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Stressors, Coping and Support Mechanisms for Student-Athletes Combining

Elite Sport and Tertiary Education: Implications for Practice

Article in Sport Psychologist · June 2015

DOI: 10.1123/tsp.2014-0102

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 Stressors, Coping, and Support Mechanisms for Student-Athletes
Cosh and Tully
http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2014-0102

Stressors, Coping, and Support Mechanisms for Student

Athletes Combining Elite Sport and Tertiary Education:
Implications for Practice
Suzanne Cosh and Phillip J. Tully
University of Adelaide

Participation in elite-sport and education is stressful and can result in sacrificed educational attainment. A dearth of research,
however, has explored the specific stressors encountered by student athletes and coping strategies used, resulting in limited
knowledge of how to best support student athletes. Interviews with 20 Australian university student athletes were conducted
and data were analyzed via thematic analysis. Interviewees reported encountering numerous stressors, especially relating to
schedule clashes, fatigue, financial pressure, and inflexibility of coaches. Athletes identified few coping strategies but
reported that support from parents and coaches was paramount. Athletes would benefit from upskilling in several areas such
as effective use of time, self-care, time management, enhanced self-efficacy, and specific strategies for coping with stress.
Coaches have the opportunity to play a pivotal role in facilitating successful integration of sport and education.

Keywords: athlete, qualitative research, collegiate athlete, barriers, coping, tertiary education, college

Increasingly, there is an expectation that athletes leaving athletes without clear career paths. Such career
1
undertake further education to forge postsport career uncertainty and resultant financial pressure renders
paths (Hickey & Kelly, 2005); and this expectation athletes vulnerable to anxiety and transition difficulties
extends beyond adolescent athletes who are legally during and into retirement (Lavallee & Robinson, 2007).
required to complete education and to older athletes who
are enjoined to engage in tertiary education in preparation Stressors
for life after sport. Despite this expectation, participation
in both sport and education is highly demanding and Participation in sport and education is highly stressful
stressful (Burden, Tremayne & Marsh, 2004). Athletes (Burden et al., 2004), likely contributing to academic
have reported that success in one pursuit comes at the sacrifices outlined above. Stress can be conceptualized in
expense of success in the other, with athletes frequently a number of ways. Consistent with Lazarus’ model of
sacrificing their educational attainment to prioritize their stress, emotion and coping, in the current study stress was
sporting success (Cosh & Tully, 2014; McGillivray, Fearn defined as “a relationship between the person and the
& McIntosch, 2005). Athletes are less motivated to environment that is appraised by the person as relevant to
perform academically than their nonathlete counterparts his or her wellbeing and in which the person’s resources
(Lucas & Lovaglia, 2002) and have described choosing are taxed or exceeded” (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985, p.
“easier” subjects to accommodate their sporting 152). A body of research has identified stressors
commitments (Burden et al., 2004). Student-athletes have associated with elite-level sport, such as poor preparation,
also described themselves as aiming only to pass; thereby injury, performance expectations, self-presentation, and
restricting future study opportunities (Cosh & Tully, rivalry (Mellalieu, Neil, Hanton & Fletcher, 2009).
2014). Sacrificed educational achievement has Athletes also experience stressors outside of the context of
implications for athletes’ future careers, potentially competition in relation to the sport organization itself,
including relationships and interpersonal demands in sport
settings, athletic career and performance development
Cosh is with the School of Psychology, and Tully the Freemanson’s (Mellalieu et al., 2009). The nature of the training
Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, environment (e.g., performance climates where the
Australia. Address author correspondence to Suzanne Cosh at emphasis is on interpersonal competition) has also been
[email protected]. identified as a potential stressor (Pensgaard & Roberts,
2000). Olympic athletes also frequently reported

