ENG 153 TEACHING AND ASSSESSMENT OF LITERATURE STUDIES HANDOUT

TOPIC 1: Reasons for Teaching Literature

Old Paradigm New Paradigm

Objectives Stated in terms of literary knowledge Stated in terms of what learners should know and be able to do

Content Limited to the literary text/genre Includes interdisciplinary and cultural connections

Skills Limited to low order thinking skills (LOTS) Extended the literary skills to developing critical thinking and
other higher order thinking skills (HOTS) and use of multiple
intelligences (MI)

The Learner Mostly passive recipients of knowledge Actively engaged in learning and is given opportunities to
explore their own creative responses to literature; encouraged
to have and express more original thoughts.

The Teacher The fountainhead of knowledge; the center of Facilitates instruction, encourages cooperative learning,
instruction; major source of information designs learner-centered materials and activities

Materials Textbook/text as primary material Textbook as ONE of the materials; interdisciplinary,

multimodality and multimedia are essential parts

Assessment Based solely on students’ achievement; pencil and Other modes of assessment aside from pencil and paper tests,
paper test portfolio, and use of rubrics to evaluate students’ outputs

Shifts in literature teaching at the onset of the new

millennium:
 Curriculum planners and teachers will ask, ―Why should we teach this?‖ That is from the perspective of
one who produces, manufactures, or delivers the ―goods‖. The problem with that perspective is that it
comes from an observed or felt need, and therefore, might not accurately capture and address what is
needed by the clientele-the learner. But if the question is, ―Why should students study literature,‖ the
approach to the subject will totally shift to addressing what learners need. First, let‘s look at actual
insights from students on why studying literature is important for them

 Reading and writing, the basic principles involved in the study of English, serve as the gateway to a
deeper level of thought. After mastering these elementary skills, comprehension, analysis, and
interpretation are learned and used to better educate one self. Studying literature and observing
personal reactions to the literature can make one more aware of his or her own values. English skills
are helpful in every area of life. Reading, writing, comprehension, analysis, and interpretation increase
efficiency in multiple ways including communication, documentation in other areas of study, and
reflection of personal values. I believe there is no area of study that English and communication skills
do not influence." —Maria Freund

 "Reading and writing, in general, are undoubtedly some of the most valuable skills one can have;
obviously, having these skills makes is much easier for people to communicate and to participate in
society. However, there exists a purpose for reading and writing outside of these immediate practical
purposes; the written word can be used to enlighten, to persuade, to express emotion, or simply for
enjoyment. In these forms the written word becomes an art form, and a way of reaching out to others
through a personal experience between the writer and the reader. Reading is an excellent way to
associate oneself with the great minds of history and peer into their own thoughts. Reading is surely
one of the most effective ways one can expand oneself."—Matt Beachey

 "The best of my English teachers taught us literature because they wanted the art of it to expand our
minds and help teach us new ways of seeing the world. I was taught to both see a work of literature as
a way to understand the time it was written, and the people who produced it, and to find the parts of
that work that spoke to me in my time and place. While I am skeptical about whether or not anyone can
ever really understand a culture or a time prior to their own, I do know that many times literature and art
provide insights that cold hard facts do not. Most of all I find that literature makes the differences more
manageable, and highlights the similarities between people. I can read a Greek tragedy two thousand
years later and agree with things that some older white man was saying because he was a human
being, and I am a human being. Although it may sound trite, I have had reading experiences that taught
me more about what it means to live in this world."—Sybylla Yeoman Hendrix
WHY TEACH LITERATURE?
1. Linguistic
In terms of language acquisition and learning, literary texts offer rich samples of a very wide range of styles,
registers, and text types at many levels of difficulty. Literature provides relevant content for new vocabulary
and language structures. Exposure to literature and literature studies provide eclectic opportunities for
improving writing and oral communication skills as linguistic and rhetorical structures in literatures vary.

2. Methodological
Since literary texts are open to multiple interpretations, readers can have different opinions and ideas about a
variety of topics. Interpretations of literary work comes from a methodical analysis of elements used in the text.
Students of literature does not simply make an unfounded guess on what a literary passage means, or on a
motive of a fictional character as these require a thorough investigation on the various influence, styles and
techniques used by the author to write the work, and the use of appropriate reading techniques by the reader
to transform the work into a text.

3. Motivational
Literary texts are NEVER trivial since they deal with matters which concerned the writer enough to make him or
her write about them. In this, literature is unlike many other forms of language teaching inputs, which frequently
trivialize experience in the service of pedagogy. Literary texts touch on themes to which learners can bring a
personal response from their own experience.

TOPIC 2: Processes Involved in Studying Literature

How we can make students respond to literature.

1. Description
After students determine their purpose in reading, they can now talk or write about what they read in
their own words using descriptive details. Encourage them to use both objective and subjective
description to depict abstract quality, human condition, or dominant atmosphere.
2. Discrimination
Students may be asked to distinguish the different literary types by identifying them by form and genre,
author, or theme.
3. Relation
Students can relate several elements of a literary text to each other or to other text.
4. Interpretation
Students may be asked to identify main ideas, read between the lines, infer or express their ideas
about what the author is saying and expound their interpretations.
5. Generalizations
Students can draw out main ideas that are implied in the text, predict, synthesize concepts.
6. Evaluation
Students cam evaluate the worth of a literary piece using a set of criteria.
7. Valuing
Students can indicate the importance of literature to their own lives or to the world outside the text.
8. Creation
Students can respond creatively by making projects, composing, producing, writing and the like.

