57

8
Vineyard Irrigation Systems

Terry L. Prichard

Adequate quantities of water are essential for rapid System Design and Selection
vineyard development and crop production. Water
deficits early in the growing season reduce vegetative Many irrigation systems are suitable for vineyard use.
(shoot) growth and can reduce crop yields. Slowed There is no best system or method because land, water,
vegetative growth is detrimental in young vines, which energy, and labor costs—in addition to soil and plant
need maximum growth to hasten the development of conditions—vary with each site. Irrigation systems are
the vineyard canopy. Severe water deficits during the designed and operated to favor optimum crop yields
summer and after harvest may disrupt bud develop- and quality as well as efficient use of water and energy.
ment and cause premature leaf drop. Too much water, At times, however, other considerations may dominate
on the other hand, can cause poor internode spacing both design and operational decisions. Total cost—
and lack of winter hardiness, and can damage roots by which includes initial installation and continuing
depriving them of oxygen and creating conditions that operation and maintenance—substantially influences
favor the development of soilborne diseases. the grower’s choice of an irrigation system. Other fac-
Grape growers must determine the amount of irri- tors to consider are the physical and chemical charac-
gation water to apply, when to apply it, and the most teristics of the soil, the uniformity of the soil, the slope
efficient application method for a given set of condi- of the land, any frost hazard, and the cost and avail-
tions. By knowing when to irrigate and how much ability of water. The grower must analyze all of these
water to apply, growers can avoid problems associated variables before he or she can select the right system
with over- or underirrigating. The goal is to keep the (Table 8.1).
root zone moisture at a level that will allow appropriate An appropriate system is most often a compromise
levels of vine growth and will not reduce crop yields or of goals within economic constraints. The selection of
quality in the current or subsequent years. an appropriate irrigation system is the first step toward
Chapter 17, Water Management and Irrigation good water management. Good water management
Scheduling, addresses the amount and timing of water favorably influences the yield and quality as well as the
applications. For now, it is important to understand that mineral nutrition of vines; in addition, it minimizes
irrigations should be applied to meet the variable crop insect and disease problems and makes weed control
requirements over the season, should be distributed easier.
evenly to maximize irrigation efficiency and facilitate Note that the best-designed and most expertly
the vine’s uptake of nutrients, and should minimize the installed system will not function efficiently without
effects of soil conditions that could encourage disease. proper management. Effective management includes
The vineyards may require some water in excess of the the use of a water budget, and that means estimating
crop requirement in order to maintain a favorable salt crop water requirements through predictive methods
balance in the root zone. The total irrigation require- or actual soil-moisture monitoring devices and then
ment varies depending on soil salinity, water quality, evaluating the efficacy of the irrigation after the sched-
crop tolerance, and the amount of water supplied by uled amount has been applied.
rainfall.
58 E s ta b l i s h i n g the V i n e ya r d
Table 8.1 Factors to consider in selecting an irrigation system (limitations of systems)

Surface flood systems Low-volume systems

Sprinkler system
Factor (solid set) Graded border Level border Furrow Drip Micro-sprinkler

Maximum slope
Irrigation direction None 0.2–2.0 0.0 1.0–2.0 None None
Cross-slope None 0.2 0.2 6.0 None None

Soil characteristics
Water intake (in/hr)
Minimum 0.05 0.30 0.10 0.10 0.02 0.02
Maximum 3.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 None None
Erosion hazard Slight Moderate Slight Severe None Slight
Saline-alkali hazard Slight Moderate Slight Severe Moderate Moderate

Water characteristics
TDS* Severe Slight Slight Moderate Slight Slight
Suspended solids Moderate None None None Severe Severe
Rate of flow Low Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Low

Climatic factors
Temperature-controlled Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Wind-affected Yes No No No No Yes

System costs
Capital ($/acre)† 700–1,200 500–600 500–600 400–500 700–1,100 800–1,200
Labor Low Moderate Moderate High Low Low
Power High Low Low Low Moderate Moderate
Annual average
costs ($/acre/year) 200–300 100–200 100–200 200–300 200–300 200–300