Page 1 of 15
ineffectual support networks and the effects of travel as importance; Cox & Ferguson, 1991) have also been
sources of stress (Hanton, Fletcher & Coughlan, 2005). theorized.
Specifically examining stressors within student- It has been noted that the gender of student athletes
athlete populations, it has been found that student athletes (Gan, Anshel & Kim, 2009) and age of athletes partially
report encountering a number of coaching-related determines the coping strategy employed in relation to
stressors. Among French school students, it was shown sport-specific stressors (Nicholls & Polman, 2007). For
that coaching style was related to athlete stress and example, middle adolescent athletes employ more
burnout (Isoard-Gautheur, Guilllet-Descas & Lemyre, emotion- and problem-focused coping strategies than
2012). Likewise, a study examining collegiate coaching early adolescent athletes (Reeves, Nicholls & McKenna,
highlighted that athletes reported that coaching style, such 2009). The competitive level and experience of the athlete
as perceived poor teaching or being uncaring, was also influences coping, with elite-athletes with high levels
associated with their coping and motivation for sport of experience relying more on problem-focused and
(Gearity & Murray, 2011). Coaches have also been argued emotion-focused coping than less experienced athletes
to contribute to the stress of sport participation for student (Hanton, Neil, Mellalieu & Fletcher, 2008). Personality
athletes through fostering feelings of incompetence or dimensions such as neuroticism and extraversion further
lack of control (Kimball & Freysinger, 2003). determine the style of coping with sport-related stressors
The transition to tertiary education and college-level (Kaiseler, Polman & Nicholls, 2012). In addition to
sport has also been reported to be a source of stress and personality, motivation and perceived level of social
frustration for student athletes (Papanikolaou, Nikolaidis, support have also been suggested to help buffer top
Patsiaouras & Alexopoulos, 2003; Wilson & Pritchard, performers from the stressors associated with elite
2005). Wilson and Pritchard (2005) demonstrated that competition (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012).
student athletes reported different sources of life stress In relation to student athletes’ coping, it has been
during this transition than their nonathlete counterparts in shown that freshman collegiate-athletes lacked coping
areas such as romantic relationships and lack of sleep. skills to manage the challenges associated with adjusting
Yet, the extant research largely examines stressors to college life and college-level sport (Papanikolaou et al.,
experienced in relation to sport participation or general 2003). From their observations, they argued that student
life stress, with only a limited focus on the specific athletes aimed to avoid feelings of inadequacy by acting
stressors that are encountered by student athletes in as though they did not care about classes, and fought
relation to combining elite sport and education. A study within their sport to cope with frustration. However, the
exploring the specific stressors of integration faced by coping strategies that student athletes employ, and the
student athletes competing in an Australian professional support and coping mechanisms upon which they rely in
sports league, reported stressors such as time- relation to stressors specifically related to combining sport
management, fatigue due to lack of sleep, and schedule and education, require further examination.
clashes (Hickey & Kelly, 2005).
Study Aims
Coping Mechanisms
The stressors specific to contemporaneously engaging in
To overcome the stressors associated with elite-sport elite sport and education require further examination to
competition, athletes are required to employ a variety of understand how to best support athletes in combining
coping strategies. In the extant sport psychology literature, sport and education. The aim of this paper is to examine
coping has been understood via either a trait approach, the stressors that student athletes report encountering, as
suggesting that individuals have stable coping styles with well as the coping strategies and support mechanisms that
which they approach an array of stressors (e.g., Penley, they draw upon, to integrate sport and education; thereby
Tomaka, & Wiebe, 2002) or as a process or transactional informing how to best support student athletes.
approach, with the coping strategy employed specific to
the stressor and cognitive appraisal thereof (e.g., Lazarus, Method
1999). A number of macro-dimensions of coping have
been theorized. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) outlined Twenty Australian athletes1 completing tertiary education
problem-focused coping (i.e., a focus on strategies to participated in semistructured interviews that were
reduce or resolve the problem) and emotion-focused approximately one hour in length. A semistructured
coping (i.e., strategies to reduce negative format was selected as this provides a framework that
emotion/distress). Others have suggested that coping fits ensures comprehensive data collection across all
within the structure of task-oriented, disengagement- interviews, but allows for topics to be covered naturally in
oriented and distraction-oriented (Compas, Connor-Smith, conversation and in an individualized manner, depending
Saltzman, Harding Thomsen & Wadsworth, 2001), while on what is salient to the interviewee (Tenenbaum &
avoidance coping (i.e., removing self or cognitive Driscoll, 2005). In addition, semistructured interviews
distancing; e.g., Anshel, 2001) and appraisal-focused allow for interviewees to raise salient topics not appearing
coping (i.e., reevaluating the situation to reduce in the interview-schedule (Locke, 2004). Interviewees
were firstly asked to outline their sport and study program

Page 2 of 15
before being asked to describe their experiences of attempt to minimize the imposition of researchers’
combining elite-level sport and higher education (for interests or prior knowledge on the data analysis. The
interview schedule, see Figure 1). proportion of athletes reporting each (sub)theme was then
\<<<INSERT FIGURE 1 HERE>>>\ quantified to provide an indication of their ubiquity.
Participants (12 female, 8 male) competed in a
range of individual and team sports: field hockey (n = 3), Results
rowing (n = 3), Australian rules football (n = 2), kayaking
(n = 1), baseball (n = 1), equestrian (n = 1), trampolining Stressors
(n = 1), table tennis (n = 1), cricket (n = 1), soccer (n = 1), All athletes in the study indicated encountering a number
archery (n = 1), fencing (n = 1), water polo (n = 1), of stressors in combining sport and education. Four
athletics (n = 1) and netball (n = 1). Of participating overarching themes were identified: scheduling, fatigue,
athletes, nine were competing at an international level and coaches, and financial (see Figure 2).
11 at national level. Athletes were aged between 18 and \<<<INSERT FIGURE 2 HERE>>>\
33 years of age (M = 21, SD = 4.45) and half were in their
first year of tertiary education. Interviewees were enrolled Scheduling.
in a variety of courses including, medicine, physiotherapy, Schedule clashes between training programs and
dentistry, law, arts, science, finance, international studies, university timetables were reported to be a key stressor by
commerce, marketing, and media. 16 of the 20 interviewees. Athletes reported having
Athletes were recruited through an e-mail sent by a difficulty fitting their university timetable in with their
support service provided to elite-athletes enrolled at the training schedules; often resulting in clashes. These
University and participants were compensated AUD $25 clashes forced athletes to prioritize either sport or
for their time. Ethical approval was obtained from the education; and such prioritization decisions were
University of Adelaide Research Ethics committee. All described as a central source of stress. Students reported
participants provided informed written consent. facing possible failure for not attending courses, or were
Interviewees were ensured confidentiality and were given concerned that missed learning opportunities from
pseudonyms and identifying information was removed missing classes would have a detrimental impact on their
from transcripts. Participants were informed that they grades; as is highlighted in the examples below.
were not compelled to answer any questions and could The first example forms part of the response to the
pause or terminate the interview at any point (and still initial question asking Max to describe his experiences in
receive the compensation for their time). Interviews were combining sport and education. Max immediately begins
audio-recorded and then transcribed verbatim by either the to outline schedule clashes as a difficulty that he has
first author or a research assistant. Transcripts were encountered.
checked against the recordings by either the first author or I needed a lot of flexibility between the university
research assistant for accuracy and to minimize the role of and the, the um {sport} club and I found at times
the researchers’ interpretations upon the transcripts (see that the uni weren't as flexible…you had to attend a
Potter & Wetherell, 1987). certain number of pracs [practicals]…and if you
Data were then analyzed using thematic analysis, don’t you’re going to fail. (Max, post-graduate
according to the protocol outlined by Braun and Clarke marketing student)
(2006). This process involves the reading and rereading of The following quote comes from Adrian’s response
the data to identify key and recurrent themes common to a question about if there are any things the he finds
across all interviews. The coding of themes was inductive hard about combining sport and education.
(as outlined by Braun & Clarke, 2006), that is, while it is
acknowledged that the researchers’ prior knowledge The thing that probably stresses me the most is
necessarily will influence data analysis, the aim of the knowing that I haven’t been keeping up and
present inductive analysis was to ensure that the analysis especially at this stage now where it’s before exams
was data driven, rather than try to fit the data to a I realize that I've got to kind of teach myself
predetermined set of themes or theory of coping. Once everything that I missed and that, kind of, can get
key themes were identified, the data were reread and stressful. (Adrian, second year media student)
sections of interviews were coded according to the On the other hand, interviewees reported missing
theme/s. Subthemes relating to specific strategies/supports training sessions due to their educational commitments to
and stressors were also then identified and the data were be a stressor. In particular, they expressed their concern
coded accordingly. The collated data were then checked about a) possible nonselection due to nonattendance at all
for coherence within the theme and each theme was training sessions and b) decreased performance due to
checked for conceptual distinctiveness from the others. missed training sessions. The following examples
Identifying and coding of data into themes was completed highlight this stressor. The first instance comes from early
independently by two researchers and any discrepancies in an interview. Matthew is responding to the question
were settled through discussion until consensus was about how he fits in sport and education. Before the start
reached. Discussions were also conducted regularly of this extract he has stated that he sometimes misses
throughout the data analysis process to identify and training to complete assignments on time.

