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CIE A Level Biology
Revision Notes
A Level Biology CIE Revision Notes
16. Inheritance
16.1 Passage of Information from Parents to O!spring
16.1.5 Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation
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First teaching 2020
Last exams 2024
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16.1.5 Meiosis:
Sources of Genetic
Variation
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Meiosis: Sources of Genetic
Variation
Having genetically di!erent o!spring
can be advantageous for natural
selection
Meiosis has several mechanisms that
increase the genetic diversity of
gametes produced
Both crossing over and independent
assortment (random orientation) result in
di!erent combinations of alleles in
gametes
Crossing over
Crossing over is the process by which
non-sister chromatids exchange alleles
Process:
During meiosis I homologous
chromosomes pair up and are in very
close proximity to each other
The non-sister chromatids can
cross over and get entangled
These crossing points are called
chiasmata
The entanglement places stress on
the DNA molecules
As a result of this a section of
chromatid from one chromosome
may break and rejoin with the
chromatid from the other
chromosome
This swapping of alleles is significant as it
can result in a new combination of alleles
on the two chromosomes
There is usually at least one, if not more,
chiasmata present in each bivalent
during meiosis
Crossing over is more likely to occur
further down the chromosome away
from the centromere
Crossing over of non-sister chromatids
leading to the exchange of genetic material
Independent assortment
Independent assortment is the
production of di!erent combinations of
alleles in daughter cells due to the
random alignment of homologous pairs
along the equator of the spindle during
metaphase I
The di!erent combinations of
chromosomes in daughter cells
increases genetic variation between
gametes
In prophase I homologous chromosomes
pair up and in metaphase I they are pulled
towards the equator of the spindle
Each pair can be arranged with
either chromosome on top, this is
completely random
The orientation of one homologous
pair is independent / una!ected by
the orientation of any other pair
The homologous chromosomes are then
separated and pulled apart to di!erent
poles
The combination of alleles that end up in
each daughter cell depends on how the
pairs of homologous chromosomes
were lined up
To work out the number of di!erent
possible chromosome combinations the
formula 2n can be used, where n
corresponds to the number of
chromosomes in a haploid cell
For humans this is 223 which calculates as
8 324 608 di!erent combinations
Independent assortment of homologous
chromosomes leading to di!erent genetic
combinations in daughter cells
Exam Tip
Several sources of genetic variation have
been outlined above. It is also worth
remembering that genetic variation can
occur on an even smaller scale than
chromosomes. Mutations can occur within
genes. A random mutation that takes place
during DNA replication can lead to the
production of new alleles and increased
genetic variation.
Fusion of Gametes
Meiosis creates genetic variation
between the gametes produced by an
individual through crossing over and
independent assortment
This means each gamete carries
substantially di!erent alleles
During fertilization any male gamete can
fuse with any female gamete to form a
zygote
This random fusion of gametes at
fertilization creates genetic variation
between zygotes as each will have a
unique combination of alleles
There is an almost zero chance of
individual organisms resulting from
successive sexual reproduction being
genetically identical
How meiosis and the random fusion of
gametes a!ects genetic variation
Feedback
Exam Tip
These sources of genetic variation explain
why relatives can di!er so much from each
other. Even with the same parents,
individuals can be genetically distinct due to
the processes outlined above.
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16. Inheritance
16.1 Passage of Information fro…
16.1.1 Haploid Cells & Diploid Cells
16.1.2 Homologous Chromosomes
16.1.3 Meiosis in Animal & Plant Cells
16.1.4 Identifying the Stages of Meiosis
16.1.5 Meiosis: Sources of Genetic
Variation
16.2 The Roles of Genes in Deter…
16.3 Gene Control
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