C H A P T E R 17

Wheel Alignment
Procedures
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

LE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
❯ Recall why vehicle manufacturers recommend four- ❯ Explain wheel alignment checking procedures.
wheel alignment on most late-model vehicles. ❯ Identify wheel alignment adjustment devices
❯ Identify the types of alignment equipment. and explain front and rear alignment adjusting
❯ Explain pre-alignment vehicle checks. procedures.
❯ Describe how to set up the vehicle on the ❯ Identify the purpose of post-alignment final checks
alignment rack with the alignment machine P and road testing.
positioned and equipment installed to perform a
four-wheel alignment.

TECHNICAL TERMS
M
alignment head caster split rolling compensation
alignment rack curb weight wheel cover lock
alignment specifications eccentric bushing wheel lock key
camber split full-contact shim
A

SHOP TALK
The previous chapter discussed wheel alignment angles and how they affect the vehicle’s steering, handling,
S

driving stability, and tire wear. Now it is time to put that knowledge into practice by performing a wheel
alignment on a vehicle in the shop. Whether you are performing a two-wheel or the manufacturer-recommended
four-wheel alignment on the vehicle, this chapter outlines the most common wheel alignment procedures
performed on modern vehicles. But follow the manufacturer’s wheel alignment procedure carefully as there are
many small details—from which bolt adjusts which alignment angle to properly setting up the alignment machine
and rack—that you must adhere to in order to measure the alignment angles accurately and adjust the vehicle’s
wheel alignment correctly.
Before just diving into the wheel alignment, however, do not forget to complete a pre-alignment inspection of
the vehicle. All technicians want to accurately complete wheel alignments in an efficient manner, but if you skip
this step, you may never get the vehicle aligned properly. Just ask any experienced wheel alignment technician!

328  

328-352_ch17.indd 328 31-08-2023 06:50:32

 Introduction adjusted. Because of these design changes, four-wheel
alignment is the most common type of alignment per-
Correct wheel alignment is vital to vehicle operation. formed today. Checking alignment at all four wheels
Incorrect alignment can cause handling problems, steer- also makes it possible to set the thrust angle to ensure
ing difficulties, pulling, poor tracking, and rapid tire perfect wheel tracking, even on vehicles with solid rear
wear. This chapter builds on the information presented axles. Most manufacturers recommend four-wheel
in Chapter 16, Wheel Alignment Principles, to explain alignment, even on their solid axle rear-wheel-drive
the purposes and methods of two-wheel and four-wheel vehicles. Figure 17‑1 shows the differences between two-
alignment. Types of alignment machines and tools are wheel and four-wheel alignment.
also covered. This chapter will explain how alignment
methods differ between rear-wheel- and front-wheel-
drive vehicles. Alignment Racks
This chapter will show you how to perform all steps For any type of alignment, you must have an
of an alignment on any type of car or light truck. After alignment rack that is installed perfectly level on the
studying this chapter, you will understand the basic shop floor, with turning plates that allow the front
principles and methods of both two-wheel and four- wheels to be turned when measuring caster. The turning

LE
wheel alignments. plates also allow the wheels to move outward when the
vehicle is lowered after checking for worn parts. This
allows the vehicle’s suspension to settle to its normal
Wheel Alignment ride height. The alignment rack should be high enough
Fundamentals to permit easy access to the underside of the vehicle.
The most convenient design is to have an alignment rack
As discussed in Chapter 16, Wheel Alignment Principles, installed on a hydraulic lift, so it may be both lowered
wheel alignment involves moving various parts of the to drive the vehicle on and raised to make adjustments
suspension and steering systems to obtain the proper under the vehicle. Figure 17‑2 shows a vehicle parked on
relationship between the wheels, the road, and the vehi-
P a modern alignment rack.
cle’s body. To perform a wheel alignment, the technician
must make a series of pre-alignment checks, attach the
alignment measuring equipment, determine the vehicle’s Alignment Machines
alignment, and then, if necessary, move the adjusting There are many brands of alignment machines. These
devices to obtain the correct alignment. The technician machines differ in some details, and operating instruc-
M
must keep in mind that: tions may vary. However, all modern machines contain
• The vehicle must be realigned anytime a suspension internal computers and are able to check the alignment
or steering part is changed. at all four wheels while showing alignment readings on
• Vehicle problems and outside factors can affect a display screen.
alignment. Modern electronic alignment machines make use
• All alignment angles are related and a change in one of sensing devices mounted on each wheel. The wheel-
mounted sensing devices are usually called alignment
A

can alter the others.

• Factory-installed adjustment devices are used to heads, or simply heads. On older machines, the heads
adjust some angles. contained infrared light generators. Sensors mounted in
• Aftermarket devices are available to adjust each head precisely measured the infrared light beams
some angles that are not equipped with factory from the other heads. The readings were sent to the
adjustments. machine’s computer, which converted them to readouts
S

• Some angles can only be adjusted by changing parts. that are displayed on a screen.
• Toe should be adjusted last on almost all cars and The newest alignment machines use target boards
trucks. or alignment heads with target dots. See Figure 17‑3.
High-resolution digital cameras, which are located in
front of the vehicle and connected to the alignment
Two-Wheel and Four-Wheel Alignment console, Figure 17‑4, monitor target board position and
Today, there are more front-wheel-drive vehicles than orientation. After the target boards are attached to the
there are rear-wheel-drive vehicles on the road. Rear- rims, the vehicle is rolled backward and forward slightly
wheel drive is mostly used on pickup trucks, vans, to allow the console to compensate for wheel runout.
and sport utility vehicles. Most passenger vehicles Once setup is complete, the alignment can be checked
are front-wheel drive. Most front-wheel-drive vehicles and adjusted by observing the display screen readings,
have provisions for adjusting the alignment angles of Figure 17‑5, and moving the appropriate suspension
the rear wheels. Some newer rear-wheel-drive vehicles components to bring the readings within manufacturer
have independent rear suspensions, which must also be specifications.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   329

328-352_ch17.indd 329 31-08-2023 06:50:33

 Alignment machine Alignment Alignment machine Alignment
and display machine camera and display machine camera

Data transmitted
to or collected by
alignment machine
positioned in
front of vehicle
Alignment
head
Turning
Alignment plate
head Turning
plate

Vehicle Data transmitted

parked on to or collected by Vehicle

LE
alignment alignment machine parked on
rack positioned in alignment
front of vehicle rack

Alignment
head

A
P B

Figure 17-1. A—A two-wheel alignment setup. B—The setup for performing a four-wheel alignment.
Peugeot
M
A
S

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 17-2. A vehicle parked on a shop’s drive-on alignment

rack, which features a hydraulic lift, with an electronic alignment
machine positioned in front of it.

Performing a Wheel Alignment Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 17-3. Target boards or heads are mounted on the vehicle’s

The following procedure can be used to align any wheels before checking alignment settings. There are no electrical
vehicle. The procedure described is for a four-wheel connections between the target heads and the alignment console, so
alignment. A two-wheel alignment is similar, but has the target heads are much lighter than conventional alignment heads
fewer steps. This general alignment procedure applies to and do not require calibration.

330   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 330 31-08-2023 06:50:33

 Road Test
If possible, road test the vehicle before beginning the
alignment. Pick a quiet, level street for the road test. The
road test can be brief, but it should be complete. Make
a series of starts, stops, and turns. Drive several blocks
Alignment in a straight line. Listen, look, and feel for road wander,
machine cameras unusual noises, pulling, hard steering effort, excessive
road shocks, and other handling problems. The results
of the road test will give you a basis for making other
pre-alignment checks and for determining what align-
ment adjustments are necessary.

Pre-Alignment Checks
After the road test is complete, drive the vehicle onto
the alignment rack. Position the vehicle as squarely as

LE
possible on the rack, Figure 17‑6. Make sure the front
tires are centered on the turning plates.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Caution

Figure 17-4. Cameras mounted on the alignment machine Before driving the vehicle onto the rack, be sure the
work in conjunction with the target heads installed on each of the turntables are locked in place. This makes driving on the rack
vehicle’s four wheels to measure alignment angles. easier and prevents damage to the turntables.