Page 3 of 15
 You do worry about it [missing training] and sort of both sport and attending classes resulted in them having
think it’s bad and you know you’re getting worried insufficient time to complete study and assignments. Poor
when it comes to selection or something and you’re, academic outcomes were then attributed to this lack of
you’re up in, in a race you think well I’ve missed time, as can be seen from the following examples. The
this session I’ve missed that session. (Matthew, first first extract immediately follows the interviewer’s
year international studies) question regarding if there are things that Kristin has
The next example follows from a section of talk in found difficult about combining sport and education.
which the interviewee described missing classes and The amount of time that they both want from you.
training in her attempts to combine sport and It’s kind of hard to balance it um, yeah I think the
education. The quote forms part of her response to a time commitment is the hardest thing. (Kristin, first-
question about how she feels about missing classes year medicine)
and training The following illustration comes from the
I'm definitely not as strong as I used to be, I went to interviewee’s response to the question ‘how do you think
the gym all the time, was easy to push everyone you’ve kind of gone so far in combining sport and
around. I fall over heaps now. Um if I can do more education?’
gym that would definitely be better for my {sport} I find it quite hard to do the amount of like study
… but those things have been cut out because of, that we’re supposed to do because, um it really
you know, what it is to achieve in both fields. needs to be about three to four hours a night and
(Lauren, second-year media student) when you have like 6 till 9 taken up [by sport], its, it
In addition to class and training schedule clashes, 12 doesn’t leave you much time. (Samantha, second
athletes reported difficulties with competitions occurring year medicine student)
during the semester or exam periods. These clashes were
reported to be highly stressful due to the difficulty in Fatigue.
catching up on missed periods of study and assignments, Consequently, nearly all student athletes reported fatigue
often exacerbated by reported difficulties in completing to be a key stressor. Fatigue was attributed to the high
study while traveling for sport. Athletes further cited a time commitment required by both pursuits, in addition to
lack of support to catch up on missed materials as the physical fatigue associated with demanding training
additionally challenging, as is illustrated below. This schedules and the mental fatigue of concentrating during
extract comes from the opening of an interview and was study. Interviewees reported that the stress of fatigue was
produced in response to the question asking ‘how do you twofold, impacting upon both study and sporting
think you’ve gone so far with combining the two?’ commitments. Firstly, it was reported that fatigue
impacted upon interviewees’ capacity successfully to
Not too badly, like um I fi- I just finished school last complete study. Such difficulty included concentrating in
year so it’s similar having the same workload. Um classes after long training sessions, as well as difficulty in
the hardest bit would be you're expected to catch completing assignments and tests. The first illustration is
everything up yourself and no one makes it easier the interviewee’s response to a question regarding if he
for you …for example I went away for two weeks finds any aspects difficult about combining sport and
during the first part of the semester and lecturers and education.
tutors were really good like ‘you can go that’s fine’,
but when I came back I sort of had this stack of I get tired and I think that's probably the hardest
work to catch up on. (Matthew, first year thing, because after training you do get tired and
international studies) then having to do study after that and that can get
really stressful, especially when you have
In the next example, the interviewee had outlined assignments and you just want to sleep. (Owen, first
that to manage combining sport and education he chose to year law and media student)
sacrifice the quality of the work. The following segment
comes in response to the interviewer’s question regarding The next example is from the start of the interview
how he feels about sacrificed quality of work. and came as the response to the opening question ‘how do
you think you have gone with combining sport and
It does sort of frustrate you sometimes that you’re education?’
handing it [assignments] in and you think of all the
other people who’ve got, you know, who’ve This is sort of my first year of uni. I spent a a year
had…that haven’t been away for the last two weeks off last year um … I think the biggest struggles I’ve
and that have, you know, just been at least able to had is with time management and getting motivated
think about it [assignment] and focus in on it and do to do study after being tired after sort of long
whatever they want with their sort of time to, to training sessions and concentrating in, in classes
devote it to study. (Scott, first-year science student) (Scott, first-year science student)

