E-Commerce and Cyber Security

Ch-1

 What is E-Commerce?

The term commerce is define as trading of good and services or if 'e' for 'electronic' is added to
this, the definition of e-commerce is defined as trading of goods, services, information or
anything else value b/w two entities over the internet.

Definitions of e – commerce:-

1. It is the ability to conduct business electronically over the internet.

2. It means managing transactions using networking and electronic means.

3. It is a platform for selling products & services via internet.

Characteristics of e-commerce:-

Establishment of B to B relationship.

Electronic payment

Pre and Post- sales support

Exchange of information

Customer relationship management

Features of e-commerce:-

1. Online Transactions:- Facilitates buying and selling over the internet.

2. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI):- Streamlines data exchange between businesses

electronically.

3. Online Marketing and Advertising:- Enables digital promotion and outreach to a global
audience.

4. Inventory Management:- Tracks and manages product stock efficiently.

5. Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT):- Supports electronic payment and financial transactions.

6. Secure Payment Systems:- Ensures safe and encrypted payment processing.

7. Mobile Commerce (m-commerce):- Allows transactions and interactions via mobile devices.

8. Scalability:- Adapts to varying business needs and growth.

9. Data Security and Privacy Measures:- Implements safeguards to protect customer
information and transactions.

Advantages of e-commerce:-

1. Global Reach:- E-commerce enables businesses to reach a global audience.

2. Cost Efficiency:- Online operations often lead to cost savings in rent and staffing.

3. 24/7 Accessibility:- E-commerce platforms provide round-the-clock access for customer

convenience.

4. Personalization:- Businesses can tailor offerings based on customer data, enhancing

satisfaction.

5. Increased Sales:- E-commerce widens the customer base, contributing to higher revenue.

6. Reduced Time and Effort:- Online transactions save time and effort for both businesses and
customers.

7. Flexible Payment Options:- E-commerce lets you pay in different ways, so everyone can
choose what they like.

Disadvantages of e-commerce:-

1. Security:- the security risk in e – commerce can be-

• Client / server risk

• Data transfer and transaction risk

• Virus risk

2. High start up cost:- The various components of cost involved with e – commerce are:-

• Connection: - connection cost to the internet.

• Hardware / software: - this includes cost for computer, modular, routers, etc.

• Maintenance: - this includes cost for training employees and maintenance of webpages.

3. Legal issues:- these issues arises when the customer data fall in hands of strangers.

4. Lack of skilled person:- difficult to find skilled web developers and knowledgeable
professionals to manage and maintain online customers.

5. Delivery Challenges:- Delays in shipping and damaged goods during delivery can affect
customer satisfaction.

6. Can't Touch or Try:- We can't hold or check things before buying, so sometimes we might
not like what we get.
7. Limited Internet Access:- not everyone has internet so some people can't shop online.

 What are the Aims of E-Commerce?

1. Global Reach:- E-commerce enables businesses to reach a global audience.

2. Cost Efficiency:- Online operations often lead to cost savings in rent and staffing.

3. 24/7 Accessibility:- E-commerce platforms provide round-the-clock access for customer

convenience.

4. Personalization:- Businesses can tailor offerings based on customer data, enhancing

satisfaction.

5. Increased Sales:- E-commerce widens the customer base, contributing to higher revenue.

6. Reduced Time and Effort:- Online transactions save time and effort for both businesses and
customers.

7. Flexible Payment Options:- E-commerce lets you pay in different ways, so everyone can
choose what they like.

 Write E-Commerce Framework/Architectural Framework of E-Commerce.

 The term commerce is defined as trading of goods and services or if ‘e’ for ‘electronic’ is
added to this, then the definition of e-commerce is defined as trading of goods, services,
information and anything else value b/w two entities over the internet.

• e-commerce framework consists of a Software framework, which is required for e-

commerce Applications.

• Several e-commerce Applications can be developed using such framework.

• it consists of 4 layers and 2 pillars.

1. Layer-1: iWay Infrastructure:-

it is the foundation layer, consists of hardware and software infrastructure i.e. information
superhighway known as "i-way" is a high-speed network with telephone wires, Optical Fiber
Cable wires, cellular and satellites. i.e. it is a high speed wired or wireless network.

• Millions of systems, communication networks and software form the information

superhighway.

• Such information superhighways carry data, voice, video and other content, around the
world.

2. Layer-2: Multimedia Content and Network Publishing Infrastructure:-

• Multimedia means a combination of different forms of content, such as text, audio,

images, videos, animations, graphics etc.

• in this layer, the multimedia content is developed in the form of webpages. Using all
such webpages, a website is created. This process is known as "Publishing".

• All such webpages consist of URL.

3. Layer-3: Messaging and Information Distribution Infrastructure:-

• in e-commerce different messages/ Information are exchanged or delivered like order

tracking information, item delivered or delayed information etc.

i. Using SMTP for composing and sending an email.

ii. Using FTP different files can be transferred among computers.

iii. Using HTTP the webpages can be delivered.

 iv. the non-formatted data is sent using email.

v. However, formatted data is sent using EDI, with no human intervention.

4. Layer-4: Security Protection in Business Services:-

• the ultimate goal of e-commerce is that the seller gets payment and the buyer gets the
product.

• thus, providing payment security on the web is very important to ensure transaction
security.

• this layer is essential for both business organizations and individuals.

Pillars of e-commerce:

1. Public Policy and Legal Infrastructure:-

• We need clear rules (public policy) for everyone to have fair access, decide on prices
and help with subsidies. The government should make sure our privacy is safe and
everyone can use it. We also need rules to stop cheating and find out if someone is
stealing information.

2. Technical Standard:-

• We need important rules to make sure data can move easily between devices in a
network. It should also let us see the information on any device we like, no matter what
kind, and it should work with different operating systems.

Applications of eCommerce:

• Online Shopping

• Online entertainment

• Supply chain management

• Online games

• Online banking

 Write a note on e-commerce Consumer Applications.

 E-commerce consumer applications have transformed the retail landscape, offering
users convenient and efficient ways to shop online. Key features of these applications
include:
1. Easy Navigation:- E-commerce applications prioritize User-friendly interfaces for simple
and enjoyable navigation.
2. Quick Product Search:- this applications provides efficient search features to find
products easily in extensive catalogs.
3. Personalized Recommendations:-Business can tailor offering based on customer
data, enhancing customer satisfaction.
4. Secure Transactions:- Integration of secure payment gateways for safe user financial
information during transactions.
 5. Order Updates:- Real-time tracking and timely notifications keep users informed about
their order status.
6. User Reviews:- Customer reviews and ratings for informed decision-making.
7. Mobile-Friendly:- Optimization for mobile devices, ensuring a smooth shopping
experience on smartphones and tablets.
 Write a note on e-Commerce Organizational Applications.
 E-commerce organizational applications are essential tools that businesses uses to
enhance their operations in the digital landscape. Key features include:
1. Inventory Management:- Tracks and manages product stock efficiently.
2. Order Processing and Fulfillment:- Streamlining order processes for swift and efficient
handling.
3. Customer Relationship Management (CRM):- Centralizing customer data to enhance
relationships and preferences understanding.
4. Supply Chain Optimization:- Enhancing coordination for a more efficient procurement
and distribution network.
5. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP):- Integrating key processes seamlessly for
overall organizational efficiency.
6. Data Analytics and Business Intelligence:- Utilizing analytics for smart insights into
customer behavior and market trends.
7. Payment Processing Systems:- Ensuring secure and smooth financial transactions for
a positive customer experience.

 What is M-Commerce?

M-commerce, stand for mobile commerce, refers to the buying and selling of goods and
services through mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. It includes mobile shopping,
banking, and digital payments, making use of the convenience of wireless handheld devices for
transactions.

Features of M-Commerce:

1. Easy Shopping Apps:- Apps for quick and easy shopping on your phone.
2. Phone-Friendly Websites:- Websites that work smoothly on your mobile for easy
browsing and shopping.
3. Phone Banking:- Doing banking stuff like checking balances on your phone.
4. Digital Wallets:- Safe ways to pay with your phone for things you buy.
5. Location Perks:- Getting special deals and info based on where you are with your
phone.
6. Ping Alerts:-Instant messages on your phone for sales, discounts, and news.
7. Accessibility:- M-commerce provides users with the ability to access products and
services anytime, anywhere, as long as they have a mobile device and an internet
connection.

