MOBILE COMMUNICATION LECTURE MATERIAL
Introduction to Cellular Technology
Cellular technology is a generic term for all wireless phones, regardless of the
technology they use; the term derives from cellular base stations that receive and
transmit calls. The strategically placed base stations have limited, usually
overlapping coverage areas (cells) that serve to connect mobile, usually small
handheld radio transceivers to the public switched telephone network. The station
has a 360-degree omni directional antenna (except when directional transmissions
are required) that is tuned to create a cellular area of a specific size.
Cellular systems are described in multiple generations, with third- and fourth-
generation (3G and 4G) systems just emerging:
(a) 1G systems These are the analog systems such as AMPS that grew rapidly
in the 1980s and are still available today. Many metropolitan areas have a mix
of 1G and 2G systems, as well as emerging 3G systems. The systems employ
frequency division multiplexing
(b) 2G systems These second-generation systems are digital, and use either
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) or CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access) access methods. The 2G digital services began appearing in the late
1980s, providing expanded capacity and unique services such as caller ID, call
1
forwarding, and short messaging. A critical feature was seamless roaming,
which lets subscribers move across provider boundaries.
(c) 3G systems 3G has become an umbrella term to describe cellular data
communications with a target data rate of 2 Mbits/sec. A global standard was
difficult to implement due to different frequency allocations around the world
and conflicting input. So, three operating modes were specified. According to
Nokia, a 3G device will be a personal, mobile, multimedia communications
device that supports speech, color pictures, and video, and various kinds of
information content.
(d) 4G Systems On the horizon are 4G systems that may become available even
before 3G matures (3G is a confusing mix of standards). While 3G is
important in boosting the number of wireless calls, 4G will offer true high-
speed data services. 4G data rates will be in the 2-Mbit/sec to 156-Mbit/sec
range, and possibly higher. 4G will also fully support IP.
Multiple Access
In order to allow several users access the network, a type of multiple access scheme
has to be agreed upon. The main multiple access schemes in use are: FDMA, TDMA
and CDMA.
(a) FDMA - Frequency division multiple access
The available bandwidth is divided into specific frequencies that are assigned
to individual calls. These channels are non-overlapping.
Time
1 2 .. N
Freque ncy
Advantages:
▪ Simple hardware with band pass filters to isolate users.
▪ No timing or synchronization is necessary.
▪ Equalisers not required since narrow band.
Problems:
▪ Simple hardware with band pass filters to isolate users.
▪ Very good cut off characteristics required for band filters.
▪ Limited capacity utilisation since channel sits idle when not in use.
2
▪ Guard band decrease capacity.
▪ Hardware cost (duplexers).
(b) TDMA – Time division multiple access
The time of accessing the network is split into time slots such that users are
assigned specific slots when accessing the network.
Time
...
2
1
Frequency
Advantages:
▪ No need for duplexers.
▪ Flexible bit rate.
▪ Bandwidth efficient: No guard bands between channels.
Problems:
▪ High data rate transmission requires equalisation.
▪ Guard and synchronization require large overheads.
(c) Hybrid TDMA/FDMA
This is a combination of both TDMA and FDMA schemes. In this scheme,
each user is assigned a time slot in a frequency channel.
Commonly used in Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
networks.
Time
Freque nc y
3
(d) CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access.
Sometimes referred as Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA), is
implemented by allowing one user access to the entire bandwidth. To achieve this
we use Spread spectrum (SS) technique where the bandwidth of the information
signal is enlarged to cover the entire channel bandwidth by spreading the user
information using a uniquely assigned code.
Time
Freque nc y
e
cod
Applications:
▪ Anti-jamming as a SS is difficult to jam.
▪ Ranging by measuring the distance from signal transmission time.
▪ Secure communications since SS is hard to detect.
Types
▪ Frequency-Hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA):
o User given unique frequency sequence when transmitting.
o No two users transmit using the same band at the same time.
▪ Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA):
o The allocated frequency band is shared between multiple users.
o To separate users, each is modulated using a unique high data rate
code sequence. Codes used are orthogonal – uncorrelated.
Cellular standards
(a) AMPS - Advanced Mobile Phone System
Based on:
▪ Analog FM modulation.