TOPIC 3 Fiction and nonfiction and their elements as content in teaching literature

FICTION: Types and Elements

Fiction is a literary genre which is created from the imagination, not presented as fact, though it may be based
on a true story or situation. Types of literature in the fiction genre include the novel, short story, and novella.
The word is from the Latin fictiō, ―the act of making, fashioning, or molding.‖
NONFICTION: Types and Elements

Nonfictional prose is any literary work that is based mainly on fact, even though it may
contain fictional elements. Examples are the essay and biography.
(https://www.britannica.com/topic/nonfictional-prose)

Elements of Nonfiction

Four Major Elements of Nonfiction

1. Lay out
2. Information
3. Characterization
4. Style and Tone

Lay out

Layout should attract the reader and encourage reading and progression through the
book.

 Format is interesting, attractive, magnetic

 Index
 Glossary, pronunciation key
 Table of contents
 Book size
 Photographs compliment text, located near the related text, captions accurate.
Illustrations are important but if the writer relies too much on pictures, the
reader/listener/viewer may not get a comprehensive understanding of the
information that would be better communicated with words.

Information

Information includes facts, little known information, and ideas that spark curiosity,
create mystery, and propel the listener/reader/viewer to discover and learn.

o Qualifications of the creator suggest appropriate experience or

exceptionality
o Accurate - information can be verified with other sources-
o Includes source information
o Timely or current
o Supports the story
o Covers the topic in significant detail
o Moves from simple to complex and familiar to unfamiliar
o Creates a feeling of the setting
o Presents information in an organized sequence that enhances the topic
o Non-biased - neutral position
o Is not overly didactic
o Includes safety precautions as needed

Characterization

o Characters are well developed

o No stereotype or biased characterization
o Creates empathy for the characters
o Uses quotations and anecdotes. Particularly in biographies it is
important to use the character's real words and anecdotes that
originate from someone with first-hand knowledge of the incidents.

Style and tone

Style should maintain the reader's interest. Nonfiction presents information, but the
listener/viewer/reader doesn't need to be bored by a collection of information in
choppy sentences. Good style adds interest to the story.

o Narration creates interest and understanding

o Clear
o Precise
o Distinguish between fact, theory, and opinion
o Vivid
 o Could be personalized
o Objective non-biased or condescending or sarcastic
o Is not didactic
o Does not use propaganda techniques
o Builds suspense or sustains interest and encourages further
investigation
o Moves from simple to complex and familiar to unfamiliar
o Presents information in an organized sequence that enhances the topic
o Scope is appropriate for the target audience and increases in
complexity at an appropriate rate
o Avoids anthropomorphism
o Vocabulary is relative
o Underlying themes are appropriate and helpful
o Presents ideas/topic in a unique manner or new perspective
o Illustrations compliment and don‘t over power the message
o Includes a table of contents, glossary, and index
o Has a theme(s)
o Has a conclusion

Style and tone that presents information - interestingly

Readers are attracted to nonfiction because they have a question or curiosity. With
the question answered or curiosity satiated what is there to keep the reader reading?
Therefore, authors of nonfiction sequence information to create wonder for the reader
as s/he uncover facts that lead from discovery to discovery. In doing so the scope of
information must be presented from simple to complex to provide the reader essential
information for understanding ideas presented and prepare them for more complex
ideas to come.

The author must also decide the scope of information to present; giving enough detail
for comprehension but not so much as to overwhelm. Mary Lou Clark does this in You
and Relativity, she introduces the concept of relativity by saying: "relative to the sixth
floor, the third floor is down, but relative to the first floor, the third is up." Then
describes frame of reference building the vocabulary and associated concepts needed
for later understanding of relativity.

Isaac Asimov, is very good in doing this in books he wrote for children and adults. An
example is when he tells the story of how Mendeleev spent years sorting, classifying,
and arranging cards that represented elements, until he arranged them in the order of
the periodic table, Chemistry.

Jean George in Spring Comes to the Ocean creates curiosity by her descriptions of
the animals.

"First he unhooked the muscle at the spiral end of his old shell. Then he pulled himself
out and stood vulnerable, so naked that even a wind-blown grain of sand could kill
him. His exposed belly was so delicate that a nodding grass blade could cut him in
half... He slashed his tail through the air and stuck it into the new shell. Backing
carefully, he reached his tail down and around until he felt the last coil of the shell.
Then he hooked onto it with a grip so strong that few could pull him out. When at last
he had a firm hold, he contracted all his muscles and slammed himself deep into the
shell."

Rachel Carson in The Sea Around Us , increases wonder by telling no one was
around when the ocean was created long ago. We would expect it impossible to tell
how, when she surprises us by telling a us that it is possible.

"Beginnings are apt to be shadowy, and so it is with the beginnings of that great
mother of life, the sea. Many people have debated how and when the earth got its
ocean, and it is not surprising that their explanations do not always agree. For the
plain and inescapable truth is that no one was there to see, and in the absence of
eyewitness accounts, there is bound to be a certain disagreement. ... It must be a
story pieced together from many sources and containing whole chapters the details of
which we can only imagine. The story is founded on the testimony of the Earth's most
ancient rocks which were young when the earth was young."

Style and tone of a narration

Many authors use a continuous narrative to join topics in books and sustain interest,
Isaac Asimov was an expert with this technique.

Another technique, to make facts interesting, is to personalize the readers'

 experiences by making comparisons and using I and you. Why Can't I?; by Jeanne
Bendick , compares the child's feet to a flies and uses you.. "The bottoms of your feet
are smooth and slippery. You can make them a little sticky by wearing sneakers. But
you're still too heavy to walk up a wall or across the ceiling."

Another consideration in the narrative is the words. Many times authors will use
smaller words, because of readability tests or fear that children can't understand big
words. But the size of the word is less relevant than if the word is part of every child's
vocabulary: like McDonald's, hamburger, refrigerator, aluminum, dinosaur,
telephone...

