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Radio Frequency and Wireless Communications

Chapter · April 2004

DOI: 10.1002/047148296X.tie151

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Radio Frequency and Wireless Communications Security

Okechukwu Ugweje, The University of Akron

Introduction

Overview of RF Wireless
Communication Radio Wave
Propagation
Wireless Communication
Techniques Cellular
Communication
Elements of Wireless
Communication Security Security
of Wireless LANs
Emerging Technologies and
Security Standards Concluding
Remarks
Glossary

Cross
References
References

Key Words: cellular systems, CDMA, emerging technology,

1
 multipath channels, propagation, radio frequency, wireless
communications, wireless network security.
(Bảo mật Tần số Radio và Truyền thông không dây
Okechukwu Ugweje, Đại học Akron
Giới thiệu
Tổng quan về Bảo mật Truyền thông Tần số Radio và không dây
Phương pháp Truyền thông không dây
Các yếu tố của Bảo mật Truyền thông không dây
Bảo mật của Mạng LAN không dây
Các Công nghệ mới nổi và Tiêu chuẩn Bảo mật
Nhận xét kết luận
Thuật ngữ chuyên ngành
Các Từ khóa: hệ thống di động, CDMA, công nghệ mới nổi, kênh đa lộ, lan truyền,
tần số radio, truyền thông không dây, bảo mật mạng không dây.
)

Abstract

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview and

summary of the fundamental meaning and concepts of radio-frequency
and wireless communication systems. It begins with a

2
summary of the history of wireless communications in general, from the first
radio-frequency communication system to current cellular mobile radio
systems. It then proceeds with the concept of radio wave propagation, forms
of wireless communication systems and techniques, and the basic concept of
cellular mobile radio communication. It classifies wireless communications
into categories of related technology by grouping related concepts together.
It also introduces security concepts for wireless communication systems in
general and gives an example of security issues using the IEEE (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
802.11 wireless local area network. Finally, it reviews the current
wireless technologies as well as emerging technologies.
(Tóm tắt
Mục đích của chương này là cung cấp một tổng quan và tóm tắt về ý nghĩa và khái
niệm cơ bản của hệ thống truyền thông tần số radio và không dây. Chương bắt đầu
bằng việc tóm tắt lịch sử của truyền thông không dây nói chung, từ hệ thống truyền
thông tần số radio đầu tiên đến các hệ thống di động tần số radio hiện tại. Sau đó,
chương tiếp tục với khái niệm về lan truyền sóng radio, các hình thức của hệ thống và
kỹ thuật truyền thông không dây, và khái niệm cơ bản về truyền thông di động tần số
radio. Nó phân loại truyền thông không dây thành các loại công nghệ liên quan bằng
cách nhóm các khái niệm liên quan với nhau. Nó cũng giới thiệu các khái niệm về bảo
mật cho hệ thống truyền thông không dây nói chung và đưa ra một ví dụ về các vấn
đề bảo mật bằng cách sử dụng mạng khu vực không dây IEEE (Viện Kỹ thuật Điện và
Điện tử) 802.11. Cuối cùng, nó đánh giá các công nghệ không dây hiện tại cũng như
các công nghệ mới nổi.
)

INTRODUCTION

Radio-frequency (RF) wireless communication systems have been

around for many years with applications ranging from garage-door
3
 openers to satellite communication. The technologies cover a broad
range of capabilities oriented toward different uses and needs. These
technologies have been advancing at an unprecedented rate, and their
impact is evident in our daily lives. Less wiring means greater flexibility
and efficiency and reduced wiring costs. In many parts of the world,
wireless communication is the fastest growing area of the
communication industry, providing a valuable supplement and
alternative to existing wired networks (“Cellular communications
services,” n.d.). Based on the number of users of wireless
communication products and subscribers to services, it is now the
preferred method of communication (“Wireless Communications,
Market & Opportunities,”2000). Many systems formerly carried over
the wire are now carried over wireless media.

(GIỚI THIỆU
Các hệ thống truyền thông không dây tần số vô tuyến (RF) đã tồn tại trong nhiều năm
với các ứng dụng từ cửa mở cửa ga ra tới truyền thông vệ tinh. Các công nghệ này
bao gồm một loạt các khả năng hướng tới các ứng dụng và nhu cầu khác nhau. Các
công nghệ này đã tiến bộ với tốc độ chưa từng có, và tác động của chúng rõ ràng
trong cuộc sống hàng ngày của chúng ta. Việc giảm dây cáp cũng đồng nghĩa với sự
linh hoạt và hiệu suất tăng lên, đồng thời giảm chi phí dây cáp. Ở nhiều nơi trên thế
giới, truyền thông không dây là lĩnh vực truyền thông đang phát triển nhanh nhất,
cung cấp một phương tiện bổ sung và thay thế có giá trị cho các mạng dây hiện có
("Dịch vụ truyền thông di động", n.d.). Dựa trên số lượng người dùng các sản phẩm
truyền thông không dây và người đăng ký dịch vụ, truyền thông không dây hiện là
phương pháp giao tiếp được ưa chuộng nhất ("Truyền thông không dây, Thị trường &
Cơ hội," 2000). Nhiều hệ thống trước đây được truyền qua cáp giờ đây được truyền
qua phương tiện không dây
)

4
 The remarkable success of cellular mobile radio and other wireless
technology has fundamentally changed the way people communicate
and conduct business. The wireless revolution has led to a new multi-
billion-dollar wireless communications industry. Linking service areas,
wireless communication has altered the way business is conducted. For
example, with a laptop computer, a wireless modem, and a cellular
phone, a business consultant can contact his or her office and clients
and conduct business while traveling. Field service and sales personnel
can access corporate databases to check inventory status, prepare up-to-
the-minute price and delivery quotes, modify schedule activities, and
fulfill orders directly to the factory while traveling. Company personnel
can use two-way paging services to stay in close contact, even when
traditional wired communication services are available. Handheld
hybrid phone- computer-fax machines feed information to wireless
communication networks, allowing an executive to make decisions
while on a leisure outing.
(Sự thành công đáng kinh ngạc của radio di động và các công nghệ
không dây khác đã thay đổi cách con người giao tiếp và kinh doanh.
Cuộc cách mạng không dây đã dẫn đến một ngành truyền thông không
dây mới trị giá hàng tỷ đô la. Bằng cách kết nối các khu vực dịch vụ,
truyền thông không dây đã thay đổi cách kinh doanh được tiến hành. Ví
dụ, với một máy tính xách tay, một modem không dây và một điện
thoại di động, một nhà tư vấn kinh doanh có thể liên lạc với văn phòng
và khách hàng của mình và tiến hành kinh doanh trong khi di chuyển.
Nhân viên dịch vụ tại hiện trường và nhân viên kinh doanh có thể truy
cập vào cơ sở dữ liệu của công ty để kiểm tra tình trạng hàng tồn kho,
chuẩn bị báo giá giá và giao hàng theo phút, thay đổi hoạt động lịch
trình và đáp ứng đơn hàng trực tiếp đến nhà máy trong khi di chuyển.
Nhân viên công ty có thể sử dụng dịch vụ phân trang hai chiều để duy
trì liên lạc chặt chẽ, ngay cả khi có sẵn dịch vụ truyền thông dây truyền
thống. Máy điện thoại-fax-máy tính di động cầm tay truyền thông thông
5
 tin đến các mạng truyền thông không dây, cho phép một nhà quản lý
đưa ra quyết định trong khi đi nghỉ.)
For instance, wireless local area network (WLAN) devices allow users
to move their laptops from place to place within their office environment
without the need for wires and without losing network connectivity. Ad
hoc networks, such as those enabled by Bluetooth, allow data
synchronization with network systems and applications sharing between
devices. Bluetooth can also eliminate cables for printer and other
peripheral device connections. Handheld devices, such as personal
digital assistants (PDA) and cell phones, allow remote users to
synchronize personal databases, and they provide access to network
services such as wireless e-mail, Web browsing, and Internet access.
Moreover, these technologies offer dramatic cost savings and added
capabilities to diverse applications ranging from the retail setting to the
manufacturing shop floor to first responders.
(Ví dụ, các thiết bị mạng cục bộ không dây (WLAN) cho phép người dùng di chuyển
máy tính xách tay của họ từ nơi này đến nơi khác trong môi trường văi công ty mà
không cần sử dụng dây cáp và không mất kết nối mạng. Các mạng tạm thời, chẳng
hạn như những mạng được kích hoạt bởi Bluetooth, cho phép đồng bộ dữ liệu với hệ
thống mạng và chia sẻ ứng dụng giữa các thiết bị. Bluetooth cũng có thể loại bỏ các
cáp kết nối máy in và các thiết bị ngoại vi khác. Các thiết bị cầm tay như trợ lý số cá
nhân (PDA) và điện thoại di động cho phép người dùng từ xa đồng bộ cơ sở dữ liệu
cá nhân và truy cập vào các dịch vụ mạng như email không dây, duyệt web và truy
cập internet. Hơn nữa, các công nghệ này cung cấp tiết kiệm chi phí đáng kể và khả
năng bổ sung cho nhiều ứng dụng đa dạng từ môi trường bán lẻ cho đến mặt tiền nhà
máy sản xuất và người đầu tiên đáp ứng khẩn cấp.)

