Defining Social Skills

Steven G. Little, John Swangler,

and Angeleque Akin-Little

As a psychologist who works primarily with To illustrate the wide variety of definitions of
­children and youth, it is clear that parents and social skills, an internet search yielded these defi­
teachers frequently identify “social skills” as a nitions. “These are the skills that allow a person
primary concern. The variability in what they to interact and to act appropriately in given social
mean by “social skills” is tremendous however. It contexts” (http://psychologydictionary.org/
could be a simple as not making consistent eye social-skills/). “Social skills are ways of dealing
contact when conversing with someone, to inter­ with others that create healthy and positive inter­
rupting others, to aggression, and other mala­ actions” (http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-
daptive behaviors. While there may be no one are-social-skills-in-children-development-defini­
accepted definition of social skills, our under­ tion-teaching-techniques.html). “The personal
standing of social skills has come a long way skills needed for successful social communica­
since Libet and Lewinsohn (1973, p. 311) defined tion and interaction” (http://www.dictionary.
social skills as the “complex ability to maximize com/browse/social-skills). “Social skills are the
the rate of positive reinforcement and to mini­ skills we use to communicate and interact with
mize the strength of punishment elicited from each other, both verbally and non-verbally,
others.” This chapter will present a number of through gestures, body language and our per­
definitions and methods of assessing social defi­ sonal appearance” (http://www.skillsyouneed.
cits and excesses with a focus on translating these com/ips/social-skills.html). “The skills that are
definitions into an understanding of common dis­ necessary in order to communicate and interact
orders involving social skills and methods of with others” (http://www.collinsdictionary.com/
operationalizing social skill/competence. dictionary/english/social-skills). “A level of
interpersonal savvy, which often determines
future social adjustment and success” (http://
medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/
Social+skills). “Social skill is any skill facilitat­
S.G. Little (*) ing interaction and communication with others”
Walden University, Minneapolis, MN, USA
e-mail: [email protected] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_skills).
The two most common threads throughout
J. Swangler
Phoenix, AZ, USA these definitions involve communication and
interaction with others, and while these defini­
A. Akin-Little
Akin-Little and Little Behavioral Psychology tions are outside the confines of traditional schol­
Consultants, Malone, NY, USA arly literature, they reflect the consensus within

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 9

J.L. Matson (ed.), Handbook of Social Behavior and Skills in Children, Autism and Child
Psychopathology Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-64592-6_2
10 S.G. Little et al.

scholarly writing. For example, Gresham and putting) and how these contributed to the final
Elliott (1984) defined social skills as socially score. These are analogous to social skills. The
acceptable learned behaviors that enable a person remainder of this chapter will focus on social
to interact with others in ways that elicit positive skills.
responses and assist in avoiding negative Gresham (1986, 1997) categorized social
responses. Phillips (1978) defined social skills as skills into three definitional areas: peer accep­
the interaction between a person and his/her envi­ tance, behavioral, and social validity. The peer
ronment and the ability to begin and sustain inter­ acceptance definition uses peer acceptance or
personal relationships. Cook, Gresham, Barreras, popularity to define social skills (Oden & Asher,
Thornton, and Crews (2008) described social 1977). In other words, children accepted and
skills as involving learned behaviors that involve thought of as popular by their peers are consid­
interactions with others which enable individuals ered socially skilled via peer-referenced assess­
to function competently at social tasks. Ladd ment procedures such as sociometric assessment
(2005) identified culturally associated learned (Frick, Barry, & Kamphaus, 2010; Gresham &
behaviors exhibited during interactions between Little, 1992). However, this definition defines
a child and peers and adults as comprising social social skills by their outcome and fails to identify
skills. While social skills definitions may vary the specific behaviors which lead to peer accep­
somewhat, there is some basic agreement as to tance. The behavioral definition, however,
how social skills are developed. Specifically, focuses on situation-specific behaviors that maxi­
social skills involve specific learned behaviors, mize the probability of reinforcement while
are comprised of both initiation and response decreasing the probability of punishment (Foster
behaviors, and entail interactions with others. & Ritchey, 1979; Libet & Lewinsohn, 1973).
These skills are also socially reinforced and This definition allows social behavior to be speci­
denote skills that are context specific. Simply put, fied and operationalized for measurement and
social skills are those skills that enable individu­ intervention. However, it does not ensure that the
als to function competently at social tasks (Cook identified social behaviors are socially significant
et al., 2008). or socially relevant. The social validity definition
Related to social skills is the term social com­ defines social skills as exhibiting behaviors that
petence. Social competence, however, is believed predict important social outcomes in particular
to reflect social judgment about the quality of an situations (Gresham, 1983; Kazdin, 1977; Wolf,
individual’s performance, while social skills con­ 1978). Gresham (1986) sees this definition as a
sist of specific skills that form the basis for hybrid of the peer acceptance and behavioral
socially competent behavior (Hops, 1983). Social definitions.
skills are considered to be the “most malleable of Gresham (1986) goes on to discuss social
the components of social competence” (Elliott & skills difficulty as categorized into four types:
Busse, 1991, p. 64). Semrud-Clikeman (2007) skill deficits, performance deficits, self-control
described social competence as consisting of skill deficits, and self-control performance defi­
social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral com­ cits. Skill deficits are present when the individual
ponents needed for successful social adaptation. lacks the skills needed for appropriate social
Social skills can be thought of as the behavioral interaction. It is this definition of social skills
component of Semrud-Clikeman’s definition. deficit that some have used when advocating for
Greenspan (1981) provided an interesting anal­ social skills deficits as a specific learning disabil­
ogy that helps clarify the distinction between ity (Gresham & Elliott, 1989). Performance defi­
social skills and social competence. Competence cits categorize children who possess the capability
as a golfer is usually defined by the outcome, the of performing the behavior but do not perform
final score. This is analogous to social compe­ these behaviors at an acceptable level due to fac­
tence. The golf score, however, tells us nothing tors such as motivation or lack of opportunity. If
about the skills (e.g., driving, approach shots, you observe situation-specific performance of the
Defining Social Skills 11