Perhaps unsurprisingly, the majority of interviewees Secondly, that fatigue impacted upon their ability to
also reported that the time commitments associated with train for sport was also reported. Several interviewees
expressed concerns regarding their performance at

Page 4 of 15
training due to fatigue associated specifically with example comes from a segment of talk produced in
combining sport and education, as is shown. The first response to Adrian being asked to describe his
extract comes from toward the end of the interview with relationship with his coach.
Ellen and follows an extended period of talk in which We don’t really have much of a relationship, I mean
Ellen had discussed her experiences with getting it’s just what he yells out to me from on the water
extensions for assignments. The interviewer then asked if and apart form that um there isn’t much and that. He
Ellen found it difficult to meet assignment deadlines. was my only coach in my first year and that was
I’ve been um ok meeting the deadlines this year like really hard because he wasn't flexible and I felt like
oh I had an assignment a couple of weeks ago due I couldn’t say I can’t come to this because I have
and it was due on like the Monday and I had to work this at uni and that was really hard. (Adrian, second
on the, all day most of the day Sunday and I’d been year media student)
training all weekend so that was a bit of a hassle like The next extract comes in response to the
you know I had to stay up late Sunday night which interviewer’s question regarding how Rebecca prioritizes
meant my training session wasn’t as good Monday sport and education. This specific extract follows a
(Ellen, second year physiotherapy student) lengthy response in which Rebecca discusses her coaches’
The next example comes from late in an interview expectation around prioritizing sport.
with Max. Max had been describing finding it hard to fit I think {sport} takes the front seat. You don’t really
in study and sport with his family commitments. The get much choice in prioritizing, that’s sort of made
interviewer then asked how Max managed to fit in all his for you by the {sport} coaches really, with how
commitments and he produced an account of staying up much pressure they put on you to, to be at sessions
late at night to finish study, before providing the and be at places. (Rebecca, second year arts
following example. student)
About a month ago had to do some ah, some Relatedly, athletes reported their beliefs that the
assignments and, ah, and they, they were talks that time commitment required by their coaches was too large
we had to do and ah the night before the talk for them to be able to successfully complete their study
(laughs) wasn't looking very good at all so I stayed requirements. Again, athletes reported that this was highly
up to you know to probably one o’clock in the stressful, resulting in concern regarding selection and
morning or something like that, and just the next difficulty to complete assignments and study (as can be
day had to get up and, and train at 9 o'clock and seen in the examples). Before this extract Lauren had been
even though you don't think it would affect you very discussing that she was considering changing to part-time
much it’s just harder to get out of bed and then on study. When asked if her squad members studied fulltime,
the training track you’re a bit more sluggish and not Lauren reported that most did not due to demands of
as fresh as you should be. I think if you did that on a sport.
regular basis it- you would get into a bit of trouble
on, on the {sport} field (Max, post-graduate With our {sport} team um you need to show more
marketing student) than just like the fitness sessions and the field
sessions, they want you to rock up to recovery and
Coaches. it’s all important but you can actually do it quite
Coaches were described by almost a third (n = 7) of quickly on your own. Um so I could actually keep
interviewees to be a stressor. When the coach was up with the player next to me in terms of their
reported to be a source of stress, for each of these athletes, preparation for the actual game but their
this was the most important and difficult stressor that they involvement in the team is beyond mine and then
reported encountering. Coaches were reported to be a it’s like I said … if you show enough commitment
source of stress in two key ways: through lacking you play the games. (Lauren, second-year media
flexibility regarding scheduling to allow for interviewees’ student)
educational commitments, and by demanding too great a
The next example comes from an exchange
time commitment from student athletes.
following a question about asking for assignment
Coaches were reported (n = 7) to expect
extensions. Owen replied that he had not asked for
interviewees to attend any sport related commitment
extensions because it would put him behind in his next
(including extra training sessions to those already
assignments. He then continued to discuss his time
scheduled) regardless of the athletes’ educational
pressures and the demands his coach placed on him
commitments (either lecture/tutorial attendance or study
regarding time.
time) and coaches were described as unwilling to make
exceptions for their education. Especially when athletes The most stressful part of it [coach’s time demands]
had schedule clashes or during exam periods, interviewees is like, if I have to, if it takes like an all-nighter [to
reported that this lack of flexibility was highly stressful complete study], I just have to. I know that I’ll
and difficult for them. This lack of coaching flexibility is always hand it[assignment] in even if it’s
highlighted below in the following extracts. The first substandard, but that’s the thing that probably

