LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Introduction:
Lighting is an important aspect of an installation as it enhances the aesthetic appeal and creates
the ambiance of any space. Lighting fixtures that illuminate a room create a safe and comfortable
environment besides adding style to the interior. Light is the main element that gives the room a
special look and transforms it into a seamless combination of functionality and style. Besides
playing a functional role it creates a visually dynamic space. The internal visual environment
comes into being by illuminating a room.
Definitions:
Brightness: The subjective measurement of luminance.
Candela (cd) Unit of luminous intensity approximately equal to one candle power.
Colour rendering: (of a light source) The ability of the source to render colors accurately.
“Good colour rendering” suggests the source is rendering colors similar to the way daylight
would.
Colour rendering index: (CRI) (of a lamp) Is a measure of a lamp's colour rendering ability.
Colour temperature: (of a light source) The temperature of a black body which emits radiation
of the same chromaticity as the light source being considered.
Diffuse lighting: ”Soft” lighting in which the luminous flux comes from many directions, none
of which predominates.
Direct lighting: Lighting in which most of the luminous flux reaches the working plane directly
without reflection from other surfaces.
Directional lighting: Lighting on a task predominantly from one direction.
Efficacy: The ratio of lamp luminous flux divided by the power consumed by the lamp. The unit
used is lumens per watt (lm/W). Where control gear is taken into account the unit becomes
lumens per circuit watt.
General lighting: Lighting illuminating a whole area.
Group Lamp Replacement: The replacement of all lamps usually after a specified period
(usually 2 years) in an installation.
Illuminance (E): The level of illumination - normally taken on the working plane. Unit: Lux
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Incandescent lamp: A lamp which produces light due to its filament being heated to
incandescence by current flowing through it.
Indirect lighting: Lighting in which most of the luminous flux reaches the working plane after
reflection from room surfaces.
Isolux diagram: A diagram which shows equal illuminance contours in an installation.
Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF): The proportion of light output of a lamp, after a
specified number of hours operation, to the initial light output of the lamp.
Light loss factor (LLF): This term has been replaced by maintenance factor in the 1994 CIBSE
Guide. Previously LLF and MF differed in that the latter took no account of the lamp lumen
maintenance factor (LLMF).
Load factor: The ratio of energy consumed by a controlled lighting installation to the energy
which would have been consumed without controls, over a period of time.
Lumen: An SI unit of luminous flux. (A source of 1 candela, uniform intensity, emits 4π
lumens) luminaire This term supersedes the term light fitting. It is the whole unit enclosing
lamps, control gear, reflectors, diffusers etc.
Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF): The ratio of light output after a specified period of time
to initial light output of the luminaire. This takes account of dirt and dust reducing the light
output of the luminaire. (See maintenance factor)
Luminance (L): This is a measure of the objective brightness of a surface or a light source.
Brightness is a subjective term dependent on the person as well as other factors. Luminance is an
objective measurement performed photometrically. (UNIT: cd/m2)
Luminous flux (ø): The light emitted by a source or received by a surface (Unit: Lumen)
Luminous intensity (I): Describes the light output of a source in a given direction. (Unit:
Candela) LUX - The SI unit of illuminance. 1 Lux = 1 lumen per square metre.
Maintenance factor (MF): The ratio of illuminance at the end of the maintenance period to the
initial illuminance. MF = LSF x LLMF x LMF x RSMF
Maximum illuminance (EMax): The highest illuminance at any point of the working plane.
Spot lamp replacement: The replacement of lamps as they fail rather than group lamp
replacement after a specified period.
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Stroboscopic effect: An optical illusion where moving machinery may look stationary, or
operating at a different speed to which it actually is. This is caused by the flicker (modulation of
light flux) of discharge lamps operating on a 50 Hz ac cycle.
Uniformity: Ratio of minimum to average illuminance, normally taken on the working plane.
Utilization factor (UF): Proportion of light reaching working plane to light output of lamps. It
depends on room index, room reflectance and type of luminaire used.
Light and its quality
Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light radiates and can travel unlimited
distances through space. Light rays can however, be reflected, transmitted or absorbed when they
strike an object. The visible spectrum is only a small part of the full electromagnetic spectrum.
