower literacy rate/level of
education/skilled workforce education/skilled workforce
Higher access to improved health Limited access to improved health
services services

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Explain how Human Development Index (HDI) and Multidimensional Poverty Index
(MPI) are used as indicator to measure development.

Human Development Index - is a statistical tool used to measure the country’s

achievement.

HDI is used as a development indicator by:

 Looking at life expectancy to show health level
 Expected years of schooling and actual years of schooling to show the
education level
 Gross National Income per capita to show standard of living.

Multidimensional Poverty Index - is a tool used by United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) to give overall picture of poverty by considering different
deprivations at household and individual level in health, education and standard of
living.

The MPI measures poverty by:

 Showing all the deprivations that impact someone’s life at the same time
 Identifying the poorest people.
 Examining which deprivations are common in different countries and among
different people.
 Integrating many different aspects of poverty related to the millennium
development goals into a single measure.

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Explain how historical, political, social, availability of resources and economic
factors influence the level of development in different countries/reasons for
difference in level of development.

 Some countries were colonized by others who were politically superior.

 Countries have different levels in population, the higher the population the
difficult a country may find it to develop.
 Unequal distribution of resources- some countries are more blessed with natural
resources than others.
 Different levels in education- higher literacy rate means more skilled workforce to
engage in trade for development.
 Some countries have higher debts leading to low investment in trade and
education.
 Some countries suffer from natural disasters such as drought, floods,
earthquakes than others
 Some countries are seriously affected by diseases outbreak such as AIDS,
CHOLERA, EBOLA, MALARIA like countries in Africa making development
difficult to achieve.

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 Assessment questions for topic 1.1

1. Study Fig.1, which shows comparisons of key development indicators between

China and India.

key development indicators China India

2000 – 2009 10,3% 6,9%
GDP Growth Rate
2011 – 2015 (Forecast) 9,5% 8,2%
GDP Per Capita $6 828 $3 270
% of Adult Males 96,7% 75,2%
Literacy Rate
% of Adult Females 90,5% 50,8%
Life Expectancy at 1960 46,6 years 42,4 years
Birth 2008 73,1 years 63,7 years
Human
Development % increase 1980 – 2010 80% 62 %
Index (HDI)

Fig. 1

(a) What is meant by life expectancy? [1]

(b) Which one of the two countries is more developed? Justify your answer by
using data from Fig. 1. [4]
(c) (i) What is meant by GDP per capita? (ii) Suggest two reasons for the growth in
GDP in India between 2000 and 2009. [2]
(iii) Suggest three reasons why a rise in the rate of female literacy would improve the
general health of the population. [3]

(d) (i) China is classified as a NIC. What does NIC stand for? [1]

(ii) Name two other NICs. [2]

(iii) Describe the relationship between economic development and adult literacy
rate. Justify your answer using data from the table [2]

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2. Study Fig. 2, which is about aspects of development.

Fig. 2

(a) What is meant by development? [1]

(b) State two indicators of social development. [2]
(c) (i) What is meant by GNP per capita? [1]
(ii) Explain why GNP per capita is not a good indicator of development. [3]
(d) Suggest three reasons why life expectancy is low in developing countries. [3]

3. (i) Which organisation developed the Human Development Index (HDI)? [1]
(ii) What is the HDI used to measure? [2]
(iii) The HDI uses different measurements of a population: Name three aspects
used. [3]
(iv) What does MPI stand for? [1]

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Topic 1.2: Sustainable Development

Define what sustainable development is

 Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.
 Development that encourages economic growth but at the same time conserve
the world’s resources.

Describe and illustrate the concept of sustainable development with reference to

natural environment and the use and exploitation of resources

Types of resources:
Renewable resources: resources that can be replaced after a period of time e.g. forest,
water, sun, wind etc.

Non - renewable resources: resources that cannot be replaced once depleted e.g. oil,
minerals, natural gas, coal etc.

What must be done to use our resources in a sustainable manner?

 Using appropriate technology to prevent environmental degradation

 Control population size
 Wise usage of resources e.g. by recycling, reuse, replace, re-growing and
controlling the rate of resource exploitation
 Develop policies to conserve our environment.

How to reduce pollution and conserve the environment

 Impose heavy fines on industries and people who pollute the environment
 Put high taxes on cars that uses large engines
 Subsidise industries and people who save energy.

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How local people can benefit from communal conservation
 It can create jobs
 Help create markets for the sale of local crafts and people can get foreign
currency as a result
 Give people access to local food

Global ecological problems related to development

 Soil erosion
 Pollution of the soil, air and water
 Destruction of wildlife species
 Greenhouse effect and global warming
 Ozone hole and increase in incidence of cancer

How to reduce Global Warming

 Replant trees
 Use clean energy resources like solar, wind and Geothermal power
 Reduce the use of fossil fuels
 Use sustainable methods of farming

Discuss sustainable development goal, with reference to responsible

consumption and production.
These are goals by the government to ensure the well-being of humans and the whole
society. It ensures human beings have access to basic resources by improving the
quality of life and at the same time protecting their health because the environment is
safe.

There are 17 Sustainable Development Goals

1. No poverty
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health and well-being
4. Quality education

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 5. Gender equality
6. Clean water and sanitation
7. Affordable and clean energy
8. Decent work and economic growth
9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure
10. Reduced inequalities
11. Sustainable cities and communities
12. Responsible consumption and production
13. Climate action
14. Life below water
15. Life on land
16. Peace, justice and strong institutions
17. Partnerships for the goals

Assessment questions for topic 1.2

1. Figure 1. Shows six people talking about their government’s new laws to protect forests.

We need to give the birds I can earn more

and animals from selling wood and
somewhere to live. charcoal than from Wood is all I have
farming. for fuel.

I need
wood
to build
my
house. We have to think
I am only about future
interested generations.
in selling
lots of
timber
overseas

Fig 1

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 a) Explain in your own words what is meant by “We have to think about future generations”.
[1]
b) Which of the speakers are mainly concerned about making money? [2]
c) (i) Give two reasons why so many households in LEDCs use wood as fuel. [2]
(ii) Suggest how alternative fuels could be made available to households. [1]
d) Suggest three laws that might be brought in by a government to protect the forests. [3]
e) (i) Give three reasons why it is important that the birds and animals have somewhere to
live. [3]
(ii) Explain how the removal of forests contributes to global warming. [3]

2. Study Fig. 2, which is about the percentage of total deforestation occurring in

countries in the 1990’s and 2000’s.

i. What is meant by deforestation? [1]

ii. According to Fig. 2, in which country did the highest percentage of deforestation
occur in both the 1990’s and 2000’s? [1]
iii. By what percentage did the deforestation of Brazil increase from the 1990s to the
2000s? [1]
iv. Explain why deforestation is a problem both locally and globally. [4]
v. Describe two ways by which the government of a country can help to reduce
deforestation. [2]

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 3. Study Fig. 3, which is about communal conservancies.

The Nyae Nyae Communal Conservancy

Committee meeting in May 2004

(Photo: World Wildlife Fund)

Fig. 3

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) helps Namibia manage

and protect its environment while empowering communities that live off the land.

(i) With reference to Fig. 5, explain in your own words the aim of the CBNRM. [1]
(ii) Suggest three ways in which the local communities can benefit from communal
conservancies. [3]

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THEME 2: NAMIBIA DEVELOPMENT PLANS

Topic 2.1: Namibia Vision 2030

Describe five key areas toward the realisation of Vision 2030 with reference to:
• Education, science and technology
• Health and development
• Sustainable agriculture
• Peace and social justice
• Gender equality

Education, science and technology:

 By 2030, all people in Namibia should have access to quality education and training at all
levels
 Encourage individuals to study science and use technology to enhance communication
and high productivity

In order to achieve quality education, the Namibian government:

• Introduced free primary and secondary education
• Introduced the policy on the prevention and management of teenage pregnancy in
schools
• Constructing new classrooms
• Providing ICT equipment in schools

Health and development:

 To ensure a healthy, food-secure and breastfeeding nation.
 To control all preventable, infectious and parasitic diseases.
 To ensure that all people have access to quality health services.
 To mainstream HIV/AIDS into development plans, programmes and strategies.

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Sustainable agriculture.
 To ensure that agriculture uses farming techniques that protect the environment e.g.
organic farming, rotational grazing/crop rotation, Agro forestation etc.

Peace and social justice

 Namibians to make their own decisions in political, cultural, economic and social
development matters.
 All people in Namibia to enjoy a safe environment.
 Namibia to be a fair, caring and committed nation.

To achieve peace and justice:

• The government provides peace and security
• Provision of democratic politics
• Provision of appropriate legal instruments

Gender Equality
 Namibia to be a gender-responsive nation.
 Namibians not to be disadvantaged because of gender.

To achieve gender equality:

• Women and girls to be provided with education and proper health care
• Women to have equal representation in political and economic decision making
• Women to have equal job opportunities

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Topic 2.2: National Development Plans (NDPs)

Explain how NDPs are used to provide direction in terms of planning, implementation
and outcomes to Namibia’s National Development agenda.

NDPs are:
• Medium-term development strategies that are designed to ensure steady progress
towards vision 2030.
• Each NDP lasts for five years. Currently Namibia is at NDP5.

NDP1 1995/1996 – 1999/2000

NDP2 2000/2001 - 2004/2005
NDP3 2005/2006 - 2009/2010
NPP4 2010/2011 - 2014/2015
NDP5 2015/2016 - 2019/2020

How the NDPs are used to provide direction

• Each NDP has realistic objectives
• Realistic strategies are planned to achieve the set objectives
• Annual targets are set to monitor the progress
• All institutions involved in the implementation of certain projects submit progress reports
to the National Planning Commission on a quarterly basis.

Discus short and long term planning and evaluate an example of a National
Development Plan: e.g. Namibia’s Fifth National Development Plan (NDP5), Harambee
Prosperity Plan with reference to the main objectives and goals.
• Short-term planning: over a period of months or maybe a year or two
• Medium-term planning: Up to five-year periods
• Long-term planning: Such as Vision 2030

NDP5 Goals:
• Achieve an inclusive and equitable economic growth
• Build capable and healthy human resources
• Ensure sustainable environment and enhance resilience
• Promote good governance through effective institutions

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Harambee Prosperity Plan
Launched in April 2016 by President Hage Geingob
• Action plan to accelerate development in clearly defined priority areas
• Meant to support other development plans
• Flexible to adjust to new realities
• Must recognise new development opportunities

The 5 pillars of Harambee Prosperity Plan

• Effect governance - Encourage transparency and accountability among citizens
• Economic advancement - spend more on items that generate economic growth and
employment
• Social progression - To reduce social problems e.g. housing and sanitation, infant and
maternal mortality.
• Infrastructure development – To address water and energy shortage and improve
transport networks.
• International relations – To develop regional, national and international economic
policies.

Assessment questions for theme 2: topic 2.1 & 2.2

1. (a) Study Fig.1, which show a diagram of six (6) legs which stand for the partnerships in
Namibia Vision 2030.

Fig.1

(i) What is meant by Namibia vision 2030? Give two points. [2]
(ii) Name the any three (3) partnerships towards achieving Namibia Vision 2030, using Fig.1.
[3]
(iii) Define Capacity or Capacity building in Namibia Vision 2030. [2]

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2. Study Fig. 2, a photograph which show the Milestones towards Namibia Vision 2030.

Fig. 2

(b) State when was Namibia Vision 2030 launched and when was it supposed to be
accomplished. [2]
(c) (i) List the four (4) key areas towards realisation of Namibia Vision 2030. [4]
(ii) Mention or outline two Health development goals to Namibia Vision 2030 [2]
(iii) State one I aim of Gender equality towards vision 2030 [1]

3. (a)(i) what does NDP stand for? [1]

(ii) What are the national development plans? Give two points. [2]
(iii) State the function and role of NDPs [2]
(iv) The economic development role of NDPs have a strong focus on developing three sectors.
Mention the two sectors. [2]
(v) Write down the period (time) of NDP1 and NDP5. [2]
NDP1:
NDP5:
(b) (i) Outline the three (3) main components of the Namibia national Planning System. [3]
ii) What does HPP stand for? [1]
(ii) How many pillars does HPP has? [1]

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THEME 3: PRODUCTION

Topic 3.1: Production

Explain the need for production: basic needs and wants

Production is the changing of raw materials into finished goods and services

Reasons for production:

 To satisfy people’s needs and wants/to meet people’s demand
 For economic and social development
 To be self-reliant

Difference between needs and wants

 Basic needs: Things that are essential for people to survive/things people cannot live
without e.g. water, food, shelter, education and health care.
 Wants: Things we desire to have to make life easier and better.

Explain what is needed to produce goods and services (factors of production)

 Land
 Labour
 Capital

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Explain how land is a factor of production: quality of land and physical resources, the
need for conservation of natural resources, and the problem of ownership.

Land: refers to the natural environment with all its resources used in production process.
Examples of land resources:
 Water
 Minerals and oil
 Plants and animals
 Building land

Ways in which land is used in the production process

 Used as a site for factories/businesses
 Used for farming/conservancies/mining
 Used as a source of raw materials

How is land owned?

 Private ownership - individuals or companies own the land
e.g. tenant farming, sharecropping
 Public/state/communal ownership - the state owns the land.
 Collective ownership - the state takes over the land and give people the right to work on
the land together.

Problems of land ownership

Private ownership
Positive influence
 More commercial farms, leading to increased export/foreign exchange.
 Commercial farmers create jobs.
 Commercial farmers pay tax to the government.
 Subsistence farmers produce enough for the families and surplus to sell to the local
market.

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Negative influence
 Commercial farmers focus more on export and profit, thus neglecting the local needs.
 Land may belong to a small group while majority are landless.
 Commercial farming leads to more environmental damage.
 Subsistence farmers who own land produce less and not for export.

Explain how labour is a factor of production: division of labour and specialisation

Labour: is the physical work that someone does to produce goods and services.
Types of labour:
 Skilled
 Semi-skilled
 Unskilled

Division of labour: The allocation of work to different people.

Specialisation: When a person concentrates on one kind of job rather than doing a whole
range of jobs.

Advantages of specialisation
 Increase production
 Work is done faster
 Less training needed as workers concentrate on what they are good at
 Workers become experts
 Leads to economies of scale as specialized machinery is used.

Disadvantages of specialisation
 Workers find it hard to find other jobs
 In case of strike by one group, the whole system is affected
 Work may be monotonous and boring
 Workers may not be proud of the end product

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Explain the meaning of capital: money capital and Capital goods, and the use of money
capital in the production of resources

Money capital: Money that is used to increase production.

How money capital is used in production:
 To pay workers’ wages/salaries
 To pay for services e.g. rent, electricity and water bills
 To buy raw materials
 To buy capital goods

Capital goods: Goods that are used to increase production e.g. machinery (tractors,
computers, harvesters) car (not every car is a capital good), building/factory, fertilisers.

Describe the different types of energy used in the production process and explain their
potential role in future development:

Types of energy:
Renewable and Non-renewable

Renewable energy
Comes from sources that are replaceable by natural process e.g. wind, sun, water, wood.

Non-renewable energy
Comes from sources that are not replaceable once depleted e.g. oil, coal, natural gas.

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Describe types of technology:
Technology: Refers to capital goods such as tools and machinery used to increase production.

Different types of technology

Types and descriptions Advantages Disadvantages

Simple technology  Easy to use  Takes long to produce goods
Simple tools used in  Cheap to buy and maintain  May produce poor quality
production/ labour  Doesn’t need highly skilled goods
intensive methods of or education to operate the  Tools are not durable
production tools

E.g. spade, fork, pencil

Intermediate technology  More affordable compared  Output is slow at a time

Technology that is not to complex compared to complex
simple but less advanced  Easy to use and maintain technology
than complex  Goods can be produced at  Expensive than simple
a reasonable price and technology
E.g. bicycle, hand pump,
torch, jack, ox-pulled time

plough

Complex/advanced/high  Production is very  Very expensive to buy and

technology fast/increase production maintain
Sophisticated Machines  Reduces labour cost  Requires skilled people to
used in Production operate the machines

E.g. Computer,  Spare parts may not be

cellphones, tractor. locally available

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Appropriate technology – refers to the right/suitable technology for the job

Advantages of appropriate technology:

 Increases production
 Avoids unnecessary costs
 Produces quality products

Explain the economies of scale

 Increasing the amount of production at a lower cost.

How to achieve economies of scale/ types of economies of scale:

 By using complex technology that will increase output at a faster rate.
 Through labour specialisation
 Buying raw materials in bulk
 Marketing the product

Describe labour and capital intensive methods of production

Labour intensive - When more human labour than machines are used in production.
Capital intensive - When more machines than human labour is used in production.

Methods of production Advantages Disadvantages

Labour Intensive • People become more • Production is slower
skilled compared to capital
• Creates more job intensive
opportunities • Tools are not very
• Cheaper as durable
simple/intermediate • More money is spent to
technology is used pay the workers.

Capital Intensive • Production is faster • The use of machinery

compared to labour increase unemployment
intensive • Machinery is expensive
• Saves on labour cost to buy and maintain
• It leads to economies of • It mostly requires skilled
scale workers.

29
Why capital intensive increases production more than labour intensive?
 Because machines can work for more hours than human labour
 Specialised machines are designed to produce more products at a given time.

Describe and explain sectors of production in countries at different levels of

development:

Developed • Lower % of population employed in agriculture/ primary sector

countries • Higher % of population employed in secondary and tertiary
sectors
Developing • Higher % of population employed in agriculture/ primary sector
countries • Lower % of population employed in secondary and tertiary
sectors

Primary Sector: Where raw materials are extracted(mining, agriculture, fishing)

Secondary Sector: Where raw materials are turned into goods. (industries processing food,
clothing, jewelry)
Tertiary Sector: Where services are provided. (transport, education, health)

How a manufacturing industry (secondary sector) can be linked to other sectors of the
economy.
 Example a meat processing plant may receive its raw materials (animals e.g. cattle) from
the farms (primary sector);
 Animals are slaughtered and the meat has to be processed into different products e.g.
canned meat, biltong, mince (Secondary sector)
 The meat products are transported by means of road, railway to the consumers. (service
sector)
 The service sector also supplies electricity for the machinery/computers and water for
different processes.
 Skilled workers to do marketing on internet or newspapers and distribution are trained by
education (service sector)

30
Describe and explain the importance of enterprise in the process of production and
illustrate how production can be organised

Enterprise: The process of bringing together the factors of production to produce goods and
services.