Page 5 of 15
 stresses me the most (Owen, first year law and Support from Parents.
media student) Parents were cited as crucial in enabling athletes to
overcome stressors and facilitate successful integration of
Financial. sport and education by all but one athlete (and for this
Repeatedly throughout the interviews, student athletes
athlete, the lack of parental support was reported to be a
cited experiencing financial stress. Such stress was
central source of stress). Parents were frequently cited to
exacerbated by the costs often associated with competition
offer a range of types of support; and these were all
and travel for sport, as is highlighted in the following
reported to be equally important for dual success. The
example which follows an extended segment of talk about
provision of emotional support was the most frequently
support Matthew receives from his parents.
cited and parents were reported to be central in helping to
They [parents] pay my rent and I pay everything ease acute stressors such as deselection and failed
else out of savings so it’s, yeah that’s the biggest assignments, as well as motivating, encouraging and
issue not having any money (laughs). The other supporting interviewees in response to chronic stress
thing is you throw in, oh um we want to go to this encountered by combining both pursuits. The first extract
country or whatever that’s 4000 dollars and I just go follows an extended period of talk regarding Matthew’s
I don’t have it… that’s a big major number one parents. Matthew now lives interstate and this extract
stress. (Matthew, first year international studies follows the interviewer’s question regarding if the support
student) his parents offered differed now.
The next example forms part of Jan’s response to Oh like they’re always there to give advice if I
being asked to outline her training and study needed it, um support and you know sort of bring
commitments. Jan described her commitments and also the people that could help me the most close if I
reported the additional time pressure of her work needed them. (Matthew, first year international
commitments, outlining that she needs to pay sporting as studies student)
well as living expenses.
Before the extract presented below, Max had
I haven’t got any sponsorship or any um outlined a period in which he had been deselected from
scholarships or anything recently um so yeah I have the top side. The following extract comes from his
to cover the costs of all my equipment um all the response to the question of how he managed to gain
yeah training fees club fees (Jan, first year computer reselection.
science student)
My family are very supportive as well so ah I think
In addition, a lack of time and flexibility in addition just knowing that, well that they were going to be
to existing sporting and educational commitments there to help me just sort of kept me going and um
reportedly rendered athletes either unable to engage in trying to do the best at what I could do. (Max, post-
paid employment, or unable to work sufficient hours to graduate marketing student)
have financial comfort, as is illustrated below. Before the
The following illustration is part of a lengthy
first extract, the interviewee had been describing the
segment of talk that follows from a question regarding if
financial support he received from his parents, before
other people help or make it hard for Scott to combine
explaining that he does not have time to work.
sport and education. Scott has outlined a number of ways
During uni time I really do not have any free time… in which his parents are supportive, before stating that
no one really wants to hire anyone for just a few they provide emotional support and encouragement.
hours a week. (Alan, first year economics student)
They [parents] understand and they help with both
Before this extract, Jack had been describing the [sport end education] and they encourage me to go
financial support that he received from his parents. The to both and, you know, if I’m getting down on
interviewer then asked whether Jack had a job. {sport} a bit they sort of say well you know this is
No, definitely living off the parents (laughs). Yeah what you want to do and you know you need to go
it’s not great but at the same time there’s, they know and stuff like that and they sort of if, if it’s getting
I can’t, I don’t have time to work. (Jack, first year bad then they try and make it a bit easier for me
law and commerce student) (Scott, first-year science student)
A further, and central, source of parental assistance
Coping mechanisms was through providing financial support. As was outlined
The sample of athletes interviewed described having few, above, financial pressures were a key stressor for a large
if any, coping strategies that they used. The interviewees proportion of student athletes, and financial support was
did, however, report receiving high levels of practical and often considered crucial in allowing athletes to complete
emotional support from coaches and parents, and cited both endeavors, by reducing or removing the need to
this support as being crucial in their ability to overcome engage in employment. This example comes from a
the stressors associated with combining sport and segment of talk following the question what makes
education (see Figure 3). combining sport and education easier or harder. Rachel
replied that her parents are very supportive and this

