Related Commercial Resources

CHAPTER 6

INDOOR SWIMMING POOLS

Design Components ........................................................................................................................ 6.1
Design Issues................................................................................................................................... 6.2

I NDOOR pools are challenging facilities to get right. When de-

signing a structure to enclose a swimming pool, it is necessary to
completely understand what is happening inside the structure to
in winter. The designer must address humidity control, room pres-
sure control, ventilation requirements for air quality (outdoor and
exhaust air), air distribution, duct design, pool water chemistry, and
properly control the indoor atmosphere for occupancy comfort, evaporation rates. A humidity control system alone will not provide
occupancy health, and structure preservation. A holistic, integrated satisfactory results if any of these items are overlooked. (See Chap-
approach to design is needed to ensure a successful outcome. ter 25 of the 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equip-
This chapter addresses the needs of both the architectural design ment for dehumidifier application and design information.)
team and the mechanical HVAC design team. Architectural aspects
are included because the building envelope must be designed to be Air Quality Control
suitable for this high-dew-point application. Some aspects of the
envelope design must be approached in a certain way because the Many critical items affect a natatorium’s indoor air quality (IAQ).
mechanical system cannot solve the problems they cause. The design team must work with all trades associated with the pool
Many owners, designers, and facility operators are under the mis- to ensure a complete system design is in place for the best possible
conception that a properly designed HVAC system can clean the air air quality. Chloramine reduction and control are critical aspects;
when chloramine odors become an issue and can make condensation source capture exhaust, secondary disinfection, UV, and other tech-
issues go away. This is not the case. If chemicals are offgassing, the nology to reduce or remove chloramines are at least as important as
source of the problem (water chemistry) must be addressed. If the the HVAC aspects of the design. The HVAC system must effectively
building envelope is not designed correctly and appropriately for this get air where it is needed. A stratified room or areas that do not get
application, there will be condensation and building degradation air turnover will suffer.
issues. The HVAC system can influence these issues either posi-
tively or negatively, but will not resolve the issues. Humidity Control
The HVAC system and the water treatment system are critical to When wet, people become more sensitive to relative humidity
the success of the facility. These systems must all work together to and experience an evaporative cooling effect on the skin surface.
provide the best indoor air and water quality in the facility. If one of Fluctuations in relative humidity outside the 50 to 60% range are not
these systems is compromised in any way, the other system will be recommended. Sustained levels above 60% can promote factors that
affected and cannot correct the issue caused by the shortcomings of reduce indoor air quality. Relative humidity levels below 50% sig-
the other system. nificantly increase the facility’s energy consumption. For swimmers,
The owner and design team must put occupant health and safety 50 to 60% rh limits evaporation and corresponding heat loss from the
first, and this requires budgeting for a suitable building HVAC sys- body and is comfortable without being extreme. Higher relative
tem and water treatment system. Compromises directly affect as- humidity levels can be destructive to building components. Mold
pects of the facility. Bad air quality, condensation, and building and mildew can attack wall, floor, and ceiling coverings, and con-
degradation negatively affect the facility’s economic viability by in- densation can degrade many building materials. In the worst case,
creasing operating and maintenance costs while possibly reducing the roof structure could fail because of corrosion from water con-
patron memberships. Although most mechanical systems can be ap- densing on the structure
plied in any geographic location, some systems or combination of
technology may work better than others. There are three approaches to humidity control for indoor pools:
For both engineers and architects, the key to understanding in- compressorized, chilled-water coil and ventilation. All are viable
door pools is understanding that this is a high-dew-point application. options, but must be fully evaluated to understand what they will
The elevated dew point affects every aspect of this facility. This provide for year-round control. Geography and patron expectations
chapter reviews the implications of this higher dew point, how to cal- will factor significantly in on whether or not a ventilation only
culate loads, and best practices for best possible occupant comfort approach might be considered. Ventilation supplemented with a
and satisfaction. compressor or chilled water coil are also sometimes considered. See
Chapter 25 of the 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and
1. DESIGN COMPONENTS Equipment for details on the compressorized dehumidifiers avail-
able.
Environmental Control
Like most indoor spaces, a natatorium requires year-round hu- Temperature Control
midity levels between 40 and 60% for comfort, reasonable energy The relation between temperature and humidity determines evap-
consumption, and building envelope protection. However, space oration from the pool water surface and the space’s condensation
temperatures are generally 10 to 15°F warmer in a natatorium than in dew point. To minimize evaporation and operating costs, the air tem-
a traditional space, and this drives up the dew point. To minimize op- perature should be kept as warm as is practical, ideally at or above
erating costs, it is recommended the humidity levels be allowed to go the water temperature, with a maximum of 86°F db, which is gener-
to the high end in summer, only trying to keep humidity levels lower ally understood to the maximum for human comfort. All surfaces in
the space must be maintained above the space dew point to prevent
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 9.8 Large Building Air- condensation from developing that could damage the building and
Conditioning Applications. allow growth of mold and fungi.