Types of enterprise/how production is organised

Individual/sole trader: One person owns and runs the business.

Advantages:
 The owner is the own boss
 Decisions are made promptly
 Owner keep[s all the profit
 Owner has close and personal relationship with employees and customers
Disadvantages
 Not easy to get starting capital
 Not easy to reach economies of scale
 Owner loses all money if business fails
 Taking leave or holidays might be difficult

Co-operatives: Formed by a group of people bringing their resources together to start a

business.
Advantages of co-operatives
 Powerful combined buying power
 Selling in bulk is powerful

31
  Share costs of farming equipment
 Share ideas for growth of business

Disadvantages of co-operative
 Not easy take decision as consultation need to be made
 Each member may receive less as profit is shared

Companies can either be a Multinational Company (MNC) or parastatals/state owned

MNCs/TNCs: Large companies that operate in more than one country e.g. Coca Cola, KFC,
Shell.

Advantages of MNCs/TNCs
 Bring employment opportunities.
 They pay tax to the government/bring in foreign exchange
 They may sponsor local projects
 Access to quality foreign product
 Leads to improved technology and skills of locals
Disadvantages of MNCs/TNCs
 Profit is sent back to country of origin
 Workers are exploited
 Do not take care of the environment
 Small local businesses may close
 They may interfere in local politics

Parastatals: companies that are owned and controlled by the government of a country in which
they operate.

Explain the role played by technology revolution in development and the world new
economic order
 Micro-electronic e.g. cellphones and laptops have made communication easier.
 Biotechnology-provides fuel or energy source to use in the production

32
 Modern technology Advantages Disadvantages

Micro-electronics  Very easy and fast to  They are expensive

communicate  Require skills to use them
 Solve problems via effectively
communication
Biogas  Its natural and easy to get  The system is expensive
 Require skilled professionals
to operate the system

Communication – The sharing of ideas or information in order to give a message or reach an

objective.

Methods of communication
 Written–communication through letters, memo, or minutes of meetings
 Electronic communication–using fax machines, telephones or e-mail
 Visualcommunication–usingposters,photographs,advertsandtelevision
 Verbal communication–use words(verbal)and body language(non-verbal)

Barriers to communication
 The sender may not explain the message clearly
 Language barriers
 Incorrect use of equipment e.g. fax
 Message may be distorted/twisted

33
Evaluate strategies for increasing production
Privatisation =The process of selling parastatals/state co-operatives to private individuals

Advantages of privatisation
• More income/more revenue from sale
• It gives more choices to consumers/variety of products
• It responds quickly to changes in demand
• It creates jobs/reduces unemployment
• Encourages competition which keeps prices low but goods/services of high quality
• It improves quality of products/services

Assessment question for theme 3

1. Study Fig. 1, which is about production.

Waste
Human Economy

Heat energy
Production
Consumption
Products

Fig. 1

a) (i) Identify two factors of production from Fig. 1 [2]

(ii) State two types of energy that can be used in production. [2]
(iii) Fig. 1 suggests that complex technology is used in production. Describe two
advantages and two disadvantages of this type of technology. [4]
b) State two reasons for production. [2]

34
 c) Choose any example of a manufacturing industry and describe fully the interdependency
between the different sectors of the economy. [5]
2. Study Fig. 2 which shows parastatals in Namibia.

(i) What is a parastatals? [1]

(ii) Identify the names of the parastatals shown in Fig. 2 which provide each of the
following services in Namibia:
- water
- education
- electricity
- transport. [4]

(iii) Governments often sell off their property to businesses in the private sector. Name this
process. [1]

iv) Describe two benefits that the country will gain from this process. [2]

35
THEME 4: INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION
Topic 4.1: Industrialisation

Define and explain the process of industrialisation

Industry: Refers to a manufacturing factory that processes raw materials into finished
goods.
Industrialisation
 Is a process whereby the number of factories (industries) in a country increases and
the use of modern technology to improve production

 The level at which the country has developed its industries

Three main processes of industrialisation

 Inputs needed in an industry
- Raw materials
- Capital goods such as machinery and factory building
- Money capital
- Labour: People to do the work

 Manufacturing process
- Complex technology
- Power, Example: electricity
- Division of labour: Each worker specialises in a particular part of the work for mass
production (to increase production)

36
 Outputs in an industry
- Finished/manufactured products: Ready to be used by consumers
- Products for further processing: Need to go to another factory to be made into
finished goods
- By products: Additional products that come out of the manufacturing process but
which are of no use to the manufacturer e.g. pieces of cloth in a cloth manufacturing
company which can be sold to carpet manufacturers.
- Waste products: Are products which cannot be used for further processing .E.g.
Smoke and fumes.

Inputs needed Manufacturing processes Outputs

Raw materials Large scale factory production Finished product

Capital Goods Complex technology Products for further processing
Capital money Electrical power By-products
Labour Division of labour Waste products

Three events that led to industrialization

1. Mercantilism -The belief that a country’s power depends on having (accumulating)

more wealth in form of Gold and Silver.
 People who travelled to other countries to do business were called merchants.

2. Colonialism - Due to an increase in mercantilism, European countries decided to

have colonies in Americas, Asia, and Africa for them to extract Gold, Silver and other
raw materials and make them markets for their manufactured products.

3. Industrial Revolution - A period in Britain when the number of factories (industries)

increased. Goods were produced on a large scale with more use of machine than
hands.

37
Factors that led to industrial revolution in Britain
a) Availability of workers: Advance in agricultural technology meant that fewer
farm workers were needed to produce food for the nation. As a result, more
workers were available to work in factories

b) Availability of money to buy machinery and expand business: merchants

who profited from early oversea trade had money to invest

c) Availability of raw materials such as coal, cotton, water: They had colonies
from which to take resources.

d) Invention of new technology like steam power engine

Neo-colonialism
A new way of colonialism whereby developing countries are politically independent but
economically depending on the developed countries.

Describe ways how neo-colonialism takes place

• Through trade policies – Developing countries sell primary goods/ raw materials
to developed countries at a cheaper price and buy finished goods at higher price.
• By inviting MNCs – MNCs invest money in developing countries and use their
resource and cheap labour, but send a large sum of profit to their motherland.
• Through loans – The south/developing countries get loans from the
north/developed countries but they pay it back with high interests.
• Through Aid (tied aid) – A developed country can give a loan to a developing
country with conditions attached to it.

Identify with examples from specific industries the characteristics of modern

industrial production

Characteristics of modern industrial production

 Complex machinery and advanced technology
- Modern industrial machinery often computer controlled
- Many robotic machines
- Require skilled computer technicians
Example: Precision machinery in a motor vehicle assembly plant

38
 Wide range of raw materials and components
- All parts of a final product must be supplied
- Assembly often requires many components
- Important to have good transport and communications
- Partnerships important to ensure supplies of components

 The complex division of labour in industry

- Different tasks assigned to different people or teams in a factory
- Assignments often depend on skills and training
Example: One person may be trained to operate a specific type of machine

 Co-ordination of specialised tasks

- Managers and supervisors ensure all tasks come together for a final product
- Important for duties to be fully understood
- Top managers must know the full picture

Two main types of industry

a) Heavy industry: An industry that uses heavy raw materials and heavy
equipment.
Example: Mining, power production, cement and building materials.

b) Light industry: Industry that uses lighter raw materials and produces consumer
goods.
Example: Textiles, electrical goods and processed food.

Different types of manufacturing industry

 Consumer industries: Produce goods for direct consumption that are sold to
the public
 Producer industries: Make goods for further industrial use.
Example: - Capital good such as machinery
- Semi-produced goods which are used as inputs for further manufacturing

39
Describe the different strategies for industrialisation by evaluating the
advantages and disadvantages

Strategies for industrialisation (What can we do to industrialize our country?)

a) Import Substitution Strategy (ISS)

Develop industries which produce goods that local people can buy on a regular basis
rather than importing them.
Example: Namibia can stop buying cars from other countries and starts to produce its
own cars.

How can the government promote ISS?

 By heavily taxing similar products coming in from other countries
 Through quotas-by putting up a limit on the amount of products coming in from
other countries
 Subsidise the infant industries in the country

Advantages of Import Substitution Strategy

 A country becomes self-reliant by reducing dependence on other countries
 People can support local businesses/ industries, it protects local industry
 Increase local jobs/create employment opportunities
 Saves foreign exchange
 It leads to development of a country’s infrastructure
 A country’s balance of payments is improved

40
Disadvantages of import substitution strategy
 Local customers are denied the opportunity to buy best quality products from
other countries.

 Local goods are usually expensive compared to subsidized goods from

developed countries.

 Domestic industries are protected from outside competition and this makes them
reluctant to produce quality products. (Promotes Inefficiency).

b) Export Oriented Strategy (EOS)

A strategy that encourages local industries to make products which are in high demand
on the world market, for export to other countries
How can the government promote EOS?
 Reduce tax/tariff on exporting industries
 Subsidise exporting industries in the country
 Government to offer loans to exporting industries
 Encourage foreign investors and joint ventures

Advantages of export oriented strategy

 Businesses will produce quality products as they have to compete in the
international market.
 A country can acquire foreign exchange from other countries
 A country can improve its balance of trade (positive balance of trade) by
exporting more goods to other countries.
 Brings in foreign investment
 Creates employment opportunities to the citizens

41
Disadvantages of export oriented strategy
 Industries sometimes rely on government to subsidize their businesses

 It produces mainly for export and neglecting local customers

 Foreign markets are difficult to enter especially for poor countries that are trying
to industrialise
 Top quality products are exported and lower quality goods are sold locally
 Large companies send profits back to their home countries and do not invest
locally

c) Large vs small-scale production

 Large scale: A country should produce goods on a large scale so there is
enough for local consumption and the remaining can then be exported.
 Small scale: A country should also have industries producing on a small scale
for the local consumption only but that can slowly develop into large scale
companies.

Advantages of large-scale industries

• Brings in foreign investment
• Creates jobs
• Exports earn foreign currency

Disadvantages of large-scale industries

• Often creates few skilled jobs because they are capital intensive and mechanised
• Large companies send profits back to their home countries and do not invest
locally

Advantages of small-scale industries

• Create jobs for people of all skill levels
• Do not need a large investment to start up
• Can easily start as part of the informal sector

42
Disadvantages of small-scale industries
• Often have a limited possibility for growth
• Can come under pressure from competitors
• Feel the effects of any economic downturn because they do not have large cash
reserves

d) Multinational companies (MNCs)/ Transnational companies (TNCs)

A country should invite foreign investors to come and invest or do business in the
country.
 MNCs are companies that have businesses in more than one country, but their
headquarters are usually in developed countries.

Advantages of MNCs/ TNCs

• Employ large numbers of local people
• Pay tax to the government
• Improve infrastructure like roads and electricity
• Offer training to workers that can be useful in other areas of the economy.
• Give bursaries and sponsor sports
• Bring foreign exchange (Forex) into a country.
• Introduce improved, modern technology to a country

Disadvantages of MNCs/ TNCs

• The use of machinery often reduces the number of people who are employed.
• Exploit workers
• Prevent workers from joining trade unions
• May interfere with local politics
• Take profit back to their headquarters
• MNCs often poison the environment with pollution
• They can close down any time

43
e) Local investors or joint enterprises
Encourage companies to join each other in order to become stronger and more
successful. This process is also called amalgamation. For example, two car companies
can combine their business to be very big and able to compete internationally by
exporting cars to foreign markets.

Advantages of local investors or joint enterprises

• Joint enterprises ensure some profits stay home
• Investors benefit from local expertise
• Business can comply with laws of the country

f) State enterprises/SOE/parastatals
A country should have enterprises controlled and funded by the government to produce
goods or services on a large scale

Advantages of state enterprises

 All profits go to the government
 Access to cheaper products/services

Disadvantages of state enterprises

 Tax-payers must support them when they make a loss

g) Public private partnership

 Government should work closely with private businesses to improve
infrastructure
 Development Bank of Namibia or ministries can fund projects like roads, energy
or telecoms

Advantages
 The skills and assets of the public and private sectors are shared in delivering
services

Disadvantages
 The private sector partner assume all the risk.

44
Identify examples of newly industrialising countries (NICs) and evaluate the role
of the state in their development:

Examples of newly industrialising countries (NICs)

 Singapore, South Korea, South Africa, Egypt, Malaysia, Taiwan, Brazil, Thailand,
Mexico, India, China and Turkey

The role of the state in development of NICs

 There must be peace (political stability) for a country to industrialise
 Government should help small businesses by giving them subsidies to reduce
cost of production.
 Government should give reward to businesses that are doing well to motivate
them and grow stronger
 Put high tariffs (taxes) on goods coming from other countries to protect
local goods from competition.
 Improve the quality of education - For people to acquire knowledge on how to
produce quality goods and run businesses effectively.
 Invest in the manufacturing industries

45
Discuss the importance of key industries to the social and economic
development of Namibia
(a) Mining

It contributes about 25-30% of Namibia’s national income. Namibia is rich in minerals

like diamonds, uranium, gold, silver zinc, copper limestone etc.

Importance of mining to socio-economic development of Namibia

 Create jobs to people which improves their living standard
 Bring in foreign exchange
 Sponsor schools and giving bursaries to students
 Helps develop infrastructures such as roads, electricity and telecommunication
 Sponsor sports and cultural activities
 Abandoned old mines like Kolmanskop near Luderitz attracts tourists

Problems caused by mining

 Open cast mining damages natural habitat of living organisms

 Mining in the sea disturbs fishery resources
 Mining can cause environmental problems such as air, water and soil pollution
 Encourage migration which leads to divorce and separation of families as people
will leave their homes and family to work in far isolated mines

46
(b) Fishing Industry

 It contributes to food security in Namibia (food production)

 It provides jobs to people who works in fishing companies
 Export of fish earns Namibia foreign exchange
 Fishing companies pay tax to the government/ contribute to GDP

(c) Tourism industry

 Creates jobs to local people

 Earns Namibia foreign exchange
 It helps conserve environment of the communities through conservancies

Suggests possible sustainable ways of increasing outputs in Namibian industries

(a) Value added processes

This means adding more value to your products before selling. For example, we can
add value to our diamonds by cutting and polishing before we sell them. The more a
product passes through different stages of production the more it gets value.

(b) Foreign investors and joint ventures with local

Invite foreign companies to work together with Namibian companies and form one big
company.

47
What benefit will Namibian companies get from making a joint venture with
foreign companies?
• Foreign companies will teach us new skills on how to increase production

• Foreign companies have access to technology (capital) that can help improve our
production
• Foreign companies can help Namibian companies to process raw materials into
finished goods, and this will add value to our products.

• Foreign companies have access to international markets, Namibian products will

have an opportunity to be sold outside the country.

(c) Adoption modern production processes

Adopt new methods of doing things to increase our output, we should not stick to simple
traditional methods of producing goods.

Modern methods of production are good because:

• They are fast

• Produce products on a large scale

• Allows economies of scale to operate (you can produce many products at a
cheaper price)

• Reduces labour cost

• Produces quality products

(d) Further research and explorations

• Research allows us to find new ways and ideas of doing things or finding new
solutions.
• Exploration can help a country discover new resources, Namibia cannot only
depend on diamonds and fish, and we must explore and discover new resources
like oil, gas, mercury.

48
 Assessment questions for topic 4.1

Question 1

1. What is meant industrialisation? (2)

2. List any three products that the merchants collected from Asia and Africa? (3)
3. Explain what is meant by neo-colonialism. (2)
4. Outline three main changes that industrialisation brought. (3)
5. Countries like Namibia and Angola are not industrialised. Describe three things
needed for a country to industrialise (3)
6. Modern industrial production is noticeable by visible characters. Mention three
characteristics of modern industrial production. (3)
7. Complete the table below with any three industrialisation strategies. (6)

Strategy Description (1) Advantage (1) Disadvantage

(a) …………………… Help reduce
dependency on
other countries.
(b) ………………… Trade and economic
policy that aims to
export goods.
(c)…………………… MNCs may offer
low wages to local
people.

49
Question 2
a) Study the figure below which is about Import Substitution as a strategy to reduce
poverty in South Korea.

Reduction of poverty in South Korea

The most widely used policies of the countries of East and Southeast Asia that have been
successful in reducing poverty are Import Substitution and the development of export
industries. These policies discouraged the import of goods so that the domestic economy
of the less developed country could start making the products itself. An example of this is
the South Korean ban on Japanese car imports that lasted for decades. This led to South
Korea building up their own auto industry, now selling millions of highly rated automobiles.

i. What is meant by Import Substitution? [1]

ii. Explain how South Korea used Import Substitution to reduce poverty. [3]
iii. Suggest ways in which the Namibian Government can help local businesses to
reduce poverty [3]

b) Study Fig. 1A and Fig. 1B, which illustrates two industrialisation strategies.

50
(i) Identify the two industrialisation strategies illustrated in Fig. 1A and Fig. 1B. [2]
(ii) Give two reasons why the industrialisation strategy shown in Fig. 1A is not always
successful. [2]
(iii) Suggest one way in which industrialisation strategy shown in Fig. 1B could help the
economy of a developing country. [1]
(iv) Define the term multinational company? [1]
(v) State one example of a multinational company. [1]
(vi) Describe three benefits of multinational companies for developing countries. [3]

c) Study the sentence about mining in Namibia

i. In which economic sector can mining be classified? [1]

ii. Explain in your own words what is meant by “Mining: Namibia’s economic
backbone”. [2]
iii. State three types of infrastructure that are needed by industries such as mining.
[3]
iv. List two environmental effects that mining industries can have on a developing
country like Namibia. [2]

51
Topic 4.2: Urbanisation

Define urbanisation
Is an increase in the country’s population of people living in urban areas (towns & cities)

Describe the causes and characteristics of urbanisation: in the industrialised

(developed) countries and in the developing countries

Causes and characteristics of urbanization

 Rural - urban migration = the movement of people from rural to urban areas.
This is the main cause of urbanisation
 Natural population increase

Reasons for rural – urban migration

Pull factors = Positive things that attract people to urban area.