The main source of our natural light is the sun, which has a core temperature of approximately
10,000,000 K but a surface temperature which is a relatively cool 6,000 K. It is this surface
temperature which determines the energy levels at the different frequencies of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The Visible Spectrum
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Consider the effect of heating a piece of soft iron in a fire. If the iron is heated for a short time, it
will radiate heat energy (curve 1). This radiation is not visible. If the iron is heated further it will
glow red (curve 2), then white (curve 3) and eventually blue (curve 4). The radiation peaks have
moved across the spectrum from red to blue as the temperature increases and have increased in
magnitude. Surprisingly, blue is produced at a higher temperature than red even though
psychologically, we consider blue to be a “cool” colour and red a “warm” colour. White of
course, is a mixture of all the colours in the spectrum.
The quality of a white light can be characterized in practice from this point of view with the help
of colour temperature. The colour temperature of a given light is the temperature of the black
body, at which the spectral distribution of its radiation is nearly the same as that of the given
light, its symbol is T, its unit is Kelvin [K]. A lower colour temperature means warmer light, a
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higher colour temperature indicates cooler light. The ratio of red is higher in warm light, while
the ratio of blue is higher in cool light.
The quality of white light may also vary according to how much the colour of the surfaces
illuminated by the light appear to be different when illuminated by artificial light compared to
the colour they appear to be when illuminated by natural light. From this point of view, the
quality of white light can be given with the help of colour rendering. The better the colour
rendering of a white light, the less difference the colour of the surface shows when illuminated
by it and by natural light.
Types of lighting systems:
1. Ambient lighting can brighten and enhance the glow of a space.
2. Accent lighting highlights the physical features of an installation.
3. Task lighting incorporated to provide localized lighting in special task areas. This is generally
used in work spaces to aid you in performing your daily tasks.
Light sources
Light sources are instruments of producing light. Light sources are technical devices, which
convert usually electric energy into radiation and partly to light.
Based on the way they work, light sources are divided into two types of lamps: - incandescent,
and - luminescent. In incandescent lamps, light is produced by the radiation of a filament at
high temperature. The spectrum of the light generated in this way contains radiation at every
wavelength and its spectrum is monotonous. A considerable amount of heat is generated at the
same time as light.
Incandescent lamps used in practice are
- filament incandescent lamps,
- tungsten halogen lamps for mains voltage, and
- low voltage tungsten halogen reflector lamps.
In luminescent lamps, excited electrons generate light. An electric arc excites light in a so-called
arc tube or on the surface of the envelope, as the case may be. The spectrum of the light
generated this way is not necessarily continuous, radiation is much larger in certain narrow bands
than in others, and the spectrum is not monotonous.
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Luminescent lamp used in practice are - fluorescent lamps,
- compact fluorescent lamps,
- mercury lamps,
- mercury tungsten blended lamps,
- metal halide lamps, and
- high pressure sodium lamps.
Assignment:
Read and make notes about lamps.
Focus- design and operation (how light is produced from the lamp), technical specifications,
advantages, limitations and areas of application,
Lighting circuits
Maintenance of lighting systems
Laws of Light:
a) Rectilinear Propagation of light. This means that light travels in straight lines. It travels at
300,000 km/S and requires no medium for propagation.
b) Inverse Square Law
The area illuminated by the point light source increases in proportion to the square of the
distance as indicated by the previous figure. It follows that the average illuminance would
decrease by the same ratio.
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E = I/ d2 where d = the distance between the source and the object.
In the above figure shown, the illuminance reduces to a quarter of its original value when the
distance is doubled. Similarly, the illuminance reduces to one ninth of its original value when the
distance away is tripled.
Example:
A point light source has an intensity of 1,000 candela and the light falls perpendicularly on a
surface. Calculate the illuminance on the surface if its distance from the surface is: (i) two
metres, (ii) four metres and (iii) six metres.
c) Cosine Law
When light does not fall normally on a surface, the area illuminated increases reducing the
average illuminance by the same ratio. The figure below shows light from a distant source
striking surfaces AB and BC. The rays of incident light may be taken as parallel.
AB/BC = Cos θ
Where θ = The angle between the incident light and the normal to the surface BC. Therefore, the
average illuminance on a surface is given by the general formula:
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E= (I Cosθ)/ d2
Example:
A point light source has an intensity of 2,000 candela in all directions and is mounted 4 metres
above a surface. Calculate the illuminance on the surface directly underneath (Ea) and at a
distance of 3 metres to the side (Eb).
Example:
A walkway is illuminated by 250W lamps each having a luminous intensity of 4750 candela in
all directions below the horizontal. Each lamp is installed at a height of 6m and the distance
between them is 16 meters. Calculate the illuminance contributed by each lamp:
(a) (i) directly underneath, (ii) 8 meters from the base, (iii) 16 meters from the base, (iv) 32
meters from the base.
