Chapter 9 Mechanical Properties of Solids fete) ice cullid © Introduction Introduction © Blastic Behaviour of Solids In, chapter 7, we studied the rotation of the bodies and then realised Ee oreenaei oer that the motion of a body depends on how mass is distributed within the body. We restricted ourselves to simpler situation of rigid bodies. Rigid bodies don't bend, stre © Hooke's Law 3r squash when forces act on them, © Stress-Strain Curve But the rigid body is an idealization. All real matertals are elastic and © Blastic Modult dodeform to some extent ‘+ Applications of Blastic Elastic properties of material are tremendously important. You want ‘Behaviour of Materials prop iy impo the wings of an airplane to be able to bend a litle, but you'd rather not ‘© Some Important Definitions ave them break off. The steel! frame of an earthquake resistant ‘© Formulae Chart een of every day if, from rubber bands to suspension bridges, depend on the elastic properties of material ilding has to be able to flex, but not too much. Many of the necessities In this chapter we will introduce th elastic modulus and a simple prineiple predict what deformation will occur when forces are applied to a real kind of (not perfect rigid) body. ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF SOLIDS We know that in a solid, each atom or molecule is surrounded by ‘neighbouring atoms or molecules. These are bonded together by interatomic or intramolecular forces and stay in a stable equilibrium position. When a ‘Solid is deformed, the atoms or molecules are displaced from their equibrium positions causing a change in the interatomic (or intermolecular) distance. When the deforming force is removed, the interatomic forces tend to drive them back to their original position. Thus the body regains its original shape and size. The restoring mechanism can be visualised by taking a model of ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Oifice: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-t 10005 Ph.011-4762345870 Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams, spring-ball system shown in the figure. Hore balls represent atoms and spring represents interatomic force. y " . Fig.: Spring-ball model for the illustration of elastic behaviour of solids. I you try to displace any ball from its equilibrium position, the spring system tries to restore the ball back to its original position. Thus elastic behaviour of solids can be explained in terms of microscopic nature of solid, STRESS AND STRAIN The rigid body is @ useful idealized model, but the stretching, squeezing and twisting of real bodies when {forces are applied are often too important to ignore, Figure shows three examples. We want to study the relationship between the forces and deformation for each case, For each kind of deformation we will introduce a quantity called stress that characterizes the strength of the {force causing the deformation, on a “force per unit area” basis. Another quantity, strain, describes the resulting otormaton. fF Ean 4 H @) ee (b) © Fig.: (a) Cylinder subjected to tensile stress stretches it by an amount AL. (b) A cylinder subjected to shearing (tangential) stress deforms by an angle 0. (c) A book subjected to a shearing stress, (@) A solid sphere subjected to a uniform hydraulic stress shrinks in volume by an amount AV. Tensile and Compressive Stress and Strain ‘The simplest elastic behaviour to understand is the stretching of a bar, rod or wire when its ends are pulled. Figure shows an object that initially has uniform cross-sectional area A and length |. We then apply forces ‘of equal magnitude F, but in opposite directions al the ends (this ensures that the object has no tendency ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 711 to move). We say that the object is in tension. The subscript is a reminder that the forces act perpendicular to the cross-section. Init state roa A cof the object kr al Object under £ tensile stress hI «An object in tension. The net force on the object is zero, but the object deforms. The tensile stress (the rao of the force to the cross-sectional area) produces a tensile strain (the elongation divided by the initiallength). Tensite stress = FE 0 ‘This is a scalar quantity because F, is the magnitude of the force. The SI unit of stress is the pascal Equation (i) shows that 1 pascal equals 1 newton per square metre (Nim?) N/m ‘The unit of stress is same as that of pressure. Air pressure in automobile tyres is typically around 300 kPa, land steel cables are commonly required to withstand tensile stress of the order of 10° Pa. ‘The object shown in igure stretches to a length /= J, + A/ when under tension. The elongation AY does not ‘occur only at the ends: every part of the bar sieiches in the same proportion, The tensile train ofthe abject sequal 10 the fractional change in length, which is the rato of the elongation A/ to the original length fy. Ib _ at oa i ii) itis a ratio of two lengths, always measured in the same unit, and so is @ pure (dimensionless) number with ro unis. Tensile strain Initial state ‘Area A st beh a Object under F_, F, Fig.: Anobjectin compression. The