Irrigation efficiency (%)‡ 75–85 70–80 75–80 70–80 80–95 80–95

*Total dissolved solids

†Amortized capital cost plus operation and maintenance costs
‡Consumptive use + applied water = irrigation efficiency, assuming good to excellent management and design

Irrigation Strategy ture, if available. For this strategy, start the season with
a full moisture profile but meet the early- and midsea-
The amount of water that can be applied in a single son requirement by applying frequent irrigations when
application via conventional surface irrigation (that is, the soil moisture is well above 50 percent depletion.
flood, furrow, or border irrigation) or, to some extent, This preserves deep-profile moisture for later use dur-
sprinkler irrigation, depends upon the ability of the ing high-requirement summer months or during har-
soil to absorb water. For minimum disease problems vest when water infiltration is more difficult.
and maximum vineyard life, surface irrigation water With any strategy, the total water requirement is
should be absorbed by the soil within a maximum of met through stored winter rainfall, irrigation, and in-
24 to 48 hours. season rainfall. The most effective way to use these
Many growers with surface or sprinkler systems water resources is to construct a water budget that
allow the root zone moisture to deplete to near 50 per- includes estimates of crop consumptive water use.
cent of the available soil moisture, and then irrigate
with enough water to refill most or all of the root zone.
Unfortunately, some California soils do not absorb
water at a rate sufficient to refill the root zone within Irrigation Methods
48 hours. To ensure the vine’s successful growth and
production, growers must use alternate strategies. One If not constrained by physical limitations, a typical rai-
strategy would be to use shorter irrigations (to prevent sin vineyard can use surface, sprinkler, and micro-irri-
ponding or soil saturation) that are applied more fre- gation (drip and low-volume sprinkler) technologies.
quently to meet the vine’s water requirement. Each system can supply water adequately if designed
Another strategy capitalizes on the vine’s ability to and managed properly. All systems should be designed
preferentially use a greater portion of the shallow mois- with the capacity to deliver enough water during the
 C h a p t e r 8: V i n e ya r d I rr i g at i o n S y s t e m s 59

peak use period to meet crop requirement, maintain 5.0 Initial Rate
the salt balance or required leaching fraction, and com-

Infiltrated water (in/hr)

pensate for system inefficiencies.
Water should be applied as uniformly as possible.
This is most important in young vineyards. If irriga-
tion exceeds the basic intake rate of the soil, runoff or
saturated conditions will result. With micro-irrigation,
the wetted areas should be large enough to provide for
optimum nutrient uptake and physiological health.
0.2 Basic Rate