behavior (e.g., at home but not at school), it is Children, Third Edition; BASC-3; Reynolds &
most likely a performance deficit. Self-control Kampaus, 2015; Achenbach system of empiri­
skill deficits are identified when an individual has cally based assessment; Achenbach et al., 2004),
not learned a social skill due to some sort of emo­ and autism rating scales (Childhood Autism
tional arousal. For example, anxiety interferes Rating Scale, Second Edition; CARS-2; Schopler,
with learning the social skill. Finally, self-controlVan Bourgondien, Wellman, & Love, 2010:
performance deficits also involve interference Gilliam Autism Rating Scale; GARS-3, Gilliam,
from emotional arousal, but in this case it has not 2014). In addition, sociometric ratings such as
interfered with the acquisition of the behavior but peer nominations are also frequently used. The
rather with its performance. following section will review various measures
Constantino, Przybeck, Friesen, and Todd and describe the dimensions of the social skills
(2000) defined social skills in part through five defined and assessed in each.
components: social awareness, social cognition, Social Skills Improvement System Rating
social communication, social motivation, and Scales (SSIS). The SSIS (Gresham & Elliott,
autistic mannerisms. Social awareness involves 2008) is probably the most comprehensive norm-­
the ability to recognize social cues and represents referenced measure to screen and classify chil­
the sensory aspects of reciprocal behavior. Social dren and youth suspected of having significant
cognition is the ability to interpret social cues social skills deficits. With an age range of 3–18,
once they are identified and represents the the SSIS consists of four components. The main
cognitive-­interpretive aspect of reciprocal behav­ measure, the social skills scale, measures positive
ior. Social communication includes behaviors social behaviors while interacting with others.
such as expressive social communication and The behavior problems scale focuses on negative
represents the motoric aspect of reciprocal behav­ behaviors that compete with social competence
ior. Social motivation incorporates factors such and may be needed to be addressed in interven­
as social anxiety, inhibition, and empathic orien­ tion planning. The autism spectrum subscale pro­
tation that influence the individual’s motivation vides a screen of ASD symptomology, and the
to respond in a socially responsive manner. academic competence scale consists of a teach­
Finally, autistic mannerisms include aspects of er’s rating of academic performance relative to
ASD such as stereotyped behaviors and highly classmates. Social skills, as defined by the social
restricted interests that, while idiosyncratic, need skills scale, consist of seven domains of social
to be addressed in any intervention designed to behavior (Table 1) that the test authors identify as
improve social functioning. important: communication, cooperation, asser­
tion, responsibility, empathy, engagement, and
self-control. The communication subscale
Operationalizing Social Skills includes behaviors such as making eye contact
when talking and saying “please” and “thank
In practice social skills are most likely going to you.” The cooperation subscale includes behav­
be defined based on the measure used to assess iors such as following rules and completing tasks
the construct. There are a number of norm-­ without bothering others. The assertion subscale
referenced measures that either focus primarily includes behaviors such as asks for help when
on social skills or have a social skills dimension. needed and says when there’s a problem. The
These include comprehensive measures of social responsibility subscale includes behaviors such
skills (e.g., social skills improvement system rat­ as respects the property of others and is well
ing scales, SSIS; Gresham & Elliott, 2008), adap­ behaved when unsupervised. The empathy sub­
tive behavior measures (e.g., Vineland Adaptive scale includes behaviors such as tries to comfort
Behavior Scales, Third Edition; Sparrow, others and feels bad when others are sad. The
Cicchetti, & Saulnier, 2016), behavior rating engagement subscale includes behaviors such as
scales (e.g., Behavior Assessment System for invites others to join in activities, makes friends
12 S.G. Little et al.