▪ RF bandwidth 30 kHz. The band can accommodate 832 duplex channels,
among which 21 are reserved for call setup, and the rest for voice
communication.
(b) PCS – Personal Communication service
▪ A 1900 MHz version of AMPS has been developed, which allows dual-
band/dual-mode 800/1900 MHz systems.
▪ Allows operators to provide identical PCS applications and services in
both bands.
▪ Seamless inter-working between 800 and 1900 MHz networks is possible
through dual-band/dual mode mobile stations.
4
(c) DECT - Digital Enhanced (former European) Cordless Telecommunications.
▪ Is an ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) standard
for digital portable phones, commonly used for domestic or corporate
purposes.
▪ DECT can also be used for wireless data transfers of about 23kbit/s
▪ Operates in the 1900MHz frequency range.
▪ DECT is (like GSM) a cellular system. A major difference between the
systems is the cell radius — DECT cells have a radius of 25 to 100 meters,
while GSM cells are 2 to 10 km..
Applications:
• Domestic DECTs are connected to a base (radio fixed parts) connected to the
PSTN. A base can accept more DECT handsets.
• Business DECTs connected to PBX.
• Public DECT connected to the PSTN (very rare). An high density alternative to
GSM.
• Local loop (very rare). In this case, a DECT radio link replaces the normally
wired connection between the final PSTN distribution points to the subscriber.
(d) IS-54 and IS-136 (Digital AMPS)
▪ IS-54 is the standard for the digital version of the US AMPS system.
▪ Recently IS-54 has been replaced by the IS-136 standard.
▪ The system uses hybrid FDMA/TDMA and accepts 3 users per carrier.
▪ The carrier spacing 30 kHz, similar to the analog AMPS. Thus, assuming that the
analog and digital system use the same frequency reuse pattern, the digital version
can accommodate three times more users.
▪ Carrier frequencies are in the 800 and 1900 MHz bands.
▪ Channel bit rate is 48.6 kbit/s
(e) PHS - Personal Handy phone System.
▪ The personal handy-phone system service began in Tokyo, Sapporo, and
other major cities in July 1995.
▪ The PHS gained instant popularity after its introduction owing to its lower
cost compared to cellular phones, and the expansion of the service network is
expected to make PHS phones even more competitive.
▪ The PHS was developed from the same technology used in cordless phones;
signals were digitalized, and the handsets were built to be used outside the
home.
▪ The PHS signal is weaker than that of cellular phones, however, and the
phones cannot be used in moving vehicles.
5
▪ An advantage of the PHS, though, is that relay stations are relatively easy
and inexpensive to install, and the lower costs have led to phone rates that are
just a fifth of the rates charged for cellular phones
The SIM – the Subscriber Identity Module.
▪ Conceived in 1988 as an authentication module with a limited amount of memory.
▪ Today it is the service platform for the operator, enabling differentiation and the
provision of value added services.
▪ The SIM contains the individual subscriber identity, the authentication algorithm
and related keys for network access, together with other security functions such as
the PIN, which was first introduced in 1991.
▪ Initial capacity was 8 kB with a 4-bit processor. Today have chips of 128 kB.
With a 16-bit or 32 –bit processor, or even 512kB memory.
▪ With the advent of 3G, the SIM has evolved to become the ‘USIM’ (the Universal
Subscriber Identity Module). The USIM application provides features which
equip it to play a key role in crucial aspects of 3G such as managing security
access, virus intrusion, customer profiles, mutual authentication, downloading and
a new phonebook allowing the management of additional information such as fax
numbers and e-mail addresses. The USIM will also have the ability to store
applications for network services, offering, for example, pre-paid service
activation and control, information services, directory services, mobile banking
and ticketing.
▪ The smart card allows users access to global roaming irrespective of the radio
access technology used. It is able to contain multiple applications, allowing
smooth roaming and inter working between different services and networks,
whether GSM, the new Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA) or
other networks; the handset will be able to access a portfolio of services and
applications available to users via their user profiles.
▪ To see the messages sent between the phone and the network when you are using
the SIM services, select Settings > Phone settings > Confirm SIM service actions
> Yes. Accessing these services may involve sending a text message or making a
phone call for which you may be charged.