Advantages of M-Commerce:

1. Convenience:- Enables transactions anytime, anywhere.

 2. Accessibility:- M-commerce provides users with the ability to access products and
services anytime, anywhere, as long as they have a mobile device and an internet
connection.
3. Personalization:- Businesses can tailor offerings based on customer data, enhancing
satisfaction.
4. Efficiency:- Facilitates quick transactions, saving users time.
5. Financial Inclusion:- Provides banking access to those without traditional options.
6. Instant Communication:- Sends real-time updates through push notifications.
7. Global Reach:- enables businesses to reach a global audience.

Disadvantages of M-Commerce:

1. Security:- Risk of data breaches and unauthorized access.

2. Limited Screen Size:- Smaller screens can be challenging for transactions.
3. Internet Dependency:- Heavily reliant on a stable internet connection.
4. Fraud Susceptibility:- Increased risk of mobile fraud and phishing scams.
5. Battery Drainage:- Intensive app usage may lead to quicker battery consumption.
6. User Experience Challenges:- Some users find mobile interfaces less intuitive.
7. Privacy:- Worries about how personal data is collected and used by mobile apps.

 What is JIT inventory? Write its Advantages and Disadvantages?

 JIT, or Just-In-Time, inventory is a management strategy used in manufacturing and
supply chain management to improve efficiency and reduce costs. The basic idea
behind JIT is to produce and deliver goods or services just in time to meet customer
demand, without carrying excess inventory or overproduction.
 JIT manufacturing was a concept introduced to US by Ford motor company.
 JIT makes things when people want to buy them, unlike the old way that made things
based on guesses. It's like baking cookies only when someone asks, instead of making
a bunch hoping they sell.
 Under JIT manufacturing, actual orders dictate what should be manufactured, so that the
exact quantity is produced at the exact time that is required.
 JIT manufacturing goes in hand in hand with concepts of Kanban, continuous
improvement and total quality management(TQM).
 JIT production needs careful planning for buying materials and making things to
succeed.
 Highly advanced technology, like scheduling software and electronic data exchange,
supports JIT manufacturing by providing essential backup. It's like having smart tools to
keep everything in order.

Advantages of JIT inventory

1. Cost Savings: JIT reduces the need for large inventories, saving money on storage and
holding costs.
2. Efficiency: JIT streamlines production processes, making them more efficient and
responsive to demand.
 3. Quality Improvement: JIT's focus on continuous improvement often results in higher
product quality.
4. Quick Response: JIT enables businesses to respond rapidly to changes in customer
demand.
5. Flexibility: JIT systems are adaptable, allowing for quick changes in production volume
and product mix.
6. Increased Productivity: JIT aims to eliminate bottlenecks and inefficiencies, boosting
overall productivity.
7. Customer Satisfaction: JIT's ability to meet customer demand promptly contributes to
higher satisfaction levels.

Disadvantages of JIT inventory

1. Supply Delays: JIT falters if suppliers don't deliver on time.

2. Limited Backup: JIT lacks extra supplies, so problems can cause disruptions.
3. Supplier Dependency: It heavily relies on reliable suppliers; mistakes from them can
disrupt production.
4. Higher Transportation Costs: Frequent small deliveries in JIT can be more expensive
for transportation.
5. Quality Risks: Issues with incoming materials can disrupt production in JIT.
6. Employee Stress: The precision of JIT can stress out workers.
7. Implementation Difficulty: Switching to JIT can be challenging for companies and
employees.

 Diff. b/w Traditional Commerce and E-Commerce.

Traditional Commerce E-Commerce

It is carried out by face-to-face, telephone lines It is carried out by internet or other network
or mail system communication technology

Processing of transaction is manual Processing of transaction is automatic

Customers can interact with other customers Customers cannot interact with other
and gain feedback about merchant from other customers.
customers.

It is not available all the time It is available 24*7*365 hours

It is slow method It is fast method

Delivery of goods is instant Delivery of goods takes time

Eg: local retail shops, Coffee shop, Bakery etc Eg: Amazon, Flipkart , Myntra, etc

Ch-2
  What is Information Way or information superhighway?
 It is the foundation layer, consists of hardware and software infrastructure i.e.
information superhighway known as "i-way" is a high-speed network with telephone
wires, Optical Fiber Cable wires, cellular and satellites. i.e. it is a high speed wired or
wireless network.
 I-way is also known as National Information Infrastructure(NII) in US, Data-Dori in Japan
and Malaya in Malaysia.

• Millions of systems, communication networks and software form the information

superhighway.

• Such information superhighways carry data, voice, video and other content, around the
world.

Components of I-Way:-

 Information superhighway technology has main three components:-

a) Network Access(Consumer Access) Equipment
b) Local on-Ramps
c) Global Information Distribution Network

a) Network Access(Consumer Access) Equipment:

o This is the first component of i-way infrastructure.
o Access equipment component of i-way includes software and hardware vendors, who
provides physical devices such as router and switches, access devices such as
computer and setup box as well as software platforms such as OS and browser.
o It consists of various devices crucial for connecting computer and devices to a network.
i) Router: Directs internet traffic b/w devices at your home or offices. Eg: Wifi
router at home.
ii) Switches: Lets devices in your home or offices talk to each other directly.
Eg: Connect computers and printers at the same place
iii) Modem: Helps your computer to connects to internet. Eg: DSL or cable modem
 iv) Access Point: Makes your devices connects to internet wirelessly. Eg: Wifi box
for phone and laptops
v) Network Interface card: Connect your device with the internet. Eg: Built-in or
added hardware for Ethernet or Wifi
vi) Gateways: Connect different types of networks together. Eg: A router that
connect your home network to the internet.
vii) Firewalls: A firewall is a security system that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. Eg: Secure
Software/Hardware that blocks harmful internet traffic.
b) Local on-ramps:
o This is the Second component of Information Superhighway technology.
o Local on-ramps component of i-way is the interface b/w consumer or business
premises equipment and communication backbone or satellite network.
o The providers of access on ramp can be distributed in four categories.
i. Telecom based infrastructure
It is the basic foundation of I-way.
It facilitates high speed transfer of various forms of information including text,
video and more across locations.
ii. Cable TV based infrastructure
It is the very fast foundation of I-way.
Mostly used to transfer the popular broad casting to home.
iii. Wireless infrastructure
It is another popular infrastructure now a day.
It is radio or cellular based infrastructure is used to transfer data using wireless
technologies.
iv. Communication online infrastructure
It has became the global information Distribution network in current era.
It is most popular and used infrastructure for all e-transaction in the world of
internet.
c) Global Information Distribution Network
o it is the third component of information superhighway technology.
o Most of the infrastructure for i-way is already exist in large network of fiber optic
standards.
o This includes long distance telephone lines, satellite networks and the internet.

 Explain Transaction Models.

 Commercial or sales transaction that takes place b/w two different entities online or over
the internet is known as Transaction Models.
 It is also known as business model or categories of e-commerce transaction.
 It is commonly classified as follows:

B2B B2C

C2B C2C

B2G G2B
 G2G

1) B2B
o Stands for Business-to-Business.
o In B2B e-commerce transaction, one business organization sales its products to
another business organization online are known as Business to Business
transaction model.
o B2B transaction model describes online buying and selling transaction b/w
businesses such as in b/w manufacturer and wholesaler, in b/w wholesaler and
merchant.
o In B2B e-commerce transactions both buyers and sellers are business entities,
examples manufacturer, wholesaler, merchant, suppliers, traders etc.

Benefits of B2B model:

 Encourage businesses online.

 To increase import and export of Products.
 Define buyers as well as suppliers.
2) B2C
o Stands for Business-to-Consumer.
o In B2C e-commerce transaction, one business organization sales its products to
consumer online are known as Business to Consumer transaction model.
o B2C transaction model describes online buying and selling transaction b/w
business organization and consumer such as in b/w manufacturer to consumer,
wholesaler to consumer, merchant to consumer.
o In B2C e-commerce transactions buyers are consumer entities and sellers are
business entities, examples manufacturer, wholesaler, merchant, suppliers,
traders are business entities and customers are consumer entities.
 Benefits of B2C model:

 Encourage businesses online.