6
 Risk is typically associated with wireless communications
technology, because the airwaves can be accessed by intruders.
Potential risks include loss of confidentiality, loss of integrity, loss of
resource availability, and loss of proprietary information, to mention
only a few. Malicious users may gain access to the network and
intentionally corrupt the data by spreading viruses, or they may simply
launch attacks that prevent authorized users from accessing the network.
Even if data confidentiality or integrity is not compromised,
unauthorized users may steal bandwidth and cause a decrease in
network performance or use a vulnerable wireless network as a platform
for launching a network attack on a third party. These risks are not
peculiar to wireless systems, but the risks are exacerbated by the nature
of wireless connectivity.
(Rủi ro thường được liên kết với công nghệ truyền thông không dây,
vì sóng không gian có thể bị xâm nhập. Các rủi ro tiềm năng bao gồm
mất bảo mật, mất tính toàn vẹn, mất khả năng sử dụng tài nguyên và
mất thông tin độc quyền, chỉ đề cập đến một số rủi ro. Người dùng độc
hại có thể truy cập vào mạng và có ý định gian lận dữ liệu bằng cách lây
lan virus, hoặc đơn giản là tiến hành các cuộc tấn công ngăn người dùng
được ủy quyền truy cập vào mạng. Ngay cả khi bảo mật hoặc tính toàn
vẹn dữ liệu không bị xâm phạm, người dùng không được ủy quyền có
thể ăn cắp băng thông và gây giảm hiệu suất mạng hoặc sử dụng mạng
không dây có lỗ hổng làm nền tảng để tấn công mạng của bên thứ ba.
Những rủi ro này không đặc thù cho các hệ thống không dây, nhưng các
rủi ro này trở nên nghiêm trọng hơn do tính chất của kết nối không dây.)
This chapter presents a concise summary of the subject of radio
frequency (RF) and wireless communications and introduces the concept
of security for wireless communications. This includes a discussion of
the general concepts and definitions of RF-based wireless
communication, various forms and applications of RF wireless
communication, synopsis of radio wave propagation, the cellular
7
communication systems, and a general introduction of the security issues
in wireless communications in general and WLAN in particular. Also
presented is a summary of current and emerging wireless
communication technologies. Of particular interest is the cellular mobile
radio system, which has become the most widespread RF wireless
communication system.
(Chương này trình bày một bản tóm tắt ngắn gọn về chủ đề về tần số
vô tuyến (RF) và truyền thông không dây và giới thiệu khái niệm về bảo
mật cho truyền thông không dây. Điều này bao gồm một cuộc thảo luận
về các khái niệm và định nghĩa chung về truyền thông không dây dựa
trên RF, các hình thức và ứng dụng khác nhau của truyền thông không
dây RF, tóm lược về truyền sóng radio, các hệ thống truyền thông di
động và một sự giới thiệu tổng quát về các vấn đề bảo mật trong truyền
thông không dây nói chung và WLAN cụ thể. Ngoài ra, cũng trình bày
một bản tóm tắt về các công nghệ truyền thông không dây hiện tại và
mới nổi. Đặc biệt đáng chú ý là hệ thống radio di động, đã trở thành hệ
thống truyền thông không dây RF phổ biến nhất.)

RF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

RF wireless communication began at the turn of the 20th century, more

than 100 years ago, when Marconi established the first successful and
practical radio system. His experiment in 1895 demonstrated the
transmission of radio signals a distance of 2 kilometers (Proakis &
Salehi,

8
 2002). He conducted additional experiments leading to 1901 when his
radiotelegraph system transmitted radio signals across the Atlantic
Ocean, from England to Newfoundland, about 1,700 miles away
(“Mobile Telephone History,” n.d.). Only telegraphic codes were
transmitted, however. On December 24, 1906, Reginald Fessenden
accomplished the first radio communication of human speech over a
distance of 11 miles from Brant Rock, Massachusetts, to ships in the
Atlantic Ocean (“Mobile Telephone History,” n.d.). Radio was no
longer limited to telegraph codes; it was no longer just a wireless
telegraph. This was a remarkable milestone highlighting the beginning
of the voice-transmitted age.
In the early years of RF wireless communication, radio broadcasting
was the most deployed wireless communication technology. The
invention of the vacuum tube and vacuum triode hastened the
advancement in radio transmission of voice signals. Radio broadcast
by way of amplitude modulation (AM) and, later by frequency
modulation (FM), was made possible.
Amplitude modulation of the radio frequency was used to carry
information until FM was introduced in the late 1930s (Mark &
Zhuang, 2003). After FM was introduced by Armstrong (Lathi, 1998),
many other RF wireless systems such as television, one- and two-way
radio, and radar, were introduced between the late 1920s and the mid-
1950s. Another milestone was witnessed in the late 1970s, which
marked the beginning of the growth in cellular mobile radios and
personal communication services. The first successful commercial
analog cellular mobile telephone was demonstrated in 1979 (Durgin,
2003). Currently, wireless communication of all kinds abounds in our
society.
(Công nghệ truyền tin không dây RF bắt đầu từ đầu thế kỷ 20, hơn 100 năm trước, khi
Marconi thiết lập thành công hệ thống phát thanh đầu tiên trên thế giới. Thí nghiệm
của ông vào năm 1895 đã chứng minh việc truyền tín hiệu phát thanh qua khoảng

9
cách 2 km (Proakis & Salehi, 2002). Ông tiếp tục thực hiện các thí nghiệm và năm
1901, hệ thống điện tử của ông đã truyền tín hiệu phát thanh qua Đại Tây Dương từ
Anh sang Newfoundland, khoảng 1.700 dặm. Tuy nhiên chỉ mã Morse được truyền
tải. Ngày 24/12/1906, Reginald Fessenden đã thực hiện thành công truyền tín hiệu
thoại người qua khoảng cách 11 dặm từ Brant Rock, Massachusetts đến tàu thuyền
trên Đại Tây Dương (“Mobile Telephone History”, n.d.). Phát thanh không còn giới
hạn ở mã Morse; nó không còn chỉ là điện tử vô tuyến. Đây là một cột mốc đánh dấu
sự bắt đầu của thời đại truyền tin bằng giọng nói.
Trong những năm đầu của truyền tin vô tuyến RF, phát thanh là công nghệ truyền tin
không dây được triển khai rộng rãi nhất. Việc phát minh ra ống chân không và bộ
phận ba cực đã thúc đẩy sự phát triển của việc truyền tín hiệu giọng nói qua sóng vô
tuyến. Phát thanh bằng cách điều chế biên độ (AM) và sau này là điều chế tần số
(FM) đã trở thành có thể.
Điều chế biên độ của tần số vô tuyến được sử dụng để truyền thông tin cho đến khi
FM được giới thiệu vào cuối những năm 1930 (Mark & Zhuang, 2003). Sau khi
Armstrong giới thiệu FM (Lathi, 1998), nhiều hệ thống RF vô tuyến khác như truyền
hình, vô tuyến hai chiều, rađa đã được giới thiệu từ cuối những năm 1920 đến giữa
những năm 1950. Một cột mốc quan trọng khác được chứng kiến vào cuối những năm
1970, đánh dấu sự bắt đầu phát triển mạnh của điện thoại di động cũng như dịch vụ
viễn thông cá nhân. Điện thoại di động tương tự thương mại thành công đầu tiên được
giới thiệu vào năm 1979 (Durgin, 2003). Hiện nay, truyền thông tin không dây mọi
loại đã phổ biến rộng rãi trong xã hội.
)_
System Architecture

In RF wireless communication systems, radio waves are used to

transfer information between a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx). RF
systems can be classified as either terrestrial-based or