P Before beginning the alignment procedures, always

check ride height, suspension and steering parts, the
tires and rims, and the vehicle’s underbody. The use of a
pre-alignment inspection checklist is sometimes helpful.
See Figure 17‑7.
M
A

mrfiza/Shutterstock.com

Figure 17-5. Alignment readings sent to the alignment

machine are displayed on a screen. The display shows alignment
measurements for both front and rear wheels.
both short-long arm suspension and MacPherson strut
suspension. For specific procedures, always refer to the
S

wheel alignment procedures provided in the vehicle’s

service information.
Ask Questions to the Vehicle Owner
The first step in any alignment is to find out as much
as possible about the vehicle. If the vehicle’s owner is
available, find out why they think the vehicle needs an
alignment. Ask about any specific problems they are
having. In many cases, the problem is something that an
alignment cannot fix. Worn parts or unbalanced tires
often cause what the vehicle owner thinks is a wheel Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
alignment problem. This is particularly true of vibration Figure 17-6. Position the vehicle as squarely as possible on the
complaints. Make your customers aware that misalign- alignment rack. Be sure the centerlines of the front tires are aligned
ment rarely causes vibration. with the centers of the turning plates before driving onto them.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   331

328-352_ch17.indd 331 31-08-2023 06:50:34

 PRE-ALIGNMENT INSPECTION CHECKLIST

LE
P
M
A
S

Ammco

Figure 17-7. A useful pre-alignment inspection checklist.

332   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 332 31-08-2023 06:50:35

 Checking Ride Height bar bushings, and strut rod bushings. Check the steer-
Check the ride height, as was discussed in Chapter 6, ing gear, pitman arm and idler arm (when used), relay
Front Suspension System Service. If ride height is incor- rod, and all tie rod ends. Check the shock absorbers and
rect, adjust the height if the suspension uses torsion bars struts for leaks. Check the operation of the power steer-
or replace parts as needed. ing system and ensure that the power steering reservoir
is full. If the vehicle has any kind of electronic suspen-
sion system, make sure the warning light is out and no
Tech Tip other problems are evident. Check the drive shaft or CV
Before deciding that ride height is incorrect, check the axles, as applicable. Look for looseness, torn boots, or
backseat, trunk, or pickup bed for excess weight. Remove obvious dents or bends. Shake or twist all flexible joints
excess weight before proceeding with the height check. The to uncover any looseness.
importance of aligning the vehicle at its correct curb weight
is discussed later in this chapter. Checking Tires and Wheels
Inspect the vehicle’s tires and wheels for damage,
Checking for Worn Parts Figure 17-8. Tire problems were discussed in Chapter 13,
Wheel and Tire Service. Carefully note tire conditions

LE
Once the vehicle is properly positioned on the rack, raise
the front and rear wheels to check for worn parts. Do that might indicate an alignment problem. The chart in
not skip this step. It is impossible to align a vehicle with Figure 17-9 shows some common tire defects and their
worn or damaged parts. possible causes. If the tires were recently rotated, rear
tire condition will be a sign of front end problems and
front tire condition will indicate rear problems. Check
Caution the tire size and air pressure. You cannot align a vehicle
If the vehicle is equipped with an electronic suspension when the tires are at different air pressures, are of dif-
system, refer to the manufacturer’s recommended procedures ferent sizes, or when one tire on an axle is worn and the
in the vehicle's service information for preparing the other has ample tread. Add air or replace tires as needed.
suspension before lifting the vehicle. P Spin the wheels to check for badly bent rims, dragging
brakes, and loose wheel lugs.
Raise the suspension so the ball joints are unloaded.
On a suspension with the spring on the lower control Checking for Underbody Damage
arm, place the jack under the control arm. On suspen- Check all suspension and steering parts for bends,
sions with the spring on the upper control arm or around scrapes, and other signs of underbody damage. Proce-
M
the MacPherson strut, place the jack on the frame. On dures for inspecting these parts were discussed in earlier
solid axles, place the jack under the axle. chapters. Carefully check the vehicle’s frame at both the
With the vehicle properly raised, perform a wiggle front and rear for kinked areas or bends. Check for obvi-
test, which was discussed in Chapter 6, Front Suspen- ous severe setback on the front wheels, especially when
sion System Service, and Chapter 10, Steering Linkage collision damage is evident, Figure 17‑10. The simplest
and Steering Gear Service. Grasp the wheel at the front way to check for setback is to measure the distance from
the rear of each tire to the fender opening, Figure 17‑11.
A

and back and wiggle it. Then grasp the tire at the top
and bottom and wiggle it. If the vehicle has an offset If the setback varies by more than 1″ (25 mm) between
strut assembly, it may be necessary to grasp the wheel
at about 45° counterclockwise from the top and bottom
and then wiggle it. If the wheel moves excessively in any
direction or makes knocking or clunking noises, look Dent Cupping
S

for worn or loose parts. (low spots)

As a general rule, looseness when the wheel is wiggled
from the top and bottom indicates worn ball joints or
very worn control arm or strut rod bushings. Worn tie Crack in
rods or other steering system parts will cause looseness wheel
when the wheel is wiggled from the front and back.
Loose or worn out wheel bearings usually cause loose-
Impact cut
ness in all directions. If looseness is detected, have an
Bulge
assistant wiggle the wheel while you look for worn parts.
Sometimes it is necessary to pry on parts using a pry bar.
Once the wiggle test is complete, visually inspect the Ford
suspension for wear, damaged seals, improper adjust- Figure 17-8. A wheel and tire assembly with common types
ment, or loose fasteners. Check the lower ball joint, upper of damage identified. Check all tires and wheels closely before
ball joint (when used), control arm bushings, stabilizer proceeding with alignment.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   333

328-352_ch17.indd 333 31-08-2023 06:50:35

 Symptom Possible Cause

Scalloped Out of balance

wear Lack of rotation
Worn steering or suspension
components
Loose wheel bearings

Random Out of balance

cupping Excessive runout Crushed frame
Worn steering or suspension
components Toyota
Loose wheel bearings
Figure 17-10. A vehicle frame that has been damaged from a collision.

sides, a suspension part is bent. In most cases, the align-

Shoulder Underinflation

LE
wear Lack of rotation ment technician does not have the proper equipment to
Excessive camber roll due to high make setback or vehicle frame repairs. An auto body
caster setting
High-speed cornering
shop may need to correct these defects before an align-
ment can proceed.

Prepare the Vehicle for

Center
tread
Overinflation (bias tires)
Lack of rotation
Wheel Alignment
wear After all the above checks have been made and any
needed repairs completed, prepare the vehicle for the
P alignment. Do not lower the vehicle onto the rack yet.
The wheels must be free to turn for alignment head
Feather Excessive toe angle (bias tires)
installation.
edge
wear Curb Weight
(Scuffing)
For the most accurate alignment, the vehicle must be at
M
its correct curb weight. Curb weight is the weight of the
vehicle with all its normal accessories, a full tank of gas,
Uneven Excessive camber angle and a spare tire, but without the driver or passengers.
wear Excessive toe angle (radial tires) Some vehicles usually carry heavier than normal loads.
(One side Out of spec. turning angle
of tread) (toe-out on turns) Examples are trucks used for deliveries and vehicles
used to carry a salesperson’s samples. If the vehicle is
A

Perfect Equipment Corp. used for any of these purposes, ask the vehicle owner to
Figure 17-9. Abnormal tire wear. Note the symptom and possible bring in the vehicle when it is carrying its normal load.
causes. These are just a few problems; others, include cuts, bulges, Note that the ride height must be within specifications
and tread separation. Check tires carefully. regardless of the load.
S

Golden Sikorka/Shutterstock.com; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 17-11. Checking for setback by measuring from the rear of each tire to the fender opening.

334   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 334 31-08-2023 06:50:36

 Never try to align a vehicle to compensate for overload- Wheel cover lock
ing. Doing so may place additional stresses on already
overloaded steering and suspension parts. Attempting to
align a vehicle to compensate for overloading may also
Wheel cover key
result in dangerous handling problems. In addition, when
the vehicle is aligned to compensate for overloading, it
will be misaligned as soon as the excess load is removed.
Some imported vehicle specifications call for adding
weight to the vehicle to simulate the average weight of
passengers and luggage. This extra weight may be placed Wheel cover lock
in the trunk or in the backseat. Refer to the manufac- General Motors
turer’s specifications for exact weight and placement. If
Figure 17-12. One particular wheel cover (hubcap) lock being
the weight is to be placed in the backseat, make sure the
removed with a special lock key.
upholstery will not be damaged.

Obtain Alignment Specifications Aluminum wheel

LE
Locknut
Alignment specifications vary from vehicle to vehicle, key Lug
depending on the manufacturer, year, model, and engine Locknut wrench
size. All modern alignment equipment manufactur-
ers have taken the guess work out of alignment angles Nut caps
and specifications. The computer systems equipped on Nut
today’s alignments machines contain a comprehensive socket
list of vehicle manufacturers’ recommended alignment
Hubcap Lug
angles and will show these angles on the machine’s display nut
as part of the alignment procedure. It is rare that a tech-

Install Alignment Equipment

P
nician will need to access alignment angle information
from other aftermarket sources or service information.

