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Thermodynamics 4

The chapter discusses the first law of thermodynamics for control volumes. A control volume is a fixed region in space where mass can flow across the boundary. The conservation of mass and energy principles are extended to account for mass flow into and out of the control volume. Steady-state flow processes where properties do not change over time are also discussed. Several examples of engineering devices that can be modeled as steady-flow systems are provided, including turbines, pumps, compressors, and nozzles. The steady-flow energy equation is derived and applied to these examples.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
65 views13 pages

Thermodynamics 4

The chapter discusses the first law of thermodynamics for control volumes. A control volume is a fixed region in space where mass can flow across the boundary. The conservation of mass and energy principles are extended to account for mass flow into and out of the control volume. Steady-state flow processes where properties do not change over time are also discussed. Several examples of engineering devices that can be modeled as steady-flow systems are provided, including turbines, pumps, compressors, and nozzles. The steady-flow energy equation is derived and applied to these examples.

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Chapter 4:

The first Law of Thermodynamics: Control Volumes


The first law is discussed for closed systems in Chapter 3. In this Chapter, we extend
the conservation of energy to systems that involve mass flow across their boundaries,
control volumes.

Any arbitrary region in space can be selected as control volume. There are no concrete
rules for the selection of control volumes. The boundary of control volume is called a
control surface.

Conservation of Mass
Like energy, mass is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or destroyed.
Mass and energy can be converted to each other according to Einstein’s formula: E =
mc2, where c is the speed of light. However, except for nuclear reactions, the
conservation of mass principle holds for all processes.

For a control volume undergoing a process, the conservation of mass can be stated
as:

Fig. 4-1: Conservation of mass principle for a CV.

The conservation of mass can also be expressed in the rate form:

The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the mass
flow rate and is denoted by m°. The mass flow rate through a differential area dA is:

dm°= ρVn dA
where V is the velocity component normal to dA. Thus, the mass flow rate for the
entire cross-section is obtained by:
m • = ∫ ρVn dA (kg/s)
A

Assuming one-dimensional flow, a uniform (averaged or bulk) velocity can be


defined:
m°= ρ V A (kg/s)
where V (m/s) is the fluid velocity normal to the cross sectional area. The volume
of the fluid flowing through a cross-section per unit time is called the volumetric
flow, V°:
V • = ∫ Vn dA = VA (m 3 /s)
A

The mass and volume flow rate are related by: m°=ρV°= V°/ v.

Conservation of Energy
For control volumes, an additional mechanism can change the energy of a system:
mass flow in and out of the control volume. Therefore, the conservation of energy
for a control volume undergoing a process can be expressed as

total energy crossing + total energy of – total energy = net change


boundary as heat mass entering of mass in energy of
and work CV leaving CV CV

Q − W + ∑ Ein ,mass + ∑ E out ,mass = ∆E CV

This equation is applicable to any control volume undergoing any process. This
equation can also be expressed in rate form:
Q • − W • + ∑ dE in ,mass / dt + ∑ dE out ,mass / dt = dECV / dt

Mass
in
Control W
volume
Q
Mass
out

Fig. 4-2: Energy content of CV can be changed by mass flow in/out and heat and
work interactions.
Work flow: is the energy that required to push fluid into or out of a control volume.
Consider an imaginary piston (that push the fluid to CV) where the fluid pressure is
P and the cross sectional area is A. The force acting on the piston is F = PA.

Flow direction
P
P

s
Fig. 4-3: schematic for flow work.
The work done in pushing the fluid is:
Wflow = F.s = PA.s = PV (kJ)
or in a unit basis,
wflow = Wflow / m = Pv (kJ/kg)
Note that the flow work is expressed in terms of properties.
The flow work can also be written as a rate equation.
The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possesses an additional form of
energy (flow energy Pv). Therefore, the total energy of a flowing fluid on a unit-
mass basis (denoted by θ) becomes:
θ = Pv + e = Pv + (u + ke + pe) (kJ/kg)
Recall that enthalpy is defined as: h = u + Pv. Therefore, the above equation
becomes:
θ = h + ke + pe = h + C2 / 2 + gz (kJ/kg)
The property θ is called methalpy. By using enthalpy instead of internal energy,
the energy associated with flow work into/out of control volume is automatically
taken care of. This is the main reason that enthalpy is defined!