6.1 fungus
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6.2 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications

Vapor Migration Exhaust Air

A pool’s indoor design dew point typically ranges from 62 to Exhaust air must always be in amounts greater than the ventila-
69°F for ambient conditions of 82 to 84°F and 50 to 60% rh. In com- tion air to maintain negative pressure, but the amount by which
parison, a typical space in winter might be 70°F at 40% rh with a exhaust must exceed ventilation depends on building tightness.
45°F dew point. Strategic exhaust has a positive influence on IAQ. Low exhaust air
at or near the surface of the pool water surface should also be eval-
In summer, the 62 to 69°F space dew point is not a condensation
uated to assist in evacuating any chloramines from the space. This
concern. The vapor pressure outdoors might be a little higher than it
exhaust air is rich in energy, and heat recovery is highly recom-
is indoors, but if the vapor migrates through the building envelope, mended to help reduce operating costs.
it is too warm for condensation to occur.
The serious concern is in winter, when the indoor vapor pressure Location of Mechanical Equipment
is significantly higher than it is outdoors and there is a push from
The location of mechanical and electrical equipment rooms
indoors to outdoors to try to equalize pressure. If the vapor is
affects the degree of sound attenuation treatment required.
allowed to migrate through the wall, it will encounter a temperature
at or below dew point. Condensation or freezing will result, and the
structure’s integrity will be negatively affected. 2. DESIGN ISSUES
Condensation (water vapor changing from gaseous to liquid
Building Pressurization state) is the major issue for indoor swimming pools. Both visible
The balance between ventilation air and exhaust air must be con- and concealed condensation must be prevented. To understand how
trolled at all times. A pool room space must always be maintained this happens, a basic familiarity with psychometrics is necessary.
with a negative pressure to prevent moisture and odors from migrat- The following five terms are commonly encountered when dealing
ing to other parts of the building. A positively pressurized indoor with a psychometric chart (Figure 1):
pool can accelerate building damage by pushing the high-moisture- • Dry bulb (db) temperature is the sensible temperature of the air
content air into the building envelope. Note that a significant nega- (i.e., what can be read from a common thermometer).
tive space pressure will not reduce or affect vapor migration to the
• Wet-bulb (wb) temperature is taken by surrounding the sensor
outdoors in winter.
with a wet wick and measuring the temperature as the water evap-
orates from the wick. As the water evaporates from the wick, it
Ventilation Air draws heat required for evaporation from the thermometer bulb,
Ventilation air should be calculated as the minimum amount rec- cooling the thermometer in proportion to the amount of evapora-
ommended in the current ASHRAE Standard 62.1. The effect of tion.
exceeding these amounts must be reviewed to compensate for any • Dew-point (dp) temperature is the temperature at which mois-
additional moisture being introduced to the space and any effects on ture condenses and forms visible water. The colder the air, the less
increased evaporation, human comfort, and space operating costs. moisture it can hold.

Fig. 1 Example Psychrometric Chart

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Indoor Swimming Pools 6.3

• Relative humidity (rh) expresses the moisture content of air as a temperature at indoor temperatures of 82°F db, 84°F db, and 86°F db
percentage of saturation. and relative humidity values from 30 to 60%. An example is shown at
• Specific humidity is the weight of the moisture in the air com- 84°F db and 50% rh, showing that the dew point is 64°F.
pared to the weight of air. The weight is measured in grains, and This example shows that all surfaces inside the pool room must
there are 7000 grains in a pound of air. be kept above the dew-point temperature of 64°F to prevent visible
condensation. Common design practice adds 5°F to this tempera-
A complete understanding of dew point is important. Figure 2 ture as a safety factor.
shows three stages of moisture condensation from the air: The architect’s responsibility is to design wall and ceiling com-
• In Figure 2A, the surface of the glass is clear. This means the glass ponents with this surface temperature in mind, to assist the HVAC
temperature is above the dew-point temperature. design engineer in preventing moisture from forming inside the
structure.
• In Figure 2B, water is starting to form on the surface of the glass,
so the glass temperature is at the dew point. Equation (1) calculates the surface temperature of a structural
component:
• In Figure 2C, the glass surface is below the dew point and con-
densate has formed on the surface. Ts = Ti – [K(1/R)(Ti – To)] (1)
Without proper understanding and control of dew point and con-
densation, moisture can form on the indoor and outdoor surfaces of where
the structure. Figure 3 shows examples of moisture formation and Ts = surface temperature
Ti = indoor space temperature
the results. K = indoor air film coefficient; 0.68 for vertical surface, 0.95 for
In a typical indoor pool, indoor temperature ranges from 78 to horizontal roof or skylight, 0.76 for 45º roof or skylight
86°F db. Figure 4 shows three plotted curves with values derived from R = total R-value of structural component
the psychometric chart. This graph allows plotting the dew-point To = outdoor temperature