10
 space-based systems. Terrestrial-based systems include microwave
point-to-point, WLANs, and cellular mobile radio, to mention only a
few. Terrestrial microwave systems are limited in distance and line-of-
sight (LOS) propagation is the limiting factor. Relay towers with
carefully aligned directional antennas are often used to provide an
unobstructed path over an extended distance. The data signal is
processed, up- or down-converted, modulated or demodulated, filtered,
and amplified at the transceivers. The transmitted signal propagates
through the air and is attenuated by several propagation mechanisms
(discussed later in the chapter).
Space-based systems (e.g., satellites) are similar to terrestrial
microwave systems except that signals travel from earth-based ground
stations to a satellite (uplink), and a signal is sent back from the
satellite to another earth-based ground station (downlink). This
achieves a far wider coverage area than the earth-based systems. The
satellite system could be in geostationary earth orbit, medium earth
orbit, or low earth orbit.
A typical wireless communication system is shown in Figure 1. It
consists of a source of information, a hardware subsystem called the
transmitter, the channel or means by which the signal travels, another
hardware subsystem called the receiver, and a destination of the
information (the sink).
(Trong hệ thống truyền thông tin RF không dây, sóng vô tuyến được sử dụng để
truyền thông tin giữa bộ phát (Tx) và bộ thu (Rx). Hệ thống RF có thể được phân loại
là dựa trên mạng viễn thông trên mặt đất hoặc dựa trên vệ tinh. Các hệ thống dựa trên
mặt đất bao gồm điểm điểm sóng vi ba, WLAN và điện thoại di động, chỉ đề cập một
vài ví dụ. Hệ thống sóng vi ba trên mặt đất bị hạn chế về khoảng cách và yếu tố giới
hạn là tín hiệu truyền trực tiếp. Tháp truyền dẫn với anten hướng hướng được sử dụng
để cung cấp một đường truyền không bị che khuất trong khoảng cách xa hơn. Tín hiệu
dữ liệu được xử lý, lên xuống tần, điều chế hay giải điều chế, lọc và khuếch đại tại bộ
phát thu. Tín hiệu được phát đi truyền qua không trung và bị suy giảm do nhiều cơ

11
chế truyền sóng được đề cập chi tiết hơn trong chương sau.
Hệ thống dựa trên vệ tinh tương tự như hệ thống sóng vi ba trên mặt đất ngoại trừ tín
hiệu được truyền từ trạm mặt đất lên vệ tinh (uplink), và tín hiệu được gửi xuống từ
vệ tinh đến trạm mặt đất (downlink). Điều này đạt được phạm vi phủ sóng rộng hơn
so với hệ thống trên mặt đất. Hệ thống vệ tinh có thể nằm trên quỹ đạo địa tĩnh, quỹ
đạo trung gian hoặc quỹ đạo thấp.
Một hệ thống truyền thông vô tuyến thông thường được mô tả trong Hình 1. Nó gồm
nguồn thông tin, phần cứng bộ phát, kênh truyền sóng, phần cứng bộ thu và đích
thông tin.)

12
 Tx Pt, Gt
Antenna

Transmitter
Source Da Processes
IF RF

Amplifier LO Filter High Power

ta Amplifier

Oscillator
in

Transmitter
Propagation Effects
(reflection, refraction, distortion,
Channel loss, scattering, absorption, etc)

Receiver
Rx
Pr, Gr Antenna

Receiver
Data
Filter
RF IF
Filter
Processes
out Sin
Low Power
Amplifier Amplifier k
LO
Oscillator

Figure 1: Simplified model of terrestrial-based RF wireless communication

systems.

The source supplies the information to the transmitter in the form of

audio, video, data, or combination of the three. The Tx and Rx
combination is used to convert the signal into a form suitable for
transmission and then to convert the signal back to its original form.
This is achieved through the process of modulation (or encoding) at the
Tx side and demodulation (or decoding) at the Rx side. The channel is
the medium by which the signal propagates, such as free space,

13
unshielded twisted pair, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic cable. In wireless
communication the channel is the free space. Noise and interference is
added to the signal in the channel, which increases attenuation,
distortion, and eventually error in the received signal.
The transmitter and receiver are complex systems consisting of many
internal components. A block diagram representation of some of the
components is shown in Figure 1. Components are denoted as
transmitter processes, receiver processes, amplifiers, mixers, local
oscillators (LO), filters, and antennas. The transmitter processes
represents functions of the transmitter such as

14
modulation, encoding, analog-to-digital conversion, multiplexing,
addressing, and routing information. The receiver processes, on the
other hand, denote the inverse functions such as demodulation,
decoding, digital-to-analog conversion, and demultiplexing, as well as
addressing and routing information. Effective transmission and
reception of radio waves involves processes such as amplification and
filtering of the signal at various internal stages, mixing of the desired
signal with a local oscillator signal, translating the signal from one
frequency to another, and transmission or reception of the RF energy
through the antenna. The amplifier is characterized by its gain, noise
figure (or output power), and linearity (Weisman, 2003). The gain (in
dB) of the amplifier is a measure of how much bigger the output signal
is than the input signal. The noise figure (or noise ratio) is a measure of
the quality of the receiver system. Mixers are commonly found in the
Tx and Rx subsystems and are used to create new frequencies or
translate existing frequencies to new ones. They are sometimes called
up or down converters.
The most common translation of frequency is from intermediate
frequency (IF) to RF and vice versa. The mixer performs this function
by effectively multiplying two signals at two frequencies. A signal
source that provides one of the inputs to the mixer is the LO. A
common type of LO is a voltage-controlled oscillator. A function of
the filter is frequency selectivity.
Filters select signals based on their frequency components. Regardless
of the construction, all filters can be classified as low pass, high pass,
band pass, or band stop). These names are descriptive of the function of
the filter. For example, a low pass filter will select signals with low
frequency and reject signals with high frequency. A special type of filter
commonly used in RF systems is the duplexer, a frequency-dependent
device that may be used as a separator or a combiner of signals. The
duplexer facilitates the use of one antenna for both transmission and

15
 reception. The sink or destination (receiver) can vary as much as the
source (transmitter) insofar as the type of information processed.
In the RF propagation channel, external noise in the form of
manmade noise (generated by electrical manmade objects),
atmospheric noise, and extraterrestrial noise is introduced.
Atmospheric noise is produced by electrical activities of the
atmosphere. This type of noise is predominant in the range 0–30 MHz
and is inversely proportional to its frequency.
Extraterrestrial noise is produced by activities of the cosmos, including
the sun. The RF propagation channel is time variant, hence the
effectiveness of any system may vary because of the effects of
atmospheric electrical activities (mostly solar ionization), weather, and
random human-made noise sources. This time-variant channel requires
careful consideration in the design of any wireless communications
system.
In wireless communication, radio waves are used to transfer
information, and because radio waves propagate in space, they are
susceptible to some security risks. An intruder can intercept the signal
or gain access to network services, without being an authorized user.
The specific risk associated to wireless communication is presented
later.
(Hình 1 mô tả mô hình đơn giản hóa của hệ thống truyền thông RF không dây trên
mặt đất.
Nguồn cung cấp thông tin dưới dạng âm thanh, hình ảnh, dữ liệu hoặc kết hợp các
loại thông tin này cho bộ phát. Tổ hợp bộ phát và bộ thu được sử dụng để chuyển đổi
tín hiệu thành dạng phù hợp cho việc truyền và sau đó chuyển đổi lại về dạng ban
đầu. Quá trình này được thực hiện thông qua việc điều chế (mã hóa) ở phía bộ phát và
giải điều chế (giả mã) ở phía bộ thu. Kênh truyền là môi trường truyền sóng như
không gian tự do, cặp dây ghém chưa bao phủ, cáp đồng trục hoặc cáp quang. Trong
truyền thông vô tuyến, kênh truyền là không gian tự do. Nhiễu và gây nhiễu được