Modern alignment equipment is precise and must be

General Motors

Figure 17-13. This aluminum wheel uses a special locknut. A nut

removal key is needed to remove the wheel.

Installing the Alignment Head

M
installed carefully to ensure accurate alignment. Most
modern alignment heads are clamped to the wheel rim The procedure for properly installing the alignment
or attached directly to the tire itself. The following pro- heads is very dependent on the manufacturer and style
cedures apply to most alignment heads. Always consult of equipment being used. In most cases today, the
the manufacturer’s service manual when there are ques- alignment heads are equipped with adapters that, when
tions as to how to install the equipment you are using. adjusted properly, grip the wheel assembly where the
rim and tire meet. Once secured to the rim, the align-
A

Removing Wheel Covers/Wheels ment head can be leveled in preparation for the align-
If wheel covers are used, they must generally be removed. ment procedure. Some alignment heads can be quickly
Many wheel covers are held to the rim by wheel cover and conveniently attached directly to the tire itself. The
locks. These locks can be removed using a special key. position of this type of alignment head will be automati-
A typical wheel lock key is shown in Figure 17‑12. Some cally calibrated during the initial steps of the alignment
wheel lock keys are stored in the glove compartment or procedure.
S

console; others are installed in a special compartment in

the trunk. After locating the key, remove the decorative Compensating the Alignment Head
cover over the lock and use the key to unscrew the lock. All rims have some runout; therefore, there is no way to
Some wheels are secured with a special wheel locknut, install the alignment head without slight misalignment
Figure 17‑13. A special key is needed to remove this type between the rim and head. This runout must be removed
of locknut. These locknuts should never be installed or to prevent incorrect readings. The procedure to remove
removed with an impact wrench. runout may vary from one equipment manufacturer to
another. With most types of alignment equipment, the
procedure is to roll the vehicle back (to let the alignment
Tech Tip head spindle turn about 45°), and then roll the vehicle
After using the wheel lock key, place it back in the vehicle. forward when prompted by the alignment machine’s
If the key is lost or misplaced, the driver will not be able to computer. This is referred to as rolling compensation,
remove the tire in an emergency. and is used to detect and compensate for any irregulari-
ties or runout the rim may have.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   335

328-352_ch17.indd 335 31-08-2023 06:50:36

 Most electronic alignment machines use readouts
on the screen to tell the technician when the head is
properly compensated. Generally, all alignment heads
are installed and the rolling compensation process can
be performed for all wheels at one time. When all four
wheels are compensated, the screen will give a set of
alignment measurements.

Caution
Never allow the rim and head assembly to turn after it
has been compensated. Any movement from the vertical
(straight up and down) position will affect readings.

Brake pedal Steering wheel

Lowering the Vehicle depressor holding tool

LE
Before lowering the vehicle, make sure the turning plates Fusionstudio/Shutterstock.com

are centered under the wheels and unlock the turntables. Figure 17-15. A steering wheel holding tool and brake pedal
Apply the parking brake firmly and then lower the depressor have been installed.
vehicle. When the vehicle is resting on the turning plates,
bounce it at the front and rear bumpers. This takes any Checking Camber and Toe
tension out of the suspension parts and allows the vehicle The alignment machine’s display will show front and
to settle to its normal resting position. See Figure 17‑14. rear camber and toe, Figure 17‑16. On most machines,
this is an automatic process once the heads have been
compensated.
P Tech Tip
You should check the rear-wheel alignment, even if the rear
axle cannot be realigned. Knowing the position of the rear
axle is often necessary, especially when the steering wheel
M
Turning Alignment rack cannot be centered, or when the vehicle owner is concerned
plate with rear tire wear.
Lexus

Figure 17-14. Bouncing the front and rear of a vehicle while it is

resting on the turning plates. This permits the vehicle to settle to its Checking Caster
normal resting position. To check caster, be sure the brake pedal depressor is
applied. Most alignment equipment manufacturers
A

Centering the Steering Wheel specify that the heads be locked into position (unable to
With the engine running to reduce steering effort, turn
the steering wheel from side to side several times to
equalize play in the steering linkage. Then center the
steering wheel. Turn the engine off if necessary. It is not
S

necessary to install the wheel holding tool. However, you

will need this tool later during the alignment procedure.
See Figure 17‑15.

Locking the Brakes

Lock the brakes with a brake pedal depressor. This pre-
vents excessive wheel movement while checking caster. At
this time, you should firmly apply the parking brake. If the
vehicle has an automatic transmission, shift it into Park.

Measuring Alignment
After all preliminary steps have been completed, the
alignment can be measured. This should be done in the Lily Studio/Shutterstock.com

order given in the following sections. Figure 17-16. A typical alignment screen display.

336   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 336 31-08-2023 06:50:37

 pivot on the mounting frame) for the caster check. Turn turns is a specification that the alignment machine can
the wheels to the left and right, according to the align- check automatically when the tires are turned inward
ment machine manufacturer’s instructions. This can be and outward during the caster check. Older equipment
done by turning the wheels themselves or by turning the that is still used in the field today may have a slightly
steering wheel. See Figure 17‑17. When using the steering different procedure if this check is to be done manu-
wheel to turn the wheels, do not sit in or lean on the ally. To perform this check, turn one of the front wheels
vehicle. This will change suspension height and affect inward until the turntable indicator reads 20°. After this
the readings. On some systems, you must turn the steer- is done, move to the other side of the vehicle and read
ing wheel until the screen indicates that the readings the indicator on that turntable. The reading should be
have been obtained. slightly more than 20°. See Figure 17‑18. Record this
reading; then turn the wheel inward to the 20° indica-
tor on the turntable. Read the indicator on the other
Tech Tip turntable. This reading should also be slightly more
If caster and camber are within specifications and the vehicle than 20°. Compare the readings with specifications. If
is pulling, the problem may be a defective tire. You may want the readings are incorrect, the steering arms should be

LE
to swap the front tires from left to right and road test the replaced.
vehicle before proceeding. If the pull changes sides or is no To determine which steering arm is bent, measure the
longer evident, a tire is defective. In almost all cases, the distance between the end of one steering arm at the tie
defective tire is on the side of the pull. rod and the side of the tire. This can be done by insert-
ing your hand between the tie rod and the tire sidewall.
Repeat the procedure on the other side of the vehicle.
Checking Steering Axis Inclination The measurement should be the same on both sides of
Steering axis inclination (SAI) is usually checked as part the vehicle. A slight variation (less than one inch or
of the caster checking process. SAI should be checked 25 mm) is acceptable, but larger variation indicates that
whenever there is evidence of collision damage or the one of the steering arms is bent and should be replaced.
P
vehicle has a handling or tire wear problem that cannot
be accounted for by another cause. The brakes should
be locked for the SAI check. Some equipment manu-
facturers specify that the heads be free to pivot on the
head frame when both caster and SAI are checked in
Check for impact damage to the steering arms to deter-
mine which one should be replaced.

Adjusting Alignment
Once the actual vehicle alignment has been established,
one operation.
M
you must determine whether the vehicle requires adjust-
Checking Toe-Out on Turns ment, as well as what adjustment must be made.
Toe-out on turns is seldom incorrect, but it should be
checked whenever you suspect steering arm damage
or when the tires squeal excessively on turns. To check Tech Tip
toe-out on turns, the brake pedal depressor should be Once the alignment angles have been measured, print the
in place. On the latest alignment equipment, toe-out on results. This can be used to help the technician during the
A

alignment process, and also serves as proof to the customer

that the alignment needed to be adjusted.
S

Turning plate

Turning Front
Alignment plate 20°
rack 23.5°

Ford Ammco

Figure 17-17. Move the front tire and wheel to the left and right Figure 17-18. Manually checking toe-out on turns. Follow the
to check the caster. vehicle manufacturer’s testing procedures.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   337

328-352_ch17.indd 337 31-08-2023 06:50:37

 Rarely is a vehicle in perfect adjustment. The toe is
almost always incorrect, even when other readings are
within specifications. Before adjusting the vehicle, you
must know two things: what the correct specifications Nut
are and what devices are needed to make adjustments. Lock
This information is available in the vehicle’s service washer

information. The next sections discuss general align- Eccentric

ment procedures for front and rear axles. Always adjust Bolt
Frame bracket
the rear axle before the front. As mentioned earlier, the
Eccentric
toe should be adjusted last on any axle.
Manufacturers usually list alignment specifications Lower control
as a range, such as +1/2° to +1 1/2°. Adjustment anywhere arm
within the range is acceptable, but the most accurate set- Specialty Products Corp.
tings are usually in the center of the range. In the above Figure 17-19. A rear camber adjusting bolt in an eccentric cam
example, the ideal setting would be +1°. However, an assembly.