 To increase direct interactions with customers.
 Define suppliers(as a business) as well as customer.
3) C2B
o Stands for Consumer-to-Business.
o In C2B e-commerce transaction, consumer sales its products to business
organization online are known as Consumer to Business transaction model.
o C2B transaction model describes online buying and selling transaction b/w
consumer and business organization such as in b/w consumer to manufacturer,
consumer to wholesaler, consumer to merchant.
o In C2B e-commerce transactions buyers are business entities and sellers are
consumer entities, examples manufacturer, wholesaler, merchant, suppliers,
traders are business entities and customers are consumer entities.

Benefits of C2B model:

 Encourage customer to sells its product online.

 To increase online business for customers to companies.
 Define suppliers(as a customer) as well as buyers(as a business).
4) C2C
o Stands for Consumer-to-Consumer.
o In C2C e-commerce transaction, consumer sales its products to another
consumer online are known as Consumer to Consumer transaction model.
o C2C transaction model describes online buying and selling transaction b/w
consumers.
o In C2C e-commerce transactions both buyers and sellers are consumer entities,
examples both buyer and seller are customers.
 Benefits of C2C model:

 Encourage customer to sells its product online to consumer.

 To increase online business for customers to customers.
 Define suppliers(as a customer) as well as buyers(as a customer).
5) B2G
o Stands for Business-to-Government.
o In B2G e-commerce transaction, one business organization sales its products to
government online are known as Business to Government transaction model.
o B2G transaction model describes online buying and selling transaction b/w
business organization and government.
o In B2G e-commerce transactions buyers are government entities and sellers are
business entities.

Benefits of B2G model:

 Encourage online business with government.

 To increase direct interaction with government.
 Define suppliers(as a business) as well as buyers(as a government).
6) G2B
o Stands for Government-to-Business.
o In G2B e-commerce transaction, government sales its products to business
organization online are known as Government to Business transaction model.
o G2B transaction model describes online buying and selling transaction b/w
government and business organization.
o In G2B e-commerce transactions buyers are business entities and sellers are
government entities.

Benefits of G2B model:

  Encourage online business with government.
 To increase online business for government to companies.
 Define suppliers(as a government) as well as buyers(as a business).
7) G2G
o Stands for Government-to-Government.
o In G2G e-commerce transaction, government sales its products to government
online are known as Government to Government transaction model.
o G2G transaction model describes online buying and selling transaction b/w
government to government.
o In G2G e-commerce transactions both buyers and sellers are government
entities, example central government selling products to state government.

Benefits of G2B model:

 Encourage online business in b/w governments.

 To increase direct interaction of government to government.
 Define suppliers(as a government) as well as buyers(as a government).

 What is e-Commerce Payment Systems or Electronic payment system?

 When we purchase product or service online, then we pay for them with the help of
electronic payment system.
 In this method payment is done without using cash or paper cheque is known as e-
commerce payment system.
 It is a system which allows the customers to pay online for products and services over
the internet without the use of cash or cheque.
 There are different types of e-commerce payment system modes are as follows:
a) Debit Card
o A debit card is a payment card linked to a bank account, enabling direct transactions
and cash withdrawals. It deducts funds from the associated account, unlike credit
cards.
o Bank provides a Debit card to the bank account holder. Debit card is a small plastic
card.
o They are often branded with the logo of a major credit card company, such as Visa
or Mastercard, and can be used in a similar way to credit cards.
o When a consumer uses a debit card to make a purchase, the funds are transferred
from the cardholder's bank account to the merchant's account.
Steps involves in the process of debit card:
 Application: the cardholder applies for a debit card, and bank assesses account
information to approve or deny the application.
Activation: Upon approval, the bank sends a physical debit card with activation
instructions, typically require a phone call or online visit by cardholder.
Use: the cardholder can use the approved debit card for purchase at merchant
accepting the corresponding debit card network.
Authorization: the merchant submits the purchase to card issuer’s network, upon
approval; an authorization code is sent to confirm transactions based on cardholder’s
available balance.
Settlement: Funds are transferred from the cardholder’s account to merchant’s,
reducing the cardholder’s bank balance by purchase amount.
Reconciliation: the cardholder reconcile their bank account by reviewing the
statement reflecting debit card transactions.
o Debit card lacks credit features, allowing spending within their available account
balance without interest charges, as transactions use existing funds.
b) Credit Card
o A credit card works by allowing cardholder to borrow funds up to certain limits for
their purchases or withdraw cash.
o A cardholder is responsible for repaying the funds, plus any interest charges.
o Credit card is a small plastic card with unique account number.
o It has also magnetic strip embedded in it which is used to read credit card via
card readers.
Steps involves in the process of credit card:
Application: the cardholder applies for a credit card, and bank assesses the
account information to approve or deny the application.
Activation: Upon approval, the bank sends a physical credit card with activation
instruction, typically require a phone call or online visit by cardholder.
Use: the cardholder can use the approved credit card for purchase at merchant,
accepting the corresponding to credit card network.
Authorization: the merchant sends the purchase to the card issuer’s network,
upon approval; an authorization code is sent to confirm transaction based on the
cardholder’s available balance.
Billing: the card issuer bills the cardholder at the end of billing cycle, who can
either pay the full balance at due date or make minimum payment leading to
interest charges for carrying over the balance.
Payment: the cardholder will be responsible for making payments on the credit
card account, including any interest charges.
o Credit card networks like Visa or MasterCard facilitate transactions, ensuring
proper fund transfer and providing fraud protection by detecting and preventing
unauthorized transactions.
c) E-Cash
o E-cash or electronic cash refers to the digital form of currency that enables online
transaction and represents a value equivalent to physical cash.
 o It is designed to mimic fxnality of physical cash, providing a way for users to
make private, untraceable payments.
o E-cash typically takes the form of digital token or digital file that is stored in user’s
computer or mobile device.
o When the user wants to make a payment, they provide the e-cash token or file to
the merchant, who then verifies the authenticity of e-cash and processes the
transaction.
o There are different types of e-cash systems, some of them are based on digital
signature which provide a way to ensure the authenticity of e-cash and prevent
fraud.
o Other types of e-cash are based on encryption technology, that provide a way to
protect the privacy of users.
o E-cash has been around for decades but it never really took off, this is because
of the popularity of credit cards and online payment systems like PayPal, which
have similar features and are more widely accepted by merchants.
o Additionally, the development of block chain and crypto currency has opened
new possibilities for digital transactions that provide similar features to e-cash.
d) E-Cheque
o E-Cheque or electronic cheque refers to the digital form of traditional paper
cheque, allowing for fund transfer with similar fxnality and authorization
processes.
o An E-Cheque is created when the payer’s bank account is debited and fund is
transferred to payee’s bank account electronically.
o It uses Automated Clearing House(ACH) network to transfer funds.
o E-Cheque works similarly to paper Cheque. The payers provides their bank
account information including routing and account number.
o The payee initiates the eCheque which debits the fund from payer’s account and
transfer them to payee’s account.
o The process can take several days for the funds to clear, just like traditional
paper cheque.
o E-Cheques are secure and cost-effective payment method, processed through
secure ACH network with strict regulations in place to prevent frauds.
o They can be used for variety of transactions such as paying bills, making online
purchases and funding online accounts.
o eCheques can be processed online via e-commerce payment or via automated
clearing house that allows businesses or individual to process payment
electronically.
o They are widely accepted and used by merchants and businesses.
e) E-Wallet
o An e-wallet is a digital tool that securely stores and manages the user’s financial
information, allowing electronic transactions and online payment.
o It stores information like credit card number, shipping address and account
balances in one secure place.
 o This information can be used to purchase online, in store or though mobile
devices.
o E-wallets takes the form of physical devices such as card or key fob, or it can be
an app or website that can be accessed through a computer or mobile devices.
o They can be linked to specific bank account, credit card or debit card, or they can
be pre-loaded with the certain amount of money.
o Users can use their e-wallets to make purchases online in store as well as pay
bills and transfer money to other people and make other types of transactions.
o Some e-wallets also offers the rewards and cashback for using the services.
o Popular examples of e-wallets are Apple Pay, Google Pay, PayPal. These e-
wallets are widely accepted and used by merchants, both online and in-store.
o They offers an extra layer of security as the payment information is not shared
directly with the merchants.
f) Risks and EPS
o Electronic payment system such as online banking, making payment and digital
wallets have become increasingly popular in recent years due to their
convenience and ease use.
o However, with this increased usage there are also potential risks associated with
electronic payment system.
o Some of the risks includes:
i. Fraud: electronic payment systems are vulnerable to frauds such as phishing
scams where criminals try to steal personal and financial information.
ii. Hacking: electronic payment systems are also vulnerable to hacking, which
can lead to unauthorized access to personal and financial information.
iii. Data breaches: electronic payment systems store sensitive personal and
financial information which can be exposed in the event of data breaches.
iv. Technical problems: electronic payment systems are also prone to technical
problem, such as system failure or glitches, which can be results in delays or
errors in processing of transactions.
v. Privacy: electronic payment systems may also raise privacy concerns, as
use of digital transactions can be tracked and recorded, thus exposing
personal information.
o To stay safe when using electronic payment, choose systems with strong security like
encryptions and secure servers. Always be careful about your personal and financial
information. Check your account statement regularly, and report it if anything found
suspicious to prevent fraud.
 Define EFT
o EFT stands for Electronic Fund transfer. It is the digital transaction method that involves
the electronic transfer of money from one bank account to another, typically done
through computer systems and networks.
 Define HTTP
o HTTP(Hypertext transfer protocol) is a fundamental protocol for data communication on
the World Wide Web, allowing exchange of information b/w web servers and clients.
o It operates over the communication channel, typically the internet, and the basis for data
communication in the form of hypertext, enabling the retrieval and display of web pages.
 Explain security on Web.
o Security is a critical concerns for electronic payment system such as credit card, debit
card, e-wallet, e-Cheque and smart card, as they involve the transfer of sensitive
financial information over the internet.
o To protect against fraud and unauthorized transactions, EPS provides employ a variety
of security measures, including:

Encryption: EPS providers utilize encryption to safeguards transmitted sensitive information

over the internet, preventing hackers from intercepting and reading it.

Secure Socket Layer(SSL) or Transport Layer Security(TLS): this protocols are used to
create secure connection b/w user’s web browser and EPS providers website, preventing
eavesdropping and tampering of information during transaction.

Two-factor authentication: this requires users to provide two forms of identifications in

order to access their account, such as password and on-time code sent to their phone.

Risk Management: EPS providers use advanced algorithm and machine learning for real
time fraud detection, monitoring transaction and applying fraud scoring to identify high risk
activities.

PCI-DSS Compliance: Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard compliance is a set
of security standard that ensures the merchants, service providers and other organizations
that handle the credit card and debit card information to maintain a secure environment.

o It also important for users to take steps to protect their own information, such as keeping
your computer and mobile device secure, avoiding phishing scams and being wary of
giving out personal information online.
o Overall, EPS providers use variety of security measures to protect user’s information.

 What is SSL? Write its advantages?

o Stands for Secure Socket Layer.
o It is a security protocol which is used to establish secure and encrypted connection b/w
web server and web browser. The purpose of SSL is to ensure that all the data passed
b/w web server and browser remains private and integral.
o This protocol is designed by Netscape Communication to enable encrypted and
authenticated communications over the internet.
o SSL mainly used to provide three important things like Privacy, Authentication and
Message Integrity.

Advantages:

1. Data Encryption: Secures data during transmission, protecting it from unauthorized

access.
2. Authentication: Validates the identity of websites, ensuring users connect to legitimate
servers.
3. Data Integrity: Guarantees that information remains unchanged during transfer,
preventing tampering.
4. Trust and Credibility: Indicates a secure connection with padlock symbols, fostering
user confidence.
5. Privacy: Helps businesses meet data protection and privacy regulations.
6. Compatibility: Widely supported across browsers and devices for a seamless user
experience.
7. Secure Transactions: Integration of secure payment gateways for safe user financial
information during transactions.

 Explain protocols of SSL

o Stands for Secure Socket Layer.
o It is a security protocol which is used to establish secure and encrypt connection b/w
web browsers and servers.
o The purpose of SSL is to ensure that all the data passed b/w web servers and
browsers remains private and integral.
o It has four protocols: SSL record protocol, Handshake protocol, Change-Chiper spec
protocol, Alert protocol.

a) SSL Record Protocol:

 The SSL Record Protocol is a component of SSL protocol that is responsible for
the fragmentation, compression and data encryption exchange b/w server and
client. It works in conjunction with SSL Handshake Protocol and SSL Change
Chiper Spec Protocol to establish a secure connection and exchange data.
 The main component of SSL Record Protocol includes:
Record Layer: this is the layer that provides a core security services of the SSL
protocol, including data fragmentation, compression and encryption.
Data fragment: The Record Protocol fragments data for encryption to avoid
exceeding the underlying network's maximum transmission unit (MTU).
 Data compression: The Record Protocol can enhance performance by applying
data compression to application data before encryption, reducing the transmitted
data volume.
Data Encryption: SSL Record Protocol encrypts application data using
symmetric key encryption, determined during the SSL Handshake Protocol.
Data Integrity: The SSL Record Protocol uses a message authentication code
(MAC) to ensure that the data has not been tampered during transmission
Data format: The SSL Record Protocol defines a specific data format,
incorporating SSL version, data length, the data itself, and a MAC for integrity
verification.
b) Handshake Protocol:
 The SSL Handshake Protocol is the component of SSL protocol that is responsible
for the establishment of secure connection b/w server and client. It works in
conjunction with the SSL Record Protocol and SSL Change Chiper Spec Protocol to
establish a secure connection and exchange data.
 The main component of SSL Handshake Protocol includes:
Client Hello: The SSL Client Hello message initiates the handshake, conveying
client's SSL version, supported cipher suites, and a random number called the client
random.
Server Hello: The SSL Server Hello message responds to the Client Hello, providing
the server's SSL version, chosen cipher suite, and a random number called the
server random.
Certificate: The Server Certificate message delivers the server's digital certificate,
containing server identity information and a public key for data encryption to the
client.
Server Key Exchange: The Server Key Exchange message is sent optionally by the
server when it lacks a certificate or when the certificate lacks the public key.
Server Hello Done: This is the message sent by the server to indicate that the
server hello and certificate message are finished.
Client Key Exchange: The Client Key Exchange message sent after the Server
hello done, delivers pre-master secret for shared session key.
Change Chiper Spec: The Change Chiper Spec message signal both client and
server that all the future messages encrypted with the session key.
Finished: This message is send by both client and server to indicate the completion
of SSL Handshake.
 Once the SSL Handshake is completed, the SSL Record Protocol is used to encrypt
and decrypt data exchanged between the client and server.
c) Change Chiper Spec Protocol:
 This protocol uses SSL Record Protocol, Unless SSL Handshake Protocol is
completed, the SSL record Output will be in pending state.
 After handshake Protocol the Pending state is converted into Current state.
 Change Chiper protocol consists of single message which is 1 byte in length and can
have one value only.
  This protocol purpose is to cause the pending state to be converted in to current
state.
d) Alert Protocol:
 This protocol is used to convey SSL-related alerts to the peer entity.
 Each message in this protocols consists two bytes.
 Level is further classified in two parts:
i) Warning: This Alert have no impact on the connection b/w sender and receiver.
ii) Fatal Error: This Alert breaks the connection b/w sender and receiver.

Ch-3

 Define Cyber Crime.

 Cybercrime is criminal activity that either target or uses the computer, a computer
network or networked devices. Most, but not all, the cyber crime is committed by
cybercriminals or hackers who want to make money.
 Distinction b/w Traditional Crime and Cyber Crime.

Traditional Crime Cyber Crime

Crimes in the physical world without digital Crimes using digital technology, internet or
technology. computer systems.

Occurs in physical world Occurs in virtual or digital world

Involves physical actions and objects. Relies on computer network and electronic
devices.

Offenders are usually geographically localized. Offenders may operate from anywhere globally.

May take time and involve direct physical Can happen quickly and remotely.
presence.

Evidence like fingerprint, DNA and eyewitness Evidence like digital trails, log and electronic
records are common

Investigation Involves traditional forensic and Investigation Involves digital forensics and
surveillance cybersecurity tools.

Example: Theft, Robbery, assault Example: Hacking, identity theft, online fraud.