Another error is personification and sentimental distortion in animal stories. Authors

should tell the story through observation not how they think the animal thinks or
feels. Yellow Eyes, by Rutherford Montgomery gives very good and interesting
descriptions.

Many children want stories that have real people telling the story, use of the
pronouns we and you achieve this.

Watch for condescension and sarcasm. Superstition in different cultures is often

treated in this manner. Edwin Tunis treats his subject this way:

"There was no Indian who was even reasonably free from superstition; it covered
everything in the world. When every animal and every tree, and every stream and
every natural phenomenon was possessed of a spirit, probably malevolent, it took a
lot of finger-crossing and wood-knockin to ward off evil. The Indian was afraid of
everything ... of killing snakes and wolves ... of witchcraft and of the owls he
associated with it ... superstition ... pervade all Indian living."

Milton Meltzer in All Times, All Peoples: A World History of Slavery wrote: "white,
black, brown, yellow, red- no matter what [your] color, it's likely that someone in [your]
family way back, was once a slave." we‘re told why: "It was hard for [the earliest
peoples] to feed themselves... That is why, when they raided other people, they killed
them instead of taking them prisoner. If the winners had spared the lives of the losers,
they would have been unable to feed them." Then we are told that as farming and
food production grew, and it was possible for conquerors to feed prisoners, they kept
them as slaves.

Condescension in animal stories is often in the form of anthropomorphism,

suggesting the animal is so boring that the author has to make it human to create an
exciting story.

Didacticism and propaganda - it is hard for some authors not to preach, especially
when the subject is as important as drug abuse. But if the facts are carefully arranged,
the evidence presented, ideas will build to prove the point. If not the book may cause
students to dismiss it as pure propaganda or to create doubt and mistrust in what the
authors have written. The author is obligated to present the information in a scientific
manner. If there are differing theories or evidence, then the author needs to address
them.

Objective - Creators of nonfiction have the obligation of being objective. The creator
must sort through information and decide what to include or omit. How much fact and
how much narration. If the information should just be possible or probable and if
controversial information should be included.

Underlying themes are essential in nonfiction. The manner in which the information is
presented creates an underlying theme that may be positive, condescending,
negative, curious... or what ever. It is important to consider that the
reader's/viewer's/listener's understanding and attitude will develop with respect to the
ideas, subjects, or people in the text; shaping the reader's/viewer's/listener's
understanding and attitude by the themes; shaping the ideas and emotions that they
take from the piece, which may be carried with them for life.

TOPIC 4 POETRY: Types and Elements

POETRY: Types and Elements

Poems are forms of literature usually written in lines or verses that make up stanzas. The lines and stanzas
may be of various lengths. Some poems have rhyme and meter. Poems are designed to be recited or read
aloud. The recitation of a poem reveals its rhythm and thought units that help in understanding what the
poem tries to convey.

ELEMENTS of POETRY
Sense
1. Diction. Denotative and connotative meanings
2. Images and Sense Impressions. Sense imagery
3. Figures of Speech
Sound. Creative combination of words or expressions to enhance sense impression
1. Rhythm
2. Meter
3. Rhyme Scheme
Structure
1. Word Order. Natural or unnatural arrangement of words
2. Ellipsis. Omission of words for effect
3. Punctuation
4. Shape. Contextual or visual design, omission of spaces,
capitalization or lower case

TYPES of POETRY

Lyric- expresses the author‘s mood, emotion, and reflection in musical language. Derives its name from the
lyre, and was primarily intended to be sung. Not all lyrics have the quality of being sung, but they are all
melodious

1. Ode

Most majestic of lyric poems

Expresses enthusiasm, lofty praise of some person or thing, deep reflection, or
restrained feeling
Author is in an exalted mood, feels deeply what he/she is saying, hence subject matter
is never trivial
2. Elegy

Subject matter is almost always about ‗death‘

May voice persona‘s personal grief for a loved one, or a loss affecting the public as a
whole
May simply be a meditation about death
3. Sonnet

Distinguished by its form of fourteen iambic pentameter lines

4. Song

A short lyric poem which is intended primarily to be sung

Has a particular melodious quality required by a singing voice
5. Simple Lyric
 Does not belong to any of the described lyric poem

Narrative
Tells a story of love or adventure

1. Epic
A long narrative poem about the exploits of a hero (human or supernatural)
2. Ballad
Tells the story of ordinary people
3. Metrical Romance
A medieval verse tale based on legends, chivalric love and adventure, or the supernatural
4. Metrical Tale
An ordinary story told in verse

LITERARY DEVICES in POETRY

1. Figures of Speech
2. Literary Allusions and Expressions

Examples: Penelope‘s Web, Achilles‘ Heel

3. Sound Devices
Examples: Onomatopoeia, Alliteration, Assonance, Rhyme, Consonance

ELEMENTS of DRAMA
The drama is a story written to be performed by actors. It originated in religious rituals and symbolic
reenactments of primitive peoples. Ancient Greeks developed drama into a sophisticated art and created the
comedy and the tragedy. Drama was revived in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Renaissance produced
the greatest dramatists like Marlowe and Shakespeare. A Doll‘s House by Henrik Ibsen began the realistic
prose drama trend.