Soil-controlled water intake. All irrigation methods fit 1 2 3 4 5

into one of two categories: those for which the soil’s Time (hours)
rate of water intake is governed by soil conditions, Figure 8.1 Typical water infiltration characteristics
and those for which is it governed by the method of
application. With surface irrigation, water is applied
to the soil surface and gravity moves the water across mechanical devices such as nozzles and emitters to
the field. The soil conditions control both the rate at control the water application rate. Systems of this type
which water enters the soil and the uniformity of its apply water at near to or below the basic infiltration
distribution down the length of the field. As irriga- rate (Figure 8.1), reducing the potential for runoff. In
tion begins, water enters the soil at a high rate, pri- general, they apply less water per unit of time than sur-
marily because the soil is dry and soil pores are easily face systems, and they often require longer or more fre-
accessible. As irrigation proceeds, the infiltration rate quent application periods to meet the vineyard’s water
declines rapidly. After a few hours, the basic or sus- requirement. When watering soils that have water
tained rate becomes of greatest importance. Figure 8.1 infiltration problems or when using systems with high
shows the typical relationship between the water’s rate application rates, the irrigation session should end
of infiltration into the soil and the length of time the when surface ponding indicates that applied water
soil is under surface irrigation. A soil’s water intake has exceeded the intake rate. This will reduce runoff
characteristics depend on the soil’s own physical and and saturated soil conditions. An effective design in an
chemical composition as well as the chemical compo- application-controlled irrigation system reduces the
sition of the applied water. effect of variable opportunity time and infiltration rate
To ensure even distribution over the length of the variability caused by spatial variability.
field, you can increase the water on-flow rate to a given
furrow or border and thus advance the water quickly
down the furrow, making the intake opportunity time
more equal over the field. This approach has the dis- Surface Irrigation
advantage that excess runoff can result while you wait
for the minimum opportunity time to occur when the The on-farm irrigation efficiency of surface irrigation
water is too-slowly absorbed by the soil. Therefore, by varies from 40 to 80 percent. Irrigation efficiency is the
increasing the on-flow rate you increase distribution ratio of the volume of beneficially used water to the
uniformity, but must deal with more runoff. One solu- total volume of water applied. Higher efficiency can be
tion is to recover and recycle runoff water using a tail- achieved by adjusting the length of run or stream size
water recovery system; another is to reduce the flow to or by using a tailwater return system. Water distribu-
the individual furrow or border check after the water tion uniformity throughout the length of an individual
reaches the end of the field. A good rule of thumb is strip, even when the land is uniform and well graded,
that the water should reach the end of the field in one- rarely approaches 70 percent. If fills from land grading
half the total irrigation time. exceed the normal discing depth, uniform water move-
Spatial variability, another component of uneven ment may be impaired. Cuts and fills often create com-
water intake distribution, is more difficult to address paction and interface problems in a soil profile. Small
because factors such as soil texture, structure, chem- amounts of water can usually be applied more success-
istry, and compaction, and a variety of other poorly fully with furrows than with a border system.
understood phenomena, vary widely even in a vine- The use of surface irrigation may affect certain pest
yard that appears to be uniform. problems. Field access for cultural operations such as
powdery mildew control can be limited after irriga-
Application-controlled water intake. Sprinkler and low- tion. Water delivered from canals may contain weed
volume methods such as drip and micro-sprinklers use seeds and may contribute to the spread of pathogens
through the vineyard as water moves across the soil
60 E s ta b l i s h i n g the V i n e ya r d

surface. The major types of surface irrigation are border Advantages. The cost of grading lands for a furrow sys-
and furrow irrigation. tem is minimal, especially when the slope is too great
for border irrigation. The system may use pipeline or
Border Irrigation an open ditch with plastic or tarpaulin dams; siphon
pipes deliver water to each furrow. More sophisticated
Border irrigation has been successfully used in Califor- systems use gated pipe or underground pipes and short
nia for many years. It requires relatively level ground aboveground pipes that supply water to 12 to 24 fur-
(less than 1 percent slope) and relatively large flows rows each.
of water. Variations on the flood or border system are
square basin, contour basin, contour check, and border Limitations. Furrow irrigation may not be competitive
check—either level or slightly graded. The width and in areas of high-cost water, high water tables, or high
length of the strips, checks, and basins depend upon soil salinity. Furrow irrigation also requires more labor
slope, soil texture, and the stream sizes or onflow time and skilled irrigators, which increase labor costs.
water volume.