Page 6 of 15
extract comes from her response to being asked for the training environment enjoyable, athletes reported that
specific examples. this helped in managing stress and functioned to facilitate
They [parents] make, make it easy with my {sport}. their commitment to their sport. This extract comes in
Sort of they help me out with paying for some of the response to the question how Samantha had gone with
trips and they know if it’s a small cost they sort of combining sport and education. Samantha provided an
help me out with that so that I don’t have to work extended account of how her experiences combining the
like too much. (Rachel, second year health science two varied depending on the coach she had.
student) I played much better when I um trained with [new
The following examples also comes as a response to coach] as opposed to training with [previous coach],
the interviewer’s request for specific examples of how definitely. It’s very much yeah, very mu- the coach
Rebecca’s parents are supportive, following her statement is very much um integral in how much you enjoy it
that her parents are crucial in enabling her to combine and how much you perform. [New coach] was really
sport and education. good … she made it very easy to do, to enjoy.
(Samantha, second year medicine)
They [parents], um they make it a lot easier because
it means that I don’t have to work (Rebecca, second In addition, although coaches were described as
year arts student) inflexible by a third of interviewees, half of the
interviewees conversely described their coaches as
Parents were also cited as frequently providing a offering flexibility in training schedules to allow for their
range of practical supports, such as providing transport educational commitments. For instance, some coaches
to/from training and domestic assistance, such as reportedly reduced training loads during exam periods,
preparing meals and washing training clothes. Athletes allowed athletes to arrive late to training due to university
described such supports as greatly reducing time pressures timetabling, or provided opportunities for alternate
and thus allowing them to devote further time to study. trainings when athletes had clashes (e.g., making up
Such assistance was reported by both student athletes weights sessions at other times, rather than completing
currently residing with their parents and those who were them with the squad). This flexibility, when offered, was
not. The extracts below provide illustrations of these viewed as a key mechanism of support that enabled
sources of support. The first example follows from the student athletes to overcome stressors associated with
response to a question about if other people make it harder integration. The first example is from the response to a
or easier. Julia outlined that her parents are a key source question about how Julia has managed to combine sport
of support and this extract comes in response to the and education; Julia reported that her coaches were very
interviewer’s request for examples. flexible.
Generally sort of being helpful around the house there was times when they um said that I didn’t have
and, and doing things for me. Sort of taking a lot of to come to training that afternoon and went to uni
the other worries off so that for me it is only sort of instead ah that probably happened two or three
{sport} and uni. (Julia, first year health science times or ah just turned up late for training and they
student) [coaches] were very, very you know flexible in that
Before the following extract, Samantha had reported way. (Julia, first year health science student)
that her parents were a key source of support for Before the next extract, the interviewer asked about
integrating both pursuits. The interviewer then asked for how Jack fits in sport with education. Jack outlined
specific examples. settling for average grades, before moving into the
I’ll come home and there’ll be you know dinner following sequence regarding exam periods.
there and I just need to heat it up or whatever and My coach knows that if there’s exams coming up
you know it just I think it saves so much time. then he’ll, he won’t push me so hard or anything and
(Samantha, second year medicine) he’ll understand when I say no I can’t make it.
Support from Coaches. (Jack, first year law and commerce)
Although coaches were reported to be a source of stress Educational Choices.
by a proportion of interviewees, they were also reported A large proportion of interviewees also reported making
by over half of athletes (n = 11) to be a crucial source of choices around their education to better manage the
support in overcoming stressors. It should be noted that stressors associated with combining sport and education.
within the data collected, coaches were reported to be Notably, eight of the 20 athletes reported changing their
either a stressor or a support; the same coach was not study arrangements, such as transferring to less time
identified to be both. This finding highlights the crucial intensive courses or switching to part time study to enable
role that coaches can play in hindering or facilitating them to successfully engage in both pursuits (with an
integration of sport and education. additional three reportedly considering changing to part
When coaches were cited as a source of support, time study). The first example is taken from the opening
interviewees reported that coaches offered support
through enhancing enjoyment of sport. Through making

Page 7 of 15
of an interview, after the athlete was asked to outline her a distinction. (Max, post-graduate marketing
sport and study commitments. student)
So I study part time I changed that ah. First, this is
my first year ah, um, of subjects. Last year, I've sort Discussion
of continued as well, but first semester last year I
Given that many athletes report making educational
was doing full-time and I found that that was, yeah
sacrifices to succeed in sport (Burden et al., 2004; Cosh &
it was just too much. So um I failed two subjects so
Tully, 2014), the current study explores the integration-
I figure well part time I might as well study properly
related stressors encountered and coping mechanisms
and saves having to repeat ‘em. (Rachel, second
employed by student athletes in combining elite-sport and
year health science student)
education. In the current study, athletes reported
The following extract comes from the opening experiencing numerous stressors including in relation to
section of an interview and follows the interviewer’s finances, coaches, time, schedule clashes, and fatigue;
initial question regarding what Ellen was studying and however, athletes reported having few coping mechanisms
what sport she competed in. Ellen described that she had for overcoming these stressors.
recently transferred from studying medicine to
physiotherapy before the beginning of this extract.
Stressors
Medicine is mainly exam based helped you know A key finding was that coaching staff were described as a
there weren’t many assignments throughout the year key stressor, especially in regards to inflexibility around
that I, you know, missed out or anything like that. training schedules; yet also as a crucial source of support
Um, but yeah, in the end like probably one of the where flexibility was offered. The role of coaches as both
reasons that I transferred over was because it was a stressor and support mechanism shows consistency with
too hard to do [medicine] once you get into fourth prior findings that have shown that coaching style is
year of medicine. Fourth fifth and sixth are all associated with student athletes’ experiences of stress and
clinical. Um so I did eight weeks of fourth year in coping in relation to stressors specific to elite-sport
the hospital and it’s like eight o’clock in the participation (Gearity & Murray, 2011; Isoard-Gautheur et
morning till sometimes nine o’clock at night and I al., 2012). Evidently, the role of coach as support/stressor
just couldn’t fit in training around it (Ellen, second goes beyond sport-specific stress and coping and extends
year physiotherapy student). to stress specific to integrating sport and education. Thus
In addition, a majority of interviewees reported that the coach’s level of understanding and support of
they chose to sacrifice the quality and standard of their educational commitments can be crucial in athletes’
academic work to complete both pursuits; again (in)ability to combine sport and education.
suggesting that it would not be possible to achieve high In addition, interviewees reported that financial
grades as well as sporting success. Examples of these concerns, fatigue, time pressures and scheduling clashes
academic decisions can be seen below. The next extract between training and classes were key stressors
comes from a segment of talk produced in response to the encountered when integrating sport and education;
interviewer’s question ‘how do you cope with stress?’ consistent with findings from Australian footballers
Jack replied that he forgoes sleep, before describing how competing in a professional league (Hickey & Kelly,
he also opts to settle for lesser grades. 2005). Importantly, interviewees in the current study were
engaged in a range of sports, competitive levels and study
I don’t know, I just run on little sleep when I have to programs, and stressors were widely reported throughout
(laughs) and coffee and stuff, but I know it’s, it’s the data, thereby indicating their ubiquity across different
not good like I know how you need to sleep levels of competition, types of sport (including individual
properly… I get upset because I think oh I could’ve and team), study programs, and levels of professionalism.
done more earlier but half the time I couldn’t so I A lack of sleep has previously been reported as a
just figure you do as well as you can in the time stressor for student athletes (Wilson & Pritchard, 2005;
you’ve got and hope it’s good enough. Yeah, yeah Hickey & Kelly, 2005). Within the present data, fatigue
I’m sort of settling for average marks though when was also a recurrently reported stressor; however, fatigue
it’s probably not really good enough but don’t have was reported not only in relation to a lack of sleep (due to
time to do it any better. (Jack, first year law and completing assignments). Interviewees also reported
commerce) experiencing fatigue due to the demands of study and
The next illustration comes from the interview with training and that such fatigue then impacted on their
Max. When asked about how he prioritizes sport and ability to complete assignments, study, focus in class, and
education, Max responded that sport is his job and so he train adequately. That fatigue from study was considered a
dedicates more time to sport, at the expense of his grades. stressor in terms of potential deficits in sporting or
[Sport] is my number one priority and with ah with academic performance likely has implications for student
uni, I wanna get as good a marks as I can, but ah it’s athletes’ motivation for education and overall academic
not the end of the world if I only get a credit and not and sporting success.