THEATRICAL STYLES

 Arena - The theatre style of the early Greeks

 Medieval Theater - Staging areas are called mansions inside the churches and portable wagons
wheeled about outside churches
 Elizabethan Theater - Used wooden structure providing an enclosed space around a courtyard open
to the sky
 Proscenium - Stage used in the 19th century. The stage distances the audience from the play
 Eclectic - Theatre of the modern times. It uses arena, proscenium and every other kind of staging

GENRES of DRAMA

 Tragedy - A branch of drama that treats in a serious and dignified style the sorrowful or terrible
events encountered or caused by a heroic individual. (www.britannica.com)
 Comedy - A literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in its tone,
mostly having a cheerful ending. (literarydevices.net)
 Tragicomedy - A literary genre that blends aspects of both tragic and comic forms. Most often seen
in dramatic literature, the term can describe either a tragic play which contains enough comic
elements to lighten the overall mood or a serious play with a happy ending. (wikipedia.org)
 Farce - A comic dramatic piece that uses highly improbable situations, stereotyped characters,
extravagant exaggeration, and violent horseplay. (www.britannica.com)
 Melodrama - A dramatic work wherein the plot, which is typically sensational and designed to appeal
strongly to the emotions, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Melodramas typically
 concentrate on dialogue, which is often bombastic or excessively sentimental, rather than action.
(Wikipedia.org)

ELEMENTS of DRAMA
a. Plot

exposition – setting, characters, basic situation

inciting incident – central conflict
development – conflict running its course
climax – conflict reaches high point of interest
resolution – conflict ends
denouement – ties up loose ends
b. Characters

The entire shape of the action derives from the characters‘ strengths and
weaknesses thus, they create their own opportunities and problems
c. Setting

time and place, scenery and physical elements

d. Dialogue

speeches of the characters used to advance the action

may employ soliloquy aside
e. Movement

keyed to the structure of actors‘ speeches

f. Music

for dramatic effect

g. Theme

message, central action

there may be several themes in a play

TOPIC 5: GOALS of TEACHING LITERATURE

Goals of teaching literature may be linguistic/literary, referring exclusively to the development of language and
literary skills, academic, which relates language and literacy competence to the entire program or curriculum,
and global, which links language and literary competence with more universal human experiences or demands
of a globalized society.
1. Development and/or extension of literary competence

Literary competence is the ability to internalize the ‗grammar‘ of literature which would permit the reader to
convert linguistic sequences into literary structures and meanings (Jonathan Culler). A learner who is not
familiar with literature and with literary conventions will be confused when presented a literary work. Reading is
different from reading with comprehension. Unless a learner possesses literary competence, he or she may
find working with literary texts a struggle. Reading literature improves vocabulary and reading comprehension
skills.
2. Development and/or enhancement of the imagination and creativity

Creative thinking is enhanced by literature. Reading different genres exposes the learner to different
orientations, ways of thinking, different worlds and cultures. Literature develops and enriches imagination, thus
will definitely help or inspire learners to produce their own creative literary works.
3. Development of students’ character and emotional maturity

Through literature, a learner can discover and realize universal truths about the world and insights into human
nature. It helps in developing empathy and compassion. It develops a broader understanding of human actions
and motivations behind these actions.
 4. Development of critical thinking

Literature is an effective medium in developing critical thinking. Students must be challenged to use inquiry as
a bases for understanding, for generalization, and generation of their thoughts. The study of literature affords
them the venue for exploring, organizing, analyzing, and evaluating realities inside them and of the world.
5. Development of literary appreciation and a refined reading taste

One of the main goals of teaching literature is to develop the love for reading. As learners are exposed to
literature studies, they will discover what makes a poem beautiful, a drama realistic, a novel an adventure, the
essay an exploration.
6. Facilitating the understanding of interdisciplinary content.

The teaching of literature targets the development of general reading comprehension, thus providing a platform
for learners to develop reading habits that can be applied to any content. Literature is naturally contextualized
in other subjects like psychology, history, anthropology, and others. Textbooks are usually essays, thus, a
learner who has been exposed to studying essays in a literature class will be able to transfer reading skills and
processes in understanding an essay to his other subjects.
7. Development of cross-cultural understanding and globalization

―The teaching of literature contributes to socialize students into literacy, liberalism, and global citizenship
transmitting particular worldviews and instilling in learners knowledge, and obedience to cultural beliefs and
practices through educational practices.‖ - Abdul Saleem, Mohammed Ilyas

TOPIC 6 THE TEACHER OF LITERATURE: DEMANDS and REQUISITES

1.Literary competence
The literature teacher must not just be literature literate but more importantly, literary
competent. This literary competence will make it easier for the teacher to mediate
between the literary text and the students
2.Broad reading background
You cannot give what you don‘t have. The teacher is a source of information, second only
to the text itself. The teacher‘s broad reading background enables him or her to cross
reference, elaborate, and make exciting activities for students.
3.Love for literature
Values are caught, not taught. Students will ―feel‖ or ―sense‖ if the literature teacher
doesn‘t have passion for literature which is evident in his or her lackluster teaching and
inability to translate the literary work into a text.
4.Emotional maturity and experience
Certain topics and themes in literature are sensitive to some people, for example, religion,
race or ethnic identity, gender preferences, political inclinations, and others. It takes a
mature literature teacher to mitigate the effects of glaring topics or themes in order to
promote liberal and more open thoughts among the students.
5.Knowledge of different methods, strategies and techniques
The literature teacher is an expert in the art of teaching or pedagogy. He or she adapts,
adopts, adjusts, researches, experiments, challenges, or devices his or her own methods
and strategies to meet the learners in every way.
6.Knowledge of students’ reading ability, language ability, and interests

The teacher knows his or her students‘ abilities, levels in reading and other macro-skills,
the extent of their reading, their reading interests, and other hobbies
TOPIC 7 CONSIDERATIONS in CHOOSING METHODS, STRATEGIES, and TEACHING TECHNIQUES in
TEACHING LITERATURE

 Teacher-Centered vs. Student-centered

The traditional way of teaching literature is through lecture and recitation. The teacher is undoubtedly the ―sage
on the stage‖, the main source of knowledge and information, and the sole authority and ―judge‖ of what is the
correct interpretation of literary texts. Although the set-up is convenient for the teacher, especially in timed
classroom settings, this method could be boring, monotonous, and unchallenging for students.
Student-centered classrooms provide rich opportunities for students to explore, experiment, think
independently and creatively as they study literature. This amount of freedom given to students usually results
to higher confidence levels in expressing their ideas in the language and at the same time in believing in the
relevance of those ideas.