Advantages. On relatively flat ground, border irriga-

tion is the least expensive system to install. In a simple Sprinkler Irrigation
system, earthen open ditches with wooden or concrete
turnouts deliver water into irrigation checks or strips. Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on unlevel lands or
A more elaborate system could involve concrete ditch- where there are special soil water conditions or man-
es or plastic or fiber pipelines. Labor costs for water agement requirements. Soil problems include excessive
control are generally moderate, and maintenance of or inadequate water intake rates, limited water holding
pipelines and valves is minimal. capacity, and non-uniform soils. Little new raisin acre-
age uses sprinkler irrigation. Micro-sprinklers have
Limitations. In a border irrigation system, efficient largely replaced sprinklers, and are now commonly
water application is difficult and deep percolation used to ameliorate special soil or water conditions. A
losses can constitute a serious drawback—especially limited water supply, the need for frost protection, or
in permeable soils. Excessive percolation may occur at irrigation automation may also encourage use of this
the upper end of the irrigation run, near the turnouts. system. The sprinkler system should be energy effi-
Soil variability can also cause uneven percolation and cient, utilizing low-pressure sprinklers and minimizing
excessive water losses. Large water flows are required. pumping plant size and friction losses. These systems
Where water is limited or expensive, other irrigation can be operated as separate irrigation sets or they can
methods may be preferable. In heavy-textured soils apply water over the entire vineyard at one time. Sin-
with slow infiltration, the hazard of diseases such as gle-set systems (which irrigate the entire vineyard as
Phytophthora crown and root rot increases with the one set) can be used for frost protection.
likelihood of saturated soil conditions. Small or light Irrigation system selection and design for reduced
irrigations are hard to apply, however, but you may be energy consumption are of increasing importance.
able to overcome this limitation by using alternate-row Until recently, many systems were designed to operate
irrigation. at high pressures and to complete irrigation quickly,
requiring a large pumping unit and large-diameter
Furrow Irrigation piping. This kind of system requires a higher capital
investment, greater energy consumption, and higher
Furrow irrigation is a variant of the border system. The electricity demand charges.
furrows are formed in a variety of shapes that allow While it supplies the same volume of water, a sprin-
water to flow downslope. Furrow irrigation is com- kler system that is designed to use lower operating
monly used on lands that do not exceed a 2 percent pressures can use a smaller pumping plant and thus
slope; erosion usually becomes a serious problem on reduce energy-related costs as well as capital costs. By
steeper slopes. Water and salt movement characteris- reducing the operating pressure of the nozzle from 50
tics in relation to the location of the vine must also be to 35 pounds per square inch (psi), a grower can cut
considered with this method. The water should reach energy costs for water pressurization by 30 percent,
the end of the field in about one-half of the total irriga- assuming there are no other head losses. A reduction
tion time, and you can manipulate that time by con- at the pump from 65 psi down to 50 psi will result in
trolling the outflow volume, slope, number and shape a 23 percent energy cost savings. A reduction in oper-
of furrows, and field length. ating pressure can sometimes result in poor distribu-
tion, but this problem is of greatest concern only while
 C h a p t e r 8: V i n e ya r d I rr i g at i o n S y s t e m s 61