Table 1 Operationalization of social skills on common norm-referenced assessments

SSIS Vineland-3 GARS-3 CARS BASC-3 ASEBA/CBCL
Communication Interpersonal Social interaction, Relating to Social Social
relationships people skills competence
Cooperation Play and leisure Social Imitation
time communication
Assertion Coping skills Emotional
response
Responsibility Communication Social-emotional
understanding
Empathy
Engagement
Engagement
Self-control

easily, and introduces himself to others. Finally, awareness of manners, social sensitivity, and fol­
the self-control subscale includes behaviors such lowing social rules.
as stays calm when teased and uses appropriate Behavior Assessment System for Children,
behavior when upset. Third Edition (BASC-3). The BASC-3 (Reynolds
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Third & Kampaus, 2015) is a comprehensive set of rat­
Edition. The Vineland (Sparrow et al., 2016) is an ing scales which include the teacher rating scales
individually administered measure of adaptive (TRS), parent rating scales (PRS), self-report of
behavior. The publisher describes the purpose of personality (SRP), student observation system
the Vineland as aiding in diagnosing and classi­ (SOS), and structured developmental history
fying intellectual and developmental disabilities (SDH), the purpose of which is to provide a com­
and other disorders, such as autism. It is orga­ plete picture of a child’s behavior. Both the TRS
nized using the three domains of adaptive func­ and PRS include a social skills scale which is
tioning specified by the American Association on defined as “the skills necessary for interacting
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities and successfully with peers and adults in home,
by DSM-5: communication, daily living skills, school, and community settings” (Pearson
and socialization. Social skills are assessed in Education, 2016, p. 4). In addition, both the TRS
both the communication and socialization and PRS include a functional communication
domains (Table 1). Communication is broken scale which is also related to social skills. It is
down into expressive, receptive, and written sub­ defined as “the ability to express ideas and com­
domains with the expressive and receptive subdo­ municate in a way others can easily understand”
mains most related to social skills. Receptive (Pearson Education, 2016, p. 4) (Table 1).
communication is the process of receiving and Achenbach System of Empirically Based
understanding a message, while expressive com­ Assessment (ASEBS). The ASEBA (Achenbach
munication involves the way one conveys the et al., 2004) provides a comprehensive approach
message to others. The socialization domain is to assessing adaptive and maladaptive function­
broken down into three subdomains: interper­ ing in children and youth. The child behavior
sonal relationships, play and leisure, and coping checklist (CBCL) is the primary behavior rating
skills. Interpersonal relationships cover social scale component of the ASEBA and consists of
interaction, dating, and friendship skills. Play the CBCL/1½–5 and C-TRF for preschoolers and
and leisure consists of behaviors such as going to the CBCL, teacher report form (TRF), and youth
clubs, playing games, hobbies, and leisure activi­ self-report (YSR) for school age children. All
ties. Lastly coping skills includes factors such as versions of the CBCL are completed by parents
or surrogates, while the TRF is completed by
Defining Social Skills 13