 Teacher talk vs. student talk

Teacher talk refers to both the language used by the teacher and the time of his or her discussion when
presenting the lesson. The choice of methods, strategies, and techniques should consider giving students
more opportunities to talk, share ideas with one another, work in groups for brainstorming and project-making
and others. Students must be encouraged to confront the text as openly and as directly, question the author‘s
purpose for writing, challenge his or her ideas, compare the text with other texts, evaluate the text‘s language
and authenticity. These are activities that elicit engaged responses from students. The literature class should
be an environment where the students‘ minds are sharpened, reconstructed, deconstructed, reshaped.

 Supplementing the Printed Page

―Reading books was boring until I found the Harry Potter series,‘ says one student. Many agree with the
student. But we hardly use Harry Potter as a material in literature. So let‘s go back to the boring part. How
does the teacher address the natural boredom that comes from reading from a printed page in every literature
class? Once in a while, the teacher should source materials that deviates from the text. Go to YouTube and
look for animated versions of a classic, for example Dante‘s Divine Comedy. Look for the play versions of
stories, for example, the Biblical story of Joseph the Dreamer. Take them to field trips, for example, the farm
beside the school while you discuss Manuel Arguilla‘s Midsummer. For sure these are activities that will spark
a different fire or passion for literature among the students.

 Variety

Monotony is one of the greatest enemies of learning. Learners are either visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. Some
learners learn best from a visual stimulus, for example, a literal printed page. But others learn best when the
stimulus is something that is heard, for example, face-to-face lecture, recorded lecture, or podcasts, and others
yet learn best when their body is involved, example, drawing a turning point scene in a story, or recreating a
boat mentioned in the poem through origami.
The teacher therefore, should choose methods and materials, and design activities that will engage all types of
learners.

 Multiple Intelligences

The teaching of literature can be integrated with the development of multiple intelligences. The choice of
methods and learning tasks should tap the various inclinations, interests, expertise, awareness, sensitivity,
knowledge, and consciousness of the students.

 Higher-Order Thinking Skills

Activities designed in teaching literature must develop critical thinking among students. Questions for
discussion should allow for students to reflect, inquire, interrogate, and formulate questions based on the text.
The Socratic Method is an example of a method that develops MI. This method requires ―cooperative
argumentative dialogue between individuals, asking and answering questions that stimulate critical thinking,
and draw out underlying presumptions. Students prepare by closely reading/researching the text or topic.‖
(www.teachhub.com
TOPIC 8: Principles of Translation
Translation can be used as an effective medium for developing the learners' communicative competence and
for teaching properties and types of meaning underlying semantic relationships, communicative language
functions, sentential information structure, and discourse values. Seen from this perspective, translation is a
cognitive activity that assists students in learning new phrases and expressions in the target language, and
using them to communicate meaning to others, on the one hand, and a problem-solving exercise, in which the
students develop their capabilities in data analysis and processing, on the other hand

TOPIC 9: Text Analysis

 Reading the Text

Reading for reading is different from reading for translation. When your read for translation, your purpose for
reading is 1) to understand what the text is about, and 2) to analyze the text from a translator‘s point of view
(Newmark, 11). Determine the ‗intention‘ of the text and the way it is written for you to select the translation
method. Translation requires general reading (getting the summary or the main idea) and close reading.
Close reading requires a keener attention and distinction of words that are used in both in-context and out-
context settings

 The Intention of the Text

The intention of the text refers to the point of view of the writer, his attitude towards the topic or subject, and
towards the readers. A writer‘s point of view or position about the subject matter is usually indicated by direct
expressions like sadly, unfortunately, hopefully, fortunately

 The Intention of the Translator

The translator‘s intention is the same the Source Text writer‘s intention. But the translator must consider the
readership of the clientele now, in order for the original intention of the text, and not just the text is also
translated.
TOPIC 10 TEXT STYLES
Text Styles. Eugene Nida, in his Dynamic Equivalence Theory, explores the various text styles with their
recurring language structures that need attention in translation.

1. Narrative. Sequence of events, emphasis is on verbs (English verbs are complex: ―He burst in. Her sudde
appearance.)

2. Description. Emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives, adjectival nouns.

3. Discussion. A treatment of ideas, emphasis on abstract nouns (concepts), verbs of thought, mental activity
(consider, ponder, reflect), logical argument and connectives

4. Dialogue. Emphasis on colloquialisms (conversation) and phaticisms (use of speech for social or emotive
purposes rather than for communicating information https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phatic)

Stylistic Scales
Degrees of formality is vital in translation. Martin Joos mentioned 5 types of register or communication style in
discourse, namely: frozen or static (text doesn‘t change, for example, the national anthem), formal (usually
one-way speeches or pronouncements, for example, a court decision), consultative (instructional and
authoritative, for example, doctor‘s prescription), casual (conversational, for example, colleagues), and
intimate (highly personal, for example, close friends). Newmark shares eight scales of formality illustrated in
the following:

Officialese: The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categorically prohibited in this establishment.
Official: The consumption of nutriments is prohibited.
Formal: You are requested not to consume food in this establishment.
Neutral: Eating is not allowed here.
Informal: Please do not eat here.
Colloquial: You can‘t feed your face here.
Slang: Lay off the nosh. Don‘t stuff your face here.
Taboo: Lay off the f_ _ _ _ing nosh!

TOPIC 11 Direct Translation Method

Direct Translation

Direct translation refers to the act of transposing or translating structures of concepts of a source text into
exact equivalence in the target language.