52
Examples;
 Many employment opportunities
 Better education and health services
 Modern life (more entertainment opportunities)
 More business opportunities
 Better infrastructure/ sport facilities
 Access to modern housing
Push factors = Negative things that push people away from rural areas.

Examples;
 Unemployment
 Poor health care and education services
 Poverty, drought
 Shortages of sport facilities
 Little or no access to clean water and electricity

53
Causes and characteristics of urbanisation in industrialised and developing
countries
Developing countries Developed countries (MEDCs)
(LEDCs)
Characteristics • Lower level of urban growth • Higher level of urban growth
• Higher rate of urbanisation • Lower rate of urbanisation

 Most people still in rural  Most people already live in

areas urban areas
Causes
 More people continuously  Some people are moving out of
move from rural areas in urban areas to live in the
search of work country sides

 Due to natural increase in  Lower rate of natural increase

population because of high due to low birth rate and dearth
birth rate and low death rate
rates

Describe the problems of rapid urbanisation in the developing world

Effects of urbanisation on rural areas

• Families become separated/ family break up
• Agricultural production decreases as young and productive people leave the area
• Most rural areas become a step backward in development
• Shops in rural areas lose customers and sometimes close down

Effect of urbanisation on urban areas

• Cities become overcrowded and services become insufficient for people living
there.

54
 • Housing in cities become overcrowded and people had to live far away from the
center (develop slums).
• Increase criminal activities as many people don’t get jobs in formal sectors
• Overcrowding lead to fast spread of diseases
• Increase crime and prostitution as many people don’t get jobs in formal sectors
• Increase pollution e.g. air, water and noise, (increase waste disposal problems)
• Transport system become congested with traffic
Why do some people choose to live in squatter settlements/ shanty town?

• They pay little rent/cannot afford houses in formal settlement

• There is little electricity and water bills to pay
• They use cheap building material, e.g. cardboard
• They can set up informal businesses
Problems experienced in informal settlements
• Less access to clean water supplies, electricity
• Pollution e.g. water, land, leading to diseases e.g. diarrhoea, cholera etc.
• No proper housing that are safe to live in
• Poor sanitation
• Overcrowding condition leading to fast spread of diseases like malaria and TB
• Increase crime and prostitution

55
How to improve the condition in informal settlement?
• Installing water supplies, electricity and sewage services
• Build health clinics and schools
• Allow people right to land- to build permanent houses
• Organize low interest loans for people to startup businesses
• Encourage self-help schemes e.g. build together to improve housing

Why governments spend more money in urban than rural areas?

• More people live in urban areas (towns/cities)
• To keep the urban population happy as they are politically active
• To attract foreign investors
• To build houses for workers
• To supply services to increasing industries

Suggest solutions to problems caused by urban growth

 Provide better services like clean water, electricity for people not to migrate to
towns for these services.
 Local councillors to encourage self-help schemes for people to have small
projects to sustain their lives.
 Develop rural areas e.g. by improving infrastructures (roads), construct
secondary schools and hostels, hospitals for people not to find it necessary to
migrate to towns
 Take some services to rural areas (decentralize) like ministry of home affairs,
post office, telecommunications, supermarkets
 Develop new towns for many people not to be concentrated in one town only

Differentiate between unemployment and underemployment, formal and informal

sector
Unemployment - Economic situation when an individual seeking for employment/job
cannot find work
Underemployment - A situation in which a worker is employed in a low paying job /
doing work that does not require his/her fullest skill level.

56
a) Formal sector
A sector that deals with economic activities that are registered by the government where
taxes must be paid
This includes modern activities such as industries, businesses, commercial activities
and government agencies
Example of jobs found in formal sector
Teaching, Nursing, Secretary, Banking

b) Informal sector
Is a part of an economy that is not registered, taxed or monitored by any form of
government
This consists of small locally owned workshops, home factories, fruits and vegetable
markets.
Example of jobs found in this sector:
Shoe shining, Hair dressing, Craft production, Street vending/trading

How informal employments help a country to develop?

• Provides training for some jobs e.g. carpentry, shoe mending and car repairing
• Provide cheap food and market goods for everybody
• Some informal businesses can grow into large-scale businesses

57
Assessment Question for topic 4.2
1. Study the photograph about life in urban areas.

Ref: Aerial Windhoek CBD

Fig. 1
a) Identify one type of infrastructure shown in the photograph Fig.1. (1)
b) i) Define urbanisation. (1)
ii) Suggest four reasons why people move from rural areas to urban areas. (4)
iii) State four problems caused by rapid urbanisation. (4)
c) Describe four ways to reduce rural-urban migration. (4)
d) State three reasons why most governments spend more money on infrastructure in
urban areas than in rural areas. (3)

2. Study Fig. 2, a photograph of an informal settlement.

Fig. 2

58
 (a) (i) Give another name for an informal settlement. (1)
(ii) Identify the building materials used in Fig.2. (4)
(b) State two services which are unlikely to be found in informal settlements. (2)
(c) (i) Most informal settlements are found on the outskirts of towns and cities.
State two other places where informal settlements can be located. (2)
(ii) Suggest four reasons why many people live in informal settlements. (4)
(d) Describe three problems experienced by the people left in rural areas when
young people migrate to towns and cities. (3)
3. Mention the two main causes of urbanisation. (2)
4. Explain the link between unemployment and underemployment? (2)
5. Compare the formal sectors against informal sectors. (3)

Formal Sectors Informal Sectors

1

59
THEME 5: RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Topic 5.1: Rural Development

Rural Development is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-
being of people living in rural areas.

Describe the traditional societies

Traditional society: Refers to societies that depend on hunting and gathering as well
as cultivation on a small scale for family consumption.

Types of traditional societies

• Hunters and gatherers

Hunted wild animals and gathered wild fruits and vegetables such as the Khoisan
people in Namibia. They moved from one place to another in search of wild animals.

60
• Agriculturalists

- They practiced mixed farming of crops and animals, they settled in one area

• Nomadic pastoralists

- They owned mixture of cattle, goats, camels and sheep. They were nomadic as
they have to search for areas that grazing areas.

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Describe the nature of traditional societies in terms of land use and ownership,
division of labour, and type of tools, seasonal agriculture, social and cultural
activities dependence on the local environment
Factor of Hunter-gatherers Nomadic Agriculturists
production Pastoralists
Land use and  Nobody owned land,  Land was owned  People had
ownership  The natural by the whole traditional tribal
environment was community. rights to land
open to everybody  The chief was
responsible for
allocating land.
 Land was not
sold or bought
Division of  Labour was divided  They were  Men cleared
Labour according to gender, specialist iron land and did the
men hunted animals, smelters and ploughing.
and women hunters  Men built huts
 Women cooked, for shelter.
gathered wild fruits.
cared for sick  Women
and children - collected water
men looked after and fire, and did
cattle. weaving and
 Men took part in
pottery
wars
Capital goods/ • They used simple • They used tools • Irrigation system
types of tools technology. made from was introduced
• Tools were made of metals like hoes, in Egypt like the
stones, bones, wood axes and spears.
use of Shaduf.
• They used bows and • They did
arrows. bartering to
acquire some
tools.
Seasonal • Moved with the • Moved with the • Sometimes
agriculture seasons in search of seasons in moved to search
food and water search of food for better
pastures

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 social and • Small, close-knit • Small, close-knit • Small, close-knit
cultural societies societies societies
activities • Many cultural • Many cultural • Many cultural
tradition, such as tradition, such tradition, such
storytelling and as storytelling as storytelling
dancing around the and dancing
and dancing
campfire around the
campfire around the
campfire
Dependence • Entirely dependent • Dependent on • Entirely
on the local on the environment the environment dependent on
environment for shelter, weapons, for the pastures the environment
food and water and water for for shelter,
their animals, weapons, food
and wild fruits and water
and roots

Changes to traditional farming in pre-colonial times

• Society started to develop more settled agricultural systems
• Animals were domesticated for their meat, milk, hides, and work they could do
• Plants were domesticated for food, fibre (cotton) and medicine
• Started producing enough food for their own consumption
• Their economy was subsistence economy, which means, self- sufficient economy
not needing outside help. (not relying on imported products or produce for export)
• Specialisation and division of labour emerged among families

The impact of colonialism on traditional society

• African farmers were removed by force from their fertile land.
• Land became scarce and food production was a challenge.
• Africans could no longer feed themselves and poverty became common in rural
areas.
• In Namibia the shortage of land forced men to migrate to mines and farms to
search for work as contract labourers.
• Africans were used a cheap labour on plantations owned by whites.
• Africans were made to pay tax in money so that they can work for whites to get
money and pay tax
• Some Africans took the opportunity to grow crops for sale.

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Development of peasant farming and cash cropping
Peasant farming (subsistence) Cash cropping
• Sell some crops after feeding • They produce to sell and make
themselves profit
• Farms are small and labour • Farms are large and capital
intensive intensive
• Work is done by the family • Labour is done by hired workers
• Use animal power • They use chemicals, fertilizers,
• Use simple tools and technology tractors
• Land is owned by family • Use complex technology
• Land may be owned by family or
owned by company

Describe and illustrate examples of commercial farming

 Tools and technology used by commercial farming

Use complex technology and machineries such as tractors and harvesters

Examples of commercial farming

1. Monoculture farming - the growing of a single crop in large quantities every
year.
Advantages of monoculture
• Monoculture farming is easy to cultivate
• Easy to control diseases and pests
Problems of monoculture
• Leads to loss of soil fertility
• Low demand in that one crop may leads to loss of profit
• If there is poor rain, the farmer has no other crops to depend on
• One pest destroys entire crop
• Soil becomes exhausted

2. Plantation farming - Large number of tree crops grown in one area

Examples: Rubber, tea, coffee, fruit, palms

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Advantages
• It encourages Agroforestry
• It conserves the environment
• Local people can get employments
Disadvantages
• Nutrients taken from soil
• Indigenous wildlife driven out
• Farmers earn small portion of retail price of product
• Powerful/ foreign companies make huge profits
• Local people often forced to move away to make space
• Soil erosion in cleared rows between trees

3. Crop rotation - Growing different crops on land in different years

Advantages
• Help farmers prevent pests and diseases
• Helps the soil to return its nutrient/fertility
• Replaces nutrients
• Fallow land is left open to recover
• Some crops ploughed back into soil
• Avoids need for loads of expensive chemical fertiliser

Environmental problems caused by commercial farming

• Pesticides may poison wildlife
• Fertilizers can be washed into rivers, they can kill fish and contaminate water and
cause algae bloom.
• Clearing of land as fields can increase soil erosion by run-off water
• Tractors may cause air pollution as it releases toxic gases in the atmosphere

65
Describe and evaluate selected rural development schemes and strategies used
in Southern Africa, and evaluate the problems involved in their implementation

Rural development schemes and strategies used in Southern Africa

• Agricultural extension services for commercial farms in RSA
• Land redistribution in Zimbabwe
• Willing seller, willing buyer in Namibia
• Swaziland and Malawi bought foreign - owned estates and redistributed to poor
people
• Irrigation schemes set up for farmers along Orange, Kavango, Kunene and
Zambezi

Strategies to develop rural areas (rural development schemes)

1. Loans, Credit schemes and small rural projects

Farmers are given loans at lower interest rates so that they can buy equipment.
Agribank in Namibia is an example of a financial institution that can give loans to
farmers.

How farmers should use loans to improve their farming?

• Buy tractors/ploughs
• Buy fertilisers and better seeds
• Pay workers
• Pay for services bills e.g. water and electricity

Problems with loans and credit schemes

• Difficult to pay back the loan with interests
• Farmers may lose their land if they fail to repay the loan
• Difficult for farmers to be given the loan if they don’t own land

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2. Farmers Co-operatives
Farmers’ co-operative is a group of farmers who join their resources and ideas to
increase their production.

Advantages of a co-operative
• they buy machinery together and share profit

• the government sometimes may supply them with seeds

• It is cheaper for farmers to buy equipment, fertilizers etc. because they buy in
bulk.
• Farmers can share ideas and get advice as a group

3. Resettlement Schemes
People must have access to land for them to produce and develop themselves. People
who do not have land must be given productive land for them to be self-sufficient.

4. Integrated Rural Development

This is an improvement in all areas of rural life to encourage development so that the
general standard of living will improve.

Aims of Integrated Rural Development

• Improving farming
• Providing basic social services

• Reducing dependence on urban economies

• Raising peoples’ standard of living in rural areas.

Integrated Rural Development involves the following:

(a) Land reform

• Redistributing land so that everybody has equal access to it.
• Assisting people who do not have land.
• Allowing women to own land
• Forming farming co-operatives.

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(b) Modernising farming
• Providing extension services
• Introducing credit schemes
• Producing cash crops for the market
• Increase food self-sufficiency

(c) Water resources Management

• Providing clean water
• Helping the villages to construct small dams.

(d) Social services

• Build clinics in rural areas
• Improve primary health care e.g. ante-natal care, immunization programmes.
• Tarred roads to help the producers to reach the markets.
• Telecommunications.

(e) Grassroots development- set up development programmes which start from the
community

Advantages
• Likely to succeed as local community feel that they are part of this project
• Local people identify their own self- help project and the government just assist
them with training
• Such schemes use appropriate technology affordable by local people

Describe and demonstrate the importance of the need to conserve the

environment in rural areas
Environmental conservation helps to:
• Avoids deforestation
• Prevents soil erosion and land degradation
• Prevents ground and water pollution caused by agriculture
• Maintains wildlife diversity

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 • Promotes sustainable development
• Creates employment e.g. protecting wild life, jobs in tourism industry
• People get access to food from community harvesting e.g. meat, fruits

Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by wind/water

Farming methods that can help avoid soil erosion

• Contour farming – planting crops around hills
• Practice crop rotation
• By adding manure to the soil to improve it
• Practice rotational grazing by not keeping animals in one place
• Planting trees/afforestation/reforestation

Land degradation is the damage of the environment (by human activities), leaving it in
a poor condition

Causes of land degradation

• Floods
• Over-cultivation/monoculture
• Drought
• Overgrazing
• Soil erosion
• Deforestation

Why the soil becomes dry and dusty?

• Soil moisture evaporates and the soil is exposed to the sun
• No shade from trees to protect/cover the soil
• Animals walk on the soil and trample it
• Rapid run-off/no water drains into the soil

Why deforestation is a problem locally and globally

• Because deforestation can contribute to global warming

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 • Result in extinction of biodiversity
• It can disrupt the ecosystem
• Lead to soil erosion and soil degradation
• Contribute to increase desertification

How to prevent deforestation/ laws to protect the forest:

• Set up tree planting programmes/A forestation
• Encourage the use alternative energy source e.g. use electrical stoves and solar
energy and use other building materials
• Limit farming and collecting wood for fuel
• Introduce timber cutting licence
• Set up national parks/ national forest
• Educate the population to conserve trees

Environmental problems caused by people as they use resources

 Deforestation – Cutting down trees and bushes
 Water pollution – Contamination of water bodies mostly by sewage and other
pollutants
 Air pollution – When air contains gases, dust, odour fumes
 Loss of animals and plants species – Animals become extinct by hunting and
cutting down of trees
 Global changes to the atmosphere - Increase of greenhouse in the
atmosphere can lead to global warming
 Waste and rubbish disposal/land pollution – Rubbish dumps can spread
diseases/water running off the dumps can pollute water sources.

Describe and evaluate strategies for diversifying resources and community

participation in tourism:

Cultural tourism – Tourism that is concerned about experiencing and learning a

particular culture

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How community participates in tourism
• Through creating community-based campsites/conservancies in many areas
Examples are Sesfontein, Ongongo, Twyfelfontein
• Through exhibition of traditional products and culture

Explain the positive and negative impacts of tourism on people, economy and
environment in Southern Africa
Positive impacts (advantages) Negative impact(disadvantages)

People • Creates employment • Can undermine the culture

opportunities values of the local community
• Generates income for people • Tourism jobs are seasonal and
in local communities insecure with no extra benefits
• It preserves culture • Easy spread of diseases
• Learning new skills • It encourages prostitution and
• Cultural exchange between crime
local people and tourists will
be promoted

Economy • Stimulates foreign exchange • Government money may be

earnings directed to tourist areas instead
• Earns government revenue of using it more effectively in
• Helps diversify the economy other sectors
• Stimulates trade • Can create over-reliance on the
• - Creates growth in the tourism industry
service sector • In LEDCs most of the travel
companies and hotels are
owned by foreign companies

Environment • Ecotourism conserves the • It causes environmental

natural environment damage
• Cultural tourism conserve the • It can lead to loss of natural
human made environment landscapes, forest and swamp
• Promote the conservation of • Tourism increases pollution
national heritage (land and air)
• Increase pressure on
infrastructures like roads,
electricity.

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 Assessment questions for theme 5

1. Study Fig.1, which show a photograph of a traditional society.

Fig.1
(a) (i) What is meant by rural development. [2]
(ii) Identify the type of traditional society shown in Fig.1 [1]
(iii) State two other types of traditional societies. [2]
(iv) Suggest the type of tools used the traditional societies mentioned in (a) ii [1]

(b) Study Fig. 2, a photograph which shows a farm.

Fig. 2
(i) State the type of technology used in the photograph. [1]
(ii) The farm shown in Fig 2, is a commercial farm. Suggest four ways in which
subsistence farms (peasant farms) are likely to differ from the farm shown in Fig. 2. [4]

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2. (a) Study Figure 3, an extract about aquaculture in Zambezi.

Fig. 3
(i) With reference to Fig. 3, identify three reasons why the government want to develop
rural areas. [3]
(b) State three ways in which the farm could be financed. [3]
(c) Suggest three other small projects which can help people to earn a living in rural
areas. [3]
(d) Suggest reasons why some rural development schemes do not succeed.
[3]
3. (a) Define deforestation. [1]
(b) Give or outline two (2) positive effects of tourism on rural community. [2]
(c) Give outline three (3) negative effects of tourism on rural community [3]

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THEME 6: WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT
Topic 6.1: Women in traditional and pre-colonial societies

Discuss the roles of women in traditional societies: in reference to labour, food

production, farming, and family welfare

What is meant by women work double a day?