16
thêm vào tín hiệu trên kênh, làm tăng suy hao, méo mó và cuối cùng dẫn đến lỗi trong
tín hiệu thu được.
Bộ phát và thu là các hệ thống phức tạp bao gồm nhiều thành phần bên trong. Một
biểu diễn dạng khối của một số thành phần được mô tả trong Hình 1. Các thành phần
bao gồm quy trình bộ phát, quy trình bộ thu, khuếch đại, trộn tần, bộ phát điều khiển
địa phương (LO), bộ lọc và ăng ten. Quy trình bộ phát bao gồm các chức năng như
điều chế, mã hóa, chuyển đổi số analog thành số, ghép kênh, địa chỉ và định tuyến
thông tin. Quy trình bộ thu biểu thị các chức năng ngược lại như giải điều chế, giải
mã, chuyển đổi số kỹ thuật số thành tín hiệu analog, phân ghép kênh cũng như xử lý
địa chỉ và định tuyến thông tin. Truyền và thu sóng vô tuyến hiệu quả đòi hỏi quá
trình như khuếch đại, lọc tín hiệu ở các giai đoạn bên trong, trộn tín hiệu cần thiết với
tín hiệu bộ phát điều khiển địa phương, dịch chuyển tín hiệu từ tần số này sang tần số
khác và truyền/thu năng lượng RF qua ăng ten.
Kênh truyền RF bị ảnh hưởng bởi nhiễu nhân tạo do hoạt động của con người như
nhiễu do thiết bị điện tử, nhiễu khí quyển và nhiễu ngoài trái đất. Nhiễu khí quyển
được tạo ra bởi hoạt động điện của khí quyển. Loại nhiễu này chiếm ưu thế ở dải tần
0-30MHz và nghịch đảo tỷ lệ với tần số. Nhiễu ngoài trái đất do hoạt động của vũ trụ
bao gồm mặt trời. Kênh truyền RF thay đổi theo thời gian, do đó hiệu quả hệ thống có
thể thay đổi do ảnh hưởng của hoạt động điện khí quyển, thời tiết và nguồn nhiễu
nhân tạo ngẫu nhiên. Điều này đòi hỏi thiết kế hệ thống truyền thông vô tuyến phải
cân nhắc kỹ lưỡng về kênh truyền thay đổi theo thời gian.
Trong truyền thông vô tuyến, sóng vô tuyến được sử dụng để truyền thông tin và do
sóng vô tuyến lan truyền trong không gian nên chúng dễ bị tổn hại an ninh mạng. Kẻ
xâm nhập có thể chặn đọc tín hiệu hoặc truy cập dịch vụ mạng mà không cần là người
dùng hợp pháp. Rủi ro cụ thể liên quan đến truyền thông vô tuyến sẽ được trình bày
chi tiết sau.
)

Radio Spectrum Classification

Radio frequencies or radio waves constitute the portion of the

17
electromagnetic spectrum extending from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. The entire
RF spectrum is classified into different bands and ranges, based on
propagation properties. Baseband signals or source signals (e.g., audio
signals) are in the low-frequency range below 30 kHz. This range of
frequencies is classified as very low frequency (VLF), which must be
translated into RF before transmission.
Radio waves are also described by their wavelength, as
belonging to a particular wavelength range such as shortwave,
medium-wave, or millimeter-wave. The higher the

18
 frequency, the lower the wavelength, because  = c/fc, where c = 3.0 
108 m/s is the speed of light, and fc is the carrier frequency. The
wavelength is related to the realizable antenna length, L, system
bandwidth, B, and other practical system parameters. In general, higher
frequency radio waves produce smaller , require shorter L, have lower
bandwidth efficiency,  (assuming high bandwidth; Haykin, 2000, p.
347), are more susceptible to fading, are less susceptible to atmospheric
electrical activity, and suffer from atmospheric thermal and weather
distortion.
Bandwidth efficiency is the number of information bits transmitted per
second per unit of bandwidth (Hz) or the ratio of the bit rate to channel
bandwidth expressed in bit per second per
hertz (b/s/Hz). Considering that
(Phân loại băng tần sóng vô tuyến
Sóng vô tuyến hoặc sóng điện từ thuộc phần phổ điện từ kéo dài từ 3 kHz đến 300
GHz. Toàn bộ phổ sóng vô tuyến được phân chia thành các dải băng tần khác nhau
dựa trên tính chất lan truyền. Tín hiệu nguyên băng hoặc tín hiệu nguồn (ví dụ như tín
hiệu âm thanh) nằm trong khoảng tần số thấp dưới 30 kHz. Phạm vi tần số này được
phân loại là rất thấp tần (VLF), phải được chuyển đổi thành sóng vô tuyến trước khi
truyền tải.
Sóng vô tuyến cũng được mô tả bởi bước sóng, thuộc phạm vi bước sóng như sóng
ngắn, sóng trung, hay sóng milimet, bởi vì λ = c/fc, trong đó c = 3,0 × 108 m/s là tốc
độ ánh sáng, fc là tần số mang. Bước sóng liên quan đến chiều dài ăngten thực hiện
được, L, băng thông hệ thống, B và các tham số hệ thống thực tế khác. Nói chung,
sóng vô tuyến tần số cao tạo ra λ nhỏ hơn, yêu cầu L ngắn hơn, hiệu quả sử dụng
băng thông thấp hơn, dễ bị ảnh hưởng va gợn sóng và suy giảm do yếu tố thời tiết và
nhiệt khí quyển hơn.
)

19
it can be seen that as ρ increases, the required bandwidth decreases, if
the bit rate Rb is constant. M is the symbol level and T is the period.
Any digital system will become less bandwidth efficient if its BTb value
is increased. The capacity (C) of a digital communication system is
directly related bandwidth ma  C/B log 1S / N  bits/s/Hz ,
efficiency because 
x 10

where S is the signal power and N is the noise power. Bandwidth

efficient systems transmit more information bit per bandwidth.
The characteristics and applications of radio frequencies are summarized
in Table 1.

Within each frequency range, several bands of frequencies can be

designated for communication. These bands are commonly identified by
either fc or a letter symbol, as illustrated in Figure 2 (Acosta, 1999;
Federal Communications Commission [FCC], 1997). For example, in
practical applications, one could describe an RF system as operating in
the C, X, K, or KA band instead of

20
 using the actual frequency numbers. A complete list of the radio-
frequency allocation can be found at
http://www.rfm.com/corp/new868dat/fccchart.pdf.
Because of the congestion or unavailability of usable spectrum at the
lower frequency bands (below 20 GHz) and the recent demand for
multimedia communication at high data-rate capabilities, system
designers have directed their attention toward the use of SHF and EHF
for communication (Acosta, 1999). Currently, there is a great deal of
research on developing RF systems operating at frequencies above 20
GHz (KA band and above; National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, 1998).
This interest in the EHF band is justified because of its potential
benefits, such as the availability of usable spectrum, high data-rate
capability, reduced interference, and high achievable gain with narrow
beam widths of small antennas (Ippolito, 1989). The drawback,
however, is that at these frequencies atmospheric distortion, especially
rain attenuation (absorption of the RF signal), is severe (Acosta &
Horton, 1998; Xu, Rappaport, Boyle, & Schaffner, 2000). The severity
of the meteorological effects increases with increasing frequency. At
some frequency bands, the meteorological effects can cause a reduction
in received signal amplitude, depolarization of the radio wave, and
increase in thermal noise (Ippolito, 1989).
(Có thể thấy khi ρ tăng lên, băng thông yêu cầu giảm xuống nếu tốc độ bit Rb là hằng
số. M là cấp biểu tượng và T là chu kỳ. Bất kỳ hệ thống số nào cũng sẽ ít hiệu quả sử
dụng băng thông hơn nếu giá trị BTb của nó tăng lên. Dung lượng (C) của hệ thống
truyền thông số có tương quan trực tiếp với hiệu quả sử dụng băng thông bởi vì
max = C/B = log10(1+S/N) bit/s/Hz,
trong đó S là công suất tín hiệu và N là công suất nhiễu. Các hệ thống có hiệu quả sử
dụng băng thông cao hơn truyền nhiều bit thông tin hơn trên mỗi băng thông.
Các đặc tính và ứng dụng của băng tần radio được tóm tắt trong Bảng 1.