1.Borrowing is the taking of words directly from one language into another without translation.
Example: software, café, hamburger, kindergarten, sugar, yogurt, blog

2.Calque or Loan translation is a phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally word-for-
word. Example: assurance qualité (quality assurance)

3.Literal translation is transliterating the source text. This technique applies to languages that are very
similar, especially in syntax. Most mechanical translation, like FB translations and Google translate, use this
technique.
Examples: Time is gold. Panahon ay ginto.
The child is crying. Ang bata ay umiiyak.

FEATURES of LITERAL TRANSLATION

1. Closeness to the Source Language (SL) meaning and structure
2. Conformity to the target language (TL) grammar

Varieties of Close Translation

1. Word-for-word translation – transferring SL grammar and syntax, and basic meanings of all SL words
Examples: These are English translations of sentences in the country‘s language translated using
word-for-word translation.
Czechoslovakia: in a Czechoslovakian tourist agency: Take one of our horse-driven city tours - we
guarantee no miscarriages.
Denmark: in a Copenhagen airline ticket office: We take your bags and send them in all directions.
Sweden: in the window of a Swedish furrier: Fur coats made for ladies from their own skin.
Switzerland: in a Swiss menu: "Our wines leave you nothing to hope for".

2. One-to-one translation – each SL word has a TL equivalent, but the basic meanings differ.
Examples:

The biblical verse in Psalms 51, ‗Cleanse me and I will be white as snow,‘ may translate as ‗I will be
white as a bedsheet‘ because ‗snow (barf in Persian) also refers to bedsheet.
 The English expression, ‗Run before one can walk,‘ may translate as ‗unripe grade before raisin‘ (run-
ghoora-unripe grape, walk-maviz-raisin) in Persian. So the sentence, He must run before he can walk
will translate as He is unripe grape before he is raisin

3. Collocation-to-collocation
Example: beautiful child-magandang bata, masayang tunay-happy indeed

4. Clause-to-clause
Example: “…that we have mixed feelings about Florentino or Rennaisance Politics.”
“…na tayo ay mayroong magkahalong nararamdaman tungkol kay Florentino o Rennaisance
na pulitika.”

5. Sentence-to-sentence
Example: Otherwise/ we/can only be existing/in one dimension./ perhaps/the lowest dimension./of our
being.
Kung hindi/tayo/ay nabubuhay lamang/sa isang sukat,/marahil/sa pinakamababang sukat/ng
ating Pagkatao

TOPIC 12 The Translation of Poetry

The Language of Poetry

Our discussion on what to teach in literature reviews the characteristics of a poem. Linguistically, a poem is a
challenge because it is figurative, multi-layered, ornate. Kenneth Koch describes the language of poetry as a
language in which the sound of the words is raised to an importance equal to that of their meaning, and also
equal to the importance of grammar. Paul Valery finds poetic language so estranged that he defines it as ―a
language within a language‖. Knowing this feature of poetry reminds the translator to mind the linguistic
features of the poem first and foremost. As words and any semantic, audio, or visual representation attach to
them convey specific meanings and evoke specific responses, how does the translator transmit not only the
words but also the layers of meanings conveyed by the words in the original text?

The literary and aesthetic elements in poetry are many. Literary and aesthetics in poetry go together
because the literary elements are the structures used to create the aesthetics in the poem. Like the short story,
poetry is crafted on two things: what is the story, and how is it told. Literary devices are tools to make the
―telling‖ part more interesting, more ―aesthetically‖ defined. These elements range from sound devices, to
rhythm and meter, to figures of speech and others.

Poetry, like any other form of discourse, since it uses language, sells a specific ideology. It carries one heavy
weight called cultural load. The translator‘s responsibility is to see to it that this ‗cultural load‘ is not lost in the
translation process.

So how do we deal with these concerns? Peter Newmark suggests the following:
1. Find the deep, underlying structure. (meaning, and language structures that lend themselves to the
meaning)
2. Find the logical subject, and then find the specific verb (everything falls into place soon after).
3. Reconstruct the structures in the TL as closely as possible to the original text.
4. Analyze phrase or clause structures.
5. Maintain the structure to maintain the beauty of the poem (Example: sonnet to sonnet)
6. Always study nouns (carrier of concepts) and verbs (carrier of concepts through actions), IN THE
CONTEXT of both SL and TL.

Step-by-step process using Newmark’s suggestions.

1. Find the deep underlying structure. (What is the main ‗meaning‘ of the poem)
Did the two translations‖capture‖ the main meaning communicated in the peom?

2. Find the logical subject, and then find the specific verb.
Verbs:
Prest - di ibig alisin ang pagkakadikit - nakanganga
Looks, lifts - nakatingin, nangakataas - nakatanaw, ibinabayaw
Has lain, live - umiidlip, nakikipagtalik - tumihaya, kaulayaw
Are made, can make- nagagawa, nakagagawa - ginagawa, makagagawa

3. Reconstruct the structures in the TL as closely as possible to the original text.

Examples: summer wear - nagtatag-init, nahihiyasan - tag-init, magsusuot.
Against the sweet earth‘s flowing breast - Sa dibdib ng lupang ang daloy ng buhay, walang kasingtamis
- Sa walang humpay na pag-ilig ng dibdib ng matamis na lupa;

4. Analyze phrase or clause structure.

Some translated lines followed the word order of the original.

5. Maintain the structure to maintain the beauty of the poem. (Free verse to free verse)
 6. Always study nouns (carrier of concepts) and verbs (carrier of concepts through actions), IN THE
CONTEXT of both SL and TL.
Summer – tag-init
Fool – mulala, hangal, tanga
Who intimately lives with rain. - Sa buhos ng ulan ay magkarayamang nakikipagtalik
(Is nakikipagtalik a contextual equivalent of the word initimate?)