LE
experienced technician may want to set the alignment
near one end of the range based on past experience. Figure 17‑20. After setting camber, hold the cam in posi-
tion and tighten the locking bolt.
Adjusting Rear Wheels If the camber is adjusted by slotted holes in the strut
assembly, loosen the nuts and bolts holding the strut to
Tech Tip the slot in the frame. Usually only the top hole is slot-
If a two-wheel alignment is being performed, the following ted. Push or pull the strut (or the tire) until the camber
procedure can be skipped. reading is correct. Then hold the suspension part in
position and tighten the nuts and bolts. For best results,
Except on a few rare vehicles with four-wheel steering, have an assistant tighten the nut while you hold the sus-
P
the rear wheels do not affect steering. The most common
signs of improper rear-wheel alignment are uneven tire
wear and noise. If the camber or rear toe is off severely,
handling problems may occur. Remember that there is
no adjustment for caster on the rear wheels. Caster pri-
pension part.
If the vehicle uses threaded rods as a camber adjust-
ment device, loosen the locknuts holding the rod to
the frame and turn both nuts in the same direction to
shorten or lengthen the rod until the proper camber is
M
marily affects steering effort and therefore is not needed obtained. Then tighten the nuts and make sure the cam-
on the rear. ber has not changed.
Some alignment machines are equipped with a por-
table viewing unit. These units are useful if the main Eccentric and
bolt assembly
viewing screen on the alignment machine is out of view
when standing at the rear of the vehicle.
A

Rear Camber
Several adjusting devices are used to set rear camber.
To make the adjustment, locate the adjusting devices. If
necessary, raise the lift to gain access to the devices.
Lower control Frame
S

arm bracket
Tech Tip
Many technicians prefer to leave the alignment rack on
Special
the ground for more accurate measurements during the adjusting
adjustment process. Others prefer to raise the rack for easier wrench
access to the adjusting devices. A properly set up alignment
rack will be perfectly leveled at the time of installation and
can be periodically checked for accuracy.

On many vehicles, eccentric cams are used to adjust

rear camber. See Figure 17‑19. Sometimes these cams are
located under covers or placed in hard-to-see locations.
If a cam is used, loosen the locking bolt; then turn the Specialty Products Corp.
cam to obtain the correct camber. Sometimes a special Figure 17-20. A special wrench is used to turn a large hex-shaped
wrench can be used to make turning the cam easier, eccentric located inside the frame bracket to adjust rear camber.

338   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 338 31-08-2023 06:50:37

 The camber on some vehicles without a factory Rear toe can be set using eccentric cams, slotted holes,
camber adjustment can be corrected with special bolts, or threaded rods. When cams are used, the adjustment
Figure 17‑21. These bolts are made with a small central procedure is the same as that for camber, Figure 17‑23.
shank or a flat side. The bolt is installed in place of one of On a few vehicles, toe is adjusted using slotted holes
the original equipment strut bolts. This allows the strut where the front of the control arm contacts the frame.
to be moved for camber adjustments. On some vehicles, To adjust toe using a slotted hole, loosen the nut and
camber and caster are not adjustable. Replacement of bolt. Then push or pull the suspension part or tire until
damaged parts is necessary to achieve proper alignment. the toe is correct. Finally, tighten the nut and bolt while
holding the suspension part in position.
Rear Toe If the vehicle is equipped with threaded rods for toe
An important reason to set the rear toe is to maintain adjustment, loosen the locknuts and turn both nuts
the best rear-wheel tracking. Proper tracking is obtained in the same direction until the toe is correct. On most
when the rear wheels follow directly behind the front vehicles using this system, the adjusting rod is a strut
wheels when the vehicle is moving in a straight line. Per- or stabilizing rod extending ahead of the rear axle, as
fect tracking is obtained when the vehicle’s thrust line shown in Figure 17‑24. On a few rear suspensions, the
is directly on top of the vehicle’s geometric centerline,

LE
rod extends from the center of the vehicle to the lower
Figure 17‑22. This is not always possible, but the two control arm.
should match as closely as possible. Therefore, the total
rear toe should not only be correct, but it should be evenly Setting Rear-Wheel Alignment with Shims
divided between sides. If this is not done, the vehicle will Many late-model front-wheel-drive vehicles have no
travel down the road at an angle (called dog tracking) camber or toe adjusting devices for the rear axle. To
and the steering wheel will be difficult to center. adjust the rear axles on some of these vehicles, metal or

Eccentric cam

Strut
Drive
PSpecial camber
adjusting bolt
assembly
Install
into inner
Control arm
axle
M
Bolt
bracket and cam

Sleeve Frame
bracket
assembly
Specialty Equipment Corp.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 17-23. Adjusting rear toe with an eccentric bolt and cam
A

Figure 17-21. Adjusting camber with special bolts. These bolts are assembly. When the eccentric is turned to set toe to specifications,
normally used on vehicles that do not have provisions for adjustment. the control arm moves left or right.

Thrust line is directly above

the geometric centerline
S

Hunter

Figure 17-22. Rear toe has been set to factory specifications. The vehicle’s thrust line perfectly matches the geometric centerline. The thrust
angle is reduced to zero.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   339

328-352_ch17.indd 339 31-08-2023 06:50:38

 Next, remove the bolts holding the bearing housing
to the axle. Some bolts have Torx heads and a special
socket is needed to remove them. After the bolts are
removed, detach the housing from the rear axle.

Tech Tip
If a flat metal strip shim is being used instead of a full-
contact shim, it is not necessary to remove the housing
completely from the axle. The shim can be slipped into place
after the bolts are loosened.

Lateral link Lateral link locknuts Place the shim between the bearing housing and
General Motors the axle. See Figure 17‑26. Then reinstall the bearing
Figure 17-24. Adjusting rear toe by extending or shortening the housing. The variation in thickness of the shim tilts the

LE
lateral link. When toe is correct, tighten the locknuts. bearing, and therefore the wheel, to obtain the needed
camber and toe.
plastic discs called full-contact shims are used. Shims in Carefully position the shim to ensure that the final
the form of flat metal strips are also available. Rear axle camber and toe adjustments are correct. Be sure to
shims were discussed in Chapter 16, Wheel Alignment install all rear axle parts in their original positions. If
Principles. Shims are thicker on one side than the other necessary, clean and lubricate the rear wheel bearings
side, as shown in Figure 17‑25. Shims can also be used before reinstallation and properly preload them. Install
on some vehicles when the factory adjustment at the rear a new cotter pin. Reinstall the rim and head, and again
axle is used up. The amount of caster and toe change compensate the head. Recheck the toe and camber.
required is determined by comparing the manufac-
P After all rear-wheel alignment adjustments are cor-
turer’s specifications to the actual alignment readings. rect, recheck the tightness of all fasteners. A loose fas-
The needed shim thickness and placement can then be tener can cause tire wear and handling problems, and it
calculated. may contribute to an accident.
To install a shim, determine the shim’s thickness
and its placement. Then remove the rear brake drum Front-Wheel Alignment Procedures
M
or rotor. After setting and rechecking rear-wheel alignment, set
the front alignment. On many vehicles, either the caster
or camber is not adjustable. On some vehicles, only the
Tech Tip toe can be adjusted. Check the vehicle manufacturer’s
To gain access to the housing bolts on some vehicles, the specifications to determine which alignment angles can
rear bearing cotter pin, nut, washer, and outer bearing must be adjusted. In some cases, aftermarket parts are avail-
able to make camber and caster adjustments that are not
A

be removed.
specified by the factory.

Camber Toe
S

To Reduce To Increase Toe-in Toe-out

Side Side Top

view view view

Hunter

Figure 17-25. Full-contact rear alignment shims used to set camber and toe.

340   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 340 31-08-2023 06:50:38

 Rear axle
housing

Alignment shim

Backing plate

Bearing
hub

LE
Specialty Products Corp.

Figure 17-26. Placing a rear-wheel alignment shim between the bearing hub and the axle housing.