21
Trong mỗi phạm vi tần số, nhiều dải tần có thể được chỉ định cho truyền thông. Các
dải này thường được xác định bằng fc hoặc ký hiệu chữ cái, như minh họa trong Hình
2 (Acosta, 1999; Ủy ban Truyền thông Liên bang [FCC], 1997). Ví dụ, trong ứng
dụng thực tế, người ta có thể mô tả hệ thống RF hoạt động ở băng C, X, K hoặc KA
thay vì sử dụng các con số tần số thực tế. Danh sách phân bổ băng tần vô tuyến có thể
tìm thấy tại http://www.rfm.com/corp/new868dat/fccchart.pdf.
Do sự quá tải hoặc không sử dụng được phổ ở các dải tần thấp hơn (dưới 20 GHz) và
nhu cầu gần đây về truyền thông đa phương tiện với hiệu suất tốc độ dữ liệu cao, các
kỹ sư thiết kế đã quan tâm đến việc sử dụng SHF và EHF cho truyền thông (Acosta,
1999). Hiện nay, nhiều nghiên cứu đang được thực hiện về phát triển hệ thống RF
hoạt động ở tần số trên 20 GHz (băng KA trở lên; NASA, 1998).
Sự quan tâm đến băng EHF là có cơ sở do những lợi ích tiềm năng như sẵn có dải phổ
sử dụng, khả năng tốc độ dữ liệu cao, gây nhiễu thấp và hiệu suất khuếch đại cao với
góc chùm hẹp của ăngten nhỏ (Ippolito, 1989). Tuy nhiên, nhược điểm là ở các tần số
này sự méo mó do khí quyển, đặc biệt là suy giảm do mưa (hấp thụ tín hiệu vô tuyến),
rất nghiêm trọng (Acosta & Horton, 1998; Xu và cộng sự, 2000). Mức độ ảnh hưởng
của thời tiết gia tăng theo tần số. Ở một số băng tần, ảnh hưởng của thời tiết có thể
gây giảm biên độ tín hiệu nhận được, phân cực sóng điện từ và tăng nhiễu nhiệt.
)

Table 1 Radio-Frequency Band Classifications and Characteristics

Freque Freque Propagation   L Typical use

ncy ncy
characteristi
band range cs

22
Very < 30 Low Lon Hig Lon Baseband
low attenuation day g h g signals;
freque kHz and night; high powerlines;
ncy atmospheric home control
(VLF) noise level systems;
navigation
and
submarine
communication
Low 30–300 Slightly less Long-range
frequen reliable than navigation;
cy (LF) kHz VLF; marine
absorption in communication;
daytime radio
beacons
Mediu 0.3–3 Attenuation Maritime radio;
m low at night, direction
frequen MHz high in day; finding; AM
cy atmospheric broadcasting
(MF) noise
High 3.0–30 Omni- International
frequen directional broadcasting,
cy MHz energy military
(HF) radiation; communication;
quality varies long- distance
with time of aircraft and ship
day, season, communication
frequency, and
solar activity

23
24
Very 30–300 Direct and VHF TV; FM
high ground waves;
freque MHz cosmic noise; broadcast;
ncy antenna design Shor Lo Shor two-way
(VHF) is critical t w t radio, AM
aircraft
communicatio
n and
navigational aids
Ultra 0.3–3 Line-of-sight UHF TV;
high (LOS); cellular
frequen GHz repeaters are phone; radar;
cy used to cover microwave
(UHF) greater links;
distances; personal
cosmic noise communicati
ons
services
Super 3.0–30 LOS; Satellite and
high atmospheric radar
frequen GHz attenuation communication;
cy due to rain terrestrial
(SHF) (>10 GHz), microwave;
oxygen and wireless local
water loop
vapor
Extrem 30–300 LOS; Experimental;
ely millimeter wireless local
high GHz wave; loop
frequen atmospheric
25
cy attenuation
(EHF) due to rain,
oxygen and
water vapor

26
 LS C X K K K U E F U
1 2 4 8 12.4
U 18 26.5
A 40 60 90 140 220 GHz

Q V WP

33 50 75 110 170 GHz

Figure 2: Typical symbol assignment for radio frequency bands.

Radio Wave Characteristics

When electrical energy in the form of high-frequency voltage or current

is applied to an antenna, it is converted to electromagnetic (EM) waves
or radio-frequency energy. At the Tx, the antenna converts a time-
varying voltage or current into a time-varying propagating EM wave.
The resulting EM wave propagates in space away from the source (the
antenna) at the speed of light with the succeeding wave front changing
in amplitude as the voltage or current changes in amplitude. Radio
waves propagate through space as traveling EM fields proportional to
the time- varying voltage or current. The propagating RF energy is
composed of an electric field and a magnetic field component. The two
fields exist together because a change in the electric field generates a
corresponding change in the magnetic field, and vice versa. At the Rx,
the antenna performs an inverse operation of converting a time-varying
propagating EM wave to a time- varying voltage or current.
Polarization of the radio wave is important and is given by the direction
of the electric field component. Usually the construction and orientation
of the antenna determine the electric field component. Many antennas
are linearly polarized, either horizontally or vertically. The magnitude of
27
the power radiated in the direction of propagation can be calculated as
the effective isotropic (independent of direction) radiated power (EIRP)
or effective radiated power (ERP).
This is the maximum radiated power available from a Tx in the direction of
maximum gain for

28
 isotropic or directional antennas, respectively. It is a measure of the
effectiveness of an antenna in directing the transmitter power in a
particular direction (Rappaport, 2002).

(Đặc tính của sóng vô tuyến

Khi năng lượng điện dưới dạng điện áp hoặc dòng điện tần số cao được áp dụng vào
ăng-ten, nó sẽ được chuyển đổi thành sóng điện từ (EM) hoặc năng lượng tần số
radio. Ở thiết bị phát, ăng-ten chuyển đổi điện áp hay dòng điện thay đổi theo thời
gian thành sóng EM lan truyền theo thời gian. Sóng EM kết quả lan truyền trong
không gian ra xa khỏi nguồn phát (ăng-ten) với tốc độ ánh sáng, với mặt sóng kế tiếp
thay đổi cường độ khi điện áp hay dòng điện thay đổi cường độ. Sóng vô tuyến lan
truyền trong không gian dưới dạng trường EM di chuyển tỉ lệ thuận với điện áp hoặc
dòng điện thay đổi theo thời gian. Năng lượng tần số phát bao gồm cả thành phần
điện trường và từ trường. Hai trường này tồn tại cùng nhau bởi sự thay đổi của điện
trường tạo ra sự thay đổi tương ứng của từ trường, và ngược lại. Ở thiết bị thu, ăng-
ten thực hiện phép biến đổi ngược để chuyển sóng EM thay đổi theo thời gian lan
truyền thành điện áp hay dòng điện thay đổi theo thời gian.
Phân cực của sóng vô tuyến quan trọng và được xác định bởi hướng của thành phần
điện trường. Thông thường hướng và cấu trúc ăng-ten xác định thành phần điện
trường. Nhiều ăng-ten có phân cực tuyến tính, ngang hoặc dọc. Cường độ công suất
phát xạ theo hướng truyền có thể tính toán dưới dạng công suất phát xạ tương đương
đẳng hướng (ERP) hay công suất phát xạ hiệu quả (EIRP). Đây là công suất phát xạ
tối đa của thiết bị phát theo hướng có độ tăng cường lớn nhất đối với ăng-ten đẳng
hướng hay hướng. Đó là thước đo hiệu quả của ăng-ten trong việc phát hướng công
suất phát vào một hướng nhất định (Rappaport, 2002).
)
Forms of Radio Waves

Radio waves propagate in space in various forms. The characteristics of

the propagating waves are of interest in many wireless communication
systems designs. Propagating radio waves can be classified as direct (or
29
free space), ground (or surface), tropospheric, and ionospheric. These
types of waves are illustrated in Figure 3.

Reflected
Wave
Surface
Wave

Figure 3: Common types of radio waves in wireless communication systems.

Direct waves, in which propagation is in free space without any

obstruction, are the simplest kind of radio waves. They are projected in
a straight LOS between the Tx and Rx. The two-way radio, cellular
mobile telephone, and personal communication system seldom have
this type of radio wave.
Ground waves are confined to the lower atmosphere or the surface
of the earth. A ground wave includes that portion of the radio wave
directly affected by terrain and objects on the

30
terrain. It is guided along the surface of the earth, reflecting and
scattering off buildings, vegetation, hills, mountains, and other
irregularities on the earth’s surface. These waves propagate outward
from the antenna but undergo refraction due to variation in the density
of the atmosphere (Garg & Wilkes, 1996). The signal strength decreases
as the distance between the Tx and the Rx increases. This wave affects
all frequencies in the MF, HF, and VHF ranges, and it is the dominant
wave in cellular mobile radio systems. Vertical polarization, the
direction of the electric-field component, is best for this type of wave.
The polarization is determined by the construction and orientation of the
antenna.
Tropospheric and ionospheric waves are commonly referred to as sky
waves. They propagate in outer space but can return to earth by
reflection or scattering either in the troposphere or in the ionosphere.
The tropospheric wave is that portion of the radio wave close to the
earth’s surface as a result of gradual bending in the lower atmosphere
(Garg & Wilkes, 1996). The bending action is due to the changing
effective dielectric constant of the atmosphere through which the wave
is passing. Its reflective index gradually decreases with height, resulting
in a bending path taken by the wave. The troposphere extends about 10
miles above the surface of the earth and applies to waves with
wavelength shorter than 10 m (i.e.,  < 10 m). The ionospheric wave is
similar to the tropospheric wave except that it travels farther and the
reflection occurs in the ionosphere, 40–400 miles above the earth.
Ionospheric propagation in the 3–30 MHz range is highly dependent on
the state of solar activity and the subsequent levels of atmospheric
ionization. This wave can be highly reliable for telemetry, tracking,
weather forecasting, and tactical military applications. It is also used for
global maritime, military, and aeronautical communications and
shortwave broadcasting. Note that different wavelengths are reflected to
dissimilar extents in the troposphere and ionosphere.