TOPIC 13: Back translation of Text

Back translation refers to the act of taking a passage verbatim or word-for-word, and translating it to a foreign
language, Japanese for instance, then it is re-translated back into English using the same technique for
comparison.
 It is a kind of forward translation – the transfer of a written text from one language (source language)
to another (target language).
 It is an attempt to convey the message that was written in one language into another without changing
the original meaning and intention.

Back translation is a method needed for texts which are of high-risk content, meaning, texts that require a
very high degree of accuracy because errors would result to irreversible consequences. Examples of fields or
areas with high- risk content are:
 pharmaceutical industry
 medical devices
 clinical research
 clinical trials
 medical forms/consents
 surveys/questionnaires
 packaging for export
 food products
 scientific materials
 contracts and legal instruments
 financial reporting
 operating instructions

The Processes in Back Translation

The process of back translation is actually comprised of three processes carried out independently and
interdependently at the same time, but in chronological order.

1. Translating a completed translation back into the original language.

2. Comparing that new translation with the original text.
3. Reconciling any meaningful differences between the two. During reconciliation, the back translation is
compared with the original source text to see if there are issues about meaning so that edits and
adjustments are made as needed to produce an almost accurate final translation.
TOPIC 14 Natural Translation and Re-Creation Translation, and Transcreation

Natural Translation

Natural Translation uses language that makes it

“sound” natural.

1. Natural language-a language readable by

everybody, however, it is formal.
2. Ordinary language – plain language that
uses non-technical idiom
3. Basic language-somewhere between
formal and informal, easily understood
and constructed from languages that are
most frequently used by common people
(Newmark, 1988:87.

Characteristics of Natural Translation

What do experts say about natural translation?

1. Tytler: A translator may add or retrench from the original text when it is being rendered into the TL.

2. Belloc: Natural and good translation must consciously attempt the spirit of the original at the expense of the
letter.

3. Nida: Emphasis should be on the overall effect with approximate tone.

4. Newmark: In natural translation, (1) the target text makes sense, and (2) it reads naturally.

5. Beekman and Callow: Emphasis in translation is ―ease‖. There is a correlation of ease of understanding the
meaning of a text and the level of naturalness that it has.

6.Gutt: A good translation should read like a TL original, not like a translation.

7. Rahimi: Translation should not sound foreign or smell ―translation‖. Translation is not natural if it lacks
normal use of TL speakers and appropriate style

8. Williams: Translation should have cultural significance. Lack of cultural knowledge can cause misusage or
misunderstanding of language.

Characteristics of Natural Translation

1. Natural translation is not one-to-one, or literal translation. (Belloc)

2. Natural translation is so, that the receptor language readers do not recognize it as translation. (Rahimi)
3. In natural translation, translator can add or retrench from original text when needed. (Tytler)
4. In natural translation, the translator understands what kind of audience the original writer had in mind
while
writing.
5. Natural translators adopt communicative translation rather than semantic translation (Newmark)

Re-creation Translation

1. Re-creation translation is a type of natural translation and is more applied in literary, rather than
non-literary texts.
2. It is translating the thoughts behind the words, sometimes between the words, or translating the
sub-text (implicatures); sometimes called contextual translation, implying to get as far away as
possible from the words. (Delisle, 1981).
3. It is a method that requires linguistic invention to capture the ST imagery, dialogues, style, tone,
cultural load, and other elements and translate them using creative or invented renderings into the
TL.
4. It is the creative manipulation of linguistic and cultural elements of a text to produce a new text.
 5. It is a dialogue of cultures where the translator ―soaks in the original to be able to interpret it as a
whole and give it a new life, marked by the uniqueness of the multiple ways of being the translator‘s
language and culture, and by his creative individuality.‖ (Bakhtin)
6. It is a production of a dissimilarity of the similar, for even though the work is the same, it is not a
copy of the original
7. Example: :The English idiom Curiosity killed the cat is a recreated translation from the Italian
proverb: tanto va la gatta al lardo che ci lascia zo zampino, which translates as, the cat so often
goes to the lard in the end she’ll lose a paw. The English translation is linguistically and syntactically
so diverged from the Italian source but it captures the sub-text, or the implication in the idiom, and
translates it in a form understood by the receptor.

The most controversial translation

Edward Fitzgerald‘s Quatrains, an English translation of the Persian classic Rubaiyat, written by the
mathematician and then unknown poet Omar Khayyam, remains to be one, if not the most controversial
translated work of all time. The controversy started with the fact that many experts believe that Fitzgerald
MADE Omar Khayyam by alluding a specific verse from the original to Khayyam himself, making him the poet
when in fact, only about 200 or even less of the 1,400 quatrains, were his. Scholars are still looking into this
case to validate the authenticity of the claims. Whatever really happened, only Fitzgerald knew. And he knew
the power he held when he translated the verses: he could make or unmake a poet. Thus, many claim the
Italian saying traduttori traditori, meaning ―translators traitors‖ to be true. If there‘s one thing we can‘t deny, it‘s
the fact that Fitzgerald‘s English translation of the Rubaiyat was so beautiful that many literary experts claim it
to be a translated work that was far better than the original text. (https://scroll.in/article/927555/why-edward-
fitzgeralds-rubaiyat-of-omar-khayyam-is-one-of-the-most-controversial-translations-ever)Check this out and
see how re-creation translation works.

Persian Google Translate Fitzgerald Translation

‫شب ک ا سه در ص بح ب رای !ب یدار‬ Awake! For the morning in the I
‫ ب ه را ها س تاره ک ه ا ست ک رده پ رت اب را س ن گی‬night bowl Awake! for Morning in the Bowl
‫آورد می در پ رواز‬: Throws a stone that makes the of Night
‫ا ست شده گ رف تار شرق ش کارچی !ل و و‬ stars fly: Has flung the Stone that puts
‫ن ور از ن ور ی ک در س لطان ب رجک‬. And Lou! The Eastern hunter is the Stars to Flight:
caught And Lo! the Hunter of the East
Sultan's turret in a light of light. has caught
The Sultan's Turret in a Noose
of Light.