Fig. 2 Stages of Moisture Condensation on Glass

(Courtesy Desert-Aire Corp)

Fig. 3 Structural Damage Caused by Condensation

(Courtesy Desert-Aire Corp)

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6.4 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications

Fig. 4 Condensation Dew Point Chart

Fig. 5 Condensation on Windows: Glass Surface Is below

Space Dew Point

To apply Equation (1) to a window, the published window U-

factor (see Chapter 15 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Funda-
mentals) must be converted to the required R-value; for example,

R = 1/U = 1/0.4 = 2.5

In this example, the indoor temperature is 84°F db and the out-

door temperature is 0°F db. This gives a 61.2°F surface tempera-
ture on the window. If the indoor space is at 50% rh, the dew point
would be 64°F, which would lead to condensation on the glass
surface unless the window glass is heated above the dew point
Fig. 6 Effects of U-Values and Indoor and Outdoor
(Figure 5). Temperatures on Dew Point
Figure 6 plots three indoor conditions and several window U-
values at different outdoor temperatures: 25°F, 0°F, and –25°F.
The left vertical axis shows the relative humidity at which con- Humidity must be maintained at proper levels to prevent mold and
densation will occur: whenever the indoor relative humidity mildew growth and for acceptable indoor air quality and comfort.
exceeds these values at the given outdoor condition, condensation
Load Estimation
will form on the window surface unless the window surface is
warmed above the indoor dew point. Loads for a natatorium include heat gains and losses from out-
Note that, as outdoor conditions get colder, the surface tem- door air, lighting, walls, roof, and glass. Internal latent loads are
perature of the glass drops dramatically and eventually attempts generally from people and evaporation. Evaporation loads in
to eliminate condensation by reducing the space dew point are not pools and spas are significant relative to other load elements and
realistic. may vary widely depending on pool features, areas of water and
wet deck, water temperature, and activity level in the pool.
Outdoor Air
Evaporation. The rate of evaporation can be estimated from
Outdoor air ventilation rates (as prescribed by ASHRAE Stan- empirical Equation (2). This equation is valid for pools at normal
dard 62.1) can be a major portion of the total load. The latent load activity levels, allowing for splashing and a limited area of wetted
(dehumidification and humidification) and energy used to main- deck. Other pool uses may have more or less evaporation (Smith
tain relative humidity within prescribed limits are also concerns. et al. 1993).