(b) The total illuminance at: (i) the base of each lamppost, (ii) midway between the base of each
lamppost.
(c) Sketch an illuminance profile on a straight line joining the base of each lamppost.
Solution:
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(b) The total illuminance at:
(i) the base of each lamp post,
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Ea (total) = Ea + 2Ec + 2 Ed
= 132 + 11.42 + 1.66 = 145.08 lux.
(taking A as center and adding the contributions from two lamps either side)
(c) The total illuminance at:
(ii) Midway between the base of each lamppost.
Eb(total) = 2Eb + 2 Ed (approx.)
= 57.02 + 1.66
= 58.68-Lux
Point source calculations
This method of calculation is particularly suitable for outdoor schemes, (as in the previous
example) with a small number of light sources and when it is necessary to calculate the
illuminance at a small number of points. Computer programs have allowed this method to be
extended to schemes with a large number of sources and where the illuminance must be
calculated at a large number of points. It may also be suitable for indoor schemes where the light
reflected onto the working plane from walls, ceilings etc., is negligible. The point-to-point
method uses the inverse square law and cosine law, the light intensity in a given direction is
found from polar diagrams supplied by manufacturers.
Illuminance ( E) and Visual Performance.
The level of illuminance required depends on 4 factors:
1. The importance of the visual task and the consequences of errors.
2. The difficulty of the visual task.
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3. The duration for which the task is undertaken.
4. The eyesight of the user.
This recommended illuminance must be maintained throughout the life of the installation and
must take account of the reduction of light reaching the working plane because of lamp ageing,
dust collection and deterioration of the decor.
The design illuminance (maintained illuminance) is taken as the illuminance at the end of the
maintenance period (typically 2 years). This is different to the method used in previous codes,
which used the lamp output at 2000 hours (LDL) to calculate the average illuminance over the
life of the installation.
1) Importance of task
Performing a heart operation may not prove any more difficult visually than assembling a piece
of machinery. Nonetheless, if one were on the operating table one would hope there would be
sufficient light to allow the surgeon perform the operation with maximum efficiency and without
error. It is clear that the importance of the task is a major consideration.
2) Difficulty of the task.
It is clear that performance improves significantly up to a certain illuminance after which there is
no further significant improvement. It is also clear that a higher illuminance is required, as the
task gets more demanding. For the average person, reading and writing is easiest when the
illuminance is about 1000 lux. In general, visual performance improves as illuminance increases;
however, at very high illuminance levels glare becomes a problem and may even cause a
reduction in performance.
3) Duration of task
The duration of the task is also important Higher task illuminances increase the optical depth of
field thereby reducing the work required by the eye in adjusting focus. Fatigue can be offset by
using high illuminance levels.
4) Eyesight of user.
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Human eyesight deteriorates with age and so older people require a higher illuminance for a
given task than younger people do. The average 70 year old requires up to 3 times the task
illuminance of the average 20 year old. There is however need for reasonable compromise
between illumination requirements and energy conservation.
Lumen method of light calculation
This method is most suitable for interior lighting design, where a high proportion of light on the
working plane is reflected by internal surfaces. For external applications or where the reflectance
of the surfaces is unknown or may not be relied upon (emergency lighting schemes), a utilization
factor for zero reflectance may be used. The lumen method, sometimes called the luminous flux
method of calculation, is normally used to calculate the average illuminance on working planes,
or to calculate the number of luminaires required to provide a specified average illuminance in
rooms. The following formula is used:
Number of Lamps / Luminaires.
N is used to represent the number of luminaires and n is used to represent the number of lamps in
each luminaire.
Lamp Flux (φ lumens)
The initial light output (100h) is now used for calculations. A factor called the lamp lumen
maintenance factor (LLMF) is then applied to allow for the reduction in light output from the
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lamp during the maintenance period. Consider an installation where lamps are to be replaced
after 6000 hours use. The lamp manufacturer's data is checked to see the lamp output after 6000
hours use (as shown in Fig 1.21). This figure is now divided by the initial lamp lumens to get the
LLMF.
Maintenance Factor (MF)
Maintenance Factor (MF) is the term used to take account of the reduction in illuminance over
the maintenance period due to:
1. Reduced reflectance due to the accumulation of dirt and dust on room surfaces. Room Surface
Maintenance Factor.
2. Reduced light output from the luminaire due to the accumulation of dirt and dust on the
luminaire. Luminaire Maintenance Factor.