teachers or other school staff. In addition, the sion is “appropriate imitation. The child can imi­
preschool CBCL contains a language develop­ tate sounds, words, and movements that are
ment survey (LDS) which assesses a child’s appropriate for his or her skill set” (Perry,
vocabulary and word combinations relative to Condillac, Freeman, Dunn-Geier, & Belair, 2005,
norms for ages 18–35 months. Social skills is p. 629). A second example is “mildly abnormal
defined primarily by the social competence scale imitation. The child imitates simple behaviors”
and social problems syndrome scale of the CBCL (Perry et al., 2005, p. 629).
(Table 1). Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS-3). The
The social competence scale on the CBCL, GARS-3 (Gilliam, 2014) is a norm-referenced
TRF, and YSR assesses participation in group screening instrument used to “identify persons
activities and social relationships. Informants are [ages 3–22 years] who have autism spectrum dis­
asked to list the number of clubs/teams organiza­ orders [ASD]” (manual, p. 1). Based on the diag­
tions in which the child participates, involvement nostic criteria of the DSM-5, the GARS-3 is
in jobs/chores, the number of friends the child composed of six subscales, two descriptive of the
has, and number of times he/she interacts with DSM-5 domain of deficits in social communica­
friends. In addition, informants are asked to rate tion and interaction and four descriptive of the
how well or how frequently the child performs repetitive behavior domain, yielding six standard
these actions compared to same age peers. This scores and an autism index. Social skills is
scale is believed to be a positive indicator of defined based on the social interaction and social
social functioning. The social problems scale on communication subscales (Table 1). Social inter­
the CBCL, TRF, and YSR assesses immature action is defined as a child’s ability to relate
social behaviors and difficulties in peer relation­ appropriately to people, events, and objects.
ships. Examples of items from this scale include Examples of behaviors assessed on this subscale
“clings to adults or too dependent,” “gets teased,” include behaviors such as making eye contact,
“not liked,” “too dependent,” “prefers being with recognizing the presence of others, and laughs,
younger children,” and “lonely.” This scale is giggles, and cries appropriately. Social commu­
believed to be a negative indicator of social nication involves behaviors of social reciprocity
functioning. (social interaction, social skills) and the behav­
Childhood Autism Rating Scale, Second iors of communication and language that result in
Edition (CARS-2). The CARS-2 (Schopler et al., one’s ability to communicate socially. Examples
2010) is designed to identify behavioral symp­ of behaviors assessed on this subscale include
toms of autism. The standard version (CARS-­ initiating conversations with peers or adults,
2-­ST) is used with children below ages 6 and using “yes” and “no” appropriately, using pro­
those with communication deficits or an esti­ nouns appropriately, and using the word “I”
mated IQ of 79 or below. The high-functioning appropriately.
version (CARS-2-HF) is designed for children Sociometric Ratings. Sociometric assessment
age 6 and up with estimated IQ above 80. The involves the measurement of interpersonal rela­
standard version is designed to be completed by tionships in the context of a social group such as
parents or caregivers and provides scores on 16 a classroom with the goal of gaining information
dimensions. Included in these dimensions are about an individual’s social competence and
relating to people, imitation, emotional response, standing within a peer group. This includes
and social-emotional understanding all of which dimensions such as social popularity, peer accep­
relate to social skills and aid in assessing the tance, peer rejection, and reputation (Merrell,
DSM-5 ASD diagnostic criteria for “persistent 1999). The most widely used sociometric rating
deficits in social communication and social inter­ technique is peer nomination which involves
action across multiple contexts” (American individuals in a group (e.g., classroom) are asked
Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 50) (Table 1). to nominate peers he or she likes most or likes
An example of an item from the imitation dimen­ least (Gresham & Little, 1992; Poulin & Dishion,
14 S.G. Little et al.