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Indoor Swimming Pools 6.5

Table 1 Typical Activity Factors for Various Pool Table 2 Typical Natatorium Design Conditions
Feature Types
Air Water Relative
Type of Pool Typical Activity Factor (Fa) Type of Pool Temperature, °F Temperature, °F Humidity, %
Baseline (pool unoccupied) 0.5 Recreational 75 to 85 75 to 85 50 to 60
Residential pool 0.5 Therapeutic 80 to 85 85 to 95 50 to 60
Condominium 0.65 Competition 78 to 85 76 to 82 50 to 60
Therapy 0.65 Diving 80 to 85 80 to 90 50 to 60
Hotel 0.8 Elderly swimmers 84 to 90 85 to 90 50 to 60
Public, schools 1.0 Hotel 82 to 85 82 to 86 50 to 60
Whirlpools, spas 1.0 Whirlpool/spa 80 to 85 97 to 104 50 to 60
Wavepools, water slides 1.5 (minimum)
natatoriums. Applying higher activity factors when evaluating the
A evaporation rates at water parks and water features/toys is only one
wp = --- (pw – pa)(95 + 0.425V) (2) component of accounting for this evaporation. Currently the design
Y
professional must rely on experience and professional judgment
where when calculating the evaporation in water parks and from the water
wp = evaporation of water, lb/h features/toys.
A = area of pool surface, ft2 It is recommended that the dehumidification load generated by
Y = latent heat required to change water to vapor at surface water each water feature be calculated individually. The water toys’ man-
temperature, Btu/lb ufacturers should be contacted to provide specifications related to
pw = saturation vapor pressure taken at surface water temperature, in. the pattern and size of the sheet of water that is generated by each
Hg
pa = saturation pressure at room air dew point, in. Hg
water feature/toy to allow for proper load determination. The wet
V = air velocity over water surface, fpm area created by the water toy/feature must be included as wet deck
when calculating the ventilation air required for the space as well as
Units for the constant 95 are Btu/(h·ft2 ·in. Hg). Units for the the wetted surface for the evaporation load. Because of the concen-
constant 0.425 are Btu· min/(h·ft3 ·in. Hg). trated nature of the loads in these facilities, it is recommended that
Equation (2) may be modified by multiplying it by an activity more supply air and outdoor air be used in these facilities compared
factor Fa to alter the estimate of evaporation rate based on the level to what is recommended for traditional pools.
of activity supported. For Y values of about 1000 Btu/lb and V values
ranging from 10 to 30 fpm, Equation (2) can be reduced to Ventilation Requirements
wp = 0.1A(pw – pa)Fa (3) Air Quality. Outdoor air ventilation rates prescribed by ASH-
RAE Standard 62.1 are intended to provide acceptable air quality
Table 1 lists activity factors that should be applied to the areas of conditions for the average pool (where chlorine is used for primary
specific features, and not to the entire wetted area. disinfection). The ventilation requirement may be excessive for pri-
The effectiveness of controlling the natatorium environment vate pools and installations with low use, and may also prove inad-
depends on correct estimation of water evaporation rates. Applying equate for high-occupancy public or water park installations.
the correct activity factors is extremely important in determining
Air quality problems in pools and spas are often caused by water
water evaporation rates. The difference in peak evaporation rates
quality problems, so simply increasing ventilation rates may prove
between private pools and active public pools of comparable size
both expensive and ineffective. Water quality conditions are a direct
may be more than 100%.
function of pool use and the type and effectiveness of water disin-
Actual operating temperatures and relative humidity conditions
fection used.
should be established before design. How the area will be used usu-
ally dictates design (Table 2). It is recommended that the ASHRAE climate data included with
Air temperatures in public and institutional pools are recom- Chapter 14 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (full
mended to be maintained 2 to 4°F above the water temperature (but data are in the CD and Handbook Online versions of the chapter) be
not above the comfort threshold of 86°F) for energy conservation used when calculating the effects of ventilation air on the natato-
through reduced evaporation and to avoid chill effects on swimmers. rium’s latent load, as mentioned in ASHRAE Standard 62.1.
Competition pools that host swim meets have two distinct oper- Because indoor pools usually have high ceilings, temperature
ating profiles: (1) swim meets and (2) normal occupancy. It is rec- stratification and stack effect (see Chapter 16 of the 2017 ASHRAE
ommended that both be fully modeled to evaluate the facility’s Handbook—Fundamentals) can have a detrimental effect on indoor
needs. Although swim meets tend to be infrequent, the loads during air quality. Careful duct layout is necessary to ensure that the space
meets are often considerably higher than during normal operations. receives proper air changes and homogeneous air quality through-
To model the swim meet load accurately, it is recommended that the out. Some air movement at the deck and pool water level is essential
designer know the number of spectators, number of swimmers on to ensure acceptable air quality. Complaints from swimmers indi-
the deck, and operating conditions required during the meets. The cate that the greatest chloramine (see the section on Pool Water
operator may request a peak relative humidity of 55%, which has a Chemistry) concentrations occur at the water surface. Children are
significant effect on total loads. A system designed for swim meet especially vulnerable to the ill effects of chloramine inhalation.
loads should also be designed to operate for considerable portions of Pool and spa areas should be maintained at a negative pressure of
the year at part loads. Depending on the layout of the space and loca- 0.05 to 0.15 in. of water relative to the outdoors and adjacent areas of
tion of the spectator gallery, it might be beneficial to provide a sep- the building to prevent moisture and chloramine odor migration.
arate microclimate to that area, with a separate dedicated unit. Active methods of pressure control may prove more effective than
Water parks and water feature (slides, spray cannons, arches, static balancing and may be necessary where outdoor air is used as a
etc.) loads are not fully covered by this chapter. Use caution when part of an active humidity control strategy. Openings from the pool to
evaluating the evaporation from water features/toys installed in other areas should be minimized and controlled. Passageways should

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6.6 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications

be equipped with doors with automatic closers and sweeps to inhibit that incoming ventilation air reaches the breathing zone, as rec-
migration of moisture and air. ommended in ASHRAE Standard 62.1.
Exhaust air from pools is rich in moisture and may contain high • Exhaust air inlets should be located to maximize capture effec-
levels of corrosive chloramine compounds. Exhaust air intake grilles tiveness and minimize recirculation of chloramines. Exhausting
should be located as close as possible to the warmest body of water from directly above whirlpools is also desirable. Exhaust air
in the facility. Warmer and more agitated waters offgas chemicals at should be taken directly to the outdoors, through heat recovery
higher rates compared to traditional pools. This also allows body oils devices when provided.
to become airborne. Ideally, these pollutants should be removed from • Duct materials and hardware must be resistant to chemical corro-
close to the source before they have a chance to diffuse and nega- sion from the pool atmosphere. Stainless steels, even the 316 series,
tively affect air quality. Installations with intakes directly above are readily attacked by chlorides and are prone to pitting. They
whirlpools have resulted in the best air quality. require treatment to adequately perform in a natatorium environ-
Air Delivery Rates. Most codes require a minimum of six air ment. Galvanized steel and aluminum sheet metal may be used for
changes per hour, except where mechanical cooling is used. This exposed duct systems. If galvanized duct is used, steps should be
rate may prove inadequate for some occupancy and use. taken to adequately protect the metal from corrosion. It is recom-
Where mechanical dehumidification is provided, air delivery mended that, at a minimum, the galvanized ducts be properly pre-
rates should be established to maintain appropriate conditions of pared and painted with epoxy-based or other durable paint suitable
temperature and humidity. The following rates are typically desired: to protect metal surfaces in a pool environment. Note that galvan-
nealed ductwork is easier to weld and paint than hot-dip galva-
Pools areas 4 to 6 air changes per hour nized, but galvannealed is more susceptible to corrosion if left
Spectator areas 6 to 8 air changes per hour bare. Certain types of fabric duct (airtight) with appropriate grilles
Therapeutic pools 4 to 6 air changes per hour sewn in are also a good choice. Buried ductwork should be con-
structed from nonmetallic fiberglass-reinforced or PVC materials
Outdoor air delivery rates may be constant or variable, depend- because of the more demanding environment. Proper means of
ing on design. Minimum rates, however, must adequately dilute water drainage in the duct must be considered when ductwork is
contaminants generated by pool water and must maintain accept- buried.
able ventilation for occupancy. • Grilles, registers, and diffusers should be constructed from alumi-
Where a minimum outdoor air ventilation rate is established to num. They should be selected for low static pressure loss and for
protect against condensation in a building’s structural elements, the appropriate throws for proper air distribution.
rates are typically used for 100% outdoor air systems. These rates • Filtration should be selected to provide 45 to 65% efficiencies (as
usually result in excessive humidity levels under most operating defined in ASHRAE Standard 52.1) and be installed in locations
conditions and are generally not adequate to produce acceptable in- selected to prevent condensation in the filter bank. Filter media
door air quality, especially in public facilities subject to heavy use. and support materials should be resistant to moisture degradation.
In colder/drier climates, greater amounts of outdoor air may de- • Fiberglass duct liner should not be used. Where condensation
crease humidity levels below the recommended 40 to 60% range. may occur, the insulation must be applied to the duct exterior.
This increases evaporation, adds to costs for makeup water and • Air systems should be designed for noise levels listed in Table 1
chemicals, and may make it difficult to maintain the proper water of Chapter 48 (NC 45 to 50); however the room wall, floor, and
chemistry. ceiling surfaces should be evaluated for their reverberation times
and speech intelligibility.
Air Distribution Effectiveness and Duct Design
Proper duct design and installation in a natatorium is critical. Envelope Design
Failure to effectively deliver air where needed will result in air An indoor pool is a special-application structure and requires
quality problems, condensation, stratification, and poor equipment care to ensure the entire structure is suitable for a high-dew-point
performance. Ductwork that fails to deliver airflow into the breath- application. There must be
ing zone at the pool deck level and water surface, for example, will • Enough insulation that no exterior wall or roof surface ever falls
lead to air quality problems in those areas. The following duct con- below the space dew-point temperature in cold weather.
struction practices apply to indoor pools: • Effective vapor migration protections to ensure moisture from the
• Deliver air into the breathing zone at the deck. ASHRAE Stan- space is prevented from migrating into any build sections (walls,
dard 62.1 defines the breathing zone as the area between 3 and 72 roofs, joints where they meet). A vapor retarder analysis (as in
in. from the floor level. The best quality air in the facility is what Figure 10 in Chapter 27 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fun-
is delivered from the supply duct. That air must get to where the damentals) should be prepared. Failure to install an effective
patrons are to ensure they are breathing the best possible quality vapor retarder results in condensation forming in the structure,
air. and potentially serious envelope damage.
• Supply air should be directed against envelope surfaces prone to • Complete elimination of thermal bridging. Window and door
condensation (glass and doors). Air movement over the pool water frames must be thermally broken.
surface must not exceed 30 fpm (as per the evaporation rate wp in Figure 7 shows where the vapor retarder should be located in a
Equation [2]). If air movement over the water surface is increased wall for an indoor pool application. The vapor retarder must be on
from the standard 30 fpm to 125 fpm, the evaporation will increase the warm side of the dew point. The entire pool enclosure (walls and
by approximately 30%. Air that moves across the water surface is ceilings) must have a vapor retarder in the correct location. Where
best handled by a source-capture-type exhaust system. Evapora- walls join the roof or floor meet, it is especially vital to ensure there
tion from the water surface should be evaluated using Equation (2). is no breach in the vapor barrier.
• Return air inlets should be located to recover warm, humid air and A properly located and installed vapor retarder is the only way to
return it to the ventilation system for treatment, to prevent supply protect a structure from vapor migration and the ensuing moisture
air from short-circuiting and to minimize recirculation of damage.
chloramines. It is recommended that return air inlets be located Condensation forms on exterior windows when the outdoor
both high and low. This helps prevent air stratification and ensure temperature drops below the pool room’s dew point (typically