6
GSM Cellular Network Architecture
2.1 Introduction
• Early 1980s several different systems for mobile communications were developed
in Europe.
• To allow roaming in several Europeans countries, in 1982 a group was formed
called ``Groupe Speciale Mobile'' (GSM) to develop a common standard which
was fully digital.
• Thus the creation of GSM which literally means (Global System for Mobile
communications).
• It is a 2G system applying TDMA/FDMA access methods.
• Today GSM is the largest system for mobile communications in the world, and
exist on all continents.
2.2 Types of cells
• A cell is defined as the area in which one can communicate with a certain base
station. In other words, the cell is related to the BTS. Commonest is heaxagonal.
• A location area is the area associated with one VLR. On networks where there is
a one-one mapping between MSCs and VLRS, the location area corresponds to
the area controlled by one MSC.
Different cell-types can be classified according to their coverage dimension as indicated
in the table below:
Table: Different cell-types
Cell type Antenna location Cell Dimension (km)
Large macrocell Above rooftop level 3-30
Small macrocell Above rooftop level 1-3
Microcell Below or about rooftop level 0.1-1
Picocell Below rooftop level 0.01-1
Nanocell Below rooftop level 0.01-0.001
2.3 Cluster
A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster. Figure
below illustrates a seven-cell cluster.
7
In planning GSM, a country is divided into clusters each consisting of seven cells
(commonest).
2.4 The GSM Network
2.4.1 Introduction
▪ Global System for Mobile communication.
▪ Use hybrid FDMA-TDMA scheme.
▪ GSM frequencies:
o GSM900 – 900MHZ
o GSM1800 - 1800MHZ
o GSM 2100 MHZ (3GHZ)
o GSM 700 MHZ (4GHZ)
▪ Cell sizes from 100m to 35 km(depends on density, geography, transceiver
power)
▪ Consists of a number of separate entities as shown in the figure below with
interface indicated.
2.4.2 BSS - Base Station Subsystem
a) MS-Mobile Station
➢ Subscriber unit which consists of two main elements.
ME (Mobile Equipment):
▪ Is the user equipment (cellular phone).
▪ Different models and types exist due to varying manufacturers.
▪ Are network independent.
▪ Identified by an IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity), which can
be obtained by the network upon request. (Behind phones)
▪ Without the SIM, calls can be made to emergency numbers only. (112 / 999)
SIM (Subscriber Identity Module):
▪ Refer to chapter 1.
▪ Smart card
▪ Protected by a 4-digit pin.
8
▪ SIM+ME = MS
b) BTS – Base Transceiver Station
▪ Provides physical connection between MS and BSC.
▪ Transmitting power determines the size of the cell.
▪ Provides radio channel to carry traffic and control signals.
▪ Have several antenna system (1 to 16 radio transmitter / Receivers) modules.
▪ Interface between MS and BTS is radio or UM.
c) BSC – Base station Controller
▪ It is a small digital exchange that connects many BTS’s thus reducing radio
related load from MSC.
▪ Performs functions such as handover and power control.
▪ Interface between BTS and BSC is Abis. Is a standard that allows BTSs and
BSCs from different manufacturers in one network
2.4.3 NSS – Network Switching subsystem
➢ Performs switching of calls between MS and other users (PLMN, PSTN, ISDN).
➢ Stores subscriber information and manages their mobility (location updating,
handovers, call routing for roaming, authentication)
a) MSC - Mobile Switching Centre
▪ Central component to route calls within PLMN and to interface with
PSTN/ISDN.
▪ Works in conjunction with a set of registers to fulfill the NSS requirement.
▪ The BSC and MSC are connected through the A-interface.
b) VLR – Visitor Location Register
▪ The VLR can be associated with one or several MSCs. To easy signaling one
per MSC is recommended.
9
▪ The VLR stores data about all customers who are roaming withing the
location area of that MSC.
c) HLR – Home Location Register
▪ Centralized Permanent register of all subscribers.
▪ Stores information such as Subscription information, allowed services,
authentication information.
▪ This information may be obtained by the VLR/MSC when necessary. When
the subscriber roams into the location area of another VLR/MSC, the HLR is
updated.