compressive stress and compressive strain are definedin the same way as tensile stress and strain, except that A/now denotes the length through which the object contracts. When the forces at the ends of a bar push rather than pull (figure), the bar is in compression and the stress is compressive stress. The compressive stress of an object in compression is defined in the same way as the tensile strain, but A/ has the opposite direction ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-4762345672) Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams Example 1: A rod has a radius of 100 mm and a length of 10 em. A 100 N force compresses along its length. Calculate the stress developed in the rod. 100 = 10-9 m Solution: Given, r= 100 mm 10 em = 10 * 10% m f= 100N stress = FO ___100N = 5104.74Nim? ‘tea x{100%10Fm Try Yourself 1. When a body is under cortain stress, is it in equilibrium? 2. What is the dimensional formula of tensile stress? = j In many situations, bodies can experience both tonsile and compressive stresses at the same time. As an ‘example, a horizontal beam supported at each end sags under its own weight. As a result, the top of the ‘beam is under compression, while the bottom of the beam is under tension (fig. a). To minimize the stress ‘and hence the bending strain, the top and bottom of the beam are given a large cross-sectional area. There ‘is neither compression nor tension along the center line of the beam, so this part can have a small cross ‘section; this helps to keep the weight of the bar to a minimum and further helps to reduce the stress. The result is an I-beam of the familiar shape used in building construction (fig. b). pot veamis __egr¥canerina ‘Tae top and botiom of an Loam are broad io Under compression, under nether tension compression ‘Bottom of beam is inder tension ee Fig: (0) A beam supported at Roth onde ia Fis: (2) Te crose-suctonal shape ofan -beam inder compression as well as tension. ‘minimizes stress and weight. ‘Shear Stress and Strain Figure shows a body being deformed by a shear stress. In the figure, forces of equal magnitude but opposite direction act tangent to the surface of opposite ends of the object. We define the shear stress as the force FF acting tangent to the surface, divided by the area A on which it acts Shear stress = fiBoard & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 73) t b 4 Inti state of the object fa Object under shear stress ‘An object under shear stress. Forces are applied tangent to opposite surfaces of the ‘object (in contrast tothe situation, in which the forces act perpendicular to the surfaces) ‘The deformation xis exaggerated for carty Figure shows that one face of the object under shear stress is displaced by a distance x relative to the ‘opposite face. We define shear strain as the ratio of the displacement x to the transverse dimension h. ‘Shear strain n In reabtife situation, x is always much smallor than fi Like all strains, shear strain is a dimensionless number as; itis a ratio of two lengths. Example 2: Suppose the object in figure shown is the brass plate of an outdoor sculpture. it experiences shear forces as a result of an earthquake. The frame is 0.80 m and 0.50 cm thick. Calculate the shear Strain produced in this object i the displacement x is 0.16 mm. (Shear modulus = 3.5 = 10"° Pa) x _ 1.6104 m Solution: Shear strain = X = 110° 29x10 Try Yourself 3. In previous example, calculate the stress produced in brass plate. Hint : Stress = (shear strain) x (shear modulus) 4. In previous example, what is the magnitude of the shear force? Hint : F, = (shear stress) x A ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-4762345674 Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams, Bulk Stress and Strain ‘When a diver plunges deep into the ocean, the water exerts nearly uniform pressure everywhere on his surface and squeezes him to a slightly smaller volume, This is different situation from the tensile and compressive Stresses and strain we have discussed. The stress is now a uniform pressure on all side and the resulting deformation is a volume change. We use the terms bulk stress (or volume stress) and bulk strain (or volume strain) to describe these quantities. Pressure = p, Veveav favo) Bulk stress = ap aw Buk sain = $Y Fig: An object under buk sites, Wihout the siess, the cube has volume Vp, When the stress is ‘pried, the cube hae a smcler volume V. The wolime change AV le exggorated for cory 1 an object is immersed in a fluid (iquid or gas) at rest, the fluid exerts a force on any part of the surface Of the object. This force is perpendicular to the surface. (If we tried to make the fluid exert a force parallel 10 the surface, the liquid would slip sideways to counteract the effort.) The force F, per unit area that the fluid exerts on the surface of an immersed object is called the pressure p in the fluid: (Prossure in a fuid) o The pressure in a fluid increases with depth. If an immersed object is relatively small, then we can ignore pressure difference due to depth for the purpose of calculating bulk stress. Hence we wil treat the pressure ‘as having the same value