Page 8 of 15
 In addition to schedule clashes with training and of combining sport and education. Such decisions have
classes, missing classes and opportunities for study due to significant long-term consequences regarding future
travel was also identified as a key stressor in the current career trajectories.
study. Travel has previously been reported as a stressor All but one interviewee in the current study reported
among elite athletes (Hanton et al., 2005). This stressor is that support from parents was a leading mechanism of
likely amplified and especially salient for student athletes support, especially through the provision of emotional and
who have the compounded stressor of missing classes and financial support. Past research has likewise indicated that
study opportunities. parents may provide athletes with an important source of
emotional support for sport-related stress (Baker, Horton,
Coping Mechanisms Robertson-Wilson & Wall, 2003) and that social support
Despite experiencing numerous stressors, the interviewees can reduce competition-related stress (Fletcher & Sarkar,
described having very few strategies with which they are 2012). Thus, it appears that the social and emotional
able to overcome stress. Thus, although athletes appear to support as offered by parents is crucial beyond sport and
have a range of strategies to draw on in coping with performance and was a central way through which student
pressures associated with sport (Nicholls & Polman, athletes overcame both acute and chronic stressors in
2007), athletes’ coping resources appear to be limited in integrating sport and education. Parental support also
relation to the specific stressors associated with went beyond emotional support, with parents providing
integrating sport and education. A dearth of coping crucial financial and practical support. Such additional
strategies leaves athletes unable to overcome stressors. A forms of support may be unique to the student-athlete
lack of coping has previously been noted among freshmen context and the specific stressors encountered.
collegiate-athletes with regards to adjusting to college life When the athletes in the current study did employ
(Papanikolaou et al., 2003). Notably, the present results coping strategies, the strategies reported were largely
indicate that a lack of coping extends beyond freshman consistent with the macro-level coping dimensions of
and the entry to college to experienced students and problem- or emotion-focused coping (Lazurus &
athletes across a range of aspects of combining sport and Folkman, 1984). Athletes employed emotion-focused
education. This lack of coping was also noted across both coping, largely via seeking emotional support from
individual and team sports (as well as competitive level), parents and coaches. In addition, although avoidance
thus contrasting findings regarding sport-related stressors, coping has previously been more commonly noted among
which have demonstrated that athletes from individual adolescent athletes (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001; Nicholls
sports use more coping strategies than those competing in & Polman, 2007), support was found for the notion of
team sports (Nicholls & Polman, 2007). In the sports avoidance-focused coping strategies (Anshel, 2001;
realm, such an inability to manage stress has been shown Kowalski & Crocker, 2001). Athletes in the current study
to reduce sport performance and overall wellbeing (see used a range of behavioral avoidance strategies to cope
Nicholls & Polman, 2007), whereas coping can generate with stressors specific to sport and education, such as
positive emotions (Nicholls, Hemmings & Clough, 2010). disengaging from study, avoiding levels of high academic
Thus, a lack of coping strategies for combining sport and achievement, and missing classes.
education is likely to impact upon performance in both It appears, however, that student athletes largely
domains as well as athletes’ emotional wellbeing. lacked problem-focused coping strategies. This may, in
Especially pertinent was the high rate of student part, be due to perceived uncontrollability of stressors,
athletes who reported choosing to accept a lower quality such as timetabling clashes (see Nicholls, Levy, Grice &
of academic work as a means of managing the stress of Polman., 2009; Nicholls, Levy & Polman, 2012).
combining sport and education, echoing previous findings Although coping with sport-related stressors has been
of educational sacrifice for sport (Burden et al., 2004; reported to be mediated by age and experience level, with
Cosh & Tully, 2014; McGillivray et al., 2005). Such a older and more experienced athletes using more problem-
means of coping may be detrimental to athletes’ long-term focused and fewer avoidance-focused coping strategies
careers (such as by limiting entry to graduate programs) (e.g., Reeves et al., 2009; Hanton et al., 2008), evident
and further highlights the deficit of adaptive coping here was that even highly experienced older adult student
strategies athletes have to manage integrating sport and athletes were found to have a limited repertoire of coping
education. Whereas based on their observational report, strategies, especially problem-focused coping strategies,
Papanikolaou et al. (2003) suggested that student athletes for overcoming stressors specific to sport and education.
pretended not to care about grades as a means of coping
with lack of academic success, the present findings Implications for Practice
instead suggest that for student athletes, poor academic Student-athletes would benefit from upskilling in a
success is in fact a means of coping with complex time number of ways. Student-athletes would benefit from
and fatigue demands. In addition, although student training regarding appropriate coping strategies, especially
athletes have previously been reported to choose easier problem-focused, to overcome associated stressors and
subjects (Burden et al., 2004), a substantial portion of manage pressure related to integration; or with the transfer
interviewees reported that they also changed degree or to of existing coping skills to integration stressors. Such
studying part time as a means of coping with the stressors interventions appear crucial given the limited coping