2008). The nominations received are tallied and tions (e.g., outside to inside), and making and
used to create sociometric categories (rejected, keeping friends. According to the DSM-5
popular, controversial, neglected, and average) or (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 48),
a continuous index of peer status (acceptance, “the deficits result in functional limitations in
rejection, social preference) (Coie, Dodge, & effective communication, social participation,
Coppotelli, 1982). Peer ratings are involved pro­ social relationships, academic achievement, or
viding a list of children’s names in the social occupational performance, individually or in
group along with a rating for social acceptance combination.”
items such as “The most fun to play with” on a Autism spectrum disorder. Social skills defi­
three- or five-point Likert scale. Sociometric rat­ cits comprise one of the essential features of
ings can also be completed by adults (e.g., a autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This is defined
teacher) who have had opportunities to observe as “persistent deficits in social communication
children in the group in multiple contexts. The and social interaction across multiple contexts”
ratings can be on any social dimension but tend to (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 50)
be similar to those used with children in peer rat­ and is composed of three specific areas of deficit:
ings. While these techniques have been used (a) social emotional reciprocity (e.g., failure of
more in research than in practice (McClelland & normal back and forth conversation), (b) nonver­
Scalzo, 2006), they do provide an interesting bal communication used in social interactions
manner in which to operationalize social skills. (e.g., abnormalities in eye contact), and (c)
“developing, maintaining, and understanding
relationships” (p. 50) (e.g., difficulty in making
Social Skills and Disability friends). The DSM-5 also specifies that these
deficits are “pervasive and sustained” and are
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental present from early development.
Disorders (DSM 5, American Psychiatric Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia).
Association, 2013) contains only one disorder in Unlike SCD or ASD which tends to be diagnosed
which social skill-related behavior is included in relatively early in child development, social anxi­
the title, social (pragmatic) communication dis­ ety disorder (SAD) typically develops in later
order. Social skills, however, contribute greatly to childhood and early adolescence with a median
the diagnostic criteria of a number of other disor­ age of onset of 13 years (American Psychiatric
ders including autism spectrum disorder, intellec­ Association, 2013). SAD also differs from the
tual disability, attention-deficit/hyperactivity social skills deficits essential to SCD and ASD as
disorder, and social anxiety disorder. the etiology is thought to be due more to behav­
Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder. ioral inhibition, as opposed to an actual deficit in
Social (pragmatic) communication disorder social skills (Angélico, Crippa, & Loureiro,
(SCD) encompasses problems with social inter­ 2013). SAD is defined by timidity, distress, and
action, social understanding, and pragmatics avoidance in/of social settings (Beidel, Rao,
(using language in proper context). SCD is dif­ Scharfstein, Wong, & Alfano, 2010), and it may
ferentiated from autism spectrum disorder (ASD) be best described as an impairment in social
in that ASD includes the presence of restrictive/ skills rather than a deficit. DSM-5 diagnostic cri­
repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and teria describe these impairments as marked by
activities which are not present in SCD. Both ver­ fear and anxiety of social situations in which the
bal and nonverbal social communication skills individual is exposed to possible scrutiny from
define the social skills deficits associated with others which in turn impairs social interactions
SCD, including using gestures, reciprocal talking (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
or playing, maintaining focus on the topic being Intellectual Disability. The DSM-5 (American
discussed, adjusting speech to conform to Psychiatric Association, 2013) describes intellec­
changes in people (e.g., child to adult) or situa­ tual disability (ID) as impairment of general
Defining Social Skills 15

mental abilities that impact adaptive functioning it using a more social competence definition, but
in three domains. The conceptual domain con­ by using this definition, you may inadvertently
sists of functioning in areas such as language, ignore the requisite component behaviors that
reading, writing, math, reasoning, knowledge, contribute to an individual being considered
and memory. The social domain refers to empa­ socially skilled/competent. There is also a social
thy, social judgment, interpersonal communica­ validity component to social skills which defines
tion skills, the ability to make and retain social skills as exhibiting behaviors that predict
friendships, and similar capacities. The practical important social outcomes in particular situations
domain centers on self-management in areas (Gresham, 1983; Kazdin, 1977; Wolf, 1978)
such as personal care, job responsibilities, money which cannot be ignored.
management, recreation, and organizing school In practice social skills are most likely going
and work tasks. to be defined based on the measure used to assess
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The the construct. There are a number of norm-­
DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, referenced measures that either focus primarily
2013) defines attention-deficit hyperactivity dis­ on social skills or have a social skills dimension.
order (ADHD) as being characterized by symp­ These include comprehensive measures of social
toms of hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity skills, adaptive behavior measures, behavior rat­
that interfere with daily and occupational func­ ing scales, and autism rating scales as well as
tioning. While social skills deficits are not spe­ sociometric ratings (e.g., peer nominations) that
cifically identified in the ADHD diagnostic are used to assess an individual’s social standing
criteria, behaviors common to ADHD such as with a social group (e.g., a classroom). The most
inattention and impulsivity may interfere with comprehensive of these measures is the social
the development or expression of positive social skills improvement system rating scale (SSIS;
skills (Bunford, Evans, Becker, & Langberg, Gresham & Elliott, 2008) which assesses the
2015). For example, children with ADHD may areas of communication, cooperation, assertion,
not recognize how their behavior is affecting oth­ responsibility, empathy, engagement, and
ers. Behaviors such as interrupting or making self-control.
inappropriate comments may interfere with their Finally, it is important to understand social
making or maintaining friends. skills not only in the context of the normal range
of behavior. Social skills deficits contribute a
large component to many childhood disorders.
Summary While social skills deficits are a core component
of an autism spectrum diagnosis, it also plays an
Social skills are a common concern for both par­ important role in many other disorders including
ents and teachers. There are, however, many social (pragmatic) communication disorder,
ways to define and operationalize the construct. intellectual disability, attention-deficit/hyperac­
While definitions may vary on the specific behav­ tivity disorder, and social anxiety disorder.
iors, almost all involve aspects of social commu­
nication and interaction with others in a social
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