Zero camber Positive camber

Warning 0° +1.5°
Never bend suspension or steering parts to make alignment
adjustments unless specifically recommended by the
manufacturer. Various heat treating (tempering) methods
P
are used to harden steering and suspension components.
The heat-treated metal is stronger than the original metal,
but it is brittle and cannot be reshaped. Attempting to
straighten a heat-treated part by bending may cause hairline
fractures, metal fatigue, or other damage that may not be
M
visible. Similarly, never weld any suspension or steering part.
Welding destroys the heat treatment, making the part too
soft to withstand the stresses of operation. If a welded part
Hunter
is reinstalled on the vehicle, it may fail in use and cause an
accident. Figure 17-27. A front suspension, as viewed from the front of the
vehicle, showing positive camber on the left (driver’s) side and 0°
(zero) on the right (passenger) side.
A

Since the adjustment devices are often located under

the vehicle’s hood, it may be necessary to remove some
shrouds or parts of the air cleaner ducting to gain access Camber and Caster—MacPherson
to these devices. Always remember to replace these parts Strut Suspensions
before starting the engine. Parts or tools carelessly left Camber and caster are sometimes adjusted by moving
where they can contact the moving parts may be dam- the MacPherson strut’s upper mounting in the strut
S

aged, or they may damage the engine. tower or turning the entire strut assembly. Some adjust-
Most alignment technicians try to set the caster and ers alter only camber or only caster. On some vehicles
camber to compensate for road crown, as discussed in with MacPherson strut suspensions, the camber or
Chapter 16, Wheel Alignment Principles. Since the slope caster are not adjustable.
of the road is always to the right, the caster and camber On many vehicles equipped with MacPherson struts,
split can be set to cause the vehicle to drift slightly to the camber is adjusted by turning an eccentric cam on the
left. Therefore, camber should be slightly more positive top or bottom strut bolt that secures the strut assem-
on the left side than the right, Figure 17‑27. Caster should bly to the steering knuckle, Figure 17‑28. To make the
be slightly more negative on the left than the right. With adjustment, loosen both bolts and turn the eccentric
either angle, the split between sides should be no more until camber is correct. Then tighten the bolt without
than 1/2°. This is usually called caster split or camber the eccentric while holding the eccentric in position. On
split, although the terms camber spread, cross camber, other vehicles, the eccentric is attached to the lower con-
caster spread, and cross caster are also used when refer- trol arm bushing, Figure 17‑29. The adjusting bolt must
ring to the split. be loosened and the cam turned to make the adjustment.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   341

328-352_ch17.indd 341 31-08-2023 06:50:38

 MacPherson strut Nut
assembly

Strut
mounting
bolts

Strut
tower

MacPherson strut
upper mounting
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 17-30. Loosen the nuts holding the upper strut mounting
Eccentric cam
to the strut tower and move the strut assembly in or out to obtain
and bolt
the correct camber setting.

LE
in a slotted hole, Figure 17‑31. Loosen the mounting
nuts, pry the strut assembly to the proper position, and
then tighten the nuts to specification.
Many vehicles have slotted holes where the strut is
attached to the steering knuckle, Figure 17‑32. To adjust
camber on these vehicles, loosen the nuts and bolts and
push or pull the wheel until camber is correct. Then
tighten the strut bolts to specification. For best results,
Specialty Equipment Corp.
P
Figure 17-28. Adjusting camber on a front MacPherson strut
assembly. Turning the eccentric cam and bolt moves the strut.
have an assistant hold the wheel in position as you
tighten the nuts. It may be necessary to file the slotted
holes to allow more movement.
There are several ways to adjust the caster on vehicles
equipped with MacPherson strut front suspensions.
Some caster adjustments are made by moving the strut
M
Self-locking rod in or out. See Figure 17‑33. Loosen the locknuts and
nut
turn them in the same direction until the proper adjust-
ment is made. Tighten the nuts and recheck caster. On
certain vehicles, the strut rod is used for caster adjust-
ment, but the rod length must be changed by installing
or removing spacers at the point where the rod contacts
A

the lower control arm, Figure 17‑34.

Eccentric
adjusting
cam
MacPherson strut
Eccentric upper mounting Nut
adjusting
bolt
S

Adjustment
Lower control arm assembly slot
Honda

Figure 17-29. An exploded view of a front suspension that has

the eccentric adjusting cam installed on the lower control arm.

Some vehicles have a camber adjustment consisting of

slotted holes in the vehicle’s body at the top of the strut
tower. To make the camber adjustment, loosen the nuts Strut
holding the strut’s upper mounting to the strut tower tower
and slide the strut in or out, Figure 17‑30. Then tighten Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
the nuts, making sure the strut assembly does not move Figure 17-31. This MacPherson strut assembly pivots in a slotted
as the nuts are tightened. In a similar design, one bolt hole to allow front camber to be set. Loosen the nuts just enough to
pivots in the top of the strut tower, while the other moves allow for adjustment. Torque the nuts to specifications after alignment.

342   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 342 31-08-2023 06:50:39

 Dust cap Strut tool
Fender
bolt

MacPherson strut MacPherson strut

assembly upper mounting

Strut
tower Fender

Slot for camber Nuts

adjustment
MacPherson strut Strut tool
upper mounting

Steering
knuckle

LE
Hunter

Figure 17-32. A MacPherson strut assembly attached to the steering

knuckle. Note the lower slot for front wheel camber adjustment.

Adjusting nut

Camber Adjustment
Strut
rod
P Lexus
MacPherson strut
upper mounting
Strut
tool
M
Figure 17-33. Adjusting front wheel caster by moving the strut
rod (bar) in or out with the aid of adjustment nuts.

Caster Adjustment
General Motors
A

Figure 17-35. Adjusting camber and caster by moving the

MacPherson strut’s upper mounting in the strut tower with a special tool.
Strut rod
tower mounting holes on the body may have to be cut or
Lower Spacer filed to create a slot. Figure 17‑36 shows a template for
control cutting slots in the strut tower sheet metal. If the slots
S

arm
must be created in the strut tower, remove the tower nuts
and lower the strut assembly enough to prevent damage
Bottom View to the mounting studs.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher A few vehicles are designed so that the strut assem-
bly can be rotated to change caster and camber in one
Figure 17-34. Adjusting front wheel caster with a strut rod
spacer. The spacers are installed where the strut rod connects to the operation. Start the adjustment procedure by deciding
lower control arm. how the strut assembly should be turned to obtain the
correct camber and caster. Then remove the nuts and
On some vehicles, the caster and camber are adjusted lower the strut until the upper mounting studs are below
by moving the MacPherson strut’s upper mounting in the holes in the strut tower. Turn the strut until the
the strut tower. See Figure 17‑35. Loosen the nuts hold- studs line up with the proper holes. Then raise the strut
ing the strut’s upper mounting to the strut tower. Then assembly, reinstall the nuts, and torque the fasteners to
slide the strut’s upper mounting forward or backward to specification. Note that the adjustment is limited and
adjust caster, and in or out to adjust camber. The strut that only four strut assembly positions are possible.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   343

328-352_ch17.indd 343 31-08-2023 06:50:40

 moving the rear of the upper control arm outward
moves the upper ball joint forward and makes caster
more negative, Figure 17‑37. However, it also moves the
ball joint outward, making camber more positive. Some
control arms are designed with the ball joint off-center,
as in Figure 17‑38. Adjusting one end of the control arm
has more effect on the camber, while adjusting the other
end has more effect on caster.
On older rear-wheel-drive domestic cars and current
light trucks, shims are used at both the front and rear
of the upper control arms. See Figure 17‑39. To make
adjustments on these vehicles, loosen the bolts holding
the pivot bar to the frame. Then add or remove shims
as necessary. In many cases, adding or removing a shim
from one side of the control arm adjusts camber and

LE
caster in one step. Shim thickness varies widely, from
1/32″ (0.8 mm) up to about 1/4″ (6.4 mm). This wide vari-
ety in shim sizes makes exact adjustment possible.

A Tech Tip
It is not necessary to use new shims during every alignment.
Used shims can be saved and reused.

P Upper
control
Ball joint
M
arm

Top
Front of
tire

Hunter
A

Strut bolts Template

B Figure 17-37. Moving the rear of the upper control arm outboard
Perfect Equipment Corp. on the vehicle moves the upper ball joint forward, producing a
Figure 17-36. A—A caster/camber template used to mark the negative caster change.
body at the top of the strut tower for drilling proper alignment holes.
B—The template is set in position on the top of the strut tower for
S

marking and drilling.

Frame
Shims
Camber and Caster—Conventional Suspensions FRONT
On most vehicles with conventional suspensions, camber
and caster adjustments are made at the upper or lower
control arm. There are three main ways of adjusting the Convex
position of the control arm: shims, slotted holes, and Upper washers
eccentric cams. control
On vehicles that use a wishbone or A-arm–type arm

control arm, caster and camber can be adjusted at the Centerline of

same time. Since caster and camber adjustments affect Offset upper control arm
each other, caster and camber should be checked and ball joint
adjusted together. The technician must calculate the Hunter

change made to both caster and camber. For instance, Figure 17-38. An upper control arm with an off-center ball joint.