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3. Reduced light output due to the Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor.
4. Reduced light output due to lamps failing. Manufacturer data will give the percentage lamp
failures for a specific number of hours operation. The Lamp Survival Factor (LSF) will be 1 if
spot lamp replacement is carried out. MF = RSMF x LMF x LLMF x LSF
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Example: Calculate the maintenance factor for an installation where the LLMF, LMF and
RSMF are as shown in the figure below. The luminaires are cleaned after 3000 hours, the lamps
are replaced after 6000 hours and room surfaces are cleaned after 6000 hours. Spot replacement
of failed lamps is also carried out.
MF = RSMF x LMF x LLMF x LSF
Maintenance factor at 6000 hrs = 0.9 x 0.75 x 0.8 x 1 = 0.54
UTILISATION FACTOR
Utilization factor takes account of the loss of light due to absorption on room surfaces. It
depends on 3 factors:
1. Type of Luminaire A luminaire with a concentrated light output directed on the working
plane will have a higher UF than a luminaire with a dispersed light output.
2. Room index. This takes account of the length (L) and width (W) of the room and the height of
the luminaires above the working plane (Hm).
3. Reflectance of Room Surfaces.
Bright colors with high reflectance result in a higher UF. A high utilization factor will mean
fewer lamps are needed resulting in a more efficient energy usage and a lower capital cost.
Typical reflectance factors for some of the commonly used colors.
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SPACE: HEIGHT RATIO (SHR)
This is the ratio of space between luminaires (S) to their height above the working plane (Hm).
Manufacturers will specify a recommended SHR for each of their luminaires. Ensuring that
luminaires are spaced within the recommended value will mean an acceptable variation in
illuminance across the working plane. This is expressed in terms of the Uniformity Ratio.
Example: A factory area is 40m long, 20m wide and is 8m high. Point source luminaires are
suspended 1.5 metres below ceiling level.
The working plane is 1 meter high. Calculate the minimum number of luminaires, which must be
installed to conform to a recommended SHR of 1.5: 1.
This means that the minimum number to conform with SHR. requirement is 3 rows with 5
luminaires per row. More than this number can be used if desired for reasons such as balance,
effect, control or ease of installation.
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Assuming that three rows of five luminaires is suitable, the actual spacing is determined as
follows:
If work is to be carried out at the perimeter of the room, a spacing of 0.33 S to the wall may be
used.
Linear Luminaires
The manufacturer will supply the relevant spacing maximum transverse and axial spacing data.
The spacing is usually taken between centers. (Note: the maximum recommended transverse
SHR is usually different from the axial SHR where linear luminaires are used).
Where high levels of illuminance are required, it is common practice to use continuous rows of
luminaires with the transverse spacing at the maximum permissible. In this way, installation
costs will be kept to a minimum, particularly where luminaires are suspended below the ceiling.
The lighting installation must however be coordinated with other services and compromise with
air conditioning outlets and other ceiling mounted equipment is often necessary in practice.
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Example: An office area measures 16m x 8m and is 2.7 metres high. It is to be illuminated to an
average value of 500 lux. 600mm x 600mm recessed luminaires, each containing 4 lamps are
used. Each lamp has an output of 1400 lumens. Utilization factor is 0.5 and maintenance factor is
0.75.
(i) Calculate the number of luminaires required.
(ii) Sketch a layout of the scheme indicating the spacing between luminaires.
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Assumptions:
1. Desk height 0.7m therefore Hm = 2 m
2. SH ratio = 1.5 : 1, Therefore max spacing = 3 meters
3. There are no restrictions with regard to ceiling tile positions. (in practice tiles
will normally restrict spacing to multiples of 0.6m.
Min. no of rows = 8/3 = 2.7 (i.e. 3)
3 rows of 10 would give a spacing of 1.6m between centers.
An alternative layout would be 4 rows of 8 luminaires.
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4 rows of 8 would be preferable as they would give a square layout with identical spacing. In
practice, it is likely that ceiling tiles would restrict spacing to multiples of 0.6m (the size of the
ceiling tiles)
Exercise:
A factory measures 50m x 30m x 6m high. A general lighting scheme is to illuminate the whole
area to 500 lux maintained illuminance using 1000-watt metal halide lamps with an initial
efficacy of 90 lumens per watt. Maintenance factor is 0.6 and utilization factor is 0.5. A space
height ration of 1.5: 1 is recommended for the luminaire chosen and a mounting height of 5m
over working plane is assumed. Design a suitable lighting scheme.
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