at all points on an immersed object surface. Pressure has the same unit as that of stress. Commonly used unit include 1 Pa = 1 Nim2. Also in common Use is the atmosphere, abbreviated atm. One atmosphere is the approximate average pressure of the earth's ‘atmosphere at sea level 1 atmosphere = 1 atm = 1.013 = 108 Pa Prossure plays the role of stress in a volume deformation. The corresponding strain is the fractional change in volume (figure) that is, the ratio of the volume change AV to the original volume V, av Bulk (volume) strain = » ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 75) Example 3: A spherical bail contracts in volume by 0.05%, when subjected to @ normal uniform pressure. Catculate the volume strain produced in spherical bal AV 0.08 5.494 ion: Volume strain Soluti 238 Try Yourself 5. White the SI unit of volumetric strain. 6. Find the dimensional formula of volumetric stress. HOOKE's LAW ‘When the stress and strain are small enough, we often find that the two are directly proportional and we call the proportionality constant an elastic modulus. The harder you pull on something, the more it stretches, the more you squeeze it, the more it compresses. We can express this relationship as an equation Stress SRCSS = Elastic modulus (Hooke's Law) ..(¥) ‘The proportionality of stress and strain (under certain condition) is called Hooke's law, after Robert Hooke (1635-1703), a contemporary of Newton. Remember that Hooke's law Is not really a general law but an ‘experimental finding that is valid over only a limited range. aes Robert Hooke (1635-1703 A.D.) Robert Hooke was bom on July 18, 1635 in Freshwater, Isle of Wight. He was ‘one of the most brillant and versatile seventeenth century English scientists, : He attended Oxford University but never graduated. Yet he was an extremely talented inventor, instrument-maker and building designer, He assisted Robert Boyle in the construction of Boylean air pump. In 1662, he was appointed a Curator of Experiments to the newly founded Royal Society. In 1665, he became Professor of Geometry in Gresham College where he carried out his astronomical observations. He built a Gregorian reflecting telescope; discovered the fith star in the trapezium and an asterism in the constellation rion; suggested that Jupiter rotates on its axis; plotted detailed sketches of ‘Mars which were later used in the 19 century to determine the planet's rate Of rotation; stated the inverse square law to describe planetary motion, which ‘Newton modified later etc. He was elected Fellow of Royal Society and also served as the Society's Secretary from 1667 to 1682. In his series of observations presented in Micrographia, he suggested wave theory of light and first used the word ‘cell’ in a biological context as a result of his studies of cork. Robert Hooke is best known to physicists for his discovery of law of elasticity: Ut tensio, ‘le vis (This is a Latin expression and it means as the distortion, so the force). This law laid the basis for studies of stress and strain and for understanding the elastic materials. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-4762345676 Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams, STRESS-STRAIN CURVE Hooke’s law-the proportionality of stress and strain in ‘elastic deformations-has a limited range of validity. In the Elastic limit oF yield point receding section we used phrase such as “provided that the forces are small enough that Hooke's law is obeyed". ‘Just what are the imitations of Hooke's law? We know that if you pull, squeeze or twist anything hard enough, it will bend or break. Can we be more precise than that? Let's look at stress and strain again. Suppose we plot a {graph of stress as a function of strain. If Hooke’s law is ‘obeyed, the graph is a straight line with a slope equal to lan elastic modulus. Figure shows a typical stress-strain ‘graph for a metal such as copper or soft iron. The strain is shown as the percent elongation. The horizontal scale is not uniform beyond the first portion of curve. Up to a al strain of less than 1%. The first portion is a straight lin eee indicating Hooke's law behaviour with stress directly Fig.: Typical stress-strain diagram for a proportional to strain. This straightline portion ends at point ductile metal under tension. 2; the stress at this point is called the proportional limit From a to b, stress and strain are no longer proportional and Hooke's law is not obeyed. Ifthe load is gradually removed, starting between o and b, the curve is retraced until the material retums to its original length. The deformation is reversible and the forces are conservative. The energy put into the material to cause the ‘deformation is recovered when the stress is removed. In region ob we say that the material shows elastic behaviour. Point b, the end of this region is called the yield point. The stress at the yield point is called elastic Hit. ‘When we increase the stress beyond point b, the strain continue increasing. But now when we remove the load at some point beyond b, say ¢, then the material does not come back to its original length. Instead, It follows the