Means women can do paid jobs outside their home like teaching, nursing, but still do
most of the domestic chores at home.

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Discuss the impact of culture on the women’s position in the society
• Women could not inherit or own land
• A married woman could not own any possessions, automatically became the
property of her husband
• Women could not claim equality with men.
• Women were not allowed to light the ‘Holy Fire’ in cultures where it was central to
beliefs.
• Girls were not allowed to sit at the same fire as the head of the household.

Assess the impact of colonialism on the position of women in society

• Few girls attended school compared to boys, so majority of the women remained
illiterate.
• Men migrated to work in European farms and mines which left women with a lot
of responsibilities.
• Women were denied the right to own land, as a result they were unable to borrow
money to improve their farms.
• Agricultural training and assistance to improve cash crop mostly were directed to
men
• Many women employed as nannies and house-keepers, wages usually low

Ways to improve the position of women in society

• Educate women about their rights and family planning
• Give agricultural advice to women to improve their farming techniques
• Encourage women to take up jobs outside their home by introducing crèches/day
care centres to take care of children
• Give women rights to own land
• Give women low interest loans to start small business
• Government to come up with policies and laws to stop gender discrimination
• Allow women to vote and be voted to be representatives in parliament

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Ways in which educating women benefits a country
• Educated mothers encourage and help their children with their education
• They earn more money to support their children to stay long in schools and get a
better education
• They are likely to practice family planning leading to a healthier family and low
infant mortality
• Reduce the number of unemployment in the country and increase government
income through tax payment
• They are aware of their rights
• When more women are educated, it leads to a high skilled work force in a
country

Topic 6.2: The role of women in modern society

Define gender equality - Refers to fair/equal treatment of men and women

Gender discrimination - Treating women differently to men

Discuss issues related to emerging roles of women

Emerging roles of women:

In the informal sector:
 Domestic work
 Street trading
 Hairdressing

In the formal sector:

 Teaching
 Nursing
 Secretary etc.

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Issues related to emerging roles of women
 Affirmative Action promotes employment of women
 The constitution underlies all gender equality policies to prohibit discrimination
based on gender
 There are several organisations that are involved in women-oriented schemes
that support women in different ways. E.g Women’s Action for Development
(WAD), United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), Sister Namibia
 Many female - headed households do not own agricultural assets such as
livestock, struggle to get funds to feed and provide for their families. Many
women raise children alone and work full-time

Assess the role played by women in politics of Namibia

Roles of women during liberation struggles and independence movements:
• Women provided food
• Fought along men in battles were they were arrested, killed, raped and tortured.
• Served as nurses
Roles of women in national development:
• Women are members of the parliament (ministers, prime ministers and vice
presidents)
• They are business owners and shareholders
• They are in senior, decision making positions (like managers)

Women’s organizations aims to:

• Fight discrimination against women
• Raise women’s status
• Fight unemployment
• Fight for equality before the law
• Fight for equal political rights
• Fight for fair and equal distribution of wealth and business opportunities

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Formal equality versus factual inequality
• Although laws state that men and women are equal, in reality, women still suffer
inequalities, discrimination and lack of opportunities.
• Even when women are more educated, most companies hire men for top
positions.

Formal equality - refers to a situation where by laws are made to raise the status of
women in the society. The status of a woman is just raised on paper but not in reality

Factual inequality - refers to the real suffering and discrimination suffered by women
even though there are laws that are supposed to prevent discrimination.

Promotion of women’s rights

Governments, NGOs have introduced policies that promote women’s rights and
discourage gender based violence.

Describe and evaluate the importance of women in development and their

participation in development projects in Namibia
 There are schemes to provide basic training such as hygiene, nutrition, family
planning, child development and care, HIV and AIDS awareness
 There are projects aimed at equipping women with the finance and resources to
initiate various projects
 There are saving clubs, in which women pool their financial resources to buy
equipment needed to start small businesses
 There are social-political empowerment programmes that focus on the promotion
of women’s right to improve quality of life

Examples of women’s schemes in the programmes of aid agencies

• Lobbyist groups: Push lawmakers, NGOs and governments to change laws and
policies so that they are fair for women.

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 • Educational Groups: Educate women on issues affecting them like HIV/AIDS and
employment.
• Legal groups: Fight for women’s rights, laws and other issues.
• Welfare groups: Concerned with disadvantaged women’s welfare.

International agencies that assist women in Southern Africa:

• CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency): Assist with funds and
development schemes.
• USAID (United States Agency for International Development): Assist women in
their development projects.
• SIDA (Swedish International Development Authority): Have a fund made
specifically for women.

United Nations agencies aimed at women’s development:

• FAO: Food and Agricultural organization
• UNICEF: United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
• WHO: World Health Organization
• WFP: World Food Programme

Discuss factors that lead to gender based violence (GBV) and baby dumping in
Namibia

Gender based violence (GBV) refers to violence that is directed towards women
because of their gender

Factors that lead to GBV

• Many boys are raised with the traditional belief that women are inferior and must
obey men.
• When some men encounter women who speak out or who refuse to obey them
they respond with violence.
• Many boys exposed to violence in the home - have no other way of dealing with
conflict.

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 • Many women have become independent - frustrate men who wish to dominate
• Abuse of alcohol often fuels violence against women.

How to dealing with GBV?

• Very strict law enforcement
• Specialised police units to deal with cases
• Places of shelter for abused partners
• Education about equality and rights
• Education about resolving conflict

Baby dumping -The act of throwing away unwanted babies by mothers

Factors that lead to baby dumping

• Usually unplanned pregnancies
• Mothers have no support structure – family
• Mothers cannot afford to raise child
• Mothers shamed by pregnancy outside marriage
• Fathers unwilling to take responsibility

Suggest possible solutions to address GBV and baby dumping

Solution to address GBV

 Counseling
 Promote religious and moral education
 Strict legal action against perpetrators/heavy sentences
 Promote GBV awareness education
 Promote education about equality and rights

Solution to address GBV

• Prevention of unplanned pregnancies through
- Sex education and access to birth control
- Protection of vulnerable girls

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 • Counselling for expectant women
• Adoption alternatives
• Safe havens for unwanted babies
• Greater tolerance for pregnancy outside marriage
• More responsibility from fathers

Assessment questions for topic 6.1 & 6.2

1. (a) Study Figure 4 and answer the following questions

i. Identify the job the women are doing in the source. [1]
ii. In traditional societies men and women have different roles. Describe two roles
(other than these in Fig. 4) of women in a traditional society. [2]
iii. Describe three effects of colonialism on women. [3]
iv. Explain three ways to improve the position of women in traditional societies. [3]
v. Women often do three different kinds of work in a modern society. These are:
family work, paid work, and community work. Give one example of each of these
types of work. [3]
vi. Give three ways in which educating women benefits a country. [3]

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 2. Study the article on gender strategy.
GENDER STRATEGY FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NAMIBIA
Women and men in Namibia
Women constitute 51% of the population in Namibia. Approximately 35% of
the population live in urban areas with the remaining 65% living in rural areas.
While gender equality is represented in the Constitution which takes priority to
Customary and Common law practices, the daily lives of the vast majority of
women continue to be determined by Customary law. This relegates women
to being minors most of their lives; under their fathers, husbands, sons or male
relatives. Women own only a tiny fraction of land and property and widows are
often disinherited of family property.

n Namibia, unlike many other African countries, more girls access primary and
secondary education than boys but more young men receive tertiary education
than young women. There is a high dropout rate of young women from
secondary education as a result of teenage pregnancies.

Men generally go into the more technical and better paid professions while
women predominate in care-related work such as domestic work, nursing and
teaching.

(a) (i) What is meant by gender? [1]

(ii) In Namibia, 51% of the population are women. What percentage of the population
are men? [1]
(b) State three reasons why many girls drop out of secondary schools [3]
(c) (i) Explain why most women are likely to be employed in the informal sector. [2]
(ii) State two jobs in the formal sector that are regarded as women’s work. [2]
(d) (i) Explain why men and women should be treated equally. [3]
(ii) Describe three advantages of having educated mothers. [3]

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3. (a) Study Fig. below which is about the empowerment of women.

Throughout the developing world, women are the primary caregivers

for their families. They collect cooking fuel and water. They prepare
and serve meals, ensuring that their families’ daily food requirements
are met. Despite this critical role that women play in food security, rural
women are systematically denied the resources, information and
freedom of action to fulfil this responsibility.
Yet, we know that when women are empowered, their families are
healthier, more children go to school, agricultural productivity improves
and income increases. Our programs support women and build their
capacity as leaders and key agents. After participating in Hunger
Project programs, women throughout Africa, South Asia and Latin
America are improving education, health and livelihoods in their
communities.
[1]
(i) What is meant by the empowerment of women?
(ii) Identify from the Figure two roles that women are responsible for. [2]

(iii) Explain in your own words what is meant by “rural women are systematically
denied the resources, information and freedom of action to fulfil this responsibility” [1]
(iv) How did the Hunger Project benefit women in different continents? [2]

(v) Suggest three ways in which women can be integrated into Namibia’s
development programs [3]

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(b) Study Fig.3 which is about a day in the life of a typical Namibian rural woman.
The double day
Women involved in agricultural activities, fetching water and fuel wood are often faced
with a double day’s labor. The day of a rural woman usually starts before dawn.
The daylight hours spent out in the fields, tilling the land or collecting resources.
When night comes the hours are taken up by preparing meals, a number of domestic
chores and looking after the family. Urban women are often in the same situation. They
may work in a formal job for the same number of hours as their husbands do, but return
home in the evenings to do the majority of household and child-related tasks.

A day in the life of a typical Namibian rural woman

05:00 - 05:30
05:30 - 15:00
22:00 - 05:00

20:30 - 22:00

15:00 - 16:30

18:30 - 20:30 17:30 - 18:30 16:30 - 17:30

Fig. 3
(i) Explain in your own words what is meant by double day. [1]

(ii) According to Fig. 3 how many hours per day are allocated for rest in the working day
of a typical rural women [1]

(iii) Compare the type of work done by rural and urban women. [4]

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(c) Study Photograph C which shows a group of women holding a banner which
shows an extract from the Namibian Women’s Manifesto on discrimination against
women.

Photograph C

(i) What is meant by discrimination? [1]

(ii) Which document protects women against discrimination?

[1]

(iii) Suggest three ways to stop discrimination against women. [3]

85
THEME 7: POPULATION, HEALTH AND EDUCATION

Topic 7.1: Population

Define the term population density and distribution
Population – the total number of people living in a particular area at a given time
Population distribution – describes how the population is spread over a certain area

Population Density - Is the average number of people living in any given area per km2
- is calculated by dividing the country’s population by the area
- Population Density = pop ÷ Area (km2)

NB:
Densely populated: Too many people per square kilometer
Sparsely populated: Very few people per square per kilometer

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Describe and explain the distribution of population in the world and regions in
Southern Africa: with reference to physical factors such as climate, and relief and
economic, social and political factors

Physical factors Economic factors Social factors Political factors

Climate-if the area is - job opportunities - protection of - absence of war/
too dry or too cold, it attract more people women political stability
will discourage
encourages people to
people from living
- proper - absence of crime live in an area.
there.
infrastructure like encourages people to - protection of human
roads, electricity live in an area rights and freedoms
Relief- an area that is
attract more people
gentle is likely to attract more people
attract many people - government
policies e.g land
Soil fertility- an area resettlement
that is infertile will
have few people
compared to an area
with fertile soil.

Availability of water
area with limited
water has few people

Describe and explain trends in population growth in countries at different levels

of economic development.
 There is a rapid population growth in LEDCs
 There is a slight population growth in MEDCs

Population growth – is the change in population numbers

Population growth rate – is the speed at which the population is increasing/growing
Pop. Growth rate = Total population increase ÷ Total population × 100

(See examples on how to calculate pop. Growth rates in Discovering textbook)

87
Crude birth rate – is the number of babies born live each year per 1000 people in the
country.
For example: a birth rate of 35 means that for every 1000 people in the country, 35
babies were born that year.

Crude death rate (Mortality rate) – is the number of people out of every 1000 in the
country who die each year.
For example: a death rate of 15 means that out of every 1000 people in a country
(children and adults) 15 died that year.

Natural Increase – is the difference between birth rate and death rate
Birth rate minus death rate
- The rate of NI tells us how much the population grows in a year.

Fertility rate – The average number of children born to a woman of child bearing age
Life Expectancy – The average number of years a person is expected to live.

Population Explosion - Refers to the rapid population increase

Reasons for population explosion

 Improved farming methods and food supply
 Improved health conditions
 High birth rates and low death rates
 Reduced infant mortality
 Greater life expectancy
 Work opportunities/industrialization

Demographic Transition Model

Demographic - concerning population
Transition – change

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What is the DTM?
It is a graph that describes population changes by looking at birth rates and death rates
over time

Late expanding Low fluctuating

3 4

“3

Stage 1 (High stationery/Fluctuating)

High birth rate due to:
• Shortage of contraceptives,
• Need of children for labor,
• Cultural beliefs in having a big number of children.

High death rate due:

• To diseases, poor food supplies
• Poor hygiene and sanitation.
• Very slow population growth rate

Stage 2 (Early Expanding)

- Birth rate still high while the death rate is decreasing due to improved health
care, sanitation, balanced diet.
- Natural increase is very high in Stage 2.

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Stage 3 (Late Expanding)
- Birth Rate starts to fall due to birth control, increased desire for wealth, women
follow careers and marry later in life. The rate of population growth decreases.

Stage 4 (Low Stationery/Fluctuating)

• Both the birth rate and death rate is low.
• Population growth rate is low.

What is overpopulation?
 When the number of people exceeds the carrying capacity of the earth, or
 When the population is more than the available resources

Causes of overpopulation
 Increased birth rates
 A decline in death rates
 Increased immigration and decreased emigration
 A depletion in resources

NB/ Even areas that are sparsely populated may be overpopulated if the environment is
not capable of satisfying human life.

How to determine whether a particular environment is overpopulated or not.

Consider the availability of basic resources like clean water, clean air, food, shelter etc if
there are enough to sustain people living there.

Effects of overpopulation:
On the environment
 Increase pressure on fresh water supply
 A depletion of natural resources
 Increased levels of pollution (water, soil, land)
 Deforestation and loss of ecosystem

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  Global warming
 Loss of fertile land/soil erosion and increases in desertification
 Mass species extinction

On the population
 Increased poverty
 Unhygienic living conditions
 Increased crime levels
 Conflict over scarce resource
 Increase pressure on services e.g. water supply, electricity

Discuss ways to control population growth: examples of national population

policies to reduce growth rate (e.g. China) and increase growth rates (e.g.
Singapore)

Attempts to control Population Growth (National Policies)

(a) Reducing Growth Rate e.g China

One-child per couple policy
 Legalise abortion
 Incentives / benefits to people who stick to the policy:
- additional maternity leave
- increased land for farmers
- free education to the child
- better housing subsidies
- better and free food provision
 Provision of contraception
 Education on dangers of overpopulation
 Marriage at a later stage
 People who could not keep to this policy were punished. For example, after
giving birth to the second child the parents had to be sterilized or were forced to
terminate their unapproved pregnancies. Other penalties included:

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 - Fines
- Loss of land grant
- Loss of free education and food
- Loss of loans
(b) Increasing Growth Rates e.g. Singapore
 incentives to those who produce more
 ban the use of contraceptives
 ban abortion
 religious beliefs encouraging more children
 government policies to have more children
 tradition that sees children as a sign of wealth

Other national population policies:

 family planning
 immigration policies

Arguments for and against the need to have National Population Policies

Arguments for:
• To conserve the natural resources
• Slower population growth than the development of the resources means people
will have a bigger share of wealth
- This can lead to a reduction in poverty, as fewer children implies higher standard
of living

Arguments against:
• It may have a serious effect on the education because there will be a decreasing
number of Grade 1 children entering school
• Rural schools may close down because of low enrolment levels due to rural-
urban migration
• Human rights are restricted and moral values may deteriorate as women may
choose or be forced to have abortions.

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Describe how population data can be used for economic and social purposes and
give Namibian examples

Uses/importance of population data

 For comparisons with the country in the past or with other countries
 Help to know the rate of births, deaths and migration
 It helps determine how to use the scarce resources/ plan for emergencies
 It helps businesses and individuals make investment decisions
 For planning and policy making/ budgeting
 To provide services according to the needs of the population/country

Economic uses:
 To find out the employment rate and labour force
 To see which sector employs most people

Social uses:
 To know how many people live below the poverty line
 To know the population growth rate
 To know the literacy rate
 To know the population that has access to improved drinking water and
sanitation

Discuss the concept of population pyramids with reference to population

structure of developed and developing countries

Population pyramids

Definition: Are diagrams which show the information on age and sex structure of the
population.

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There are three major age groups of the population shown on the population
pyramid

 Young people/ children (0-14 years) – too young to work and depend on the
working group
 Adults (15-64 years) – this is the working population/workforce/economically
active age group
 Old people/age (65+ years) – they no longer work and depend on the working
population

NB: The young and old people are called the dependents

How to calculate Dependency Ratio

Dependency Ratio = Young + Old × 100
Adults

What do population pyramids show?

 They show the total population divided into age groups
 They show the percentages of people in each age group
 They show the percentages of males and females in each age group

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  They show birth and death rates, infant mortality rate and life expectancy
 They show the proportion of elderly and young dependents on the working age

Why is it important to show the information of a country’s population on a

pyramid?
 To know the proportions of children, adults of a working age and elderly people
 It helps to plan health care, literacy, housing and other programmes.