344   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 344 31-08-2023 06:50:41

 Locknuts loosen the attaching bolts. Then move the control arm
Shims
using a special tool, Figure 17‑41, or a large pry bar.
Often, moving only one side of the control arm will
accomplish the alignment. If the control arm will not
move, loosen the bolt on the side to be moved and
try again.
Pivot bar

Frame Caution
Do not loosen the bolts any more than necessary to move
Upper control the control arm. The arm will slip and the alignment will
arm
have to be started over. If one side cannot be moved without
backing off the bolt, be sure to retighten the bolt before
trying to move the other side.

LE
Once the control arm is positioned correctly, tighten
Hunter
the mounting bolts securely. Then recheck camber and
caster.
Figure 17-39. Decreasing caster by moving a rear shim to the
Some vehicles have eccentrics at the control arm
opposite side. A 1/16″ shim creates about 1/2° of caster change on
this assembly. bushings for adjustments. These eccentrics are generally
located on the upper control arm, Figure 17‑42. On a few
Shim opening sizes vary according to the size of the vehicles, the eccentrics are located on the lower control
attaching bolts. Be sure to use the right shim. A shim arm. To make the adjustment, loosen the control arm
with a small opening will not fit over the attaching bolt bolt and turn the eccentric as necessary. Then retighten
P
properly; a shim that is too loose will vibrate out under
normal operation. If the shims are difficult to reach or
keep in place, hold them in place with grease. Be sure to
place the shims completely down over the bolt. Improp-
erly installed shims can work their way out as the vehicle
the bolt and recheck caster and camber.

Tech Tip
As you gain experience, you will learn how to move adjusters
M
operates. After the right number of shims have been to get the desired caster and camber with a minimum of
installed, tighten the bolts securely and recheck camber time and effort. Until you develop that experience, you may
and caster. need to make adjustments several times to get a perfect
Another upper control arm alignment method uses alignment.
slotted holes in the vehicle’s frame or control arm,
Figure 17‑40. To adjust this type of control arm, slightly
Special
A

alignment
Upper tools
control
arm
Bolt
S

Inner shaft
Slotted
holes

Frame
Frame

Upper control arm

FMC Perfect Circle

Figure 17-40. Upper control arm alignment on this vehicle is Figure 17-41. Special control arm alignment tools being placed
provided by slotted holes in the frame. The two bolts are loosened, into position. This control arm also uses slotted holes in the frame
allowing the control arm to be correctly aligned. The bolts are then for alignment. The two tools will move the control arm and the inner
torqued to specifications. shaft easily.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   345

328-352_ch17.indd 345 31-08-2023 06:50:41

 Eccentric cam
Control arm and bolt
mounting
bracket Socket

Eccentric cam
and bolt Upper
control
arm
Ratchet
wrench
Sleeve tool Axle

Frame
Steering
knuckle

FMC

LE
Figure 17-42. This upper control arm is properly aligned using
dual eccentric cams.

Camber and Caster—Trucks with Solid Axles

Some older light trucks use a solid or twin I-beam front
Positive Positive Negative Negative
axle, and there are no provisions for adjusting caster and camber caster camber caster
camber. The only way to adjust caster and camber on
these trucks is to replace the upper ball joint bushing with
a special eccentric bushing, or sleeve. See Figure 17‑43.

Tech Tip
P
On some large trucks with solid axles, caster alignment can be
adjusted by bending the axle. However, this can only be done
at a shop equipped with heavy-duty bending equipment.
Front of vehicle view from top of spindle (right side)
Specialty Equipment Corp.

Figure 17-43. Adjusting caster and camber using special

M
eccentric bushings. The bushings are also called sleeves.

Before installing one of these bushings, calculate the

amount of caster and camber change needed. Then con-
sult the correct service information table to select the
needed bushing. A typical bushing application table is Camber and/or Caster
shown in Figure 17‑44. Alignment Sleeves
A

To install the eccentric bushing, remove the alignment

Total Change of
head and wheel. Then remove the upper ball joint nut
Sleeve Number Quantity Camber and/or Caster
from the ball joint. Pry up on the old bushing to remove
23001 (7979-1/8) 1 each 0.13″ (1/8″)
it. Install the eccentric bushing over the ball joint. Before
reinstalling the nut, make sure the eccentric bushing is 23002 (7979-1/4) 1 each 0.25″ (1/4″)
turned in the right direction. Then reinstall the ball joint 23003 (7979-3/8) 1 each 0.38″ (3/8″)
S

nut and a new cotter pin. Reinstall the wheel and the 23004 (7979-1/2) 1 each 0.50″ (1/2″)
alignment head, and recheck caster and camber. 23005 (7979-5/8) 1 each 0.63″ (5/8″)
On some trucks, the bushing can be turned after
23006 (7979-3/4) 1 each 0.75″ (3/4″)
installation. If you are not sure about the exact place-
ment of the bushing, install the nut loosely so it can be 23007 (7979-7/8) 1 each 0.88″ (7/8″)
turned after the wheel and alignment head are rein- 23008 (7979-1) 1 each 1.00″
stalled. Turn the bushing as necessary, then tighten the 23009 (7979-1 1/8) 1 each 1.13″ (1-1/8″)
nut and install a new cotter pin. 23010 (7979-1 1/4) 1 each 1.25″ (1-1/4″)

Toe—All Vehicles 23011 (7979-1 3/8) 1 each 1.38″ (1-3/8″)

Toe-in is the most important alignment setting for tire 23012 (7979-1 1/2) 1 each 1.5″ (1-1/2″)
life. Incorrect toe can also cause poor handling. An Specialty Equipment Corp.
extreme toe-in or toe-out condition is the only alignment Figure 17-44. A table listing camber and/or caster alignment
problem that can cause vibration, although this rarely sleeves. Part number and degree of alignment are also shown.

346   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 346 31-08-2023 06:50:41

 happens. The toe must be set correctly or adjusting the
Tie rod locknut
other alignment settings is a waste of time.
To set the toe, start the vehicle’s engine to reduce
turning effort. Then turn the steering wheel from side
Tie rod
to side. Center the wheel and install the steering wheel
holder. Turn the ignition switch to the locked position. Wrench

Tech Tip
Carefully position the steering wheel before installing the
steering wheel holder. If the steering wheel is not centered
correctly, it will be crooked when the vehicle is driven.
General Motors
Next, observe the toe readings on each side and decide Figure 17-46. Loosening a tie rod locknut used with a
what must be done to correct it. If centering the steering rack-and-pinion steering assembly.
wheel causes the wheels to be severely toed to one side,

LE
the steering wheel may be improperly installed. vehicles have an adjustment on only one side of the linkage.
Never attempt to adjust the toe to compensate for an If there is only one sleeve, the steering wheel cannot be cen-
incorrectly installed steering wheel. If the tie rod adjust- tered without removing the wheel. Always explain this to
ers are moved excessively, they can cause the tie rod the vehicle owner before beginning the alignment.
ends to bind. The lock bolts used on sleeve-type adjust- Some vehicles have two sleeves: one for adjusting toe
ers may contact the body and cause the steering to jam. and one for centering the steering wheel. A vehicle with
If the tie rods are turned too far out, there may not be this adjustment design is shown in Figure 17‑47. When
enough threads left to allow the tie rod locknuts or bolts adjusting this type of vehicle, always set the toe first,
to be properly tightened. The steering linkage may come and then center the steering wheel.