line in figure. The length at zero stress is now greater than the original length. The material has undergone an irreversible deformation and has acquired what we call a permanent set. Further, increase of load beyond c produces a large increase in strain for a relatively small increase in stress, until a point d is reached at which fracture takes place. The behaviour of the matorial from b to d is called plastic deformation ‘A plastic deformation is irreversible. When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its original state, For some material, such as the one whose properties are shown in figure, a large amount of plastic deformation takes place between the elastic limit and the fracture point. Such a material is said to be ductile. But if fracture ‘occurs soon after the elastic limit is passed. the material is said to be britle. A soft iron wire that can have ‘considerable permanent stretch without breaking is ductile, while a stool piano string that breaks soon after its elastic limit is reached is brit, The stress required to cause actual fracture of material is called the breaking stress, the ultimate strength Or (for tensile stress) the tensile strength ‘Aluminium 22 = 107 Brass 4710" Glass 10% 10" iron 30% 10" Phosphor bronze 5.6 * 10° Steel 5—20% 10" ‘Table : Approximate Breaking Stresses ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 77 As stated earlier, the stress-strain curve varies from material to material. For example, rubber can be pulled to several times its original length and stil retums to its original shape. Figure shows stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue of aorta, prosent in the heart. Note that although elastic region Is very large, the material does not obey Hooke’s law over most of the region. Secondly, there is. no well defined plastic region. ‘Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber etc. which can be stretched to cause large strains are called elastomers, 5 ° Stress (10° Nev)» | Os 1.0 Strain —+ Fig.: Stross-strain curve for the elastic tissue of Aorta, the large tube (vessel carrying blood from the heart) ELASTIC MODULI ‘The proportional region within the elastic limit of the stress-strain curve (region OA in figure) is of great importance for structural and manufacturing engineering designs. The ratio of stress and strain, called modulus of elasticity, is found to be a characteristic of the material ‘Young's Modulus Experiment shows that for a sufficiently small tensile stress and strain are proportional, as in equation (vi). The corresponding elastic modulus is called Young's modulus, denoted by Y Tensile stress _F,/A _ Filo Tensile strain ~ Ally ~ cAI wn) ‘Since strain is a pure number, the units of Young's modulus are same as that of stress : Force per unit area. ‘Some typical values are listed in table. A material with a large value of Y is relatively unstretchable; a large stress is required for a given strain. For example, the value of ¥ for cast steel (2 * 10" Pa) is much larger than that for rubber (5 * 10* Pa). Y= ‘Aluminium — | 2710 70 110 50, ‘Copper 18890 710 “400 "200 Iron (wrought) | 7800-7900 | 190 330 170 ‘Steel 7860 200 “400 250 Glass 2190 65 50 SI ‘Conereie 2320 30) 40 = Wood" 525 3 50 = Bone" 1900 9 170 = Polystyrene | 1050 3 48 = ‘ substance tested under compression Table : Young's modulus and yield strength of some materials ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-476234567B Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams » Nepewa 10. (Effect of Temperature : Almost for all materials, the modulus of elasticity decreases with the rise in temperature, but the elasticity of invar remains unchanged with the change in ‘temperature, (W) Effect of impurities : The addition of impurities affects the elastic properties depending on ‘whether impurities are themselves more or less elastic. When carbon is added to iron, and potassium to gold, their elasticities are strengthened. (i) Effect of Annealing : By annealing (c.0., heating and the cooling gradually) large crystal grains are formed, and hence the elasticity of the material decreases. (v)_ Effect of Hammering and Rolling : By hammering and rolling, crystal grains break up into. ‘smaller units, and hence the elasticity of the material increases. The unit of ¥ is the same as the unit of prossure. The value of ¥ depends only on the nature of the material Larger the value of Y for a material, more elastic it would be. For this reason, steel is more elastic than rubber. Young's modulus is only defined for solids. not for liquids and gases. Young's modulus for a perfectly rigid body is infinite. Breaking stress does not depend on the cross-sectional area. It only depends on the material ofthe wire. The value of ¥ for steel is larger than that for aluminium, brass, copper and iron (wrought). It is for this reason that stee! is preferred in heavy-duty machines and in structural designs. Wood, bone, concrete and glass have rather small Young's modu For many materials, Y has the same value for both tensile and compressive stresses, composite ‘materials such as concrete are an exception. The value of ¥ corresponding to compressive stress for concrete is larger than that corresponding to tensile stress. Hence concrete is very strong in ‘compression but is woak in tension. In many situations, bodies can experience both tensile and compressive stresses at the same time. AS ‘an example, a horizontal beam shown in the figure has the top under compression and the bottom under tension. Relation between interatomic force constant (k) and Young's modulus Y is k= Yr, where ris interatomic, distance. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 79) — Knowledge Cloud ‘Thomas Young (1773-1829) He was professor of natural philosophy from 1801 to 1803 at the Royal Institution. It was there that he presented the modem physical concept of energy. and was elected in 1811 to a staff position of St. George's Hospital, London. In 1807 he developed a theory of color vision known as the Young-Helmholtz theory and described the vision defect called Astigmatism, In 1802 Young demonstrated a simple proof of the wave theory of light. He forced light to pass through a narrow slit and then through two more narrow slits placed within a fraction of an inch of each other. The light from the two slits shined on a screen. Young found as the light beams spread apart and overlapped, then, in the area of overlap, bands of bright light alternated with bands of darkness. With this Young established the wave nature of ight which he used to explain the colors on thin films, such as soap bubbles. He related Color to wavelength. He calculated the approximate wavelengths of the seven colors recognized by Newton, In 1817 he proposed that light waves were transverse (perpendicular to the direction of travel), rather than longitudinal (in the direction of travel). This explained polarization, the alignment of light waves to vibrate in the same plane, With his discovery, however, Young came into conflict with the theories of Sir Isaac Newton, who tried to ‘explain optical phenomena such as refraction and reflection in terms of gravitation like effects, As it turned ‘ut later, in a way, Newton's theory was given partial confirmation by the Quantum Theory. In the early 19th century, however, any opposition to a theory of Newton's was unthinkable by most English scientists. Ridiculed in England, Young's theory was championed in France by Augustin Jean Fresnel (1788-1827) and Dominique-Frangois-Jean Arago (1785-1853), and finally achieved acceptance in Europe. A savage anonymous review of his work in 1803 in the Edinburgh Review cast Young into scientific limbo for ten years. This review ‘was by Lord Henry Peter Brougham (1778-1868), a proponent of the corpuscular theory. ‘Apart from being a physicist, he was a physician and an Egyptologist. He also established a coofficient of elasticity and helped to decipher the Rosetta Stone. Example 4: A stool rod 2.0 m long has a cross-sectional area of 0.30 cm?. The rod is now hung by one end from a support structure, and a 550 kg milling machine is hung from the rod's lower end. Determine the stress, the strain, and the elongation of the rod. ,__ (650 kg) (9.8 rv/s*) Solution: Stress. 30x10 me x10 Pa AI _ Stross _ 1.810" Pa Strain = 4 Y 20x10 Pa =9.0x10 ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456{80 Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams Elongation = af = (atrain) * =(9.0* 104) 20m) = 1.8 mm Example 5: A siructural stool rod has @ radius of 10 mm and a length of 1.0 m. A 100 KN force stretches i along its length. Calculate (a) stress, (b) elongation and (c) strain on the rod. Young's modulus, of structural stool is 2.0 * 10" Nor2, Solution : We assume that the rod is held by a clamp at one end and the force F is applied at the other fend, parallel to the length of the rod. Then the stress on the rod is given by FF ___ 100x109 N =3.18%108 Nev? Ao? 344x007) m Stress (FIAYL _ 3.1810" Nev? <1 m Tho elongation, aL = (F/AM. _ 3.18108 Nim 2 x3. 2x10" Nm@ = 1.59 « 109 m= 1.59 mm The strain is given by (1.5910 m) L 1m = 1.59 « 109 Example 6: The lengths of a metallic wire are L, and L, when the tensions in the wire are T, and T, respectively. Find the natural length of the wire. ‘Solution : Suppose L be the natural length of the wire FL We have ¥ = FL In the frst case, F= T,, AL = Ly ~ TH AG 5 my In the second case, F = Ty, AL = L,—L Tat : Ao) e ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, Pusa Road, New Deih-110005 Ph.011-47625456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 81 From equations (i) and (i), we get Th Tek ALD AL -D oT D= Ty -b eM TELT- GT pebte-bh oF, 7 Example 7: The stress-strain graph for a metallic wire is shown at two different temperatures, T, and T, which temperature is high T, or T;? ‘Strain t Ts ‘Stress Solution : The slope of stress-strain curve with strain axis gives the value of Young's modulus. In the above graph strain is taken along y-axis. Therefore the slope of graph at temperature T, is less than the slope of graph at temperature T, Now as we know with increase in temperature the value of modulus of elasticity decreases. ‘Therefore temperature T, is greater than temperature T,. Try Yourself 7. A load of 4.0 kg is suspended