Steady-State Flow Process


A process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily is called
steady-state process. A large number of devices such as turbines, compressors,
and nozzles operates under the same conditions for a long time and can be
modeled (classified) as steady-flow devices.
The term steady implies no change with time. The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
A steady flow is characterized by the following:
1- No properties within the CV change with time. Thus, volume, mass, and energy of
CV remains constant. As a result, the boundary work is zero. Also, total mass entering
the CV must be equal to total mass leaving CV.
2- No properties change at the boundary of the CV with time. It means that the mass
flow rate and the properties of the fluid at an opening must remain constant during a
steady flow.
3- The heat and mass interactions between the CV and its surroundings do not change
with time.
Using the above observation, the conservation of energy principle for a general
steady-flow system with multiple inlets and exits can be written as:

Engineering applications of steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E.)


1) Water Turbine
Refer to Fig. 4-4. In a water turbine, water is supplied from a height. The potential
energy of water is converted into kinetic energy when it enters into the turbine and part
of it is converted into useful work which is used to generate electricity.
Considering centre of turbine shaft as datum, the energy equation can be written as
follows:
W is positive because work is done by the system (or work comes out of the boundary).

Fig. 4-4: Water Turbine

2) Steam or Gas Turbine


In a steam or gas turbine steam or gas is passed through the turbine and part of its
energy is converted into work in the turbine. This output of the turbine runs a generator
to produce electricity as shown in Fig. 4-5. The steam or gas leaves the turbine at
lower pressure or temperature.

Fig. 4-5: Gas Turbine


3) Centrifugal Water Pump
A centrifugal water pump draws water from a lower level and pumps to higher level as
shown in Fig. 4-6. Work is required to run the pump and this may be supplied from an
external source such as an electric motor or a diesel engine.

Fig. 4-6: Centrifugal Water Pump

Here Q = 0 and ∆ u = 0 as there is no change in temperature of water; v1 = v2= v.


Applying the energy equation to the system

The sign of W is negative because work is done on the system (or work enters the
boundary).

4) Centrifugal Compressor
Refer to Fig. 4-7. A centrifugal compressor compresses air and supplies the same at
moderate pressure and in large quantity.
Applying energy equation to the system (fig. 4-7) and taking Δ z =0

The Q is taken as negative as heat is lost from the system and W is taken as negative
as work is supplied to the system.
Fig. 4-7: Centrifugal compressor
5) Boiler
A boiler transfers heat to the incoming water and generates the steam. The system
is shown in Fig. 4-8.

Fig. 4-8: Boiler

6) Nozzles and Diffusers


A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down
The cross-sectional area of a nozzle decreases in the flow direction for subsonic
flows and increase for supersonic flows.
Fig. 4-9: Schematic for a Nozzle

For a nozzle, common assumptions and idealizations are:

Q° = 0, no time for heat transfer, due to high velocity


W° = 0, nozzles include no shaft or electric resistance wires
∆PE = 0, no change in fluid elevation
Mass equation for nozzles becomes:
m°1 = m°2 or ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2

Diffusers are exactly the same device as nozzles; the only difference is the
direction of the flow. Thus, all equations derived for nozzles hold for diffusers.

Fig. 4-10: Schematic for diffuser


Other thermodynamic devices include which uses steady flow energy equations
include; Condensers, evaporators, heat exchangers, mixing chambers, throttling
valves etc.
Example 1
In a gas turbine unit, the gases flow through the turbine is 15kg/s and the power
developed by the turbine is 12000kW. The enthalpies of gases at the inlet and outlet
are 1260 kJ/kg and 400 kJ/kg respectively, and the velocity of gases at the inlet and
outlet are 50 m/s and 110 m/s respectively. Calculate:
i. The rate at which heat is rejected to the turbine, and
ii. The area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases at the
inlet is 0.45 m3/kg.
Solution
Rate of flow of gases, m = 15 kg/s
Volume of gases at the inlet, v = 0.45 m3/kg
Power developed by the turbine, P = 12000 kW
∴ Work done, 800 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of gases at the inlet, h1 = 1260 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of gases at the outlet, h2 = 400 kJ/kg
Velocity of gases at the inlet, C1 = 50 m/s
Velocity of gases at the outlet, C2 = 110 m/s.

i. Heat rejected, Q :
Using the flow equation,

ii. Inlet area, A:


Using the relation,
Example 2
Steam enters a turbine at steady state with a mass flow rate of 4600 kg/h. The turbine
develops a power output of 1000 kW. At the inlet the pressure is 0.05 MPa, the
temperature is 400 °C, and the velocity is10 m/s. At the exit, the pressure is 10kPa,
the quality is 0.9, and the velocity is 50 m/s. Calculate the rate of heat transferbetween
the turbine and surroundings, in kW.
Solution
Assumptions:
Steady-state operation. The change in potential energy is negligible.The
energy balance for the turbine is:

Schematic for turbine.