 Write Category of Cyber Crimes

 Cybercrimes is a criminal activity that either target or uses computer, a computer
network or networked devices. Most, but not all, the cyber crimes are committed by
criminals or hackers who wants money.
 Cyber crime is classified in four groups:
a) Crime against Individual: Crimes that are committed by the cyber criminals against the
individual or a person. Few cybercrimes against individual are:
i) E-mail spoofing: Email spoofing is one that appears originate from one source
but actually sent from another source.
ii) Phishing: Phishing is a online strategy aiming to trick individual into revealing
sensitive information by posing as a trustworthy entity.
iii) Cyber stalking: Cyber Stalking is a crime where someone keeps bothering and
following you online, making you feel scared or upset and harasses you.
iv) Password Sniffing: Password sniffing is a unauthorized capture of password by
intercepting and monitoring data traffic on a network.
v) Defamation: Cyber defamation is when people spread false and harmful things
about someone on internet to harm their reputation badly.
b) Crime against Property: Crimes that are committed by cyber criminals against the
property involves unauthorized actions targeting digital assets such as hacking, data
breaches or online theft. Few cybercrimes against Property are:
i) Credit Card Fraud: this happens when someone(fraudster or thief) uses your
stolen credit card or the information from that card to make unauthorized
purchases in your name or take out cash in advances using your account.
ii) Intellectual Crime: Intellectual crime involves unauthorized and unlawful use or
theft of intellectual property such as copyright, patents or trade secrets.
iii) Internet Time theft: it refers to the theft in a manner where unauthorized person
uses internet hours paid by another person. The unauthorized person gets the
access to another person’s ISP user ID and password. Either by hacking or by
illegal means without that person’s knowledge.
c) Crime against Organization: Crime done to threaten the international government or
any organization using internet facilities. These cybercrimes are known as Crime against
organization. These crimes are committed to spread terror among people. Cyber
terrorism referred as crime against Government. Cyber crime against government
includes cyber attack on the government website, military website, cyber terrorism etc.
 Unauthorized access over the computer system.
 Cybercrimes against the government organization.
 Distribution of Pirate software.
 Possession of unauthorized information.
d) Crime against Society: those crimes that affect the society interest at large are known
as crime against society, which include:
i) Forgery: when a offender alter the document stored in computerized form, then
crime committed may be forgery. In this instance, the computer systems are
target of criminal activity. Computers, however, can also be used as instruments
which commit forgery.
ii) Child pornography: cyber pornography arises from technological advancement,
involving the creation, distribution or design of explicit content in cyberspace,
facilitated by internet access for viewing and uploading on mobile devices and
laptop.
 iii) Sale of illegal articles: this would include sale of narcotics, weapons and wildlife
etc., by posting information on website, bulletin boards or simply by using email
communication.
 Define Unauthorized Access.
 Unauthorized access refers to the act of gaining entry into computer system, network
or data without proper permission or authorization, violating security protocols and
leading to potential misuse or data breaches.
 Define Hacking
 Hacking is the unauthorized access, manipulation or exploitation of computer
system, network or data, done with the intent of gaining information, causing
damage.

Types of Hacking:

i) Website Hacking: hacking website means taking control from the Website
owner to a person who hacks the website.
ii) Network Hacking: it is generally means gathering information about domain by
using tools like telnet, Ns look UP, Ping, Netstat etc. Over the network.
iii) Password Hacking: Password hacking involves gaining unauthorized access to
protected systems such as email, bank account, server, computer etc.,
recovering secret password from stored and transmitted data.

Hacking Methods:

A typical attacker works in following manner:

 Identify a target system

 Gather information about target system
 Find a possible loophole in target system
 Exploiting the loophole with exploit code
 Removing all traces from the log files and exit without trace.

What should we done after hacked?

 Shutdown the system and turn on the system.

 Separate the system from the network
 Connect the system from the network
 Restore the system with the backup or reinstall all programs
 It can be good to call police

Advantage:

Can be used to recover lost information when the computer password has been lost.

To test how good security is on your own network

Disadvantage:
Criminals can use it for their advantage

It can harm someone privacy

It’s illegal

 Define Malware.
 Malware is a malicious software designed to harm or exploit computer system,
network or user-data.
 It includes Trojan, Viruses, Sypware, Worm attacks etc.
 Malware aims to gain unauthorized access, steal information and cause damage.
 Protection involves antivirus software, firewalls, updates and user awareness.
 Define Trojan.
 Trojan horse, or Trojan is a type of malicious code or software that looks harmless
but can take control of your computer.
 It is designed to damage, steal, disrupt or in general some other harmful action on
your data or network.
 Virus can execute and replicate themselves but Trojan cannot. User have to execute
Trojan.
 Trojan virus and trojan malware are used interchangeably.
Types of Trojan: Backdoor Trojan, Remote Access Trojan, Downloader Trojan,
Game-thief Trojan
 Define Viruses.
 A Virus is a malicious software that replicates itself by inserting code into other
programs or documents.
 It can spread from one computer to another computer and may cause damage to
data or allow unauthorized access.
 When computer virus start working, it is called activation of virus.
 A virus run all the time in the computer. Different viruses activated in different ways.

Types of Virus: File Deleting Virus, Boot Sector Virus, Macro Virus, Retro Virus.

 Define Worms.
 A computer worm is a type of malicious program whose primary fxn is to infect other
computer system while remaining active on infected system.
 It is a self-replicating malware that duplicates itself and spread in uninfected
computers.
 Worms use part of OS that are automatic and invisible to user.
 It is common for worms to be noticed only when their uncontrolled replication
consumes system resources and slowing other tasks.

Types of Worms: Email worm, File sharing worm, Internet worm, IRC worm

 Explain Email attack in detail.

 An email attack is a harmful attempts to trick or infect computer system through
email, using methods like fake messages or dangerous attachment.
 Types of Email attack:
i) Email spoofing:
 email spoofing is a one that appears operate from one source but it is sent from
another source.
 Email spoofing is a popular tactic used in Phishing and spam campaigns bcoz
most likely people open the email when they think it is sent by trustworthy or
familiar source.
 The goal of email spoofing is to get recipient to open and respond to deceptive
message.
 There are different types of email spoofing, but the most common email spoof is
to use a technique called ‘spoofing the sender address’, which involves forging
the ‘Form’ field in the email header so that it appears to be from trustworthy
source.
 This can be done by manipulating the SMPT and using a software that allows for
the creation of custom email header.
 Email spoofing can also be done through ‘Phishing’, it is the online strategy
aiming to trick individual into revealing the sensitive information, posing as
trustworthy entity.
 To protect yourself from email spoofing its important to be cautious when clicking
on links or open an email attachment, especially if they are from unknown
source.
ii) Email spamming:
 Email spam is also known as junk email, is a unsolicited messages sent in bulk
by email.
 Spammers collect the email addresses from chat rooms, websites, customer
lists, newspaper and viruses that harvest users address book.
 These collected email addresses are sometimes also sold to other spammers.
 Types of Email spamming:
i) Appending: appending in email spam involves adding email addresses
to a list without consent, leading to unsolicited messages.
ii) Image spam: image spam in email spam involves hiding of text within
images, to evade image filters commonly used in unsolicited and phishing
email.
iii) Blank spam: blank spam in email spam is unsolicited and bulk email that
lacks the payload advertisement. It lacks the subject line and message
body.
iv) Backscatter spam: backscatter spam in email spam is a method that
relies on mail server returning messages to sender. It involves receiving
bulk bounce messages for emails that were never sent.
iii) Email bombing:
  An email bomb is a form of net abuse consisting of sending large volume of email
to an address in attempt to overflow the mailbox, overwhelm the server where
email address is hosted.
 There are three methods of email bombing:
i) Mass bombing: mass bombing involves overwhelming of target with
large volume of emails, causing disruption or denial of service.
ii) List bombing: list bombing is overwhelming someone’s emails with
numerous amount of subscription requests or messages, causing
inconvenience.
iii) Zip bombing: zip bombing is a cyberattack where a small compressed
file, when extracted, overwhelms the system resources, leading to
potential crashes.

 Write a note on DoS Attack.