a vineyard is becoming established. Older vineyards Micro-Irrigation

with more extensive root systems are less susceptible
to harm from non-uniform sprinkler water distribu- Micro-irrigation includes drip (trickle) and low-vol-
tion patterns. ume sprinklers (micro-sprinklers). This irrigation
Sprinkler head and nozzle designs have evolved to method relies on the frequent application of low vol-
improve sprinkler performance at low pressures; con- umes of water to a limited soil volume. Water is applied
sider installing these improved devices. Take care when at a point source near a vine through small tubes or
you consider using a low-pressure system on widely mechanical devices called emitters. Drip irrigation
spaced laterals. Lower pressure can result in a smaller emitters can be aboveground or buried.
coverage diameter for each sprinkler, in turn requiring Micro-irrigation techniques have largely replaced
closer sprinkler spacing that can result in higher over- sprinkler systems as a way to overcome soil variabil-
all capital costs. When considering the conversion of a ity, unequal opportunity time, and topographic diffi-
high-pressure system to low-pressure, it is also impor- culties. Micro-irrigation systems can be used to apply
tant that you evaluate all system components for effi- small amounts of water without disrupting vineyard
ciency as well as uniformity. This will ensure savings access and they provide a high degree of control over
as well as system efficiency. Sound, efficient design and vine water status. Micro-irrigation systems provide bet-
proper installation are essential for long-term perfor- ter water distribution and better control of irrigation
mance. time, both of which are preferred when using advanced
irrigation scheduling.
Advantages. Sprinkler irrigation on rough, irregular The volume of soil wetted around the vines by
land eliminates the cost of expensive land grading and micro-irrigation is smaller than for other irrigation
preparations that would be required for surface water methods. Not everyone agrees, but it has been suggest-
distribution. (Extensive grading often exposes subsoils ed that mature vines require that 40 to 60 percent or
that have physical or chemical deficiencies.) Sprinkling more of the soil volume be wetted (young vines require
generally avoids the potential for excessive losses from less). Soils without adequate capillary water move-
deep percolation or surface runoff. Sprinkler systems ment may require more points of emission in order to
are well suited to unlevel lands and lands with low or achieve the required wetted volume. Large, mature,
variable water infiltration characteristics. wider-spaced vines may require as many as three drip
A well-designed, well-managed sprinkler system emitters each on loamy soil. Micro-sprinkler and simi-
should have a more uniform water distribution pat- lar systems distribute the water over a larger surface
tern than a surface irrigation system, and it should area than drip emitters, and so require fewer emitters
minimize deep percolation and water table buildup. per vine.
Single-set sprinklers can also be used for frost protec- Compared to other systems, a properly managed
tion, chemical injection, heat suppression, and spider micro-irrigation system can achieve substantial water
mite mitigation. The labor requirement for a single-set savings. The amount of savings depends on the type
sprinkler irrigation system is generally lower than for of system used for comparison, its design, and its level
other methods of irrigation. of management. However, there may be some savings
due to potential reductions in deep percolation and in
Limitations. The primary limitations on vineyard sprin- evaporation during irrigation and from the soil surface
kler irrigation are the high initial installation cost and after irrigation. The amount of savings is greatest in
continuing high energy costs, which are reflected in young vineyards before the full canopy develops.
high total annual costs. Sprinklers require a dependable
source of electrical power or fuel to generate the water Advantages. Most micro-irrigation installations can
pressure they need in order to operate. Irrigation water help overcome water-supply shortages, high irrigation
must be relatively free of salts, because absorption of water costs, poor, excessive, or variable water infiltra-
salts from water on sprinkled leaves may cause leaf tion, and the irrigation problems posed by growing a
burn. Sprinkling may also limit field access and encour- vineyard on a steep slope. Such systems interfere lit-
age and spread certain diseases. The system should be tle with tillage and can be highly automated, so labor
designed and operated to minimize this effect. requirements are low. Water savings usually result from
reduced runoff, reduced deep percolation, and reduced
evaporation.
62 E s ta b l i s h i n g the V i n e ya r d