Population structure of developing and developed countries

LEDC

Characteristics of LEDC

 wide/broad base due to high birth rates - many young people

 narrow middle part due to high death rates - decreasing number of working age
 narrow top showing low life expectancy - less number of old people
 Amount of people decreases as the ages go up indicating a lower standard of
living

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 MEDC

Characteristics of MEDC
 Narrow base due to low birth rates - fewer young people
 Wide/broad middle part due to low death rates - large number of working age
 Wide/broad top due high life expectancy - large number of old people
 Amount of people increases as the ages go up indicating a high standard of living

Assess the impacts of HIV and AIDS on population of Namibia

HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HIV is a virus that weakens the body’s immune system

AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

AIDS is a disease that kills people

 Because of AIDS the life expectancy of the Namibian people has decreased from
61 years in 1991 to 42 years in 2004
 The majority of deaths are among the age groups 25 – 45. This group contains
the most economically active population
 The pyramid also shows the absence of children that would have been born to
the women who died of AIDS in these age groups

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The impact of HIV/AIDS on the economy of the country
 It kills many of the economically active people in the country (shortage of labour)
 Reduces the market for products
 Government must spend money to pay for health care of those infected/buy
expensive ARVs
 Money needed to care for orphans

Measures to reduce HIV/AIDS prevalence

 Increase HIV/AIDS awareness campaigns all over the country

 AIDS should form part of the secondary school curriculum
 Distribution of free condoms/femidoms
 Abstain from sex/be faithful to one partner
 Free testing and counseling should be strengthened and be available in all
corners of the country.

Assessment Questions for topic 7.1

1. (a) What is meant by overpopulation? [1]

(b) What is the other term for population growth rate? [1]

(c) If in 2000 the total population is 7 570 million in the world, and it is predicted that by
the year 2035 the population will be 15 850 million. What is the population growth rate?
[2]

(d) List two socio-economic factors that influence population distribution. [2]

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 2. The Fig.1 below shows a population pyramid.

Fig.1
What are population pyramids? [1]

3. Study the figure below that shows the structure of Namibian government

Fig.2
(a) (i) What is the figure, Fig.2 above called? [1]

(ii) What does this Fig.2 shows? [1]

(iii) What is meant by birth rate? [1]

(iv) Describe what happens to the death rate in stage 2. Suggest reasons for the
change. [3]

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(v) Describe the structure of the population of a country in stage 2 of the Fig.2 above.
[3]

(b) Describe two effects of a high population growth rate on the environment. [2]

(c) Itemise four areas that government could improve to help people to have smaller
families [4]

(d) National population policies are meant to slow down population growth rate. Two
nations were mentioned in studies on this regard. Which nation has tried to reduce its
population growth rate and have failed, and what nation has actually reduced its
population and is unable to increase its population without considering immigration.

Tried but failed: [1]

Unable to Increase without immigration: [1]

Topic 7.2: Health

Definition
Health - refers to the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being of a
person

Describe and analyse the main factors which determine good health and life
expectancy.

1. Clean water supply:

Clean water is essential for:
• Raising crops and livestock
• For drinking and cooking
• Washing and keeping the body, clothes clean
• Supporting economic development

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Lack of clean water can cause water-borne diseases like;
• Diarrhoea and dysentery caused by bacteria in polluted water
• Malaria as a result of mosquitoes breeding in stagnant water
• Bilharzia caused by parasite (small animal that lives on another animal)
• River blindness caused by tiny worms

2. Hygiene and sanitation

Hygiene – the practice of keeping yourself, your living and working areas clean to
prevent diseases

Sanitation - systems that keep places clean, especially by removing human waste
The rules of hygiene/How to be hygienic
• Wash your body every day and keep hands clean
• Wash clothes and dishes with clean water
• Cover food and keep it away from flies
• Have good toilet system
• Drinking water must be purified or boiled

3. A nutritionally adequate diet

Nutrition – the process of receiving food necessary for the body to grow and be
healthy.

Diet – the food that people/living things eat

A balanced diet is a diet that provides the body with all the nutrients it needs.
A balance diet helps fight diseases, a lack of a balanced diet leads people to suffer from
nutritional deficiency diseases such as Kwashiorkor or rickets.

A balanced diet contains the following nutrients:

Proteins - For body growth/repair tissue
- proteins are found in meat, eggs, milk, cheese, beans, rice, wheat and maize

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Carbohydrates – provide the main sources of energy for the body
-They are found in maize, rice, potatoes, wheat, beans and peas.

Fats – These provide energy to the body

-They are contained in cereals, beans and ground nuts, meat, milk, butter,
margarine.

Vitamins and minerals

– help provide healthy skin and bones and general good health.
-They are contained in vegetables and fruits such as Cabbages, oranges, apples

Malnutrition - is when the body lacks proper nutrition/ eating a diet that does not have
enough nutrients.

4. Freedom from Diseases

Diseases are the main cause of ill-health in the world. Diseases make people to be
weak (fatigue) which may cause death.

Terminology to describe diseases

Epidemic – disease that is widely spread
Pandemic – a disease which spread throughout the world e.g. HIV/AIDS, COVID-19
Endemic – when a disease is always present in a country e.g. malaria

Diseases can be divided into three different groups

• Contagious or infectious diseases (it spreads from person to person) e.g. TB,
HIV and AIDS, Cholera, influenza
• Non-contagious or non-infectious (arise from other causes) e.g. cancer heart
attack, lung cancer, Kidney failure, Diabetes
• Disease spread by animals or insects e.g. malaria, bilharzias etc.

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Ways to prevent certain diseases
 By immunization
 Inoculations
 Vaccinations

The main preventable diseases are:

 Measles
 Mumps
 Tetanus
 Polio
 Diarrhoea
 Tuberculosis (TB)
 Whooping cough

5. Poverty (the state of being poor). Poverty is the main cause of poor health

Poverty affects the health of people in the following ways:

• Poor people will have unhygienic houses/poor sanitation
• No access to clean water
• Not enough land to produce food
• Poor people can’t afford to pay for proper medical care
• Poor people cannot afford to buy food that has a balanced diet.

6. Stress – is a state of constant worry caused by problems in one’s life. Poverty is one
of the main causes of stress

Factors that cause/lead to stress

• Lack of money or land to provide enough food
• Poor housing
• Unemployment
• Lack of medical care
• Lack of fresh water

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Stress can further lead to health problems such as
 Depression and mental problems
 Alcoholism and drug abuse
 Family and social problems
These problems, in turn, can lead to poor health/ ill-health.

Describe and evaluate examples of health programmes in Namibia

Examples of health programmes in Namibia

 Primary health care – is a package of measures taken to prevent ill-health and

promote good health
Primary health care measures include:
a. Hygiene and sanitation
b. Education
c. Nutrition and immunization

These are important measures for development because unhealthy people cannot
contribute significantly to the national economy.

What are the main objectives of primary health care programmes in Namibia?
a. Prevent ill-health and premature death
b. Maintain and improve quality of life
c. Treat diseases, injuries and other forms of ill-health
d. Reduce socially unhealthy behaviour

 The training of medical auxiliaries – refers to workers who give help or support to
the main group of workers.
These local people are trained to teach families about diseases and healthy living, to
treat common problems e.g. midwives, counsellors.

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 Building of hospitals and training doctors
The Namibian government is trying to minimize the distance people travel to clinics and
hospitals by:
- Building new facilities
- Uses the Red Cross mobile clinic to travel to poor areas.
- The government also sends students to be trained as doctors at universities
e.g. in South Africa or overseas countries
- Nurses colleges are in place to train more nurses

 Provision of clean water supplies

As part of a development program, access to clean water is being improved

 Community health programmes

- Aim to help people in community to prevent and solve their own health problems
Example of the community programme is “the Control of Diarrhoeal disease (CDD)” -
to promote prevention and cure in community.

Prevention – is the act of taking precautions to stop diseases from occurring

Cure – to make an illness go away/deal with the problem (illness) successfully

 Immunisation
Programme aimed to prevent or protect the body from diseases especially by injection.

Discuss the impact of HIV and AIDS on Namibia and other SADC countries’
economic development and how the health system is addressing the HIV and
AIDS pandemic in Namibia

The impacts of HIV/AIDS on Namibia and other SADC countries’ economy

 A large proportion of the budget is diverted to increasing orphan support
 There is a need for free medical supplies and doctors

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  Loss of skilled labour force, call for replacement with foreign experts/new
trainees
 More money is spent on campaigns to prevent HIV/provide free condoms

The government projects to address the HIV and AIDS problem in Namibia;
 School health educational programmes, e.g. My Future Is My Choice
 AIDS awareness clubs to alert young people of the dangers of AIDS
 Free distribution of the anti-retroviral (ARV) drugs to prevent new-born babies
contracting AIDS
 Free distribution of condoms to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS
 TV/newspaper advertisements on AIDS
 National HIV testing day to encourage people to know their status and start
treatment on time.

How to support people living with HIV?

• Ensure they follow a balanced diet
• Take care of their hygiene
• Let them take regular exercise
• Let them take medicine regularly
• Give them psychological help
• Advise them not to smoke, take alcohol or do unprotected sex

Measures to reduce HIV/Aids prevalence

 Increase AIDS/ HIV Awareness Campaigns all over the country
 Aids should form part of the secondary school curriculum
 Distribution of free condoms/femidoms
 Free Testing (New Start Centers)
 Abstain from sex
 Counseling and Anti-retroviral drugs must be accessible and be made available
in all corners of the country.

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 Assessment questions for topic 7.2
1. (a) Study Figure below, which is about maternal deaths in developed and developing
countries. Every year about 500,000 women in the world die from pregnancy
complications. The majority of these deaths occur in developing countries, including
Namibia.
In developed countries only 2 to 9 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births
are recorded, but in developing countries the figures range from 300 to
2,000 or more per 100,000 live births. In Mali, for instance, 2,000 maternal
deaths are recorded for every 100,000 live births. In Somalia it is 1,100 and
in Zaire 800. In Asia and the Pacific countries the highest figures were in
Nepal which recorded 1,500 maternal deaths and in Yemen 1,000. In
Namibia 225 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births occur each year. In
some remote areas this figure goes up to 400. While Namibian figures
could be said to be low compared to other African countries like Angola,
Mali, Somalia, Chad, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Nigeria, Senegal and Zaire
whose figures are above the 500s, the numbers are still alarming.
Pregnancies are the number one health risk for women.

(i) In which type of country do women have the greatest number of maternal
deaths? [1]
(ii) What is the world total number of women who die every year because of
complications during pregnancy? [1]
(iii) Compare the maternal deaths between developed and developing countries,
using the data shown in Fig above. [2]
(iv) Suggest three reasons for the differences in maternal deaths that you described
in (iii) [3]

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 (b) Study the Figure below, which is about child mortality.

Namibia child mortality on the rise

Many more children than those who die as a result of HIV-AIDS die due to
preventable childhood illnesses and conditions, such as malaria, diarrhea,
pneumonia and malnutrition.

The government’s use of anti-retroviral treatment since 2004 is a positive

development in terms of expanding and improving the quality of life of HIV
positive people.

There is concern, however, that health programs and available funds have
focused on providing treatment for the epidemic at the expense of preventing
normal childhood illnesses and enhancing maternal health services.

(i) Explain in your own words what is meant by child mortality on the rise [1]
(ii) With reference to the figure identify two causes of death for children in
Namibia. [2]
(iii) What treatment can be used to improve the quality of life of people who are HIV
positive? [1]
(iv) Describe two government projects which could be used to help stop the spread
of HIV-AIDS. [2]
(v) Disease is just one of the factors that can affect the health of people. Suggest two
other factors that can be the cause of ill-health. [2]

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Topic 7.3: Education

Definition
Education is the process of acquiring and transferring of knowledge, skills and level of
intellectual maturity.

Define traditional and modern education systems

Traditional education
The type of education where traditional values and beliefs are passed from one
generation to the next.

Features/characteristics of Traditional Education

 It involves learning about culture, values and beliefs of a society.
 It prepares children how to become adults and matured people.
 Learning about culture, values and believes
 Family and gender- based
 Taught through stories, poetry, songs, dancing, ceremonies and rituals
 Girls learn to do washing, cooking/boys learn about cattle and crops
 Girls and boys are taught separately.

Advantages and disadvantages of traditional education

Advantages Disadvantages
• Preserves society’s values and • Boys and girls are expected to learn
customs skills based on gender and not on
abilities
• Prepares children for responsible • Not taught to adapt to change or solve
adulthood problems but to stick to tradition
• Children feel they belong to the • Traditional education is not systematic
community
• Children learn to be proud of their • No significant contribution to
culture economic development

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Modern education
The education received in classes whereby learners are taught how to read and write
with understanding.

Features/characteristics of Modern Education

 Focus is on literacy and numeracy
 Requires buildings, special equipment, and trained teachers
 Getting certificate / qualification after completion
 Vital for economic, social and political development
 Divided into formal and non-formal educations
 Takes place in schools and training institutions

Advantages and disadvantages of modern education

Advantages Disadvantages
• Educated women are in a better • Curriculum may be based on
position to raise healthy children, former colonizers and not on the
infant mortality rate is reduced. needs of the country
• Education reduces poverty as • Expensive to run
educated people can get a job and
earn money.
• It helps create skilled and trained • There might be a lack of qualified
population. teachers.
• Education contributes to human • Lack of resources like school
resource development. buildings, books etc.
• Content of subjects sometimes is
based on overseas syllabus

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Distinguish between formal, informal and non-formal education systems

Formal education - is the education system that is school/classroom-based where

education is provided by trained teachers following a formal curriculum

Informal education – is the process in which an individual acquires attitudes, values,

skills and knowledge from daily experience and their environment

Non-formal education – is any organized educational activity outside the established

formal system

Three phases or categories of formal education

(a) Primary education

• Grades 1-7
• Reading and writing (Literacy)
• Mathematics (Numeracy) Basic arithmetic

(b) Secondary education (high schools)

• Grades 8-12
• Qualification to enter job market or go for further studies

(c) Tertiary education

• Universities, Technikons and colleges
• Essential for development to train doctors, engineers, teachers, nurses, e.g.
UNAM, NUST

Advantages of formal education

 Learning programmes are well structured
 Institutions are conducive to teaching and learning
 Learners learn to accept other people’s cultures

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Non-formal education
Examples/types of non-formal education:
 Literacy programmes
 Distance learning/education
 Non-contact learning of NAMCOL
 Health education
 Agriculture education
 In-service training

Advantages of non-formal education

 Flexible, you can work and study at the same time
 People who missed school like parents who got married early can have an
opportunity to study.
 Less costly
 Done in shorter periods to complete the course

Disadvantages of non-formal education

 Working and studying might be difficult to some people
 Studying alone is difficult sometimes because you need a lecturer or teacher to
explain some difficult topics.
 Limited interaction with other students.
 Some people tend to give their assignments to other people and answer for
them, real learning does not take place in that regard.

Vocational & Technical Education

Vocational training- is education/training that is practical based to enable people to

acquire skills necessary for a specific job e.g. plumbers, electricians, bookkeepers,
bricklayers, administrators etc

Technical training or education – is education that is more theoretical and allows

people to acquire technical skills that are used in the mining, agriculture, health,
fisheries and manufacturing sectors etc.

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 Interpret and analyse data for measuring a country’s education provision
Educational indicators
 Literacy rate
 Primary & secondary school enrolment,
 Number of students attending tertiary institutions

A table showing education levels of countries A and B

Education indicator Country A Country

B
Adult literacy rate 98% 60%
School enrolment 99% 75%
Tertiary enrolment 81% 55%

Country A has a higher education level than country B, thus country A is more
developed than country B.

The difference between:

Literacy-the ability to read and write
Literacy rate-the percentage of people who can read and write
Illiteracy – the inability to read and write
Illiteracy rate – the percentage/average number of people who cannot read and write

Why literacy programs are important?

 To provide skilled labour/get better jobs
 Helps people to understand technology
 Literate people can make informed political decisions
 Literate population can help improve the health of the nation as they know about
better hygiene or improved diet
 A literate population has a smaller families and cut down the growth of the
population

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Why is it important for both girls and boys to be educated in a country?
 Educated women and men can understand the importance of good hygiene and
disease prevention
 Educated women cannot become dependent on men
 Both gender will have knowledge of family planning
 This allows equal job opportunities
 It can avoid discrimination

Why many children drop out/do not attend school in developing countries
 Lack of money to pay for school fees and stationeries
 Shortage of qualified teachers with experience
 Lack of school buildings and classrooms/long distance from school
 Due to early marriage and pregnancy
 To help their family with household and farming activities

How to improve adult’s education in developing countries e.g. Namibia

 Introduce literacy programmes
 Introduce distance education
 In-service training
 Health education
 Agricultural education
 Vocational and technical education

The importance of offering different types of education

 In order to have a variety of skills in the country
 To keep the services and industries running efficiently
 To provide education for those who missed it/cannot afford certain type
 To use everyone’s talent in the country
 Promote moral values as well as skills

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Assess the impacts of Information Communication and Technology (ICT) on
education development in Namibia

The role of technology in education

Examples of technology used in education

 Videos, internet, televisions, interactive radio, cellphones and printing media

Aims and goals of using ICT in education /benefits of using ICT in Education
 Broadens access to quality education
 Provides teachers with a wide range of teaching resources/information
 Creates greater enthusiasm for learning
 Improves efficiency in educational administration(e.g. keeping records and writing
report cards)

Explain how education addresses HIV and AIDS

 Education can allow us to obtain more and accurate information about AIDS.
 We can learn skills and knowledge on how to take care of ourselves against
HIV/AIDS.
 Making information about HIV/AIDS available to learners, teachers and workers
that will lead to change in behavior.
 Education provides techniques for those already infected to cope with disease
and discourage stigmatization.

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 Assessment questions for topic 7.3

1. (a) Study the extract about one type of education.

Traditional education
• Children are educated to take their place in the traditional society.
• Children learn by doing.
• This education preserves values and customs.

(i) Explain how traditional education preserves values and customs. [1]
(ii) Explain how traditional education differs from formal education. [4]

(b) Study the extract about literacy

INTERNATIONAL LITERACY DATA in 2013
Literacy rates are rising, but women and girls continue to lag behind.
According to new data, literacy rates for adults and youth continue to rise. Young
women aged 15-24 are making the strongest gains, but still lag behind young
men. In 2011, 87% of female youth had basic literacy skills, compared to 92% of
males. Overall, more than half of countries with data have youth literacy rates
of 95% or higher.

Despite these gains, 774 million adults (15 years and older) still cannot read or
write and approximately two thirds of them (493 million) are women. Among
youth, 123 million are illiterate of which 76 million are female. Even though the
size of the global illiterate population is shrinking, the female proportion has
remained steady at 63% to 64%.