 DoS means Denial of Service Attack.
 DoS attack is an attempt to make a computer or network resources unavailable for
intended user.
 When denial of service attack occurs, a computer or network user unable to access
resources like email or the internet.
 An attack can be directed on a OS or a network.
 An attack had to be ‘manually’ synchronized by a lot of attackers in order to make
effective damage.
 The subject came to public awareness only after the massive attack on public sites
on February 2000.
 During the periods of three days the sites of Yahoo.com, amazon.com, cnn.com,
buy.com and eBay.com were under attack.
 Analysts estimated that Yahoo lost $500000 in e-commerce and advertising revenue
when it was knocked offline for three hours.
 Dos attacks includes:
 Slow the network
 Unavailability of website
 Increase the no of spam emails
 Disrupt connection b/w two system
 Protection from DoS attack:
 Firewalls
 Traffic Monitoring
 DNS security
 User Authentication and Access Control
 Types of DoS attack:
i) Flood attack: Overwhelms the victim with a excessive number of ping
packets, causing more traffic then the system can handle.
ii) Ping to death attack: Sends oversized ICMP packets to trigger system
crashes in some vulnerable systems, causing a DOS.
 iii) SYN attack: Initiates incomplete TCP connections, causing servers to
allocate memory and wait, resulting in a denial of service.
iv) Smurf attack: Floods a network with fake pings, triggering widespread traffic
from multiple hosts.

 Write a note on DDoS Attack.

 DDoS means Distributed Denial of Service attack.
 This is complicated but powerful version of DoS attack in which many attacking
systems are involved.
 In DDoS attack, many computers start performing a DoS attack on the same target
server.
 As the DoS attack is distributed over a group of computers it is known as Distributed
Denial of Service attack.
 To perform a DDoS attack, the attackers uses a zombie network, which is a group of
infected computers on which attackers has silently installed the DoS attacking tool.
 Whenever he wants to perform DDoS, he can use all the computers of zombie
network, to perform the attack.
 In simple words, when a server system is being flooded with fake request coming
from the multiple sources it is known as DDoS attack.
 For creating a zombie network, hackers generally uses a Trojan.
 More the members in zombie network, more powerful the attack is.
 The wave of DDoS attack that targeted the major website like Yahoo and Amazon in
2000 was estimated to have a cost of $1.2 billion in damage.
 Protection from DDoS attack:
 Web application Firewall
 Traffic Monitoring
 DNS security
 User Authentication and Access Control
 Tools for detecting DDoS attack:
i) Zombie Zapper: a free, open-source tool that stop packet flooding from
zombie system engaged in Trinoo, TFN and stacheldraht
ii) Remote Intrusion Detector: it is a tool develop in ‘C’ computer language.
Detect Trinoo, TFN and Stacheldraht with configurable packet snooping.

 Write note on IPR Violations

 Stands for Intellectual Property Rights.
 An Intellectual property infringement is the infringement or violation of an intellectual
property right.
 There are several types of intellectual property rights, such as Copyright, Patent,
trademarks etc.
 Several types of intellectual property rights violations are Software Piracy, Copyright
infringement, Patent infringement, Theft of source code and Trademark infringement.
 Lets understand them in detail:
 i) Copyright infringement:
o Copyright infringement is the unauthorized use, reproduction or distribution of
copyrighted material without the permission of copyright owner.
o The person who holds the copyright are usually a creator or a company to whom
copyright is granted.
o They use a laws and technology to stop and punish anyone using their stuff without
their permission.
o Copyright infringement disputes are resolved through the negotiations, notice and
take down procedures or legal actions.
ii) Patent infringement:
o Patent infringement is the unauthorized use, making or selling of patented invention
without the permission of patent holder.
o Permission may typically be granted in the form of license.
o In many counties use is required to be commercial to constitute patent infringement.
o The claims of granted patent define the scope of protection, outlining what is
forbidden without the patent holder’s permission.
o Patent is territorial; infringement occurs only where patent is valid.
iii) Theft of source code:
o Theft of source code is the unauthorized taking or use of computer program’s
underlying code without owner’s permission.
o Very few developers or developed companies have talk about this issues.
o Source code theft is an unspoken problem that is affecting the software development
industry.
o Knowingly, concealing, destroying or altering computer source code can lead to
imprisonment of up to three years, a fine up to two lakhs or both.
iv) Trademark infringement:
o Trademark infringement is the unauthorized use of registered trademark, leading to
legal consequences.
o Infringement happens when a party uses a confusingly similar trademark for a similar
products or services covered by another’s registered trademark.
o Trademark owner can sue the infringer.
o In US, the Trademark Counterfeiting Act of 1984 criminalizes the intentional trade in
counterfeit goods and services.

 Explain Squatting, Cyber Smearing and Cyber Stacking.

i) Cyber Squatting:
 Cyber Squatting is a registering, using or selling of domain name with the intent of profit
from the goodwill of someone else’s trademark.
 Neglecting domain name registration can let cyber squatters to steal names from
trademark or copyright holder.
 It involves mimicking popular domain name, including highly trafficked websites which is
a cybercrime.
 Example: Registering “brand name- sucks.com” to exploit and profit from known brand’s
reputation.
 Types of Cyber Squatting:
a) Typo squatting: Typo squatting is the practice of registering domain names with slight
misspellings of popular website to exploit user typing errors.
Eg: registering “gogle.com” instead of “google.com”
b) Name jacking: Name jacking is the unauthorized use or takeover of someone’s name,
typically for malicious purpose.
Eg: online impersonation or domain hijacking
c) Reverse cyber squatting: Reverse cyber squatting is when a company tries to take
domain name from someone else, saying it’s using their trademark even though they
didn’t file a complain when domain was registered first.
Eg: A company tries to claims a small website falsely.
d) Identity theft: identity theft is a crime when someone uses another person’s personal
information without their consent to commit fraud or other crimes.
Eg: Unauthorized purchase with a stolen information.
ii) Cyber Smearing:
 Cyber smearing is when people spread false and harmful things about someone on
internet to harm their reputation badly.
 Cyber smearing is also known as defamation.
 Internet Service Provider(ISP) were worried about their legal liability under the limited
scope of 1996 Communication Decency Act.
 Defamation involves spreading false and harmful spoken or written statements that
damage a person's reputation in trade or occupation.
 Example: Posting false rumors about their coworker on social media to harm their
professional reputation.
 Saying false things about someone who has died, usually can’t be legally punished
in most states, as only living people can be defamed.
iii) Cyber Stacking:
 Cyber Stalking is a crime where someone keeps bothering and following you online,
making you feel scared or upset and harasses you .
 Cyber stalking is sometimes also known as Internet stalking, e-stalking or online
stalking.
 Cyber stalking, linked to traditional stalking, involves online harassment, with legal
consequences varying across government.
 Cyber stalking, enabled by internet, shares techniques with cyber bullying and cyber
luring.
 Example: Sending scary messages and spying someone online.
 When a government use hackers to spy on other countries for information, it’s not
considered as cyber terrorism unless they launch a terrorist attack.

Ch-4
 Define Cyber Security?
 The technique of protecting inter-connected systems such as computers, servers, mobile
devices, network and data from malicious attacks is known as cyber security.
 Cyber security has two words, one is cyber and one is security. Cyber refers to the
technology such as systems, networks, applications and information whereas Security is
concerned with the protection of systems, networks, applications and information.

 Define Threats and its types.

 Threat in cybersecurity is a malicious activity by a individual or an organization to corrupt
or steal data, gain access to a network, or interrupt digital life in general.

i) Malware: Malware is a malicious software designed to harm or exploit computer

system, network or user-data.
ii) Phishing: Phishing is a online strategy aiming to trick individual into revealing
sensitive information by posing as a trustworthy entity.
iii) Man-in-the Middle(MiTM): Intercepting and potentially altering communication b/w
two parties without their knowledge.
iv) Distributed Denial of Service(DDoS): when a server system is being flooded with
fake request coming from the multiple sources it is known as DDoS attack.
v) Brute Force: Brute Force is an hacking method attempting every possible
passwords or encryption keys until the correct one in found.
vi) SQL Injection(SQLI): This type of attack allows the attackers to inject code in
program or query or inject malware onto a computer in order to execute remote
commands that can read or modify the database or change data on a website.
vii) Domain Name System(DNS): DNS is a directory of domain names that align with IP
addresses. They bridge a gap b/w computer language and human language-
keeping both server and people happy.