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Indoor Swimming Pools 6.7

between 62 and 70°F). The design goal is to keep the surface tem- as combined chlorine. Adding chemicals to pool water increases
perature of the glass and the window frames at least 3 to 5°F above total contaminant levels. In high-occupancy pools, water contami-
the pool room’s dew point. Windows must allow unobstructed air nant levels can double in a single day of operation.
movement on indoor surfaces, and thermal break frames should be Chlorine’s efficiency at reducing ammonia is affected by several
used to raise the window’s indoor temperature. Avoid recessed factors, including water temperature, water pH, total chlorine con-
windows and protruding window frames. Skylights are especially
centration, and level of dissolved solids in the water. Because of
vulnerable and require attention to control condensation. Wall and
their higher operating temperature and higher ratio of occupancy
roof vapor retarder designs should be carefully reviewed, espe-
cially at wall-to-wall and wall-to-roof junctures and at window, per unit water volume, spas produce greater quantities of air con-
door, skylight, and duct penetrations. taminants than pools.
The following measures have demonstrated a potential to reduce
Condensation Control chloramine concentrations in the air and water:
Exterior windows and doors are primary condensation concerns,
• Ozonation. In low concentrations, ozone can substantially reduce
so it is extremely important that supply air is focused there. Warm
the concentration of combined chlorine in the water. In high con-
air from the dehumidifier keeps the window surface temperature
above the dew-point temperature, which ensures that windows and centrations, ozone can replace chlorine as the primary disinfection
exterior doors remain condensation free. process; however, ozone cannot remain at sufficient residual levels
in the water to maintain a latent biocidal effect, so chlorine must be
Exterior windows, exterior surfaces, and other condensation-
prone areas should be blanketed with supply air (Figure 8). A good kept as a residual process at concentrations of 0.5 to 1.5 ppm.
rule of thumb is 3 to 5 cfm per square foot of exterior glass. Select • Water exchange rates. High concentrations of dissolved solids
grilles, registers, and diffusers that deliver the required throw dis- in water directly contribute to high combined chlorine (chlora-
tance, and the specified volumetric flow rating. mine) levels. Adequate water exchange rates are necessary to pre-
vent build-up of biological wastes and their oxidized components
Pool Water Chemistry in pool and spa water. Conductivity measurement is an effective
Failure to maintain proper chemistry in the pool water causes method to control the exchange rate of water in pools and spas to
serious air quality problems and deterioration of mechanical effectively maintain water quality and minimize water use. In
systems and building components. Water treatment equipment high-occupancy pools, heat recovery may prove useful in reduc-
and chemicals should be located in a separate, dedicated, well- ing water heating energy requirements.
ventilated space that is under negative pressure. Pool water treat- • Medium-pressure UV. Using medium-pressure UV lamps for
ment consists of primary disinfection, pH control, water filtration water treatment can reduce the amount of chloramines, and
and purging, and water heating. For further information, see Kow- should be evaluated during design. Medium-pressure UV can
alsky (1990). replace chlorine as the primary disinfection process; however, it
Air quality problems are usually caused by the reaction of chlo- does not remain at sufficient residual levels in the water to main-
rine with biological wastes, and particularly with ammonia, which is tain a latent biocidal effect. Consequently, chlorine is required as
a by-product of the breakdown of urine and perspiration. Chlorine a residual process at concentrations of 0.5 to 1.5 ppm.
reacts with these wastes, creating chloramines (monochloramine,
dichloramine, and nitrogen trichloride) that are commonly measured • Swimmer showers. Requiring each swimmer to shower before
entering the water helps reduce the amount of body oils released
into the water, thereby reducing the amount of chloramines gen-
erated.
• Bathroom breaks. Facilities that require all swimmers to exit the
pool every hour and visit the restrooms dramatically reduce the
amount of urine introduced into the pool.

Fig. 7 Vapor Retarder Location for Indoor Pool Fig. 8 Supply Air Blanketing of Condensation-Prone Areas
(Courtesy Seresco Technologies, Inc. 2013) (Courtesy Seresco Technologies, Inc. 2013)

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6.8 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications

Energy Considerations • With design team and owner/operators, identify (1) indoor space
temperature, (2) water temperature, and (3) design relative hu-
Natatoriums can be a major energy burden on facilities, so they
midity levels for both summer and winter.
represent a significant opportunity for energy conservation and
• Obtain minimum R and U values from architect to determine min-
recovery. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 offers some recommendations.
imum surface temperature for condensation.
Several design solutions are possible using both dehumidification
and ventilation strategies. When evaluating a system, the seasonal • Include a proper vapor retarder and install it correctly with no
space conditions and energy consumed by all elements should be breaks.
considered, including primary heating and cooling systems, fan • Determine correct amount of ventilation air required for proper
motors, water heaters, and pumps. IAQ and to meet local code requirements.
• Determine correct amount of exhaust air to provide negative
Operating conditions factor significantly in the total energy
building pressure.
requirements of a natatorium. Although occupant comfort is a pri-
mary concern, the effects of low space temperatures and relative • Evaluate whether a source capture exhaust system is needed.
humidity levels below 50% (especially in winter) should be dis- • Evaluate outdoor air/exhaust air energy recovery systems.
cussed with the owner/operator: • Use correct dehumidification weather data to determine moisture
load from the ventilation air.
• Lower room air temperature or lower relative humidity increases • Total all moisture/latent loads from (1) people, (2) ventilation air,
evaporation from the pools, thus increasing dehumidification and (3) water surface.
requirements and increasing pool water heating costs • Total all sensible loads from (1) building envelope, (2) people, (3)
• Warmer water temperatures increase evaporation from the pools, ventilation air, (4) lighting, and (5) other sources.
thus increasing the dehumidification requirements and increasing • Select equipment to meet both sensible and latent peak loads.
pool water heating costs • Design air distribution system to deliver air into the breathing
zone and prevent air stratification and visible condensation.
It is recommended to model the space on both a summer and win- • Properly commission equipment and building.
ter design day to establish whether higher summertime indoor rela-
• Include a quarterly equipment maintenance contract as part of
tive humidity level is beneficial to reducing equipment size and
operating expense.
operating costs.
Because these facilities require considerable air movement and REFERENCES
the supply fans operate 24/7/365, fans and equipment that uses less
fan energy lead to considerable energy savings over the equipment ASHRAE members can access ASHRAE Journal articles and
life. ASHRAE research project final reports at technologyportal.ashrae
These facilities require outdoor and exhaust air. This gives the .org. Articles and reports are also available for purchase by nonmem-
opportunity for energy recovery from the exhaust air to preheat out- bers in the online ASHRAE Bookstore at www.ashrae.org/bookstore.
door air. The economics of a heat recovery decision should be ASHRAE. 2016. Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality. ANSI/
always reviewed, regardless of the facility location: these facilities ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2016.
have warm indoor conditions and show good paybacks for energy ASHRAE. 2016. Energy standard for buildings except low-rise residential
recovery, even in warmer climates. A detailed evaluation of the heat buildings. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2016.
exchange process must be done to ensure no condensation develops Kowalsky, L., ed. 1990. Pool/spa operators handbook. National Swimming
in the energy recovery device so, in cold climates, ice does not Pool Foundation, Merrick, NY.
develop and damage equipment or develop an imbalance of airflow. Seresco. 2013. Natatorium design guide. Seresco, Ottawa, ON. seresco.net
/engineers/indoor-pool-design/condensation-control.php.
Compressorized systems can optionally heat pool water with Smith, C.C., R.W. Jones, and G.O.G. Löf. 1993. Energy requirements and
compressor waste heat. The economics of this option should always potential savings for heated indoor swimming pools. ASHRAE Transac-
be reviewed: the heating contributions can be significant and have a tions 99(2):864-874.
dramatic return on investment (ROI).
Natatoriums with fixed outdoor air ventilation rates without BIBLIOGRAPHY
dehumidification generally have seasonally fluctuating space tem-
ACCA. 2017. HVAC design for swimming pools and spas. ANSI/ACCA 10
perature and humidity levels. Systems designed to provide mini- Manual SPS-2011 (RA 2017). Air Conditioning Contractors of America,
mum ventilation rates without dehumidification are unable to Arlington, VA.
maintain relative humidity conditions within prescribed limits, and ASHRAE. 2016. Safety standard for refrigeration systems. ANSI/ASHRAE
may facilitate mold and mildew growth and be unable to provide Standard 15-2016.
acceptable IAQ. Peak dehumidification loads vary with activity ASHRAE. 2016. Designation and safety classification of refrigerants.
levels and during the cooling season, when ventilation air becomes ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2016.
an additional dehumidification load to the space. CDC. 2018. Model aquatic health code (MAHC): An all-inclusive model
public swimming pool and spa code. Centers for Disease Control and
Design Checklist Prevention, Atlanta. www.cdc.gov/mahc/editions/current.html.
Harriman, L., G. Brundrett, and R. Kittler. 2001. Humidity control design
The following items should be addressed when evaluating and guide for commercial and institutional buildings, Ch. 27: Swimming
designing a system for an indoor pool climate control system. This pools. ASHRAE.
list is a minimum, and additional items can be added by the design Kittler, R. 1989. Indoor natatorium design and energy recycling. ASHRAE
team. Transactions 95(1):521-526. Paper CH-89-02-3.