(i) What is meant by literacy rate? [1]

(ii) Calculate the difference in the percentages of males and females with literacy skills
in 2011. [2]
(iii) Using the extract, state how many adult men are illiterate? [1]
(iv) Explain why an illiterate population can be a disadvantage for a country’s economic
development. (2)

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C. Study Fig 3 which is about education in Zimbabwe.

According to information released by the United Nations Educational

Scientific Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Zimbabwe has the highest
literacy rate in Africa, 92.2% of adults and 99.0% of young people are
literate.

During the first 9 years of independence (1980 to 1989) the number

ofprimary schools in Zimbabwe increased by 42.48%. The number of
secondary schools increased by 66.2%.
School enrolments increased by over 200% across the entire education
sector (primary, secondary and tertiary levels). From only one university in
1980, the country now boasts a total of 13 universities, including a virtual
university to provide for the needs of the working professionals who cannot
afford to attend classes on a full-time or a part-time basis. The many who
do not go to university can go to one of the five polytechnics that
offer certificate, diploma and degree courses in areas ranging from
administration to engineering.

Thousands of school leavers also go through apprenticeship training with

large companies.

(i) What is the adult literacy rate of Zimbabwe? [1]

(ii) By what percentage did the number of primary schools in Zimbabwe increase? [1]
(iii) State two basic skills taught in a primary school? [2]
(iv) A virtual university provides higher education programs through electronic media,
typically the internet. It is regarded as distance education. Give two advantages for
students of a virtual university. [2]
(v) Suggest what equipment and services are required to join a virtual university. [2]

(vi) From Fig. 3, identify two ways to measure the level of education of a country. [2]
(vi) Briefly describe the advantages of vocational training. [4]

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THEME 8: POLITICS AND DEVELOPMENT
Topic 8.1: Politics and Development

Politics- Involves the government of a country, how the resources of a country are used
and who decides how the country is organized and ruled.

Politics- includes all the activities or affairs engaged in by the government, politician
and political party.

Explain the concepts used in politics, state and government

Political concepts

State - is a political authority inside a clearly defined territory exercising full control over
people within that territory e.g. Namibia is a state

A nation state - any organized and recognized community or society with an

independent government.

Authority - lawful right /legitimate power given to someone to rule a certain group of
people.

Power -Is the ability to make people do what you want.

Representation - is when people or citizens of a country elect a representative to rule

on their behalf e.g. in Parliament or council

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Delegation -The electorate gives mandate to the representatives elected into power, to
rule on their behalf.

Election - is the process that allows the electorate to take part in political decision
making to vote for their representatives.

Electorate - People who qualify to vote

Voting - to choose candidates for public office in elections

Constitution - is a document consisting of laws and rules by which an organization

regulates the affairs and behavior of its members.

Why is it important to have a constitution?

 Helps to prevent leaders from becoming too powerful by limiting their powers
 Defines the functions of each part of the government
 It protects people from human rights abuse
 Provides for peaceful change of government
 It helps leaders understand ways to govern their people

Fundamental Human rights/Bill of rights - a part about fundamental human rights

and freedoms in the constitution which explains and guarantees the rights of every
citizen

Fundamental rights are basic rights that are available to every person and protected by
the constitution such as:
 All persons have the right to liberty (article 7)

 No persons shall be discriminated against on the grounds of sex, race, colour,

ethnic origin, religion

 All persons have the right to education (article 20)

 All persons shall have the right to life

 All persons shall have the right to privacy

 Freedom of speech/expression

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Ways in which people get involved in politics
 Discussing policies and reading about choices/newspapers
 Taking part in decision-making e.g. voting during election
 forming a political party/belonging to an organisation
 Campaigning for election
 Taking part in talk show.

The rule of the state

State acts through four elements

Head of state
 Represents the nation (e.g. president)
 Is elected into power by the people

The executive
 The government with its many departments/ministries which are run by ministers
such as departments of finance, education, agriculture or industry
 Executives/ministers are appointed by the president.
 President and his ministers are known as the cabinet
Function: to implement the laws

Legislature
 The parliament or law-making body
 Members are elected by universal suffrage/by the people in election
Function: to make laws

The judiciary
 Is the judges and the courts that administer the law
 The president appoints the judges from a list prepared by the judiciary services
commission
 Judiciary is an independent body, why? To make sure that no one is above the
law
Function: to ensure that the law is followed/obeyed

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The three organs/branches of the republic of Namibia

The legislative branch

The National Assembly

 Consists of 104 members elected through fair election
 Not more than 6 people are appointed by the president (they have no vote in the
assembly)
 The National assembly has the power to pass laws with permission from the
president.
 Every National Assembly lasts for 5 years.

The National Council

 Consists of 42 members (three members from each of the 14 regions in Namibia.
 Members are elected in election by the people of the region
 Reviews the bills passed by the National Assembly
 Recommends laws to the National Assembly which are on matters of regional
concern.

The executive branch

 The president and the cabinet hold executive power
 The cabinet consists of the president, Prime Minister, deputy prime minister and
ministers
 Ministers are appointed by the president.
 The cabinet implements the policies set out in the constitution and Acts of
parliament.

The judiciary branch

 The Supreme Court, high court and lower courts hold judiciary power.
 Supreme court – headed by a chief justice assisted by judges appointed by the
president

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  High Court – headed by the judge-president and other judges appointed by the
president.
 Lower Courts – run by magistrate or attorney general and prosecutor general.

Why is it important for the Judiciary to be independent? Why should the work of
the Judiciary not be interfered by politicians?

 For court officials such as magistrates and judges to make fair decisions/promote
equality and justice before the law.
 For members of the public to have trust in the courts and not take the law into
their own hands.

Discuss different types of governments/Systems/forms/types of governments

 Monarchy
 Dictatorship
 Totalitarian
 One-party state
 Parliamentary Democracy/Republic

Monarchy - Is when a country is ruled by a king, queen or emperor

- The power to rule is usually inherited

Traditional monarchies – the monarch base their power on the divine right of the king
and they have complete and absolute power.

Examples of traditional monarchies: King Letsie III (Lesotho), King Mswati III
(Swaziland)

Constitutional monarchies - Means the monarchies have limited power over their
people and their role is ceremonial (representing the nation but not having real power)
for example UK.

Advantages of monarchy
 They maintain tradition
 It is argued that they are not so corrupt like political heads of state

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Disadvantages of monarchy
 People are not consulted on the choice of monarch, thus the system is
undemocratic
 Monarchies are inherited, no guarantee that the next monarch will be a
competent ruler
 Monarchies may become corrupt or accumulate more wealth at the expense of
people

Parliamentary democracy/Republic
Democracy- is the system of government in which political authority lies with the people

Characteristics
 People choose government through free and fair elections (majority)
 Many political parties allowed to stand for election
 Laws are administered by the judiciary
 All adult citizens (18 years old) are allowed to vote (universal adult suffrage)
 There must be election at regular intervals, in Namibia after every five years

Dictatorship - is when one person or a small group of people controls the government

Characteristics
 They are usually set up by military leaders e.g. Sani Abacha in Nigeria, Mobuto
Seseseko in the former Zaire, Hastings Banda in Malawi
 No regular elections so people have no power over the government.
 Leaders make laws and have them carried out as they wish/dictators have
unlimited power

One - party state - only one party allowed to stand for election.

Characteristics
 People choose representative from the ruling party
 Leaders are likely to abuse their power/authority

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Advantages
 Less argument
 Brings about national unity

Totalitarianism
 State controls all aspects of individual’s life
 Leaders come to power via secret policy e.g. A. Hitler
 No freedom of speech example e.g China

Explain different approaches to state power:

Different Approaches to state power

Approach Features/Characteristics
• Private ownership of capital
• Private enterprises compete freely in the market
• Economic activities (prices of goods) are controlled by market
forces of supply and demand
Capitalism • Aim is to make a profit.

Disadvantages
• The most rich and powerful gain the most(widens the gap
between the rich and the poor)
• Does not ensure that basic needs for everyone will be met

• State controls and owns of all means of production.

• State protection of industry
• State planning of production
Socialism • Aim to bring equitable distribution of national wealth/aims to
satisfy all people’s needs

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 Disadvantages
• The government does not find it easy to make people work
hard
• It does not respond to people’s wants
• Has elements of capitalism and socialism
• There are privately owned enterprises and that are owned
Mixed by the state.
economy • The state partially controls the market price
• Related to socialism
• Believes that property should belong to members of society.
Communism • People work under the government for the benefit of the
society.
• The state/leader sets the prices of goods
• The state exercises absolute power over everything:
education, media, religion etc.
Fascism • Only one party is allowed to take part in elections
• The leader believes in the superiority/greatness of his/her
nation.

Remember!

Capitalism - is a system of production or trade based on private ownership of property

and wealth

Socialism - is a society characterized by collective ownership of property and

government allocation of resources

Mixed economy - is an economic system in which some industries are owned by the
government and others are owned by the private sector

Communism - is a political system in some countries in which the government controls

the production of goods and services

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Fascism - is a political system in which people’s lives are completely controlled by the
state and no political parties are allowed

Discuss the role of government and regional/local authorities, with specific

reference to Namibia, in providing the conditions for development

The role of the government in development/Challenges faced the Namibian

government.

Economic growth – establish infrastructure e.g. Trans Caprivi and Kalahari highways
- encouraged MNCs

Education and health – trained and pay for teachers and doctors

- built schools and clinics

Nation building – adopted the national reconciliation policy

International relationship – Namibia signed agreement and treaty with the rest of the
world.

Peace and stability – police and defense forces ensure peace & order

Planning for development – draw a national development plan

Participation in decision making process

(a) Centralised or top-down decision making process

This is when decisions are made by one central office, without consulting people at the
local level.

Advantages of top-down decision making process

 Decisions can be made in the best interests of the whole country.
 Governments have access to large sums of money and to multi-national
companies.
 Development is directed along the lines of nationally agreed policies.

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Disadvantages of top-down decision making process
 The power to make decisions is removed from local people.
 It may be controlled in the interests of politicians and large companies connected
to tenders.
 The decision making may not go in hand with the interests of local people.

(b) Decentralisation or bottom-up decision making process

This is when the power to make decisions is shared with people at the regional and
local level. Each level of government has the power to decide on their local issues.

Advantages of bottom-up decision making

 It involves local people in the decision making process.
 It leads to development that has local support
 It does not involve spending large sums of money.

Disadvantages of bottom-up decision making process.

 It takes a long time to see the results, because projects may run out of money.
 If it is successful, it may not always be welcomed by government officials.

Decentralisation: the sharing of part of the government authority with other levels of
authority.

Local government: the level of government that is closest to the people e.g. local
councils, providing local services.

Citizen’s duties in political and community affairs

 Making a political choices when they vote
 Delegating rights to their political representatives on national, regional and local
level to act for them
 Taking part in open debate on radio or TV, newspapers etc.

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The role of regional councilors in their communities
 To bring development to the regions e.g. develop infrastructure.
 Provision of drought relief aid to their communities
 Establish and maintain public transport network
 Provide land housing to their people.
 To supply clean water to households and businesses
 To provide health care services
 To supply electricity to residents.

The role of local authority like town councils

 Provide services in towns like water, electricity
 Construct roads and maintain them
 Allocate land for housing and businesses

Explain the main factors affecting social and economic developments in LEDCs
such as Namibia

Factors hampering development in LEDCs

Poor planning – good projects are initiated but not completed or put to good use e.g.
market stalls in most Namibian towns which are built far from customers. They just lie
unused for years.

Lack of skilled workforce – LEDCs lack the resources to train skilled workers as a
result they rely on outside countries to provide skilled workers.

Skilled workers trained in LEDCs usually move to highly paying jobs in the developed
countries.

Lack of finance – many good plans to improve the social and economic well-being of
their people is not put to action due to no funds.

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Corruption and transparency – corrupt officials are accepting bribes before they offer
tenders to companies. This results in incompetent companies winning tenders than
good and efficient companies.

Lack of in-service training – There are fewer opportunities for continuous professional
development (CPD) programmes

Assessment questions for topic 8.1

1. (a) Define the following terms: [7]

(i) Politics
(ii) A state
(iii) An electorate
(iv) A representative
(v) Power
(vi) Authority
(vii) Suffrage
(b) Outline the four elements that the rule of state acts through. [4]
(c) (i) Give any two (2) types of governments that are similar in nature, [2]
(ii) Mention one way in which they are similar. [1]

2. Study the figure below that shows the structure of Namibian government

Figure 1

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(a) (i) What is meant by constitution? [1]
(ii) Using Figure 1, identify two houses of parliament where laws are made. [2]
(b) Explain why the judiciary should be an independent body. [2]
(c) Namibia is a parliamentary democracy.
(i) Define democracy. [1]
(ii) Describe three characteristics of democracy. [3]
(d) (i) How is the Executive appointed in Namibia? [1]
(ii) In which branch of the government are the ministers? [1]
3. Name the country which practice totalitarian government. [1]
4. Regional council are very important in any local authority for development. Mention
any four roles of regional councillors in developing their regions. [4]

THEME 9: TRADE AND AID

Topic 9.1: Trade

Define what trade is?

Trade is the buying and selling of goods and services between regions, cities and
towns.

International trade is the business of buying and selling goods and services between
different countries.

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Two types of trade
1. Visible trade – trade in tangible goods
2. Invisible trade – trade in services

Describe the reasons for exchange and the need for integration into the world
economy

Importance/reasons for trade and integration into the world economy

 Because natural resources are unequally distributed/countries to get what they
don’t produce themselves
 To meet people’s needs and wants/meet the deficit production
 To earn foreign currency to pay for their imports and loans
 To establish and maintain international relations/bond
 To create markets
 Because of difference in levels of technology between countries

What is foreign exchange/foreign currency/forex?

 Refers to the money a country receives/gets from other countries e.g. If Namibia
exports fruits and earns US dollars, US dollars is foreign currency in Namibia.

Imports - are goods or services that are bought from other countries.

Exports - are goods or services that are sold to other countries.

Exports bring money in the country, while imports take money out of the country. So it
is better to have more exports than imports.

Define what is meant by balance of trade and balance of payment

Balance of Trade – Is the difference between the value of exports and the value of
imports (both goods and services)

BOT is calculated at the end of the year by subtracting the value of imports from the
value of exports.

BOT = Exports - Imports

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Positive balance of trade/trade surplus – is when the value of exports is more than
the value of imports

IMPORTS

EXPORTS

Negative balance of trade/trade deficit – is when the value of imports in more than
the value of exports

EXPORTS

IMPORTS

LEDCs usually experience a negative balance of trade because they export mainly
primary goods at a cheaper price and import finished goods at a higher price.

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Why developed/industrialised countries may experience a negative balance of
trade?
 Because trade varies/differs from year to year for all countries, for example, in
some years, the demand for certain finished goods may be low, while they pay
more for their imports and debts.

If the value of exports and the value of imports are the same, it is called ‘trade in
balance/balanced trade’

EXPORTS IMPORTS

Ways to improve trade of a country

 Use foreign currency reserves to offset the deficit
 Diversify production and increase export/ encourage export oriented
industry/restrict imports
 Devaluate local currency
 Invite MNCs to operate in the country
 Invest more in education to produce skilled workforce

Balance of Payments – is the total value of the country’s receipts (all the money
earned by a country) minus the total repayments (the money paid out).

OR
BOP is the comparison between money inflow and money outflow

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Inflows and outflows of money in a country
Inflows - money coming inside the Outflows- money going out of the
country country
 From exports  Payments for imports

 Remittance (money sent by workers  Profits paid to foreign investors

abroad)
 Investments by foreign individuals or  MNCs sent/repatriate profit to their
companies headquarters

 Loans  Loan repayment with interest

 Grants from international
organisations e.g. IMF, WB

Positive BOP/Surplus – is when the money inflows is more than the money outflows

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Negative BOT/Deficit – is when the money outflows is more than the money inflows

Strategies used by NIC’s government to industrialise

 They encouraged export oriented industries
 Encouraged labour-intensive industries to save on labour cost
 Reinvestment of profit in other industries
 Encouraged MNCs to operate in their countries
 Invested more money in education to produce skilled labour force

Explain the effects of trade on balance of payment: the ways in which countries
trade and the effects of price fluctuations, examples of balance of payment
problems, the search for new economic order

 The ways in which countries trade

- When a country exports more finished goods/services than it imports, money
inflows increase leading to a positive balance of payment
- When a country imports more finished goods/services than it exports, money
inflows decrease leading to a negative balance of payment

 The effect of price fluctuation on balance of payment

- When the price of commodities increases, more foreign currency will be earned
leading to a positive balance of payment

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 - When the price of commodities decreases, less money is received by a country
leading to negative balance of payment.

Price fluctuation – when the price of commodities is not stable. It keeps on rising and
falling as a result of demand and supply.

Examples of balance of payment problems/the effects of a negative balance of

trade on a country’s economy (disadvantages)
 A country will have Shortage of foreign currency
 Inability to pay for essential imports (oil etc.)/Need to cut down on imported goods
 A country will end up in debts/need to borrow money/difficult to pay debts
 Creates dependency on foreign aid

How the market forces of supply and demand affects the prices of goods
 If a commodity (product) is in abundant (good) supply, the price will be low and if
the commodity is scarce, the price will be high.
 When goods are in high demand, the price increases, but if the demand is low,
the price decreases.

 Demand can influence the supply of certain commodities on the market. It is the
demand that determines how much is needed on the market and how much
should the company produce.

The search for new international economic order (NIEO)

Is a proposal by developing countries aimed at:

• Ensuring stable, equitable and fair prices for raw materials

• Transferring technology to developing countries
• Ensuring that developed countries provide economic and technical assistance.

Principles of the NIEO

• Developing countries to regulate the activities of MNCs in their countries
• Developing countries to nationalize foreign-owned properties within their countries
• Developing countries to set up associations of primary goods producers.

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Free trade and restrictions on trade
Free trade – a system whereby the governments allow all products/services to be sold
in their countries without taxes or other restrictions

“Remove tariffs on manufactured goods”

Means free/no tax charges on export or import on all manufactured goods

Open market – when individuals and companies are able to sell any product anywhere
in the world.