 Advantages of Cyber Security.

 Cyberattack and data discord protection for businesses.
 Data and network security both are protected.
 Unauthorized user access is avoided.
 End-user and endpoint device protection.
 After a discord, there is a faster recovery time.
 Continuity of operations.
 Give us privacy.
 Internet security processes all the incoming and outgoing data on our computer.
 Developers, consumers, partners, stakeholders and workers have more faith in the
company’s reputations and trust.

Terminologies
 Define IP address
 Stands for Internet protocol
 IP address is unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device on a network.
 IP address are used to identify devices and enable communication b/w them.
 IP address comes in two types:
i) IPv4(Internet protocol version 4): it composed of four sets of number
separated by period. Eg: 192.168.0.1
ii) IPv6(Internet protocol version 6): it has longer addresses in a different format
to handle the growing number of inter-connected devices.

 Define Mac address

 Stands for Media Access Control
 It is a unique identifier assigned to Network Interface Card(NIC) to enable
communication at the data link layer.
 It is also known as Ethernet address, physical address or hardware address.
 Mac address is generally fixed for specific piece of hardware.
 Traditional Mac addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal number.
 By convention they are written in following format:
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS.
 Here, MM:MM:MM refers to manufacturer and SS:SS:SS refers to unique serial number
assigned for specific part.

 Define DNS.
 Stands for Domain Name Server
 It is a directory of domain names that align with IP addresses.
 They bridge gap b/w computer language and human language- keeping both server and
people happy.
 It converts www.amazon.com into IP address that computer uses to identify each other
on network.
 DNS plays crucial role in making internet more user-friendly by allowing us to use
domain name instead of remembering complex IP addresses.
 Define DHCP.
 Stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
 DHCP automatically assign IP addresses to a device on a network, simplifying network
configuration.
  DHCP simplify the management of IP addresses in a network, especially in a
environment where devices keeps connect and disconnect.
 DHCP avoid IP conflicts, optimize address use, and automate IP assignment in wired
and wireless network
 Define Bots.
 In cybersecurity, bots are computer programs, part of botnets, used for automated tasks
and sometimes for malicious activities on internet.
 Its important to note that while some bots serve positive and constructive purposes,
while others are used for harmful activities.
 The term “bots” itself is neutral and its impact depend upon how it is programmed and
used.
 As technology evolves, bots play a big role in shaping how we interact online.
 Define Router.
 A router connect different networks by directing data traffic b/w them in a computer
network.
 It operates at the network layer of OSI model.
 And it is crucial for routing data b/w devices on a local network and devices on other
network such as internet.

Types of Attacks.
 Explain DDoS attack (refers from ch 3)
 Differentiate DoS attack and DDoS attack

DOS Attack DDOS Attack

Stands for Denial of service attack Stands for Distributed Denial of service attack

In Dos attack single system targets the victim In DDoS attack multiple system target the victim
system system

Victim’s PC is loaded with the messages send by Victim’s PC is loaded with the messages send by
single system multiple systems

DoS attack is slower than DDoS attack DDoS attack is faster than DoS attack

Can be blocked easily as only one system is used. Difficult to block this attack as multiple devices are
sending packets from multiple locations

Can be trace easily Cannot be trace easily

Only single device is used with DoS attack tool Multiple devices are used with DoS attack to tool at
same time

Types of DOS attack: Flood attack, Ping to death Types of DDOS attack: Volumetric attack,
attack, SYN attack, Smurf Attack Application Layer attack, Fragmentation attack,
 Protocol attack

 Explain Man-in-the Middle

 It is an attack where unauthorized party Intercept and potentially altering
communications b/w two parties without their knowledge.
 The attackers positions themselves in b/w the communication flow, allowing them to
eavesdrop on, manipulate, or even inject malicious content into the data being
exchanged.
 And make both the parties feel that they are communicating in a secured network.

 Example: in order to intercept financial login credential, a fraudulent banking website is

used in between the user and original bank web page, fake sites lies ‘in-the-middle’.
 There are several reasons and strategies for hackers to use MiTM attack.
 Usually, like credit card number or user login, they try to access anything.
 They also spy on private meetings, which may include corporate secrets or other useful
information.
 Explain Email Attack(refers from ch 3)
 Explain Malware and its types(refers from ch 3)
Other types of Malware: Key Loggers, Ransomware, Logic Bombs
 Explain Password Attack.
 Password attack involves gaining unauthorized access to protected systems such as
email, bank account, server, computer etc., recovering secret password from stored and
transmitted data.
 Types of Password attack:
i) Brute Force attack: Brute force is an hacking method attempting every possible
password and encryption key until the correct password found.
ii) Phishing attack: Phishing is an online strategy aiming to trick individual into
revealing sensitive information posing as trustworthy entity.
iii) Dictionary attack: dictionary attack is an password cracking method that
symmetrically tries words from the precompiled list for unauthorized access.
 iv) Key logging: key loggers is a malicious software/hardware that records the
keystrokes on computer or a devices. By capturing keystrokes, attacker can obtain
passwords as user type them.

 Define Hackers
 Hackers are computer experts that uses advanced programming skills to reduce the
effect of security protocols and gain access to devices or networks.
 Many hackers who breaks into computer hopes to steal money, access information or
hold files for ransom.
 There are three types of Hackers: Grey Hat, Black Hat and White Hat
i) Black hat Hacker:
 Black hat hackers are cyber criminal that illegally crack system with malicious intent.
 Seeking to gain unauthorized access to computer system is a definition of black hat
hacking.
 Once the black hat hacker finds the security vulnerability, they try to exploit it, by
implanting a virus or other type of malware such as Trojan.
 Ransomware attack is an another favored ploy that black hat hackers use to demand
financial gain or breach data systems.
ii) White hat Hacker:
 White hat hackers are the ethical security hackers who identify and fix the vulnerabilities.
 White hat hackers are the one who is authorized or certified hacker who works for the
government and organization by performing penetration testing and identifying loopholes
in their cyber security.
 They also ensures the protection from cyber crime.
 They works under the rule and regulations provided by government, that’s why they
called as Ethical Hackers or Cyber Security experts.

 Injection attacks
 This type of attack allows the attackers to inject code in program or query or inject
malware onto a computer in order to execute remote commands that can read or modify
the database or change data on a website.
 Types of Injection attacks: Blind SQL Injection, Blind XPath Injection, Buffer
Overflow, LDAP Injection, SQL Injection, SSL Injection, XPath Injection etc.

Ch-5

 Explain Ethical Hacker.

 White hat hackers are the ethical security hackers who identify and fix the vulnerabilities.
 White hat hackers are the one who is authorized or certified hacker who works for the
government and organization by performing penetration testing and identifying loopholes
in their cyber security.
 They also ensures the protection from cyber crime.
 They works under the rule and regulations provided by government, that’s why they
called as Ethical Hackers or Cyber Security experts.

 Roles and Responsibilities of Ethical hacker

 Roles
1. In-depth knowledge of security:-
o Ethical hackers, hired by companies, are cyber superheroes who find and fix security
weaknesses to protect systems from hackers. They're like guardians of computer
networks, skilled in keeping things safe online.
2. Think like hackers:-
o
o Ethical hackers are like detectives who attack computer systems to find weaknesses
without breaking rules, aiming to prevent real hackers from exploiting them.
3. In-depth knowledge of organization they intend to provide service:-
o Ethical hackers understand how their organization works and know what information
needs the most protection. They're skilled at finding ways attackers might try to access
sensitive data.

 Responsibilities:
1. Hacking their own system:-
o Ethical hackers hack into their own systems to find any problems or weaknesses.
They're hired to uncover these issues before real hackers can exploit them.
2. Diffuse the intent of Hackers:-
o Ethical hackers are hired to protect from bad hackers breaking into computer systems.
By finding vulnerabilities early, they help to fix them before sensitive information is stolen
by malicious hackers.
3. Keeping the Confidential Information Safe:-
o Ethical hackers must promise to keep all their discoveries safe and never tell anyone
about them. No matter what happens, they should never agree to share their findings
with anyone else.
4. Handle the loopholes in Security:-
o Ethical hackers should fix any security holes they find based on their observations. This
stops hackers from breaking into the organization's systems.
5. Sign Non-Disclosure Agreement:-
o Ethical hackers must sign agreements to keep the organization's information safe and
not share it with anyone. If they do share confidential information, they could face legal
consequences.