Transcreation

1. Transcreation is a blend of the English words ‗translation‘ and ‗creation‘ – and the process involves
both.
2. While a translation must be faithful to the original source, in transcreation, more emphasis is put on
recreating or reproducing the same reaction in the target language. Faithfulness to the original text is a
secondary purpose.
3. Transcreation is re-creation translation.
4. Transcreation is used specifically for the creative translation of advertising and branding materials,
whereas translation is a general term. (https://translatorstudio.co.uk/difference-between-translation-
transcreation/)
5. Transcreation is a combination of translating and creating content, to target a specific country or
culture. It uses translation and copywriting. A more creative process than marketing translation,
although you might use both in the same project. Most importantly, it helps you sell. Transcreators
produce copy that is specially designed for your brand and target customer.

Examples of Bad Transcreation

1. Pepsi got it badly wrong when their slogan ‗Come alive with the Pepsi generation‘ was rendered in
Chinese as ‗Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the grave‘.‖
2. KFC‘s famous ―Finger lickin‘ good‖ slogan rendered in Mandarin as ―Eat your fingers off‖.
3. Brand names and phonetics can be a problem in transcreation like in the following examples:
a. The famous Pedo brand of Turkish nappies works less well in Spain, where it means flatulence.
(https://translatorstudio.co.uk/what-is-transcreation/)
b. When the KPop boy band SHINee held a concert in Paris, fans were chanting the French
phrase si bel homme which means ―very good-looking man‖, which sounds very similar to the
Korean pharse
―f_ _ _ _ing bastards!‖ Just imagine the confusion of the boys performing during that time.
TOPIC 15 Transposition and Modulation
What is transposition?
1. It is the process where parts of speech change their sequence when they are translated.
For example: crystal ball becomes bolang Kristal in Tagalog, which transliterates as ‗ball crystal‘
2. It is in a sense a shift of word class. (crystal=attributive noun/modifier, ball=headword, in this case,
‗crystal ball‘ can be a noun phrase referring to a ball made of crystal, or a compound noun referring to
that magic ball used to tell the future; bolang Kristal transposes the elements, and shifts the position of
words, where the noun ‗bola‘ is placed in an attributive position)
3. Transpositions can be
a. Free: when the transposition that we use is mainly dependent on the context and particularly on
the desired effect. For example:
This matter is a concern to all of us. (This matter concerns us all: back translation)
b. Compulsory: when only a transposition is acceptable, thus it is absolutely necessary in a
particular context. For example:
This pandemic season is a time when resilience and reliance must go hand-in-hand. (This
pandemic season is a time where resilience and reliance must go-hand-in-hand.)

Types of transposition: (Newmark)

1. Automatic or Duty transposition. This is caused by the system and the rules of language. This type
is usually used in intralanguage translation and some are also used in interlanguage translation.
Examples:
a. Adverb-verb: You handled the job well / You did nothing but handle the job well.
b. Adverb-noun: She addressed the issue earlier. / She addressed the issue at the meeting.
c. Adverb-adjective: My mom spends wisely /My mom is a wise spender.
d. Adjective-noun: She is crazy with pre-loved items. / Her craziness is for pre-loved items.
e. Possessive article-definite article: Place your bag on the table / Place the bag on the table.
f. Verb or past participle-noun: She wishes to see visit Japan after the pandemic. / Her wish is to visit
Japan after the pandemic.
2. Transposition due to grammatical structures of the SL absent in the TL
Examples:
Hyphenated structures in English don‘t have equivalents in Tagalog.
Hand-me-down, helter-skelter, way-maker
3. Transposition caused by the level of fairness is lacking in the translation, meaning, literal
translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with the natural usage of the TL.
Example: SL singular becomes TL plural or vice versa.
4. Transposition is done to fill lexical gaps using grammatical structures.
Example: A verb may be translated as a noun

What is modulation?
1. Modulation is a relation between two texts such that they result in the same mental representation,
but by a different process of interpretation. (Salkie, 2001)
This definition implies a radical approach on translation as the focus is the creation of a similar ―mental‖
representation in both SL and TL. The emphasis then, is a semantic cohesion between the texts,
regardless of the method or the medium used to achieve this synchronous ‗mental representation‘.
2. Modulation involves the perceiving of SL situation from a different point of view. There is a variation in
the form of the message, obtained by a change in point of view. (Vinay and Darbelnet)
This change in point of view is made in the TL text.
3. From a more concrete point of view, modulation in translation helps to illustrate the difference between
literal translation and coherent meaning translation. The idea or meaning is the same, but the phrases
that are used in the source and target languages are different – the source language is not translated
word-for-word into the target language. Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in the
source and target languages to convey the same idea. For example:
4. Te lo dejo means literally ―I leave it to you‖. While there is a corresponding equivalence in English, the
real meaning is lost because the phrase carries with it the sense of ―giving it‖. The English translation
implies that the ―addressee is given the burden to decide to take or not‖, and thus losing the essence of
the original meaning. So the phrase is better translated as ―You can have it‖.
Two things happened here:
1) There is a change in point of view. ―I leave it to you‖ places the addressee in a position of power as
he is given the role to decide. ―You can have it‖ places the speaker in a position of power as he
decides for the addressee.
2) The use of declarative function in ‗I leave it to you‘ and the imperative function in ‗You can have it‘
 say so much about transference and modality in language. This change in form is necessary
because of the change in point of view. See Vinay and Darbelnet‘s definition.
5. It is a change in point of view allowing us to express the same phenomenon in a different way to make
translation culturally coherent.