there are no bent parts. Also make sure that someone

P
apart when the vehicle is driven, causing an accident.
If the steering wheel is off by more than about 1/8 of
a turn (45°), check the steering linkage to ensure that

else has not misadjusted the toe or that a steering com-

Warning
Note how many turns of the sleeve or rod are needed to adjust
the toe. If many turns are needed, make sure the rods or
sleeves are not too far out of the mating parts to hold properly.
ponent has not been improperly installed. If there are
M
All threaded steering parts should be threaded into their
no serious problems, it can usually be assumed that the mating parts by about 1″ (25 mm), or at least eight threads.
steering wheel was improperly installed in the past. In
this situation, it is usually easier and safer to reposition Many technicians prefer to center the steering wheel
the steering wheel than to change the alignment. again once toe has been set. This is especially useful
Loosen the tie rod adjusting sleeve clamp bolts, when the toe has been changed a great deal. If the toe
Figure 17‑45, or the tie rod locknuts, Figure 17-46. If the is now different on each side, reset it as necessary. If the
A

vehicle has a metal bar preventing sleeve movement, loosen toe is still equal on both sides, tighten the sleeve bolts or
its clamp or bend it out of the way. This bar is used during locknuts as applicable.
vehicle assembly and does not have to be reinstalled.
Adjust toe by turning the sleeves or rods to obtain Adjusting
sleeve
exactly half the needed toe on each wheel. If the toe is not Adjusting sleeve
for centering
divided exactly, the steering wheel will not be straight. Some Front
S

steering wheel Pitman

axle arm
Adjusting Clamp
sleeve
Drag link
Tie rod
Tie rod
tube
Steering
damper
Steering
arm
Adjusting sleeve Tie rod end
clamp bolts and nuts Moog
Ford
Figure 17-47. A four-wheel-drive front axle and steering linkage
Figure 17-45. Loosen the clamp bolts on the tie rod assembly’s arrangement. Note the two adjusting sleeves: one for toe and one
adjusting sleeve. for centering the steering wheel.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   347

328-352_ch17.indd 347 31-08-2023 06:50:42

 It is advisable to torque the fasteners to the factory alignment rack, make sure the turn plates are not locked
specifications. Some vehicles with conventional steering and place the steering wheel in the centered position.
have a specific location for the tie rod adjusting sleeve Install the steering wheel lock.
clamp bolts, Figure 17‑48. If the bolts are not placed in Raise the vehicle to a comfortable working height
this position, they could contact other suspension, steer- and loosen the toe adjuster locknuts or lock bolts at the
ing, or underbody parts. On any vehicle, make sure the tie rods. Be sure not to move the adjusters themselves.
bolts cannot contact any part of the underbody. Sight down the front and rear of the outside sidewall
of one front tire. Then sight down the outside of the
other front tire. One tire will appear to be toed-in and
Warning the other will appear to be toed-out. Turn each adjuster
A loose fastener or an incorrectly positioned sleeve can the same amount until both tires are straight ahead. For
cause the steering to disconnect or jam, contributing to an instance, if the right adjuster is turned out 1/4 turn, the
accident. Double check the torque of all fasteners and the left adjuster should be moved 1/4 turn.
position of all parts before removing the vehicle from the
alignment rack.
Caution

LE
It is very important that the adjusters be turned the same
amount to move each tire the same amount in the same
direction. If the adjusters are not moved the same amount,
toe will change.

Tire position can be determined by sighting down the

outside sidewall of each front tire. The front tires are
straight when sighting down the front and rear sidewall

Tie rod adjusting sleeve’s

clamps and bolts
P allows you to see the outer sidewall of the rear tire. Once
the tires appear to be pointed straight ahead, remove the
steering wheel lock and turn the wheel from side to side
several times. Then center the steering wheel and sight
down the tire sidewalls again. Readjust the tire position
M
if necessary. Once both tires are straight, retighten the
adjuster locknuts. Lower the vehicle and road test to
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher determine whether the steering wheel is straight. If the
Figure 17‑48. The clamps and bolts are positioned in a specific steering wheel is still not centered, repeat the centering
location on this tie rod adjusting sleeve so they do not contact other procedure as needed.
suspension and steering parts installed at the vehicle’s front wheel.
Setting Steering Angle Sensor Zero Point
A

Centering the Steering Many vehicles with electric motor-driven power steer-
ing must have the steering angle sensor (sometimes
Wheel After Alignment called the position sensor or torque sensor) recalibrated.
This is usually called setting the zero point, and is
often necessary after steering part replacement and/or
Tech Tip suspension alignment. Need for zero point setting is
S

If the steering wheel is not centered after the toe has been indicated if the vehicle steering effort varies between
set, it can be tempting to easily remove the steering wheel sides or after replacement of the following steering
and reposition it to look straight. This technique will cause system parts:
modern vehicles to set multiple diagnostic trouble codes,
• Rack-and-pinion assembly
including steering angle sensor issues, ABS codes, and even
• Steering column, and/or steering angle sensor
turn signal issues. Follow manufacturer’s procedures outlined
in the vehicle’s service information for proper service. • Power steering ECM
• Steering wheel

After the toe has been set, you will sometimes find that Tech Tip
the steering wheel is slightly off-center when the vehicle On some vehicles, the zero point calibration is performed
is driven in a straight line. To straighten the steering automatically when the ECM or steering angle sensor has
wheel without affecting toe, first drive the vehicle back been replaced.
onto the alignment rack. Once the vehicle is back on the

348   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 348 14-09-2023 11:03:45

 Zero point resetting procedures vary between manu- the ignition switch off and disconnect the scan tool.
facturers. Most setting procedures require a scan tool Road test the vehicle to ensure that steering effort is
capable of reading steering angle sensor input and equal in both directions. Make sure that the steering
changing the sensor zero point. Make sure that the scan system warning light is off. If necessary, reconnect
tool that you are planning to use has the software to set the scan tool and check that no trouble codes have been
zero point, Figure 17‑49. reset.
A general procedure for setting zero point with a
scan tool begins with setting the steering wheel to the
center position and ensuring that the front wheels point
Performing the Final
straight ahead. Some vehicles must be set after the wheel Alignment Check
has been centered as part of a wheel alignment. In this After making all adjustments, recheck front and rear
case, perform the rest of the zero point setting procedure alignment. Rear camber and toe should be correct and
with the vehicle on the alignment rack. Once the steering equal on both sides. Front camber and caster should be
wheel is in the straight-ahead position, do not move it within specifications, with an allowance for road crown.
until the procedure is completed. The steering wheel should be in the centered position

LE
Next, ensure that the ignition switch is in the Off with the front wheels pointed straight ahead. All fasten-
position and connect the scan tool. Then turn the ers should be torqued to specifications.
ignition switch to the On position or start the engine
if called for by the procedure. Follow scan tool direc-
tions to allow the power steering ECM to recognize the
Removing the Vehicle From
steering angle sensor and recalibrate the zero position. the Alignment Rack
The prompts on the scan tool screen may ask you to If your alignment machine is equipped with a printer,
perform certain steps to finish the zero point calibra- make a printout of the alignment settings after all
tion process. Once the zero position has been set, turn checks, adjustments, and rechecks are made. The print-
out should show the alignment before and after adjust-
P ment. Remove the alignment heads from wheels and
reinstall the wheel covers if necessary. Remove the brake
pedal lock and the steering wheel lock. If the vehicle
is equipped with an electronic suspension, follow the
manufacturer’s procedures for unlocking the suspen-
M
sion. Lower the rack to the floor; then carefully drive
the vehicle off the alignment rack.

Road Testing the Vehicle

Perform a final road test when the wheel alignment is
finished. This road test does not have to be extensive,
A

but it should be long enough to ensure that the align-

ment is correct and the vehicle does not have any other
suspension and steering problems.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
After alignment, the vehicle should not pull during
acceleration or braking. It should track well, without
Figure 17‑49. Scan tools, such as the one shown here, are used
excessive wander. The suspension should not make any
S

by technicians to diagnose late-model vehicles and operate using

sophisticated software capable of interacting with the vehicle’s noise. The steering wheel should be centered when driv-
complex electrical system and electronic sensors, control modules, ing straight ahead. If the vehicle exhibits any problem,
cameras, and other devices. return it to the alignment rack and recheck alignment.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   349

328-352_ch17.indd 349 14-09-2023 11:04:11

 Chapter 17 Review and Assessment
SUMMARY • To adjust wheel alignment angles, begin by
adjusting the camber and toe on the rear axle
• A wheel alignment is performed by moving vari-
according to the vehicle manufacturer’s procedure.
ous parts of the suspension and steering systems to Typical rear camber and toe adjusting devices are
obtain the proper relationship between the wheels, eccentric cams, slotted holes, and threaded rods.
the road, and the vehicle’s body. Incorrect alignment On some vehicles, the camber and toe can be set
can cause handling problems, difficult steering, pull- with shims.
ing, wandering, and rapid tire wear. • Set the front alignment angles according to the vehi-
• To perform a wheel alignment, the technician com- cle manufacturer’s procedure after setting the rear
pletes a series of pre-alignment checks, sets up the alignment angles. Not all alignment adjustments can
vehicle properly with the alignment equipment, uses be made on all vehicles. Never bend or weld suspen-
the alignment machine to determine the vehicle’s