Using steam table, h1 = 3278.9 kJ/kg,
x = 0.9,
h2 = hf + x2 hfg = 191.83 kJ/kg + 0.9(2392.8 kJ/kg) = 2345.35 kJ/kgTherefore,
h2 – h1 = 2345.35 – 3278.9 = -933.55 kJ/kg
The specific kinetic energy change is

Note that change in specific kinetic energy is very small. Also Q°CV is small
compared to W°CV. The negative sign in Q°CV means that heat transfer is from CVto
surroundings.
Example 3
In an air compressor air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5 kg/s through an air compressor.
It enters the compressor at 6 m/s with a pressure of 1 bar and a specific volume of
0.85 m3/kg and leaves at 5 m/s with a pressure of 7 bar and a specific volume of 0.16
m3/kg. The internal energy of the air leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater than that of the air
entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air
at the rate of 60 kJ/s. Calculate:
i. The power required to drive the compressor
ii. The inlet and output pipe cross-sectional areas

Solution
Air flow rate through the compressor, ṁ = 0.5 kg/s
Velocity of air at the inlet to compressor, C1 = 6 m/s
Velocity of air at the outlet of compressor, C2 = 5 m/s
Pressure of air at the inlet to the compressor, p1 = 1 bar

Pressure of air at outlet to the compressor, p2 = 7 bar


Specific volume of air at inlet to the compressor, v1 = 0.85 m3/kg
Specific volume of air at outlet to the compressor, v2 = 0.16 m3/kg
Difference of internal energy at the outlet and inlet of the compressor,
(u2 – u1) = 90 kJ/kg
Heat rejected by air (to cooling water),

i) Power required to drive the compressor:


Using the steady flow energy equation,

Note that the change in kinetic energy is negligibly small in comparison with the other
terms).
i.e., Work input required = 237 kJ/kg = 237 × 0.5 kJ/s = 118.5 kW
Hence, power required to drive the compressor =118.5kW. Ans.)
ii) Inlet and outlet pipe cross-sectional areas, A1 and A2:
Using the relation,

Note. In this example, the steady flow energy equation has been used, despite the fact the
compression consists of: suction of air; compression in a closed cylinder; and discharge of
air. The steady flow equation can be used because the cycle of processes takes place many
times in a minute, and therefore, average effect is steady flow of air through the machine.

Example 4
In a steam plant, 1 kg of water per second is supplied to the boiler. The enthalpy and
velocity of water entering the boiler are 800 kJ/kg and 5 m/s. The water receives 2200
kJ/kg of heat in the boiler at constant pressure. The steam after passing through the
turbine comes out with a velocity of 50 m/s, and its enthalpy is 2520 kJ/kg. The inlet
is 4 m above the turbine exit. Assuming the heat losses from the boiler and the turbine
to the surroundings are 20 kJ/s, calculate the power developed by the turbine.
Consider the boiler and turbine as single system.
Solution.
Enthalpy of water entering the boiler, h1 = 800 kJ/kg
Velocity of water entering the boiler, C1 = 5 m/s
Enthalpy of steam at the outlet of the turbine, h2 = 2520 kJ/kg
Velocity of steam at the outlet of the turbine, C2 = 50 m/s
Elevation difference, (Z1 – Z2) = 4 m
Net heat added to the water in the boiler, Q = 2200 – 20 = 2180 kJ/kg
Power developed by the turbine:
Using the flow equation,
Example 5
Steam enters a converging-diverging nozzle operating at steady state with P1 =
0.05MPa, T1 = 400 °C and a velocity of 10 m/s. The steam flows through the nozzle
with negligible heat transfer and no significant change in potential energy. At the exit,
P2 = 0.01 MPa, and the velocity is 665 m/s. The mass flow rate is 2 kg/s. Determine
the exit area of the nozzle, in m2.
Solution
Assumptions:
1. Steady state operation of the nozzle
2. Work and heat transfer are negligible, Q° = W°= 0.
3. Change in potential energy from inlet to exit is negligible, ∆PE = 0.
The exit area can be calculated from the mass flow rate m°:
A2 = m°v2 / V2
We need the specific volume at state 2. So, state 2 must be found. The pressure at
the exit is given; to fix the state 2 another property is required. From the energy
equation enthalpy can be found:

From Table of properties (steam table) h1 = 3278.9 kJ/kg and velocities are given.

Converging- diverging nozzle

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