Advantages of free trade

 Free flow of goods gives customers many options of goods to choose from and
they will benefit from lower prices.
 Free flow of goods helps the economy to grow faster because goods move one
country to another with no difficulties.
 Countries can export goods on which they have comparative advantage
 Free trade promotes friendly relations between countries, countries can share ideas
and knowledge

Disadvantages of free trade

 Local goods are dominated by goods from other countries because of their lower
prices.
 It increases unemployment in a country because local companies will not employ
more people to produce more goods as some of these goods are imported from
other countries.
 Illegal goods like drugs/fake goods may easily enter the country
 Countries may become too dependent on buying goods from other countries.

Restriction on trade or protectionism

Refers to restriction placed on trade of goods through tariffs and reducing quotas.

Protectionism – refers to policies that encourage exports and restrict imports to protect
infant industries in LEDCs from free trade competition.

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Advantages of restriction on trade
 Local industries are protected from competition of foreign industries.
 A country can learn to become self sufficient
 It increases employment in the country as industries are forced to produce more
goods to satisfy local demand.
 The government can make more income from charging high tariffs on goods coming
into the country.
 By reducing foreign goods entering the country you can promote a positive balance
of trade

Disadvantage of restriction on trade

 Goods becomes expensive for local people because they have no options to buy,
they are forced to buy what is produced inside the country.
 It limits consumers’ access to foreign goods.

Ways in which a country can encourage exports

 Give tax reduction to exporting industries - this is done to reduce the cost of
production and make these companies more profitable.

 Subsidise local companies - give money to local companies so that their products
become cheaper and compete with other products on the international market.

 Devaluate the local currency - reduce the value of the local currency so that our
products may become cheaper to overseas customers.

Ways to restrict/discourage imports

Increase the price of imports by: - placing high tariffs on imported goods.
- give quotas (limit) on imports quantity

Tariffs are taxes paid on goods coming in to the country

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How the removal of tariffs benefit developed countries
 Increase access to cheaper imports
 More manufactured goods will be produced for exports
 Earn more profit as a result of increased exports

Devaluation of currency
 Means to weaken the local currency in comparison to other countries
- It’s done to encourage exports and discourage imports in the country
How does devaluation of currency benefit LEDCs (Namibia)?
 It makes exports cheaper for foreign buyers and imports would be expensive for
local people
- Therefore, LEDCs will earn extra foreign currency to pay for its imports

Analyse the broad pattern of international trade: between developing, newly

industrialised countries (NICs) and developed countries

1. Trade between industrialised and non-industrialised countries

 Industrialised countries export manufactured/finished goods at a higher price to
non-industrialised countries. While
 Non-industrialised countries export primary products to industrialised countries at a
cheaper price
- This is because developing countries depend on primary industries e.g.
Agriculture, Fishing and Mining whereas, developed countries depend on
secondary and tertiary industries.

2. Trade between industrialised countries

 They all produce the same type of goods (finished goods) but they sell and buy
manufactured (finished) goods from each other based on the quality and luxury
 Trade between them is usually aimed at providing variety rather than out of basic
necessity
- For example USA produces cars like Ford, but Americans may still buy
Japanese cars like Toyota because of its quality or cheaper

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3. Trade between non-industrialised countries
 There is less trade between LEDCs because they usually produce the same kind
of raw materials. The main trade is food (Agriculture produces).
Why is there less trade here?

4. Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs)

 Third group in international trade
 Trade a variety of finished goods on the international market at a relatively
cheaper prices than those produced in developed countries
 They produce goods more cheaply and export them to both industrialised and
developing countries

Define globalization
Globalisation – Is when businesses and countries are expanding their trading activities
across the whole world

Describe the growing significance of globalisation of trade and investment.

Benefits of globalisation/opportunities
 MEDCs and agencies donate money (grant) to LEDCs
 MEDCs give loans to LEDCs
 Foreign investors strengthen the local economy
 People acquire different skills via the use of different technology
 LEDC will have access to advance technology to increase production
 Countries will have access to more market
 Access to more goods at reasonable prices
 More jobs will be created therefore, reduce unemployment and improve quality of
life

Disadvantages of globalisation
 Tariffs exclude LEDCs from the process of globalisation/Quotas affect the LEDCs
as their exports or imports may be blocked

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  Member countries - some countries form unions and only the members of that
union may trade with one another e.g. SACU, EURO, SADC
 Loan repayment with interests
 Markets are competitive as a result, it widens the gap between the rich and poor
 Globalisation of trade can lead to environmental damage as countries strive to
maximize production
 LEDCs lack advanced technology and skilled workforce

How can globalisation help the balance of payment of developing countries?

 More profit will be made as countries have access to more markets
 Better prices for their primary products can be negotiated
 Competition on the market leads to better products to be produced which can
bring in more foreign exchange
 Grants from MEDCs can be used to solve balance of payment problems

How MNCs are involved in the process of globalization

 Introduce people worldwide to new products and services

 Promote global competition that keeps the prices low
 Force local companies to improve the quality of their products through
competition
 Connect people worldwide via mails
 Introduce people to different cultures

Name and explain strategies which LEDCs such as Namibia can use in order to
participate in the global village.

 Establish infrastructure – countries should establish and improve their

transport and communication infrastructure e.g. roads, telephone networks,
internet network to be connected to their main trading centers and neighbouring
countries
 Human resource capacity building– invest more money in education and skills
development to have better qualified and skilled workforce

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  Comparative advantage – countries should realize what they are better at
producing than other countries and focus more on that
For example Namibia is good in tourism, fish and beef production, therefore it
should concentrate in these areas to be competitive on the international market.
 Foreign direct investment – invite foreign business individuals and MNCs to
operate in their countries to help increase output and promote exports
Example of foreign direct investment is CHEETAH CEMENT
 International exposure – Developing international knowledge through
networking/marketing

Topic 9.2: Foreign investment and aid

Define foreign investment and aid

Investment - to use money in a business with the aim of making profit or wealth in the
future.

Foreign investment - is when people from other countries pump money into business
or establish new businesses in another country with the aim of making profit or wealth in
the future.

Foreign/international aid
Refers to the resources/assistance given from one country or organization to another.

Describe different forms of foreign investment and international aid

Foreign investors
 These are people or companies that inject money in business and expect returns
on their investments.
 Most investments made in other countries are funded by MNCs using subsidiary
(company owned by other company) companies as their agents in other
countries.

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Foreign investment can be made in a number of ways:
 A multi-national company can start a business in another country (FOREIGN
DIRECT INVESTMENT)
 It may form joint venture with a smaller company in another country (JOINT
VENTURE)

Multi-national companies (MNCs)

These are big companies that operate in more than one country and usually have their
headquarters in developed countries.

MNCs use local subsidiary companies as their agents

Subsidiary – a company that is owned by another company

Agents – people or company that acts on behalf of another people or company.

Examples of MNCs:
 COCACOLA (based in USA)
 DHL
 KFC (based in USA)
 SHELL (based in Netherlands)
 Virgin

MNCs have the advantages of economies of scale

The benefits/advantages of inviting MNCs in developing countries

 They bring in foreign currency to set up, develop and run industries
 They share knowledge and training on new technology with people of the host
country
 Increase exports
 Reduce unemployment in the host country
 Increase government revenue as MNCs pay taxes
 Improve the country’s infrastructure e.g. roads, telecommunications

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Disadvantages of MNCs to developing (host) countries
 They pay low wages to local employees
 Employ foreign workers in managerial/top positions
 Some do not permit workers to belong to trade unions
 Profit is sent back to the headquarters rather than re-investing in the host country
 MNCs may decide to close down the business at any time they wish and lead to
high unemployment.
 Environmental damage/exploit natural resources
 They may interfere in local politics
 They dictate terms

Foreign/International aid

Aid usually comes in form of:

 Money as a grant or loan (monetary aid)
 Goods such as food, machinery in times of emergency (emergency aid)
 Human resources: people who have skills and knowledge e.g. doctors, teachers
etc. (humanitarian aid).

Country/Organisation giving aid is a donor and a country receiving aid is a recipient.

Other forms of international aid:

 Bilateral aid – when one country gives aid to another country directly without
involving an agency
 Multi-lateral aid– aid given by an international organization like UN, via its
agencies e.g. UNICEF, UNDP, WHO&FAO
 Tied Aid–assistance given with certain instructions e.g. USA gives a grant to an
LEDC for railway construction on condition that the tender is given to a USA
based company.

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Disadvantages of tied aid
 The recipient country cannot use the aid as it wishes
 The donor may interfere in the political or economic affairs of the recipient
country

Different reasons why countries may give Aid:

 Political reasons – in order to have political influence over the recipient country
or make good relations.
 Economic reasons – when a country gives monetary aid to another country and
expect the money to be paid back with interest.
- helping another country to raise its level of development so that people
can increase their buying power
 Humanitarian reasons - helping in times of drought, earthquakes and civil wars

Loan - the borrowed money which eventually has to be paid back with interest

Grant – the money given for free and does not have to be paid back

Debt – the money owed to the bank, person or country

Reasons why governments of developing countries borrow money:

 To invest in infrastructure, industries, health, and education
 For water projects and to supply electricity to rural areas
 To pay for imports of oil and machinery
 To help in case of emergencies e.g. flood, drought and famine, earthquake
 To cover balance of payment deficit

Who do countries borrow money from?

 World Bank through the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
- IMF has over 150 member countries around the world
 Other countries

Debt crisis - is a situation when a country or organisation owes more than it can afford
to pay.

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Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)
 A programme introduced by the IMF to countries borrowing money to reduce
government spending in order to save money.
 SAP encourages countries to increase government income by exporting more.

Problems SAP may bring to people of a country:

 As a result of the reduction of the government spending:
- Less money may be spent on healthcare (leading to poor health) and education
(leading to shortage of skilled labour)
- Less money is spent on infrastructural development
- Encourage rural to urban migration as rural areas are neglected/not developed
- Less money spent on civil servants, leading to poor services in government
sectors

 As a result of encouraging exports:

- Devaluation of currency, making imported products more expensive
- Prices for cash crops will increase
- Shortage of food for local people as more is grown for export

The negative effects of loans or aid on a nation and its people

 Become dependent instead of learning how to be self-sufficient
 If the aid is only used for a certain part of a country, it can increase inequality
 Some aid may encourage development with inappropriate technology not suited
to a country’s development
 Sometimes the money is spent on wrong development projects or stolen by
politicians.

Describe the roles of the special agencies of United Nations toward social and
economic development:

WB (World Bank)
 Provides loans to developing countries to reduce poverty

145
IMF (International Monetary Fund)
 Promotes international monetary coorperation
 Provides financial assistance to member countries

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)

 Supports countries to achieve the sustainable development goals

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund)

 Concerned with welfare of children and women

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation)

 Combats global hunger and promotes rural development

UNESCO (United Nations Education Scientific Culture Organisation)

 Encourages intellectual co-operation
 Promotes matters of education

Topic 9.3: Regional and global cooperation

Discuss the regional co-operation in Southern African region: Southern African
Customs Union (SACU) and Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)

Southern African Customs Union (SACU)

A map showing member states of SACU

146
 • Founded by South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland in 1910, later
Namibia joined
• Head office is located in Windhoek
• SACU’s main objective is to have free trade between member states
• Main imported goods are vehicles, electrical machinery, mineral fuels, iron and
steel products, beverages, rubber, plastics

Successes and Challenges of SACU

Successes/Achievements Challenges/Problems faced
• Smaller member states have • The South African government may
benefited from South Africa not continue subsidizing the smaller
nations forever
• Smaller member states have been • Competition from South African firms
able to increase their trade balance has led to the downsizing and
within SACU closure of some local firms in the
smaller states

Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)

Transformed from SADCC after the treaty of Windhoek in 1992, legal status

Aims:
 Achieve regional economic growth
 Reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of people
 Promote common political value systems and institutions in the region
 Harmonise national and regional strategies
 Promote employment and utilisation of resources

147
 A map showing member states of SADC

Successes and Challenges of SADC

Successes/Achievements Challenges/Problems faced

• Increase in required trade • Shortage of sufficient funds to carry

out projects
• Resolving conflict e.g. in Lesotho • Persistent drought

• Removal of some trade barriers • Rapid population growth

among members
• Promotion of women participation in • External debt, some members are
political decision making paying IMF and World Bank
• Promotion of democratic principles in • Political problems – civil war in
member states Angola, DRC

• HIV and AIDS

Discuss the role of European Union (EU) in terms of cooperation and trading with
other nations and trading partners.
 It works with international partners to meet the its energy demand in a
sustainable way
 Addresses climate change and environmental degradation
 Addresses energy price fluctuation
 Promotion of science, industrial leadership and high-tech industries through
project Horizon 2020.

148
 Assessment questions for theme 9

1 Study Fig. 1, about trade between Bangladesh and USA (2008-2013)

Fig. 1

(a) (i) Define what is meant by balance of payments. [1]

(ii) Give three reasons why countries trade with one another. [3]

(iii) What was Bangladesh’s value of imports from the USA in 2013? [1]

(v) Calculate the value of Bangladesh’s balance of trade with the USA for 2013.[2]

(vi) Do you think Bangladesh has a trade deficit or a surplus with the USA?
Explain your answer. [2]

149
(b) Study Fig. 2, a photograph which shows one of Namibia’s export products.

( Namibian ,14 October 2016)

Fig. 2

(i) What type of product forms Namibia’s main export? [1]

(ii) Describe the effect that the dependency on the type of products mentioned in
(b) (i) can have on Namibia’s economy. [4]

(c) Study Fig. 3, about globalisation.

1. Globalisation through 2. Globalisation through

trade investments

4. Globalisation through 3. Globalisation through

exchange of knowledge human resources
(globalisation.pen.
10.)
Fig. 3
(i) What is meant by globalisation? [1]

(ii) State the benefits and disadvantages of globalisation. [5]

(iii) Suggest two strategies, not shown in Fig.3 that developing countries can use to
participate effectively in the global community. [2]

150
(d) Study Fig. 4, an article about food aid in Somalia.

Food aid needed in Somalia - UN

MOGADISHU – Over 350 000 people in Somalia’s war ravaged capital are in
acute need of food aid as government and charities struggle to cope, UN
warned, with other cities also in crisis.

“The food security situation has worsened as early warnings highlight drought
conditions in parts of Somalia,” a report from the UN office for the Co-
ordination of Humanitarian Affairs said.
“Aid organisations have been unable to meet the needs of over
350 000 displaced people in Mogadishu,” it added, warning of “alarming
malnutrition rates” in the capital.

The warning comes three years after more than 250 000 people, half of them
children, died in the devastating 2011 famine.
Earlier this month the UN warned Somalia was sliding back into a hunger crisis,
with parts of Mogadishu facing emergency levels just short of famine.
The government has said the hunger situation is similar to the situation in 2011.
UN assessments also show “above emergency levels of malnutrition” in seven
towns, including Garowe, Galkayo and Kismayo, with the “highest
deterioration” reported in Mogadishu.

Fig. 4
(i) What is meant by international aid? [1]

(ii) What does the abbreviation UN stand for? [1]

(iii)Name any other two international organisations that also give aid to
countries in need. [2]
(iv) Which type of country is most likely to receive international aid? [1]
(v) What type of aid is given to Somalia? [1]
(vi) Define tied aid and give an example. [2]

151
Theme 10: Research Skills

What is research?
 Is a process of arriving at a dependable solution to a problem through a careful
planned and systematic collection and interpretation of data
 Is a detailed and careful study intended to learn new facts and information to a
problem

Why people do research/reasons for research

 To find out and make informed decisions about how best to improve people’s
standard of living
 To find out the causes and negative impacts certain situations have on people or
environment
 To acquire knowledge which is based on empirical evidence

Steps to follow when carrying out research

1. Identify/choose a research topic
2. State the hypothesis or research question
3. State the objectives/aims
4. Types of data and data collection methods
5. Sample and sampling methods
6. Pilot study
7. Data presentation and analysis
8. Conclusion and recommendations
9. Limitations/problems

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 Identify research topic
Example of research topic: “Land pollution in Nkurenkuru (Kavango West) 2020”

State features of a good topic

 The topic must be interesting
 The topic must be short and straight to the point
 It must be relevant to the subject (Development Studies)
 You should avoid sensitive topic

Describe the aims and objectives of research

 At this point a researcher must state reasons for carrying out that research ( what
do you intend to find out and why)

Example:
 To find out the most common types of pollutants in Nkurenkuru 2020
 To find out the impacts of these pollutants on people who live there
 To suggest/propose solutions

Differentiate between a hypothesis and a research question

Hypothesis Research Question

Is a statement about something that you Is a broad question about your investigation
predict or believe to be true, but you do that can be answered after carrying out a
not have evidence to support it (a research
statement that you can prove wrong or Example: “What is the most type of pollutants
right after you carry out a research) found in Nkurenkuru 2020?”
Example: “ Plastics and empty bottles are
the most pollutants in Nkurenkuru 2020”

153
Differentiate between primary and secondary data with relevant examples
Data - Items of information found through research
Statistics/numerical data - Piece of information expressed as numbers or figures.

Primary data - original or first-hand information collected by a researcher using

interview, observation or questionnaires, survey, experiments
Secondary data - data that is already available or existing e.g. information from books,
magazines, internet or newspapers, research papers/thesis, census statistics

Primary or secondary data can be in form of:

Qualitative - data that consist of attribute e.g. opinion and behaviour
Quantitative - data consist of variables e.g. numeric, age groups or scores

Name and describe different methods of collecting data

Questionnaire – is a list of prepared written questions to be answered by the
respondents.
Hint: A good questionnaire should have
 An introductory text to outline the purpose of the research
 Verbal consent to ensure respondents about confidentiality
 Easy close ended questions first
 Open ended questions last (mostly, few in number).

Open and closed ended questions

Closed ended question
 It offers a very limited scope for answer
 It can be yes or no questions/ multiple choices
E.g. what are the most pollutants in Nkurenkuru?
(a) Plastics (b) Bottles

Open-ended
 Questions that allow respondents to give a variety of responses
E.g. What effect does land pollution have on the people?