LE
sion or steering parts for alignment.
alignment angles, and then moves the adjusting • Typical MacPherson strut vehicle adjusting devices
devices to correct the alignment as needed. Some are eccentric cams, threaded rods, and slots in the
angles can only be adjusted by changing parts. body at the top of the strut tower. Conventional
Today, most vehicle manufacturers recommend four- suspensions use eccentric cams, shims, or slots at
wheel alignments. the control arm. On some trucks with solid axles,
• Wheel alignment equipment includes alignment caster and camber can be adjusted using eccentric
racks with turning plates. Modern alignment bushings.
machines are computer operated and use sensing • Before adjusting toe, turn the steering wheel from
devices (called alignment heads or target boards) side to side. Center it and install the steering wheel
mounted on every wheel. P holder. Then loosen the tie rod adjusting sleeve bolts
• Before performing a wheel alignment, ask questions or tie rod locknuts. Adjust toe by turning the sleeves
to the vehicle owner to determine why the vehicle or rods to obtain half the needed toe on each wheel.
was brought in for an alignment. Road test the Some vehicles have only an adjuster and the steering
vehicle before beginning the alignment. Listen, look, wheel cannot be straightened. Other vehicles have
and feel for road wander, unusual noises, pulling,
M
separate adjustments for toe and centering the steer-
hard steering effort, excessive road shocks, and other ing wheel.
handling problems. • After making all adjustments, recheck front- and
• Once you have gathered information from the vehicle rear-wheel alignment. Check that fasteners are
owner and the road test, drive the vehicle onto the tightened to specifications and that suspension and
alignment rack. Raise the wheels and check for worn steering parts are positioned accurately before con-
parts. Also, inspect all tires for damage. Check the sidering the alignment complete. Then remove the
A

ride height and look for signs of underbody damage. alignment heads from the wheels and reinstall the
• To set up the vehicle for wheel alignment, the wheels wheel covers. Remove the brake pedal and steering
must be free to turn and the vehicle must be at its locks and back the vehicle carefully from the align-
correct curb weight. After obtaining alignment ment rack. Make a final road test when the wheel
specifications, install the alignment heads or target alignment is finished. If a problem is found, recheck
boards. If necessary, remove the wheel cover locks the alignment.
S

and wheel covers; then clamp the head to the rim

and compensate it.
• Lower the vehicle on the alignment rack, making REVIEW QUESTIONS
sure the turning plates are centered under the wheels.
Answer the following questions using the information
Next, center the steering wheel and lock the brakes.
provided in this chapter.
Bounce the vehicle to place it in its resting position.
• After all pre-alignment steps have been taken,
check camber, caster, and toe. On most alignment Know and Understand
machines, the display will show front and rear cam- 1. True or False? Since most vehicles today are front-
ber and toe automatically once the alignment heads wheel drive and have provisions for adjusting
have been compensated. Follow the manufacturer’s the alignment angles of the rear wheels, vehicle
instructions to measure caster. Also, check SAI and manufacturers recommend four-wheel alignments
toe-out on turns, if necessary. on late-model vehicles.

350   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 350 31-08-2023 06:50:43

 2. What is the purpose of the alignment rack turning 8. All of the following factory devices are used to
plates? adjust rear wheel camber and toe, except:
A. They measure the driver’s steering effort. A. eccentric cams.
B. They lock the angle of the rear wheels so the B. threaded rods.
front wheels can be aligned for correct dog C. inflatable capsules.
tracking. D. slotted holes.
C. They allow the front wheels to be turned for 9. If a vehicle has an A-arm–type upper control arm,
measuring caster and allow the wheels to move which two alignment angles can be adjusted by
outward to settle the vehicle’s suspension at its moving only one side of the control arm?
normal ride height after the vehicle is lowered. A. Setback and toe.
D. They allow the front wheel and tire assemblies B. Caster and camber.
to be removed without lifting the vehicle. C. Steering axis inclination and thrust angle.
3. Sensing devices mounted on the vehicle’s wheels D. Scrub radius and toe.
that allow the alignment machine to measure 10. True or False? As part of a final alignment
alignment angles are called alignment _____. check, the technician should road test the vehicle

LE
A. heads or target boards and prepare a printout of the alignment angles
B. mirrors before and after the alignment to show the vehicle
C. crowns owner.
D. gauges
4. Which of the following checks is not performed as
part of a pre-alignment inspection? Apply and Analyze
A. Checking for worn or damaged suspension and 1. Compared to other lift types, what are two
steering system parts. alignment rack features that are necessary to
B. Checking the vehicle’s braking distance on wet perform a wheel alignment?
pavement. P 2. When checking ride height, what factors should
C. Checking the wheel and tire assemblies for the technician take into consideration to ensure an
wear and damage. accurate measurement?
D. Checking the vehicle’s underbody for damage 3. Why should a pre-alignment check be performed
and setback. before every vehicle wheel alignment?
5. Installing a brake pedal depressor to lock the 4. Why is it not recommended to straighten a steering
M
vehicle’s brakes prevents excessive wheel movement wheel after a wheel alignment by removing it and
when _____ is being checked. repositioning straight ahead?
A. caster 5. Why should the rear of the vehicle be aligned
B. thrust angle before the front during a four-wheel alignment?
C. ride height
D. tire tread condition
Critical Thinking
A

6. Which of the following alignment angles will not be

shown on the alignment machine’s display as soon 1. A vehicle owner brings their vehicle to the shop
as the alignment heads are compensated? and requests a four-wheel alignment. After the
A. Front camber. technician successfully aligns the vehicle, the
B. Front caster. customer returns the next day complaining that
C. Rear camber. the vehicle still “pulls to the right.” What other
S

D. Rear toe. things should the technician check to solve the

7. Toe-out on turns can be changed by _____. issue?
A. adjusting toe inward 2. A vehicle drifts excessively to the right while
B. adjusting toe outward driving on roads that are known to have road
C. adjusting SAI crown. What can the technician do to help correct
D. changing steering arms the unwanted condition?

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Chapter 17 Wheel Alignment Procedures   351

328-352_ch17.indd 351 31-08-2023 06:50:43

 ASE-Type Questions
1. Each of the following statements about wheel 6. If the tires squeal excessively during vehicle
alignment are true, except: cornering, what should be checked?
A. alignment angles without factory adjustments A. Caster.
can be adjusted by bending suspension parts. B. Camber.
B. a change in one alignment angle can alter the C. Included angle.
others. D. Toe-out on turns.
C. normal vehicle use can cause alignment angles 7. To install a full-contact rear shim during
to change. rear-wheel alignment, all the following must be
D. the vehicle must be realigned anytime that a removed, except:
suspension or steering part is changed. A. brake drum or rotor.
2. An alignment machine’s high-resolution digital B. bearing housing.
cameras monitor the _____ of the alignment target C. rear strut.

LE
boards installed on the vehicle’s wheels. D. bearing housing bolts.
A. included angle 8. Adjusting camber and caster at the front suspension
B. temperature strut towers is being discussed. Technician A
C. position and orientation says that some MacPherson strut assemblies are
D. rotational speed adjusted by moving the position of their upper
3. Technician A says that ride height does not affect mounting in the strut tower. Technician B says
alignment readings. Technician B says that some that some MacPherson strut assemblies must be
vehicle manufacturers specify that weight be added loosened, lowered, and turned to make adjustments.
to the vehicle before alignment. Who is correct? Who is correct?
A. A only. P A. A only.
B. B only. B. B only.
C. Both A and B. C. Both A and B.
D. Neither A nor B. D. Neither A nor B.
4. Why must a technician use rolling compensation 9. The only alignment angle that can cause vibration
when performing a four-wheel alignment on some if it is severely misaligned is _____.
M
alignment machines? A. caster
A. To detect and compensate for any irregularities B. camber
or runout the vehicle’s rims may have. C. toe
B. To detect vehicles that use a different size of D. steering axis inclination
tire on the front and rear axles. 10. Technician A says that tie rods should be adjusted
C. To check that the vehicle’s tires are all inflated to obtain the same amount of toe on each side of
A

to the manufacturer’s specification. the vehicle. Technician B says that tie rods can be
D. To measure vehicle braking distance. rotated to compensate for an improperly installed
5. Technician A says that most alignment equipment steering wheel. Who is correct?
manufacturers specify that the alignment heads A. A only.
be locked into position (unable to pivot on the B. B only.
mounting frame) when checking caster. Technician B C. Both A and B.
S

says that steering axis inclination cannot be checked D. Neither A nor B.

on vehicles equipped with MacPherson strut front
suspensions. Who is correct?
A. A only.
B. B only.
C. Both A and B.
D. Neither A nor B.

352   Auto Suspension and Steering Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

328-352_ch17.indd 352 31-08-2023 06:50:43