 Advantages of Ethical Hacking

 Ethical hackers are well recognized in their profession for their job of protecting the
system. Below are the advantages of being an ethical hacker:
1. This helps to fight against cyber terrorism and to fight against national security breaches.
2. This helps to take preventive action against hackers.
3. This helps to build a system that prevents any kinds of penetration by hackers.
4. This offers security to banking and financial establishments.
5. This helps to identify and close the open holes in a computer system or network.

 Skills required to become Ethical Hacker.

(Write Ethical Hacker intro from above)
1. Computer Networking Skills:
o One of the most important skills to become an ethical hacker is networking skills.
o A computer network is a bunch of devices connected together, using different paths to
send and receive data.
o Understanding networks like DHCP and Subnetting helps ethical hackers explore
interconnected computers and identify security threats, learning how to manage them
effectively.

2. Computer Skills:
o Computer skills are knowledge and ability which allow one to use computers and related
technology.
o Basic computer skills include tasks like managing data, organizing files and creating
presentations, while advanced skills involve database management, programming, and
complex spreadsheet calculations.
o An ethical hacker needs expertise in essential computer skills like MS Office,
spreadsheets, email, database management, social media, web usage, and enterprise
systems.
3. Linux Skills:
o Linux is a community of open-source Unix like operating systems that are based on the
Linux Kernel.
o It's a free open source operating system where anyone can modify and share the source
code for commercial or non-commercial purposes under the GNU General Public
License.
o Ethical hackers learn Linux because it's more secure than other systems, reducing the
need for antivirus software.
4. Programming Skills:
o Another most important skill to become an ethical hacker is Programming Skills.
o So what does the word programming in the computer world actually means?
o It means, “The act of writing code understood by a computational device to perform
various instructions.”
o So, to get better at programming, one will be writing a lot of code! Before one writes
code he/she must choose the best programming language for his/her programming.

 Penetration testing Phases.

 Penetration testing also known as pen testing helps to check how safe a system or
network is by pretending to be real hackers. It finds weaknesses and checks if current
security measures work well.
 Pen testing is broken down in 5 phases:
1. Planning and Reconnaissance
2. Scanning
3. Gaining Access
4. Maintaining Access
5. Analysis and Reporting

1. Planning and Reconnaissance:-

o This is the 1st Phase of Penetration testing.
o Defining the scope and goals of a test, including the systems to be addressed and the
testing methods to be used
o Gathering intelligence (e.g., network and domain names, mail server) to better
understand how a target works and its potential vulnerabilities.
2. Scanning:-
o This is the 2nd Phase of Penetration testing.
o The step is to understand how the target application will respond to various unauthorized
access attempts. This is typically done using:
a) Static analysis: Inspecting an application’s code to estimate the way it behaves while
running. These tools can scan the entirety of the code in a single pass.
b) Dynamic analysis: Inspecting an application’s code in a running state. This is a more
practical way of scanning, as it provides a real-time view into an application’s
performance.
3. Gaining Access:-
o This is the 3rd Phase of Penetration testing.
o This stage uses web application attacks, such as cross-site scripting, SQL injection and
backdoors, to uncover a target’s vulnerabilities.
o Testers attempt to exploit vulnerabilities to see how much damage they can cause, like
gaining higher access or stealing data.
4. Maintaining Access:-
o This is the 4th Phase of Penetration testing.
o The goal of this stage is to see if the vulnerability can be used to stay in the exploited
system for a long time, allowing a bad actor to gain detailed access.
o The goal is to mimic advanced threats that stay hidden in a system for a long time to
steal an organization's most important data.
5. Analysis and Reporting:-
o This is the 5th and last Phase of Penetration testing.
o The results of the penetration test are then compiled into a report detailing.
 Specific vulnerabilities that were exploited.
 Sensitive data that was accessed.
 The amount of time the pen tester was able to remain in the system undetected
o Security personnel analyze this data to adjust WAF settings and other security
measures, fixing vulnerabilities and preventing future attacks.

 Explain SQL Injection

 This type of attack allows the attackers to inject code in program or query or inject
malware onto a computer in order to execute remote commands that can read or modify
the database or change data on a website.

Types of SQL Injection:

1. Error Based SQL Injection:

o Error-based SQL Injections gather details about the database layout from error
messages sent by the database server. In some cases, attackers can even list the entire
database using this method.
2. Union Based SQL Injection:
o Union-based SQL Injections combine the results of multiple SELECT queries into one,
using the UNION SQL operator. The combined result is then sent back in the HTTP
response.
3. Blind SQL Injection:
o Blind SQL Injection is a type of attack where hackers exploit database vulnerabilities
without getting immediate feedback from the server.
o There are two type of blind SQL Injection:
a) Blind Boolean Based SQL Injection:-
o Boolean-based SQL Injection tricks the application into giving different responses based
on whether a specific condition in the SQL query is true or false.
b) Blind Time Based SQL Injection:-
o Time-based SQL Injection involves sending a SQL query to the database and making it
wait for a certain time before responding. The attacker can tell if the query result is true
or false based on how long it takes to get a response.
o The attacker can figure out information from the response time of the HTTP request. It's
a slow process as the attacker iterates character by character to extract data from the
database.

 Case study of SQL Injection.

Introduction:

 This type of attack allows the attackers to inject code in program or query or inject
malware onto a computer in order to execute remote commands that can read or modify
the database or change data on a website.
 This case study examines a real-world SQL injection incident, outlining the impact and
measures taken for prevention.

Case Study:

 Company X, an e-commerce platform, suffered a data breach due to SQL injection.

Attackers exploited vulnerabilities in the website's input validation, allowing them to inject
malicious SQL queries. This breach compromised customer data, including credentials
and payment information, leading to reputational damage and loss of trust.

Prevention:

1. Patching Vulnerabilities:

Company X promptly patched the SQL injection vulnerability by implementing secure coding
practices, such as parameterized queries.

2. Regular Audits:

The company conducted regular security audits and penetration testing to identify and
address vulnerabilities proactively.

3. Employee Training:
Training programs were introduced to educate employees on cybersecurity best practices,
emphasizing the risks of SQL injection and secure coding principles.

4. Enhanced Monitoring:

Advanced intrusion detection systems were deployed to monitor and respond to suspicious
activities in real-time, improving incident response capabilities.

Conclusion:

 The Company X breach highlights the need for strong security. Fixing weaknesses,
staying alert, and teaching staff about cybersecurity can help prevent SQL attacks.

 Define Firewalls.
 A firewall is a security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined security rules.
 Eg: Secure Software/Hardware that blocks harmful internet traffic.
 Types of Firewalls:
1. Packet Filtering:
o A packet filtering firewall regulates network traffic by allowing or blocking data based on
factors like source and destination addresses, and application protocols.
2. Proxy Service Firewall:
o This type of firewall protects the network by filtering messages at the application layer.
For a specific application, a proxy firewall serves as the gateway from one network to
another.
3. Stateful Inspection:
o Such a firewall permits or blocks network traffic based on state, port, and protocol. Here,
it decides filtering based on administrator-defined rules and context.
4. Next-Generation Firewall:
o According to Gartner, Inc.’s definition, the next-generation firewall is a deep-packet
inspection firewall that adds application-level inspection, intrusion prevention, and
information from outside the firewall to go beyond protocol inspection and blocking.
5. Unified Threat Management(UTM) Firewall:
o A UTM (Unified Threat Management) device combines firewall, intrusion prevention,
antivirus, and sometimes cloud management. It's user-friendly and offers additional
services for enhanced security.
6. Threat-Focused NGFW:
o These firewalls offer advanced threat detection and response, using network and
endpoint event correlation to identify suspicious or hard-to-detect behavior.

 Advantages of Firewall.
 Firewalls play an important role in the companies for security management. Below are some
of the important advantages of using firewalls.
1. It provides enhanced security and privacy from vulnerable services.
2. It prevents unauthorized users from accessing a private network that is connected to the
internet.
3. Firewalls provide faster response time and can handle more traffic loads.
4. A firewall allows you to easily handle and update the security protocols from a single
authorized device.
5. It safeguards your network from phishing attacks.