Water savings. The water consumed by the vines in a sand, silt, or clay, inorganic chemicals that form precip-
well-irrigated vineyard is the same, regardless of which itates of calcium and iron, or organic material carried
irrigation system is used to apply it. Irrigation methods in the water. When emitters are partially or completely
differ significantly in the volume of water they apply, clogged, emission uniformity decreases. Vines may be
however. Since micro-irrigation systems—and, to some damaged before clogging is detected. Clogging is usu-
extent, sprinkler systems—distribute water relatively ally less of a problem with micro-sprinklers, because of
evenly, less water needs to be applied. their large emission orifices. Also, partial plugging is
Micro-irrigation methods wet less surface area, more detectable with micro-sprinklers because it causes
and so reduce the volume of water lost to evapora- disruption in the wetting pattern. Emitter clogging can
tion from the soil surface. Estimates of water savings be effectively reduced through proper filtration and the
due to reduced evaporation range from 5 to 15 percent use of appropriate chemical treatments. For more infor-
depending on frequency of application and climatic mation, see Schwankl, Hanson, and Prichard (1995),
severity. Buried drip systems lose very little water to listed in References at the end of this chapter.
evaporation or weed growth.
Because less soil surface is wetted by micro-irriga-
tion, total weed growth may be reduced even if weeds
grow vigorously near emitters. Weeds are often diffi- System Evaluation
cult to mow or cultivate near emitters, and may require
herbicides for effective control. System performance should be evaluated at the time of
The water requirements of a developing vineyard installation and annually thereafter, since parts wear and
are less than those of a mature vineyard. The root systems water table levels can change. Sprinklers and micro-irri-
do not quickly develop to utilize water applied in the gation systems are the easiest to evaluate. You can mea-
middles. This water is left to evaporate, deep-percolate, sure the total quantity of water delivered to an area of
or support the growth of weeds. Until canopies are land by monitoring a water meter installed at the well-
fully developed (i.e., until they provide at least 70 per- head. Alternatively, you can perform a pump test or mea-
cent land surface shading at maximum yearly canopy sure the quantity of water delivered to an area of land,
extension), micro-irrigation systems can save signifi- either in gallons per hour (micro-irrigation systems) or
cant amounts of water over full-coverage systems. gallons per minute (sprinklers) at emission points. (This
last method involves considering sprinkler spacing or
Increased usability of high-salt water. With proper the number of micro-irrigation emitters and plant spac-
micro-irrigation techniques, water containing relatively ing.) You can determine the water distribution within
high levels of salts can be used successfully. Salts may the vineyard by measuring the volume discharged from
accumulate at the periphery of the root zone, however, emission points at various locations in the vineyard. The
posing a hazard if they are not removed by rainfall or a best approach is to measure emission points closest to
planned leaching program. During droughts or periods the pump, farthest from the pump, and at the begin-
of saline waters use, monitor salt buildup in the soil ning and end of each lateral. If the volumes of discharge
and conduct an appropriate leaching program. at these points are not within 10 percent of each other,
further investigation is in order. Potential problems can
Energy savings. Micro-irrigation systems typically oper- include poor system design, worn nozzles or emitters,
ate at pressures near 15 psi (measured at the emitter). leaks, misadjusted pressure regulators, clogged filters,
Compared to high-pressure (50 psi) and low-pressure and clogged emitters.
(35 psi) sprinkler systems, the energy requirement Surface systems are more difficult to evaluate, since
for water pressurization of a micro-irrigation system the irrigation water may flow by gravity from a canal or
is about one-third less. Additionally, since micro-irri- low-head pipeline. Pumped sources can be measured
gation systems apply the same amount of water over with meters or pump tests. The quantity of water deliv-
a longer period of time, both pump size and pipe size ered from gravity sources such as canals can be estimat-
can be smaller. This reduces to some extent the capital ed using turnout valve data sheets, weirs, or flumes.
investment and energy demand. Micro-irrigation sys- Although they are not as accurate as water meters, the
tems lend themselves to automation and, when proper- data they provide are better than nothing. Distribution
ly designed, can deliver adequate water during periods within the vineyard is also difficult to evaluate for a
of all-peak electric power. surface system. The best method is for the grower to
measure, at different locations, the depth of soil wet-
Limitations. The clogging of emitter orifices is consid- ted a few days after irrigation. To do this, use a soil
ered one of the most serious problems in micro-irri- auger or 1⁄4-inch rod with a pointed end. Changes in
gation systems. Orifices can be clogged by particles of on-flow volumes and set times can influence average
 C h a p t e r 8: V i n e ya r d I rr i g at i o n S y s t e m s 63

Schwankl, L., B. Hanson, and T. Prichard. 1995. Micro-irri-

water infiltration, distribution uniformity, and irriga- gation for trees and vines. Davis: University of California
tion efficiency. The general characteristics of various Department of Land, Air, and Water Resources/Divi-
types of irrigation systems used in vineyards are listed sion of Agricultural and Natural Resources. Publication
in Table 8.1. 3378.
Schwankl, L., T. Prichard, I. Wellman, and B. Hanson. In
press. Cost of Pressurized Irrigation Systems for Vine-
yards. University of California Division of Agricultural
and Natural Resources.
R e f e r e n c e s

Kelley, K., J. Hasey, and T. Prichard. 1992. Phytophthora

crown and root rot of walnut trees. Oakland: Univer-
sity of California Division of Agricultural and Natural
Resources, Leaflet 21509.