Related Commercial Resources

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 Related Commercial Resources
CHAPTER 7

HOSPITALITY
Load Characteristics....................................................................................................................... 7.1
Design Concepts and Criteria......................................................................................................... 7.1
Systems ............................................................................................................................................ 7.1
Hotels and Motels ........................................................................................................................... 7.3
Dormitories ..................................................................................................................................... 7.8
Multiple-Use Complexes ................................................................................................................. 7.8

H OSPITALITY SPACES, including hotels, motels, assisted liv-

ing facilities, and dormitories, may be single-room or multi-
room, long- or short-term dwelling (or residence) units; they may be
connected to a convention/conference center typically have peaks
similar to dormitories, while resort hotels have smaller peaks but
more consistent demand for longer periods of time. Chapter 51
stacked sideways and/or vertically. Information in the first three sec- includes details on service water heating.
tions of the chapter is general in nature; the last three sections are • Load characteristics of rooms, dwelling units, and buildings can
devoted to the individual types of facilities. Environment and cost be well defined with little need to anticipate future changes to de-
considerations require that these type of facilities be energy efficient sign loads, other than adding a service such as cooling that may
and sustainable. This chapter provides advice on practices to achieve not have been incorporated originally.
these aims. • The prevalence of shifting, transient interior loads and exterior ex-
posures with glass results in high diversity factors; the long hours
1. LOAD CHARACTERISTICS of use result in fairly high load factors.
• Ideally, each room served by an HVAC unit should be able to be
ventilated, cooled, heated, or dehumidified independently of any 2. DESIGN CONCEPTS AND CRITERIA
other room. If not, air conditioning for each room will be compro- Wide load swings and diversity within and between rooms re-
mised, and personalized comfort will not be possible. quire a flexible system design for 24 h comfort. Besides opening
• Spaces are typically not occupied at all times. For adequate flexi- windows, the only way to provide flexible temperature control is
bility, each unit’s ventilation and cooling should be able to be shut having individual room components under individual room control
off (except when humidity control is required), and its heating to that can cool, heat, and ventilate independent of equipment in other
be shut off or turned down. This can be achieved by occupant de- rooms.
tection, use of door key fobs, controls connected to reservation In some climates, summer humidity becomes objectionable be-
software, or simple-to-use manual controls such as thermostatic cause of the low internal sensible loads that result when cooling is
radiator valves (TRVs) on radiators. See Chapter 65 for details on on/off controlled. Modulated cooling and/or reheat may be required
occupant-centric controls. to achieve comfort. Reheat should be avoided unless some sort of
• Concentrations of lighting and occupancy are variable, ranging heat recovery is involved.
from low for units unoccupied during the day, to high and contin- Dehumidification can be achieved by lowering cooling coil tem-
uous for family homes and residential elderly accommodation; peratures and reducing airflow or by using desiccant dehumidifiers.
activity is generally sedentary or light. Some people have a noise threshold low enough that certain types
• Kitchens have the potential for high appliance loads and odor and of equipment disturb their sleep. Higher noise levels may be accept-
steam generation, and have large exhaust requirements, with con- able in areas where there is little need for air conditioning. Medium-
trol from low to high, to boost air extraction to suit cooking. and higher-quality equipment is available with noise criteria (NC) 35
• Rooms generally have an exterior exposure, with good daylight levels at 10 to 14 ft in medium to soft rooms and little sound change
levels and a view to green features; however, kitchens, toilets, and when the compressor cycles.
dressing rooms are normally internal and require extract ventila- Perimeter fan coils are usually more quiet than unitary systems,
tion. The building as a whole usually has multiple exposures, as but unitary systems provide more redundancy in case of failure.
may many individual dwelling units. Design must optimize pas-
sive solar gains while avoiding overheating and glare. 3. SYSTEMS
• Toilet, washing, and bathing facilities are almost always incorpo-
rated in the dwelling units, and the modern trend is to provide Energy-Efficient Systems
bathrooms en suite for every bedroom. Exhaust air should be in- There is increased impetus to select energy-efficient systems to
corporated in each toilet and bathroom area, per ASHRAE Stan- limit potential climate impact, conserve fossil fuel reserves, and
dards 62.1 and 62.2. avoid fuel poverty. In Europe, the Energy Performance Directive sets
• Hospitality buildings have relatively high hot-water demand; gen- out a strategy for each European country to achieve targets toward
erally demand is concentrated in one to two hour periods, several this objective. Other countries have similar schemes. In North
times a day. Demand timing can vary depending on specific build- America, ASHRAE Standards 90.1 and 189.1 are setting progres-
ing type, from a fairly moderate and consistent daily load profile sive reductions also aimed zero net energy.
in a senior citizens building to sharp, unusually high peaks at Where natural gas is available, gas-fired condensing boilers are
about 6:00 PM in dormitories. Hotel peak demand can also vary used, with modulating controls linked to load monitoring such as an
significantly dependent on the client base; for example, hotels outdoor temperature detector.
Heating and cooling applications generally include water-source
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 9.8, Large Building Air- and air-source heat pumps. In areas with ample solar radiation,
Conditioning Applications. water-source heat pumps may be solar assisted, and/or solar thermal

7.1
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