154
Advantages and disadvantages of using a questionnaire

Advantages Disadvantages
 Large amount of data can be  Some people may not complete all questions
collected in a short period of time in the questionnaire
 The method is usually reliable  Impossible to probe further questions on
 Easy to compare answers from unclear answers
different respondents  Refusal rate of a questionnaire may be high
 Respondents can express  Illiterate people cannot answer the
themselves freely questionnaire
 Questionnaire may get lost

Interview
Is a conversation between the interviewer and interviewee which allows the respondent
to talk freely

Types of interviews

1. Structured interview
 A number of already compiled questions are asked to everyone to obtain certain
information
 Usually use closed ended questions, it’s easy to answer and reduce bias

2. Semi-structured interview
 Most important questions are put forward beforehand, and additional questions
are asked to gain insight/more details.

3. Unstructured interview
 No questions are set up before hand, the interviewer just “go with the flow”
having one question leads to the other.
 Usually use open-ended questions and its more time consuming

155
 Advantages & disadvantages of interviews

Advantages Disadvantages
 Possible to probe what the respondents  Interviews are time consuming /take long to
says complete
 Possible to detect whether the  Difficult to get people to agree to
respondent is telling the truth appointments/ People might not have time
 Possible to repeat unclear questions to to answer questions
respondents  Respondents may not be truthful
 Help to draw respondent’s attention to  People may become suspicious of the
existing problem purpose of the interview
 Researcher is ensured that all questions
can be answered.

Preparing for and carrying out an interview

When preparing for an interview: When carrying out an interview

 Speak clearly;
 Prepare questions in advance;
 Approach politely/be friendly;
 Arrange interview time & place beforehand
 Make notes/tape conversation;
 Dress smartly;
 Gain trust/assure confidentiality;
 Have a translator/interpreter (if necessary)
 Don’t ask personal questions/don’t ask questions
 Seek permission to interview
in a biased way;
 Get pen/paper/tape recorder;
 Probe/ask follow up questions;
 Select sample/identify respondents
 Arrive on time;
 Explain purpose of interview/identify self;
 Sequence questions in appropriate way;
 Listen carefully to responses;

156
Observations
Looking carefully at something and record the information.

Types of observation

Non-participative observer – only observes the activities and record what is being
observed on a paper or video tape for a day or two.

Participative observer – the investigator become part of the research setting and stays
there for many days or months.

Observation instruments
A checklist - a list of items you want to observe

A rating scale - an appropriate observation list with order category e.g. low, middle and
high

Advantages and Disadvantages observation

Advantages Disadvantages
 Helps to gain deep insight  Sometimes, it’s not easy to gain
information/hidden information access to information
 Its reliable and valuable as the  The presence of an observer
researcher is the first hand observer makes people suspicious
 Its more time consuming

157
Interview/observation sheet example
Date of survey...............................
1. Information about person being interviewed:
Sex...................................... Estimated age........................
2. Information about people living in the home:
Number of people living in home.......................
Number of children under 5.........................
3. Information about sanitation:
Do you have a pit latrine? Yes.......... No..........
If `yes` how far away is it from the home?
Nearer than 15 metres................. Further away than 15 metres .................
What method of rubbish disposal do you use? ..........................................................
4. Information about water supply:
What is your source of water supply?
Borehole ............ Protected well ............ Unprotected well ............ River/stream ............
In what condition are the surroundings? ..................................................
How is drinking water stored? .................................................................
5. Information about diseases and their causes:
Which diseases are common in your family? ..................................................................
How are patients cared for? .........................................................................................
Is there evidence near to the home of areas where mosquitos could breed? Yes/No
Is there evidence in the home of flies ........ cockroaches ........ rats ........ other pests ........?

Define the concept of pilot study
Pilot study - Is a pre-test done on a small scale then actual population of the study, to
test how effective and efficient is the questionnaire

Why a pilot survey is important/ advantages

 Help to see how people will react to the questionnaire
 Help to detect if the questions are enough to collect sufficient information needed
 Help to correct mistakes in a questionnaire

158
Differentiate between research population and research sample

Population – Total number of people or objects with similar characteristics from which
a researcher wishes to collect data/information
Sample – is a representative of the total population
Sampling - is selecting a small group of individual variable from the entire population to
provide you with data/information.

Reasons for sampling

 To reduce the amount of work
 To save time and cost of research
 It’s difficult to include the total population in the study

Types of sampling methods/Sampling procedures

 Random Sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Stratified or layered sampling
 Systematic (ordered) sampling

A. Random sampling
Selecting by chance whereby, everyone has equal chance to be selected
Example: (perhaps you would like to interview people in Nkurenkuru about land
pollution); to sample randomly, you can draw plot numbers randomly from a box, or you
can choose any house where people are willing to be interviewed.

Advantages of random sampling:

 It reduces bias (unfair judgements)
 Everyone have an equal chance to be selected
 It’s simple and easy to use

159
Disadvantages of random sampling
 If the population is large, this method may not be practicable.
 Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present in sample in
sufficient numbers for study.
 Poor representation of the overall population

B. Systematic (ordered) sampling

 Choosing respondents by using regular number
Example: deliver the questionnaire to every tenth house

Advantages of systematic sampling methods;

 It introduces a chance element to who is selected
 It reduces bias
 It helps to cover a large area/ spread evenly over the area.

Disadvantages of systematic sampling methods:

 Sample may be biased as the elements in the population do not have equal
chance of being selected
 Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey/research.

C. Stratified or layered sampling

Select respondents based on sex, age, or subject which are similar in nature.
Example: select (10) people from each age group or sex

Advantages of stratified sampling

 It represents sub groups in the entire population fairly
 Everyone in the subgroup/strata has an equal chance of being selected
 Ensures adequate representation of minority groups in the population
 It reduces bias
 It’s simple to use

160
 Disadvantages of Stratified sampling
 Difficult to identify different strata/subgroups e.g. age, social backgrounds
 More complex, requires greater effort than random sample; strata/subgroup must
be carefully defined

Analyse and present information collected: draw graphs, sketch maps

 Preparing data for analysis is called data presentation. Therefore, researchers
need to present their data well before they attempt to analyse it
 Pie chart, bar graph, table and line graph are data presentation methods.
 To analyse data means to examine/study the information in order to understand
it and give meaning to data ( talk about what is shown on the graphs, charts in
detail)

Example of data presentation method: the bar graph below

Bar graph showing types of pullutants

60
Percentages (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
Plastics bags Bottles Papers

Pollutants

Example of data analysis

The bar graph shows that 50% of the pollutants are bottles and 30% are plastics while
20% are papers found in Nkurenkuru in 2020

161
Draw conclusion and recommendations
 Conclusion must be supported by the data you collected
 You should compare and contract your findings and make a comment on
whether the data is reliable or not

Example: “Nkurenkuru is polluted mainly by bottles (50% of the pollutants)

because there are so many bars and pubs in that area.” These pollutants may
lead to disease like malaria during the rainy season as bottles will provide
breeding sites for mosquitoes as they hold water.

Stage 8: Limitations / problems

Limitations refer to problems you encounter when carrying out your research which may
have an effect on your data collected
Examples are: language barrier, ignorance by the respondent, lack of resources e.g.
money and equipment

Some problems and suggested solutions

 Language barriers…use a translator;
 People may not have time/be unwilling to answer questions…make it
Brief/simple;
 Suspicion of intrusive surveying…inform them privacy will be respected;
 People may not tell the truth…back up answers by Observation/interview enough
people to reveal truth

162
Examples of research report

Example 1

Topic: Source of Energy and building Material used in Ndama location

Research question:
What is the source of energy used for cooking and the building material used for most
houses in Ndama location?

Aims/objectives:
 To find out the source of energy used for cooking and type of building materials
 To find out reasons why most people prefer source of energy and building
materials used

Population, sample and sampling methods:

 Population: all household in Ndama location A (1500)
 Sample : 100 houses were selected using systematic sampling method
 Sampling method: Systematic
- Every 15th house in Ndama was selected

Reason for the chosen sampling method:

- To cover a large area
- ensures that the populations will be evenly sampled

Type of data and data collection method:

 Primary data was used for this study
 The data was collected by means of interview and observation
- Interview: used to collect information based on source of energy used for
cooking and the reasons for using the source of energy and the building
materials
- Observation: researcher walked through the streets of Ndama location A,
looked carefully and recorded the building materials for most houses.

163
Reasons for using interview and observation:

Interview: - to allow the researcher clarify or translate the questions to participant in the
language they understand better
- To ensure that all questions were answered

Observation: - because the building materials could be seen by the researcher and
asking such a question might be offensive to research participants.

Interview questions used:

1. Is the head of this household employed/self-employed/unemployed?
Employed Self-employed Unemployed

2. What is the average monthly income received/earned by the head of the house?

Less than 1000 1000 to 500 6000 to 10 000 10000+

3. What source of energy do you use in this household for cooking?

Electricity Gas stove Fire wood

4. How much on average do you spend per month for the source of energy you use?

5. Why do you prefer to use the building materials that is dominate in this household?

Thank you for your time!

164
Observation sheet

Instructions: - use tally method

- Add up totals in the last column

Building material Tally count Total

Wood & thatched grass
Corrugated iron on the sides
Bricks

Pilot study:
 The interview questions were given to the English teacher to correct/edit the
grammar, and
 The questions were tested on 5 classmates to determine participants’ reaction
towards the questions and see if the questions were enough to collect the data
needed.

Data presentation and analysis:

Table: showing employment status of head of the households in Ndama Location A

Employment status % of head of households

Employed 35
Self- Employed 40
Unemployed 25
Total 100

Analysis:
40% of the households in Ndama location A, are headed by Self-employed man or women
with average monthly income of between 1000-5000 per month. Only 35% of the
households are headed by people who are employed and earning 6000+ a month. 25%
of the head of the households are not employed.

165
 Pie chart: Source of Energy
for cooking

Fire wood
Electricity
Gas

 60% of households in Ndama Location A use firewood, 28% Electricity while only
12% use gas for cooking.
 On average people spend N$50-150 on fire wood, making it cheaper compared
to electricity and gas stove which require people to spend on average a minimum
amount of N$300.00 per month.

Bar Graph: Building Material

used
60
Percentages (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0
Corrugated iron Wood & Thatched Bricks
grass

Building Materials

 50% of households in Ndama location A, are built with corrugated iron, 30% with wood
and thatched grass, and 20% with bricks.

166
Conclusion:

 Most (60%) households in Ndama Location A, use fire wood as source of energy
for cooking because it’s cheaper compared to electricity and gas.
 Majority of the households in Ndama location A, are built with cheaper building
material. 50% with Corrugated Irons and 30% with wood and thatched grass.
 Most of the head of households in this location are either unemployed (25%) or
self- employed (40%). That’s why they prefer cheaper sources of building materials
and energy.
 This shows that the living standard of the people in Ndama Location A is average
as majority of the people can’t afford to use electricity for cooking, and build quality
houses.

Recommendation:

 Members of the community enrol for vocational courses to equip themselves with
skills necessary for better job opportunities.
 Through their Development committees, apply for electrification of the location from
town council
 The town council to come up with awareness programmes that will encourage the
use of alternative sources of energy.
 Members of the community to get involved in build together projects to improve
housing in the location.

Limitations and solutions taken

 People were not willing to be interviewed – the researcher explained the aim of the
research and ensured the participants that the interview was going to be brief/short
 No people at some households – the researcher moved to the next house were
there where people.

167
Example 2

Topic: Causes of unemployment among the youths in Nkurenkuru

Hypothesis:
 Lack of Job qualifications is the main contributing factor to high unemployment
among the youths in Nkurenkuru.
OR

Research Question:
 What is the cause of high unemployment rate among the youths in Nkurenkuru?

Aims/Objectives:
 To find out reasons why most youths are unemployed
 To find out the education level of most youths in Nkurenkuru town
 To propose/project possible solutions to high unemployment among the youths
in Nkurenkuru

Population of the study:

 All youths aged between 20 – 40 living in Nkurenkuru

Sample and sampling methods:

 50 youths were selected by Stratified sampling method.
- This was done by including equal number of Female and male youths found
around the shopping centers and were willing to answer the questionnaire.

Reasons for using stratified:

• All the two sub groups in the youth population were represented
• It reduced bias as two sampling methods (random and stratified) was used
• It was a simple method to use as the strata (male and Female) was clear.

Type of Data and Data collection methods:

 Both primary and secondary data was collected
- Primary data was collected by means of a questionnaire
- Secondary data about unemployment rate in Nkurenkuru was gathered from
census reports 2011

168
  Questionnaire – was given to the willing youths found in town and waited for
them to answer on spot.

Pilot survey/study:
- The questionnaire was given to the English teacher to correct the mistakes and
edit the grammar
- Researcher gave the questionnaire to 5 classmates before the administering it
on the actual sample of the study ( it was done to see how the respondents will
react to the questions)

Example of Data collection instrument used (questionnaire)

Introduction: I am …………… (Name), a social science learner from Kandjimi Murangi

SS. As part of the requirement in Development Studies am carrying out an investigation
on the reasons for high unemployment rate among the youths in Nkurenkuru. Please
feel free to assist me with the necessary information by answering this 5 minute
questionnaire. The information will be used only for the purpose of this study and it will
be treated confidential.

Instruction: - do not write your name on the questionnaire

- Tick in the appropriate box

1. Gender : Male Female

2. What is your highest qualification?
Grade 10 certificate Grade 12 Certificate
Certificate /diploma from vocational institution
Diploma/degree from tertiary institution
No qualification
3. Are you employed at the moment?
Yes No

4. In your opinion, why do youth most youths are unemployed?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. What do you think can be done to reduce unemployment rate in Nkurenkuru?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

169
Data Presentation and analysis
Table: Unemployment rate in Nkurenkuru from 2013 -2015

Year %
2013 40.9
2014 39
2015 45

 In 2013 unemployment rate was at 40.9% and reduced to 39% in 2014. However, it
again increased in 2015 to 45%.

Bar graph: Showing the youth’s qualifications in Nkurenkuru

40
35
30
% of Youths

25
20
15
10
5
0

Qualifications

 Bar graph shows that 36% of the youths in Nkurenkuru holds diploma/degrees
from tertiary institutions, 9% are in possession of certificates from vocational
schools. Those with Grade 10 certificates are 20%, with Grade 12 Certificate
15% while the youths with no qualifications are 20% of the population in
Nkurenkuru.

170
 Pie chart: showing reasons for high unemployment rate

20% Lack of
25%
qualification
lack of jobs
opportunities
Corruption practice

45%

 According to the respondents, 20% of unemployment among the youths is caused

by lack of qualifications required for the jobs, 45% of them were of the opinion
that its due to lack of job opportunities and 25% is as a result of corrupt practices
among the top officials.

Conclusion:
 According to these findings, the main cause of high unemployment rate among
the youths in Nkurenkuru is lack of job opportunities in the town. This because
about 44% of the unemployed youths in Nkurenkuru have certificate, Diploma or
degree from vocational or tertiary institutions.
 Majority of the youths concentrate on seeking for employment instead of creating
employment opportunities. Only 9% of the youths have vocational qualifications
and most of them are self-employed. 45% who indicated that there is lack of Job
opportunities are those with grade 10 -12 certificates and tertiary qualifications.
 Unemployment rate fluctuates between 35% - 45% over the years.

Recommendation:
 The Regional council to create awareness aiming at youth economic
empowerment. Youths to involve in businesses rather than looking for jobs.
 Youths to enroll for vocational and technical skill courses that will enable them to
acquire skills to create jobs for themselves.

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Limitations and solutions:
 Youths did not have time to answer the questionnaire – convinced them that the
questionnaire will only take 3-5 minutes
 Some youths claimed not to know how to write – researcher interviewed them and
noted down their responses on the questionnaire.

Example account of a small practical community/group activity in which poor

rural people could involve themselves to improve their living standards.

Name the project : Tupangeleni hamo Project

Place : Mbeyo Village
what the local people did : they formed a co-operative to establish a vegetable garden
in order to supply fresh and healthy vegetables to the
members of the village and surrounding communities.
How the work was organized: - the local community formed groups and worked in shifts.
- Each group contributed whatever tools and equipment
(simple technology) were needed to work on the garden.
How the work was financed : - They applied for a government grant through their leader
to buy the fence and water tanks
- they also did fund raising activities e.g. seeking for
contribution from community members to buy seeds,
fertilizers and pay an expert advisor.
Practical problems & Solutions : - No co-operation from some members – leader invited
a motivational speaker who had convinced them by telling
them how the project will improve their standard of living.
- Lack of skilled people – they applied for technical
assistance from government and other NOGs.
- Insufficient funds – they applied for cheap loans.

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 Assessment questions for theme 10

Fig. 1
(a) (i) In your own words explain what is meant by research. [2]
(ii) Where in Namibia is the GB Mahangu Enterprises based? [1]
(iii) Use your own words to explain the aims of the NMCF. [2]
(iv) According to the source, was the development of the products achieved?
Use some evidence to support your answer. [2]
(b) (i) Suggest why the use of a picture or photograph was a suitable method to show
the product shown in Fig.1. [2]
(ii) What are the disadvantages of secondary data in research? [3]
(c) Imagine you are carrying out a research enquiry by interviewing farmers about food
production in your local area or a small part of your country.
Describe difficulties which you think you might have experienced. [4]

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2. Fig. 2, shows the different types of crops grown at Etunda Irrigation Project.

(a) (i) Which vegetable occupies the largest percentage of land? [1]
(ii) What is the total percentage of water melons and sweet melons? [1]
(iii) Name the method of presentation which was used in Fig. 2. [1]
(iv) Draw a bar graph using the information in Fig. 2 about the different crops. [6]
(b) Listed are some problems experienced by the Etunda Irrigation Project in the
production of vegetables. Shortage of land, lack of skilled labour, weather, shortage
of storage facilities, price fluctuations
Choose three problems and describe in detail how you will solve each one. [6]

SECTION B
3 In your Development Studies Course you carried out a research investigation on a
development issue. This question is about your research investigation.

(a) (i) Identify the research question or hypothesis which you investigated. [1]
(ii) Describe the aims of your research investigation. [2]
(iii) Write a report on your findings. You should include as much detail as possible
including information which you gathered and the
recommendations/solutions/implications you made. [8]

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(b) In your research investigation you may have identified problems faced by the people
in the area which you studied.
(i) Suggest how you would solve these problems.
OR
(ii) Explain how you solved the practical problems which you experienced while you
were carrying out your research. [4]

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