from a ceiling through a stee! wire of length 20 m and radius 2.0 mm. It is found that the length of the wire increases by 0.031 mm as equilibrium is ‘achieved. Find Young's modulus of steel. Take g = 3.1x mis? Suess Hint : y ~ Suess 8. One end of a wire 2 m long and 0.2 cm? in cross-section is fixed to a coiling and a load of 4.8 kg Is attached to the free end. Find the extension of the wire. Young's modulus of stee! = 2.0 * 10" Nim2. Take g = 10 mist. ty. Fla Hint: y= Ei ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-4762345682 Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams, Determination of Young's Modulus of the Material of the Wire Construction The apparatus used is shown in figure. Here A and B are two long straight wires of nearly equal length, equal ‘area of cross-section and of same material. They are suspended side by side from a common rigid support. The wire A Is called reference wire. A pan Is attached to its free end and known weights can be placed in IA main scale M is fixed on the wire A near its lower end. A pointer P. attached to the lower end of wire B, is connected to the Vernier scale V, which can slide on the main scale M. Here, the purpose of reference ‘wire is to compensate any change in length of wire B, which may occur due to change in room temperature. Fig.: An arrangement for the determination of ‘Young's modulus of the material of a wire Working and Theory © Remove the kinks if any in the wires A and B and put small load in each pan so that both the wires A and B are straight and parallel. Note the reading of main scale M and Vernier scale V. = Put some weight (say m) in pan of experimental wire B. The wire B gets stretched. A tensile stress is ‘set up in this wire. Note the reading of main scale and vernier scale. The difference of two readings will ‘give us the extension in the wire B (= 4/ say). For the weight mg, let r and / be the initial radius and length of the wire B. Area of cross-section of the wire & = n72 Stretching force = mg =m Normal stress = Longitudinal strain 7 imginr? __mgt ‘lll ~ rad ‘Thus, ¥ can be determined ‘Young's modulus, ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 83. ‘Content Builder The elongation of heavy wire due to its own weight Let _L = length of the rope (M= mass of the rope ‘A= cross-sectional area of the rope AL = increase in its length due to its own weight Since the weight of the rope acts at the centre of gravity, therefore, for calculating the elongation, the original length wil be taken as = yee “AL * 2aat tr at = Mat. (LApIoL | pot 2ay~ 2AY ~ 2¥ where p = density of the material of the rope. Thermal Stress and Strain When a rod of material of coefficient of linear expansion ct is heated/cooled through a change of temperature 0, its length Lis increasedidecreased by AL = Lu AO Thermal strain AE =a 30, —_ |] Tarmal sons = 5=¥.44 = Yuao, whore ¥= Young's modulus of fe material of he od Elastic potential eneray ‘Suppose a wire of natural length L and cross-sectional area A is stretched slowly so that the Stretching force equals the tension in the wire. When the extension is x, the tension in the wire is F. oA) The total work by the elastic force in an extension O to AL. is “tay AY (any? w a Sr OH ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456'B4) Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams “This work Is stored into the wire as ils “elastic potential energy” (U). ay We ? u=w=4¥ A A(AYaL) 4 (APS) a= grat cx, [= 3 (maximum seicting fre) (eaension) This may also be written as Para ted = (stress) strain) (volume) i) Foto array (wot por unt aume =F ares) rain) Force Constant of a Wire When a wire of length L and cross-sectional area A is stretched by length x, the stretching force: is given by Hence force constant | K == = AY Elastic after Effect Itis found that some bodies take time to regain its original state of length, volume and shape even within elastic limit, after the removal of the deforming forces. The slow process of recovering the Criginal state after the removal of the deforming forces is called “elastic after effect’. The time delay {due to this effect is known as “elastic relaxation time". Its value is large for glass and very small for gold, silver and phosphor bronze, It is minimum for quartz. Elastic Fatigue ‘This is the property of an elastic body due to which, the body becomes weak (or less elastic) after repeated applications of alternating deforming forces. For example, when a wire is set into torsional vibrations, it continues vibrations for long time. During these vibrations, the wire is subjected repeatedly to alternating twisting couple. Now, if the wire is ‘again made to vibrate, its vibrations die out very quickly as if the wire is tired or has undergone fatigue, Just as a tired person becomes fresh afer taking rest, an elastic body regains its full elasticity when ‘allowed to rest for some time. If @ hard body is subjected to repeated strains beyond its elastic limit, it ultimately breaks. This is the reason, a hard wire is broken by bending it repeatedly in opposite directions. For the same. reason, the railway bridges are declared unfit after their use for a long period. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 85) Elastic Hysteresis. ‘As a natural consequence of the elastic after-effect, the strain in the body tends to lag behind the stress applied to the body so that during a rapidly changing stress, the strain is greater for the same value of stress. This lag of strain behind the stress is called elastic hysteresis. Due to elastic hysteresis, the original curve (OAB) is not retraced B When the deforming force is removed, although finally acquires ‘natural length. The figure clearly indicates that the work done by the material in retuming to its onginal shape is less than the work done by the deforming force. Hence, some amount of energy is € absorbed by the material in the cycle which appears as heat. The magnitude of the energy absorbed is proportional to the area of the loop. The material having low elastic hysteresis have low elastic relaxation time. ‘The theoretical value of poisson's ratio for all substances lies in between —1 and +0.5, but practical value of poisson’s ratio les betwoon zero and +0.5. 1. Breaking stress depends on (1) Length of wire @) Area of cross-section of wire @) Both (1) 8 @) (4) Independent of length and area of cross-section 2. Which of the following is perfectly plastic? (1) Plasticine 2) Quartz fibre @) Steet (4) Rubber 3. The length of an elastic string is X m when the tension is 8 N, and Y m when the tension is 10 N. The length in metres when the tension is 18 Nis (1) ax-sy @ 5Y-4x @) 9x-4y @) 4v-0x ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-4762345686 Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competitive Exams, 4. When a load of 10 kg is hung from the wire, then extension of 2 m is produced. Then work done by restoring force 1s (1) 2004 2 1004 @) 505 @) 255 5. Substances which can be elastically stretched to large value of strain are called (1) tomers 2) Isodtapheres. @) Plastomers (@) Elastomers 6. A force F doubles the length of wire of cross-section 1 The Young modulus of wire is 7 7 ce at z oe af 7. Stress-strain curve for four metals are shown in figure. The maximum young modulus of elasticity is for metal Ma Qe @c “ 2 8. Breaking stress for a material is 2 x 10° Nim?. What maximum length of the wire of this material can be taken ‘80 that the wire does not break by own weight? [Density of material = 5 10° kg/m?) (tke 2 2km @) 3km @) 4km 8 Young modulus of elasticity for a gas is (1) Unity 2) Infeite @) Zero (@) None of these 10. If we add impurity into a matter then elasticity (1) May change (2) Never changes: 8) Remains the same (4) Changes by a factor of 5 Shear Modulus oF Modulus of rigidity Whe forces are small enough that Hook's aw is obeyed, the shear strain is proportonal tothe shear stress. ‘The corresponding elaste modus (rao of shar srose to shear sain) scaled the shear modulus, dented by S. It is also called the modulus of rigidity. ¢= Shoarstoss _ Fi/A ‘Shoar stain ~*/h Fxh Axax (i) ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Mechanical Properties of Solids | 87. (oo) ‘The shear stress (0,) can also be expressed as so oo) ‘SI unit of shear modulus is Ne? or Pa. The shear modulus of a few common material are given in table. Itcan be seen that shear modulus (or modulus of rigidity) is generally less than Young's modulus (from table). For most mata! $=". Shear moduls is define fr sods only ‘Aluminium 25 ‘Brass 36 Copper -@e Glass 23 Iron 70 ‘Lead 56 Nickel 7 ‘Steel ry Tungsten 150 Wood 70 Table : Shear moduli (G) of some common materials Example 8 ‘A 4 cm cube has its upper face displaced by 0.1 mm by a tangential force of 8 KN. Calculate the shoar modulus of the cube. Solution : Here, each side of the cube L = 4 em ‘Area of the face over which the force is applied, 2 Displacement, AL = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm Force applied, F = 8 KN = 8000 * 10 = 8 x 10* dyne, FL aL axt08 <4 160.0% 2 = 16 sq.cm As, = 2 * 10" dyneysq. om 10.0 cm is subjected to shearing force (on its narrow face) of magnitude 9.0 » 104 N. The lower edge Is riveted to the floor as shown in ‘igure. How much is the upper edge displaced, ifthe shear modulus of load is 5.6 » 10° Pa? F ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456{8B Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Competiive Exams Solution: Here, L = 50 cm = 50 « 10 m, G = 5.6 = 10° Pa, F= 9.0 = 10'N ‘Area of the face on which force is applied, a = 50 x 10 = 600 sq. cm = 0.05 m? IAL is the displacement of the upper edge of the slab due to tangential force F applied, then Fla. op ap = FL _ 9x10" x50%107 au Ga 5.610" «0.05 G=16* 104m 9. What is modulus of rigiity of a uid? 10. Define Poisson ratio. Bulk Modulus When Hooke's law is obeyed, an increase in pressure (Bulk stress) produces @ proportional Bulk strain (fractional change in volume). The corresponding elastic modulus (ratio of stress to strain) is called the Bulk modulus, denoted by 6. When the pressure on a body changes by a small amount Ap, from py to Py + Ap, and the resulting Bulk strain is AV/V,, Hooke's law takes the form 5 Normal stress___Ap Volume strain ~~ Aviv, (BK modulus) We include a