31
(
Các dạng sóng vô tuyến
Sóng vô tuyến lan truyền trong không gian dưới nhiều dạng. Các đặc tính của sóng
lan truyền là quan tâm trong thiết kế nhiều hệ thống viễn thông không dây. Sóng vô
tuyến lan truyền có thể phân loại là sóng trực tiếp (hoặc không gian tự do), sóng mặt
đất, sóng trần khí quyển và sóng tầng điện ly. Các loại sóng này được minh họa trong
Hình 3.
Sóng trực tiếp, trong đó sự lan truyền là trong không gian tự do mà không có trở ngại,
là dạng đơn giản nhất của sóng vô tuyến. Chúng được chiếu trực tiếp theo tầm nhìn
LOS giữa thiết bị phát và thu. Hệ thống viễn thông di động tần số vô tuyến, điện thoại
di động và truyền thông cá nhân ít khi có dạng sóng này.
Sóng mặt đất bị giới hạn ở bầu khí quyển dưới hoặc bề mặt Trái Đất. Sóng mặt đất
bao gồm phần sóng vô tuyến trực tiếp chịu ảnh hưởng của địa hình và vật thể trên địa
hình. Nó lan truyền dọc theo bề mặt Trái Đất, phản xạ và phân tán trên các tòa nhà,
thảm thực vật, đồi núi và các đặc điểm bất thường khác trên bề mặt Trái Đất. Những
sóng này lan truyền ra xa ăng-ten nhưng bị khúc xạ do sự thay đổi mật độ khí quyển.
Sóng trần khí quyển và sóng tầng điện ly thường được gọi là sóng trời. Chúng lan
truyền trong vũ trụ bên ngoài nhưng có thể trở lại Trái Đất do phản xạ hay phân tán
hoặc trong trần khí quyển hoặc tầng điện ly. Sóng trần khí quyển là phần sóng vô
tuyến gần bề mặt Trái Đất do ánh xạ từ từ trong bầu khí quyển dưới. Sóng tầng điện
ly tương tự nhưng đi xa hơn và phản xạ xảy ra ở tầng điện ly cao hơn.
Lưu ý rằng các bước sóng khác nhau sẽ bị phản xạ ở mức độ khác nhau trong trần khí
quyển và tầng điện ly.
)

32
Radio-Frequency-Based Systems

Figure 4 shows the various forms of RF-based wireless communication

systems, which is classified into six groups: microwave RF systems,
fixed and mobile satellite systems, wireless networks and protocols,
personal communication systems, remote sensing systems, and
emerging wireless technologies. No distinction is made between the
communication layers and protocols in this classification. These systems
transmit and receive radio waves tuned to specific bands of frequencies.
Microwave is loosely used to describe all radio frequencies between 1
and 40 GHz. This includes the UHF, SHF, and EHF systems. The lower
microwave frequencies (i.e., UHF) are most often used for terrestrial-
based RF systems, whereas the higher microwave frequencies (i.e., SHF
and EHF) are used for satellite communications. A terrestrial
microwave system transmits carefully focused beams of radio waves
from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. A terrestrial
microwave system uses LOS propagation to communicate between the

Fixed & Mobile Microwave

RF Systems Emerging Wireless
Satellite
Technologies
Bluetooth
Wireless Telemetry
Application Wireless
Wireless
Protocol Remote Weather
Networks & Communication Sensing Forecast
Wireless Protocols Systems
Local Loop
Tracking
Wireless LAN
Personal
Communication
Systems Pagers
Beepers

Home-based Cellular Mobile

Systems Telephone

Tx and the Rx with a typical distance of 30 miles between relay towers.

33
Figure 4: Different forms of radio-frequency (RF)-based wireless
communication systems. LAN

= local area network.

Personal communication services (PCS) are new generation of

wireless-telephone technologies that introduce wide range of features
and services greater than those available in analog and digital cellular
phone systems (International Engineering Consortium [IEC], n.d., a). It
includes any system that provides people with access to information
services, such as cellular telephones, home-based systems (cordless
telephones, remote control, short-range two-way radio), beepers, pagers,
and much more (Goodman, 1997; Rappaport, 2002). PCS provides the
user with an all-in-one wireless phone, paging, messaging, and data
services. The most significant segment of this technology is the cellular
mobile radio. It is the fastest growing segment of the
telecommunications industry. Based on the number of new subscribers
worldwide and the number of services, the cellular mobile radio system
has evolved as the dominant wireless communication system. Its history
dates back many decades, but the modern-day mobile radio became
widespread in the 1980s (Rappaport, 2002). The cellular mobile radio
system is discussed in more detail later. Wireless networks and protocols
include systems such as WLAN, wireless local loops (WLL), wireless
application protocol (WAP), and Bluetooth. These systems are used
mainly to provide data communication. WLAN is an extension to or an
alternative for a wired local area network (LAN). WLAN provides the
functionality of wired LAN, without the physical constraints of the wire,
combining data connectivity with user mobility (Bing, 2000; Geier,
1999; Wenig, 1996). WLANs have the potential to support user mobility
and constant and unlimited access to information by linking several
wireless devices to the wired infrastructure network. With WLAN,
34
packets of data are converted into radio waves that are sent to other
wireless devices or to a wireless access point (AP)–client connection
from the wired LAN to the

35
 mobile user. The AP can reside at any node on the wired network and
acts as a gateway for wireless users’ data routed to the wired network.
WLANs require special medium access control (MAC) layer protocols
because of the broadcast nature of radio communication (Chen, 1994).
A detailed discussion of WLAN is beyond the scope of this chapter.
WLANs have gained strong popularity lately and are used widely in
health care, industry, commerce, warehousing, and academia. An
important feature of the WLAN is that it can be used independent of a
wired network. That is, it can be used as a stand-alone network
anywhere to link multiple computers together without extending a wired
network. WLAN uses one of the three basic transmission protocols,
namely, direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency hopping
spread spectrum (FHSS), or low-power narrowband. The majority of
RF-based WLANs operate in the industrial, scientific, and medical
(ISM) frequency bands, which are located at 902 to 928 MHz, 2.4 to
2.483 GHz, and 5.725 to 5.85 GHz, respectively. The different
architectures of WLAN based on Agrawal and Zeng (2003) are
summarized in Table 2, with symbols defined in the Glossary.
WLL is a system that connects telephone subscribers to the public
switched telephone network using radio waves (IEC, n.d., b). With
WLL, the traditional copper wire providing link between the subscriber
and the local exchange is replaced by a wireless RF network. WLL is
advantageous for remote areas where the cost of wire would be
prohibitive (i.e., adverse terrain or widely dispersed subscriber areas).
With WLL, new service providers can quickly deploy wireless
networks to meet customers’ telephony needs rapidly. Existing landline
operators can extend their networks using WLL. Cellular telephone
companies can deliver residential service using WLL without going
through the local telephone company.