Page 9 of 15
strategies reportedly employed. In addition, it has been (Readdy, Raabe & Harding, 2014), similar interventions
argued that coping self-efficacy training may facilitate to better support and improve motivation for study
coping with sport-related stressors by altering appraisals commitments may also be of benefit for student athletes.
of stressful events (see Nicholls et al., 2012). Given that In addition, providing skills and strategies for physical
many of the stressors were appraised as outside of the and mental recovery (both from sport and study) such via
athlete’s control, such training might aid student athletes improved self-care techniques may help student athletes in
to cope with various sport and education-related stressors overcoming fatigue and the associated performance (both
also. sporting and academic) deficits.
Fostering flexibility and support within educational Cultivating sources of emotional support within
institutions to assist students catch up from missed study teams (from teammates or other sport staff) through
periods are vital in allowing student athletes to be improving team cohesion and/or providing opportunities
successful in both pursuits. Similarly, encouraging and for emotional support from sport staff may further assist
supporting coaches to offer flexibility for student athletes student athletes to reduce the burden of combining sport
may be imperative for student athletes’ dual success. and education. Such interventions may prove especially
Facilitating positive coach-athlete relationships would fruitful in light of findings that top performers’ resilience
also assist student athletes to better manage combining to sport-related stressors is partly due to their perceived
sport and education, consistent with notions that coaching level of social support (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012).
style enhance/ inhibit coping with sport stressors (Gearity
& Murray, 2011). Strengths and Limitations
Findings indicating that approaches to study are
A strength of this study was the inclusion of student
more significant determinants of academic outcome than
athletes from a variety of sports, competitive levels, and
quantity of study per se (Kember, Ng, Harrison, Wong &
study programs; thereby more broadly capturing the
Pomfret, 1996) suggest that student athletes may also
experiences of student athletes across different sporting
benefit from ‘learning how to learn’ programs to
and study contexts than much of the prior student-athlete
maximize their restricted time and ensure their ability to
research. In addition, this study simultaneously explores
promptly catch up on missed study periods. Such efficient
stressors and how each of these stressors are reportedly
use of time might also usefully reduce fatigue associated
overcome, rather than examining support and stress in
with missing sleep to complete assignments. Although
isolation. Limitations of the study included that it
additional programs constitute a further time pressure for
examined students at only one University, thereby
athletes, such programs might usefully be offered before
limiting the generality of findings to other education
the academic semester (when athletes have fewer
systems. In addition, only student athletes who were
academic commitments) or could also be offered as online
involved in the student-athlete support program were
tutorials, enabling them to be flexibly completed within
recruited for study participation. Other athletes may have
student athletes already busy schedules. Such a course
been unaware of the (relatively new) program and
may offer substantially improved use of time in the longer
therefore were not involved in the study. Students enrolled
term and would likely warrant the short-term additional
in the program might have found the combining of sport
time pressure.
and education more challenging and thus sought a support
In addition to learning how to learn programs, it
network. Whether nonathlete students also report similar
appears that student athletes might also lack requisite time
stressors with regard to completing education in addition
management skills, as has also been noted among first
to other commitments, such as part-time employment, was
year university footballers in Canada (Rotschild-
not able to be ascertained from this study and would prove
Checroune, Gravelle, Dawson & Karlis, 2012). Thus,
a fruitful avenue for future study, as would interviews
upskilling athletes with the time management skills to
with athletes who have successfully completed or failed to
adequately incorporate their commitments would be
complete combining sport and education.
invaluable. Improved time management skills might also
reduce the currently reported dependence on academic
choices such as accepting poor grades or changing study Conclusions
program as a means of coping with time demands.
Given the important implications of educational sacrifice
Enhanced supportive career counseling regarding
for athletes’ futures, exploring stressors and coping
educational decisions may also further assist student
strategies is imperative to facilitate dual success. The
athletes regarding prioritizing and managing education,
present study has highlighted the dearth of coping
consistent with research suggesting that the helpfulness of
strategies held by student athletes to manage key
support predicted athletes’ career decisions following
integration stressors and suggested ways of supporting
change events (Samuel & Tenenbaum, 2013). Moreover,
student athletes. Future interventions pertaining to
strategies and interventions offered by academic
upskilling student athletes with coping strategies, time-
institutions for enhancing motivation for education may
management skills, self-care techniques and appropriate
also reduce educational sacrifices made. It has been
learning strategies are necessary for better improving
demonstrated that interventions using extrinsic rewards support for student athletes. Additional flexibility from
can enhance student athletes’ motivation for sport

Page 10 of 15
sporting and academic institutions as well as coaches are Gearity, B., & Murray, M. (2011). Athletes’ experiences
also crucial for dual success. of the psychological effects of poor coaching.
Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 12(3), 213–
221. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.11.004
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1
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PubMed doi:10.1080/02640410500131480
Hanton, S., Neil, R., Mellalieu, S.D., & Fletcher, D.
(2008). Competitive experience and performance
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Figure 1 — Interview schedule.

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Figure 2 — Stressors encountered in combining sport and education.

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 Figure 3 — Coping mechanisms.

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