▪ The communication between MSC, VLR and HLR is done using the MAP
(Mobile Application Part) of the Signaling System 7.
d) EIR – Equipment Identity Register
▪ Is an optional register.
▪ Its purpose is to register IMEIs of mobile stations in use.
▪ By implementing the EIR the network provider can blacklist malfunctioning
MSs or even receive reports to the operations centre when stolen mobile
stations are used to make calls.
e) AUC – Authentication Centre
▪ Database used for security purposes to provide parameters needed for
authentication and encryption.
f) OMC – Operation and maintenance centre.
▪ Control functions for the BSS and NSS.
2.4.4 Network aspect
➢ The signaling protocol is structured in three layers.
➢ Layer 1 is the physical layer, which uses the channel structures (to be discussed
later).
➢ Layer 2 is the data link layer. Across the Um interface.
➢ Layer 3 is subdivided into 3 sub layers.
▪ Radio Resources Management - controls the setup, maintenance, and
termination of radio channels.
▪ Mobility Management - manages the location updating, handovers, and
registration procedures.
▪ Connection Management - handles general call control and provides
supplementary services.
2.4.5 Services
➢ Categorized in two main groups
o Tele services
- Consists of the basic speech transmission which is digitalized, coded and
sent across the radio-channel.
10
- The point-to-point short message service lets user send short messages to
other users. These messages are relayed via a Short Message Centre
(SMC), whose address has to be coded in the MS.
- The broadcast short message service let the network provider define short
messages on a cell-by-cell basis that are sent to all the Mobile Stations in
that cell and also give details of MS current location.
o Bearer services
- Have nine groups of transparent and non-transparent data-transmission
services.
o Other supplementary services include call forwarding, blocking of
outgoing and incoming calls. The supplementary services are generally of
little relevance to the location problem.
2.5 The Radio Interface
2.5.1 Frequency allocation
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) allocated bands 890-915 MHz for the
uplink (mobile station to base station) and 935-960 MHz for the downlink (base station to
mobile station) for mobile networks for GSM900.
2.5.2 FDMA/TDMA
➢ Since radio spectrum is a limited resource shared by all users, a method must be
devised to divide up the bandwidth among as many users as possible. GSM uses
hybrid TDMA/FDMA.
➢ The FDMA part involves the division by frequency of the total 25 MHz
bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies of 200 kHz bandwidth. One or more
carrier frequencies are then assigned to each base station.
➢ Using TDMA scheme, each of these carrier frequencies is then divided into eight
time slots. One time slot is used for transmission by the mobile and one for
reception. They are separated in time so that the mobile unit does not receive and
transmit at the same time.
2.5.3 Channel structure
Below is the structure of GSM channel.
a) TCH – Traffic channel
▪ Carry digitally encoded user speech or data
▪ Uplink and downlink are separated in time by 3 burst periods, so
that the mobile does not transmit and receive simultaneously.
11
▪ TCH can be full rate (currently used) and half rate (anticipated).
b) CCH - Control Channel
i) BCH – Broadcast Channels – Downlink
Three channels:
• BCCH – Broadcast Channel
Continually broadcasts information including BS identity,
frequency allocations.
• FCCH – Frequency correction channel
Provides MS with frequency reference in order to synchronous it
with the BS.
• SCH – Synchronization channel
Synchronizations the mobile to the frame structure of the
channel.
GSM Channel
Traffic Channel Control Channel
TCH /Full TCH /Half BCH CCCH DCCH
FCCH BCCH SCH
SACCH
SDCCH
PCH AGCH RACH
FACCH
ii) CCCH – Common control Channels
Three channels
• PCH - Paging Channel: Used to alert the mobile station of
incoming call.
• RACH - Random Access Channel: Used by MS to request
access to the network
12
• AGCH - Access Grant Channel: Used by base station to inform
the mobile of which channel to use following a request on
RACH.
iii) DCCH – Dedicated control channels
Three channels
• SDCCH - Standalone Dedicated Control Channel: Used for
registration, authentication, call setup, and location updating.
• SACCH – Slow associated control channel – Used to inform
MS increase Power incase of low Signal strength.
• FACCH – Fast associated Control signal – When urgent
signaling is required.
13