(Hệ thống truyền thông không dây dựa trên băng tần vô tuyến

36
Hình 4 minh họa các dạng hệ thống truyền thông không dây dựa trên băng tần vô
tuyến, được phân loại thành sáu nhóm: hệ thống vô tuyến sóng vi ba, hệ thống vệ tinh
cố định và di động, mạng không dây và giao thức, hệ thống truyền thông cá nhân, hệ
thống phát hiện từ xa, và công nghệ không dây mới nổi. Không phân biệt giữa các lớp
và giao thức truyền thông trong phân loại này. Các hệ thống này truyền và thu sóng
vô tuyến điều chỉnh tần số cụ thể. Sóng vi ba được dùng một cách ngữ nghĩa để mô tả
mọi băng tần từ 1-40 GHz, bao gồm UHF, SHF và EHF.
Hệ thống sóng vi ba tần số thấp hơn (UHF) thường được sử dụng cho hệ thống RF
trên mặt đất, trong khi tần số cao hơn (SHF, EHF) dùng cho truyền thông vệ tinh. Hệ
thống sóng vi ba trên mặt đất truyền sóng tập trung chính xác từ ăng-ten phát đến ăng-
ten thu. Nó sử dụng lan truyền LOS giữa thiết bị phát và thu với khoảng cách ty thể
30 dặm.
Dịch vụ truyền thông cá nhân là thế hệ mới của công nghệ điện thoại không dây giới
thiệu nhiều tính năng và dịch vụ hơn so với hệ thống di động tương tự và số. Mạng
không dây và giao thức bao gồm các hệ thống WLAN, vòng kết nối không dây, WAP,
Bluetooth. Những hệ thống này chủ yếu cung cấp truyền thông dữ liệu. WLAN là mở
rộng hoặc thay thế mạng LAN dây, kết hợp kết nối dữ liệu với động lực người dùng.
WLAN hoạt động chủ yếu ở băng tần ISM 2.4GHz và 5GHz.
Hệ thống vòng kết nối không dây WLL kết nối người dùng điện thoại công cộng qua
sóng vô tuyến. WLL thay thế dây đồng truyền điện thoại bằng mạng vô tuyến, có lợi
ở khu vực xa xôi, địa hình phức tạp.
)

37
Table 2 Examples of Wireless Local Area Networks

Properties IEEE 802.11 HiperLA Ricoche HomeRF Bluetooth

N t
Spectr 2.400–2.48; 5.15, 17.1 0.902– 2.404– 2.402–
um 5.15 2.478 2.480
(GHz) 0.928
-5.35, 5.525-

5.825
Range 150 feet 150 feet 1,000 <150 feet 10 cm to
feet 100

m
Power Not specified Not Not 100 mW 1 mW, 10
consumpt specified specifi mW, and
ion ed 100 mW

Energy Directory Yes Unknow Directory Yes

based n
conservation based
Physical DSSS/ DFS FHSS FHSS 50 FHSS 1600
layer FHSS/IR with 162
BPSK/ hops/s hops/s
QPSK/ hops/s
QAM
Channel CSMA/CA TDMA/ TDMA Hybrid FHSS,
access TDD TDMA Master
and slave
38
 CSMA/
TDMA
CA
Mobility Not specified Yes Yes No No

support
Raw data 2, 11, 6–54 23.5, 54 288 1 and 2 1 Mbps
rate kbps

39
 Mbps Mbps Mbps

Traffic Data (DCF) Data Data Voice + Voice or

Data
Data
Speech Unknown OFDM Not ADPCM 64 kbps
coding availa , with
ble CSVD/lo
32 bps g
PCM
Security 40 bit RC-4 DES, RSA/ Blowfish Minimal
Triple RC- (in

DES 4 PHY)
Communica Peer-to- Peer-to- Peer- Peer- Master/
tion peer, peer, to- to- slave
technology MS-BS MS-BS peer peer,
MS-
BS

Note. ADPCM = adaptive pulse code modulation; BPSK = Binary Phase

Shift Keying; CDMA = code division multiple access; CSMA/CA =
carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance; CSVD =
continuous variable slope delta; DES = Data encryption standard; DFS =
dynamic frequency selection; DSSS = direct sequence spread spectrum;
FHSS = frequency hopping spread spectrum; IEEE = Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers; IR = infrared; MS-BS = mobile
station–base station; OFDM = orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing; PHY = Physical layer; QAM = quadrature amplitude
40
modulation; QPSK = quadrature phase shift keying; RC4 = Rivest
cipher 4; RSA = Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman, inventors of
the RSA code; TDD = time division duplexing; TMDA = time division
multiple access.

WAP is an application environment and set of communication

protocols (application, session, transaction, security, and transport
layers) that allow wireless devices easy access to the Internet and
advanced telephony services (WAP Forum, 2000; Stallings, 2002). WAP
offers the ability to deliver unlimited range of mobile services to
subscribers, independent of their network, manufacturer, vendor, or
terminal. With WAP, mobile subscribers can access information and
services from wireless handheld devices. WAP is based on existing
Internet standards such as the Internet protocol (IP), extensible markup
language (XML), hypertext markup language (HTML),

41
and the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and is designed to work
with all wireless network technology. More information can be
obtained from the WAP Forum (2000) and in the chapter on WAP in
this encyclopedia.
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that makes possible connectivity
to the Internet from mobile computers, mobile phones, and portable
handheld devices without the need for cable connection. It facilitates
fast and secure transmission of both voice and data, without LOS
propagation. Some characteristics of Bluetooth technology are
summarized in Table 2. Detailed information on Bluetooth can be
found in another chapter in this encyclopedia.
Satellite communication is one of the traditional RF wireless
communication systems. Signals can be transmitted directly from a
ground station (GS) or gateway on earth to a satellite, and back to
another GS. Sometimes the signal can be routed through another
satellite (intersatellite) before it is transmitted back to the GS. We can
identify a satellite system by how far the satellite is from the earth. The
closer the satellite is to the earth, the shorter the time it takes to send
signals to the satellite. There are three satellite orbits: low earth orbit
(LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), and geosynchronous earth orbit
(GEO). A geosynchronous satellite completes one orbit around the earth
in the same time it takes the earth to make one complete rotation. A
geostationary satellite is in an orbit located directly above the equator.
LEO satellites are closest to the earth, beginning about 100 miles
above the surface, and only take a couple of hours to circle the earth.
Because LEO systems are orbiting so quickly, multiple satellites are
required to provide constant coverage in one location. LEO systems
have the capability to receive calls from the earth and pass them to an
earth-based switching system in much shorter time than other satellites.
However, because of the speed of the satellite, it is frequently necessary
to hand off a particular call to a second satellite just rising over the

42
horizon.

43
 This is similar to a cellular mobile radio system (discussed later), except
that in this case it is the cell site (the satellite) that is moving rather than
the user. The lower orbit has the advantage of allowing access to very
low-power devices (Printchard, 1993). LEO satellites are used mainly
for wireless transfer of electronic mail, pager systems, worldwide mobile
telephony, spying, remote sensing, and video conferencing.
GEO satellites circle the earth at a height of 22,300 miles, orbiting at
the same rate as the earth rotates so that they appear stationary from the
earth’s perspective. Most GEO satellites rely on passive bent-pipe
architecture so that they receive signals from transceivers on earth,
amplify them, and send them back to specific regions on earth. GEO
systems are used for a wide array of services including television
broadcasts, long-distance telecommunications, and various scientific and
military applications. GEO satellites are well suited to transmitting data
but may be undesirable for voice communications because of the long
propagation delay. It takes about one fourth of a second for a signal to
travel from a terrestrial GS to the satellite and back. If the receiver GS
replies, it takes another one fourth of a second, resulting in a total of half
a second (Printchard, 1993). This is an unacceptably long delay for
voice communication. Hence, voice communications are seldom carried
via GEO satellites.
MEO satellites can be found between 1,000 and 22,300 miles and are
mainly used for global positioning and navigation systems. MEO
satellites are not as popular as the LEO or GEO for reasons beyond the
scope of this chapter.
(Giao thức WAP là môi trường ứng dụng và tập giao thức truyền thông (ứng dụng,
phiên, giao dịch, bảo mật, vận chuyển) cho phép thiết bị không dây dễ dàng truy cập
internet và dịch vụ điện thoại nâng cao. WAP cho phép cung cấp dịch vụ di động
không giới hạn cho người dùng, độc lập với mạng, nhà sản xuất, nhà cung cấp hoặc
thiết bị.