minus sign in this equation because an increase of pressure always causes a decrease in volume. In other words, if 4p is positive, AV is negative. The Bulk modulus & itself is a positive quantity. For small pressure change in a solid or a liquid, we consider B to be constant. The Bulk modulus of a gas, however, depends on the initial pressure p,. Table includes values of the Bulk modulus for several solid ‘material, Its unit, force per unit area, are the same as those of pressure (and of tensile or compressive stress), ‘Aluminium 7.5% 10" Brass 6.0% 10" Copper 1410" Crown glass ‘5.0% 10" ron 16% 10" ‘Lead 4410" Nickel 1710" Steel 16 «10 Table : Approximate Bulk Modulus ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Rogd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 89) “The reciprocal of the Bulk modulus is called the compressibility and is denoted by K. From equation iy Comprossity ete atonal deceac in vole, ~2¥ pr nt ronses 3p prosaino. Th unt of compress ar thse of ecocal posse, Pa ran Table lists the values of compressibility K for several liquids. For example, the compressibility of water is 46.4 = 10° atm, which means that the volume of water decreases by 46.4 parts per milion for each ‘atmosphere increases in pressure, Materials with small Bulk modulus and large compressibility are easier to compress. ‘Carbon disulfide 93x10" | 94 10° Ethyl alcoho! H0= 10" 4 107 Glycerine 21x10" | 21% 10" Mercury [a7™10" | 3a™ 10" Water 45.810" | 46.410" Table ; Compressibilties of Liquids (Compressibilty, K) Note : Bulk modulus is defined for all solids, liquids and gases. ‘The values of 6 for solids are much larger than for liquids, and that for liquids are much larger than for gases Bots * Bret * Byae 3. Materials with large compressibility and small bulk modulus are easy to compress, those with ‘smaller compressibility and larger bulk modulus compress less with the same pressure increase. 4. Relation between Density, Pressure and Bulk Modulus : When a pressure AP is applied ‘on @ substance having density p and bulk modulus B, then its volume changes from V to V+ AV. Hence =aV AP Vv a AO V+ vap = 0 o, =8¥..se Vv e cae ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456{90 Mechanical Properties of Solids Board & Compettive Exams From equations () and (i), wo got 2° = 3P- pre ee e Le., For a perfectly rigid body B= = Example 10 : A hydraulic press contains 0.25 nr (250 L) of oll. Find the decrease in the volume of the oll when it is subjected to a pressure increases Ap = 1.6 10” Pa, The bulk modulus of the oil is 1 B= 50 x 10° Pa and its compressibility is K = 4 = 20x10 Pat foXP _ 0.25 m? 1.6%10" Pa 8 5.010" Pa AV = -8.0 * 104 m? = -0.80L Example 1 The average dep of nan Qooan I about 9000 m. Calas te Pectona eamprossion, of water at the bottom of the ocean, given that the bulk modulus of water is 2.2 » 10% Nev? (take g = 10 ms?) Solution : The pressure exerted by a 3000 m column of water on the bottom layer P = pgh = 3000 m * 1000 kgm? * 10 ms-? = 3% 107 Nm? Fatal omeenion 22Board & Competitive Exams, Mechanical Properties of Solids | 91 Table : Stress, strain and various elastic modul Tensileor | Two equal and | Elongation or | Yes | No |Y¥=(Fxty | Young's | Solid Jcompressive| opposite forces | compression (Ax aL) | modulus: Perpendicular to | parallel to force opposite faces direction (ALL) (= FIA) (longitudinal strain) ‘Shearing [Two equal and | Pureshear,0 | Yes | No | Shear | Solid opposite forces = | modulus parallel to opposite ry Surfaces [forces in each case such that total force and total torque on the body vanishes (0.= FIA) Hydraulic | Forces perpendi- | Volume change | No | Yes cular “everywhere | (compression to the surface, | or elongation force por unit ore | (A¥0¥) gas (pressure) same everywhere 11. I length of a metal is /, when .the tension in itis T, and J, when the tension is T,. Find the ‘original length of the wire. Hint : a, = = 1 A= 1 12, Compute the fractional change in volume of a glass slab, when subjected to a uniform pressure of 1.013 = 10° Pa, Bulk modulus of elasticity of glass = 37 « 10° Nn? Hin: Volamatic ain = 2 Elastic Potential Energy When we squeeze or twist an object there is change in the interatomic distance. Either it increases to r,, (0F decrease to f from equilibrium distance ra. Figure shows U-r graph between two atoms. The electrostatic potential energy between two atoms is minimum at r= r, which is stable equilibrium position. For any other values of r, U will increase. It means that in a deformed body, the potential energy U between any two nearest ‘atom or molecule is greater than the minimum value. The difference in these two |U — Ul is the increase in energy between the atoms or molecules of a deformed body. This excess of the energy of interaction between all atoms/molecules of a deformed object is elastic energy. When we remove the external force the body becomes undeformed and the elastic energy, will be retrieved back and converted into vibrational ‘energy followed by heat, light, sound etc. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.-Regd. Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph.011-47623456