44
Bluetooth là công nghệ không dây cho phép kết nối internet từ máy tính cầm tay, điện
thoại di động và thiết bị cầm tay mà không cần dây. Nó thúc đẩy truyền tải thanh và
dữ liệu nhanh và an toàn mà không cần LOS.
Vệ tinh truyền thông là một hệ thống RF không dây truyền thống. Tín hiệu có thể
truyền trực tiếp từ trạm mặt đất lên vệ tinh, và ngược lại. Có ba quỹ đạo vệ tinh: thấp
Trái Đất (LEO), trung bình Trái Đất (MEO) và địa tĩnh (GEO). Vệ tinh LEO gần Trái
Đất nhất, mất vài giờ để quay quanh Trái Đất. Vệ tinh GEO ở độ cao 22.300 dặm,
quay đồng bộ với tốc độ xoay của Trái Đất. Vệ tinh MEO được sử dụng chủ yếu cho
hệ thống vị trí và định vị toàn cầu.
)

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

Propagation is the process of wave motion, which is important in the

design and operation of RF systems. Because the received signal is
always different from the transmitted signal, due to

45
 various propagation impairments, and because of the nature of the
propagation itself, it is necessary to understand the properties of
radio wave propagation. This is most important in
telecommunication applications in predicting the transmission
characteristics of the channel. When radio waves are radiated from
an antenna, propagation is governed by the following mechanisms.
Free Space Propagation

This is the ideal propagation mechanism when the Tx and the Rx have
direct LOS and are separated by a distance d between the Tx and the
Rx. If Pt is the transmitted power, the received power Pr, a function of
distance d, is given by (Rappaport, 2002)
2 Aet Aet

Pr (d )Gt Gr Pt 2 Pt 2 , (2)

 4d  L  d  L

where Ae, G, and L are the effective area, antenna gain, and system loss
factor, respectively. The subscripts t and r refer to the transmitter and
receiver respectively. From this relationship, we observe that the
received power diminishes at the rate of 20 dB/decade as the distance
increases. The product PtGt is defined as EIRP, introduced earlier (i.e.,
EIRP = PtGt).
Reflection and Refraction

When a radio wave strikes an object with dimensions very large

compared with its wavelength, reflection occurs. All radio waves will
undergo reflection if the propagation medium undergoes abrupt
changes in its physical properties. This is illustrated in Figure 5. The
46
more abrupt the discontinuity, the more pronounced the reflection.
Depending on the type of object, the RF energy can be partially
reflected, fully reflected, or absorbed. It is possible to compute the
amount of reflection from the properties of the two media. If the
incident object is a good

47
conductor, the wave is totally reflected and the angle of incidence is
the same as the angle of reflection.
Refraction (see Figure 5) occurs at the boundary between two
dielectrics, when the incident wave propagates into another medium at
an angle. When radio waves propagate from a medium of one density to
a medium of another density, the speed of the wave changes. This
change in speed will cause the wave to bend at the boundary between
the two media. The wave will always bend toward the denser medium.

Direct
path

Diffraction
Reflection
Diffraction
from House
& Reflection
Base
Station

Reflection of
moving truck
Mobile Receiver

Reflection Reflection
Factory from House from building Scatering Object

Figure 5: Illustration of reflection, diffraction, scattering, and absorption.

Diffraction

48
Diffraction of radio waves occurs when the waves encounter some
obstruction along their path and tend to propagate around the edges and
corners and behind the obstruction. This is illustrated in Figure 5. The
height or dimension of the obstruction has to be comparable to the
wavelength of the transmission. The same obstruction height may
produce lower diffraction loss at higher  than at lower . The result of
this effect is that the object shadows the radio wave. The field strength
of the wave decreases as the receiver moves deeper into a shadowed
region.

49
Scattering

Scattering is also illustrated in Figure 5. It is due to small objects and

irregularities in the channel, rough incident surfaces, or particles in the
atmosphere. When the radio wave encounters objects or particles with
dimension smaller than the wavelength of the wave, scattering occurs,
which causes the signal to spread in all directions.
Interference

Interference can occur when the transmitted radio wave arrives at the
same location via two or more paths (multipath). One of the ways this
can happen is illustrated in Figure 6. This figure shows three waves
arriving at a mobile receiver (the car) after traveling slightly different
paths. Because of their phase differences, the radio waves can add either
constructively or destructively at the receiver. If the phase shift
experienced by the propagating waves is time-varying, then it can cause
a rapid variation in the received signal, resulting in fading.

Base
Station

1 3
1
2
3

2
time:t
time:t  

Figure 6: Interference of radio wave.

Absorption

Absorption describes the process where radio energy penetrates a

50
material or substance and gets converted to heat. Two cases of
absorption of radio waves are prevalent. One occurs when radio

51
 waves are incident upon a lossy medium and the other is due to
atmospheric effects. When the radio wave strikes an object, the incident
wave (perpendicular wave) propagates into the lossy medium and the
radio energy experiences exponential decay with distance as it travels
into the material. The wave either is totally dissipated or will reemerge
from the material with smaller amplitude and continue the propagation.
The skin depth is the distance for the field strength to be reduced to 37%
of its original value—the energy of the wave is reduced by 0.37.
Particles in the atmosphere absorb RF energy. Absorption through the
atmosphere also depends on the weather conditions—fair and dry,
drizzle, heavy rain, fog, snow, hail, and so on. Usually, the absorption of
RF energy is ignored below 10 GHz.
Doppler Effect

Doppler shift is the change in frequency due to the difference in speed

between two points in space. It is observed whenever there is relative
motion between the Tx and the Rx. For a mobile moving with a constant
velocity v, the received carrier frequency fc will be shifted by the
amount
f f v   veff fc ,
cos  (3)
cos vef
f
d m
  c

where  is the fm  is the maximum Doppler frequency fd, at  = 0;

path angle,
v /  and eff is

the effective velocity of the mobile (Garg & Wilkes, 1996). The
Doppler shift, bounded by  fm, is related to the phase change 
52
caused by the change in path length. Because each component of the
received multipath signal arrives from a different direction, each
contributes a different value to the Doppler spreading. This effectively
increases the bandwidth of the received signal. Depending on the
direction of motion and the source, the frequency can be shifted up or
down (i.e.,  fm). The result of this shift is a random phase and
frequency modulation of the received

53
 RF carrier, which may necessitate the use of differential phase
and frequency detection techniques.
The propagation mechanisms just described strongly influence system
design parameters such as the choice of transmitting and receiving
antennas, Tx powers, modulation techniques, and much more. Each of
these propagation mechanisms contributes to losses in the RF energy
and hence limits system performance. In wireless mobile
communications, propagation losses are commonly classified into path
loss, shadowing, and multipath fading. These losses are described next.
Path Loss

Path loss (PL) refers to the large-scale envelope fluctuation in the radio
propagation environment, which varies with the distance between the Tx
and Rx. Because the Rx is located at some distance d from the Tx, a loss
factor is used to relate the transmitted power to the received power. For
amplitude fading, an increase in d normally results in an increase in PL.
Different models have been used to model path loss, but each model
obeys the distance propagation law.
In free space, PL is expressed as the ratio of the radiated power Pt, to
the received power Pr and is given by
P  G G 2 
t
PL(dB)   10 t (4

10 log log )
r


10 10 (4 )2 d 2  Pr

Shadowing
54
Because of topographical variations along the transmission path, the
signal is diffracted and the average power of the received signal is not
constant. Shadowing or large-scale fading refers to slow variations in
the local mean of the received signal strength. This variation causes

55
shadowing. The signal is shadowed by obstructions such as buildings
and natural terrain, which leads to gradual variations in the mean power
of the received signal. The effect is a very slow change in the local
mean signal, say Ps. Shadowing is generally modeled by a lognormal
distribution, meaning that sd = 10 log10Ps is normally distributed, with
sd given in dB (Yacoub, 1993). Shadowing is the dominant factor
determining signal fading.
Multipath Fading

The collective effect of reflection, refraction, diffraction, and scattering

leads to multipath propagation. Because of reflection, refraction, and
scattering of radio waves along the channel by manmade structures and
natural objects along the path of propagation, the transmitted signal
often reaches the receiver by more than one path. This results in the
phenomenon known as multipath fading. The signal components
arriving from indirect paths and a direct path (if it exists) combine at the
receiver to give a distorted version of the transmitted signal. These radio
waves are attenuated differently, and they arrive with different path
gains, time delays, and phases. The resultant signal may vary widely in
amplitude and phase depending on the distribution of intensity and
relative propagation in time of wave and bandwidth of the transmitted
signal. The number of paths may change drastically when the mobile
unit changes its position depending on the increase or decrease in the
number of intervening obstacles. Unlike shadowing, multipath fading is
usually used to describe small-scale fading or rapid fluctuation in the
amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of time or over short
distances. It is affected by rapid changes in the signal strength over short
distances or time intervals and random frequency variations due to
varying Doppler shifts on different multipath signals (Rappaport, 2002).

56
 The loss factor associated with multipath fading is usually modeled in
the channel impulse response. A transmitted impulse will arrive at the
Rx as the sum of several impulses with different magnitudes, delays, and
phases. For M multipath, the composite impulse response h(t,) for any
given locations of the Tx and Rx is given by
h(t, ) M  k (t) j (t)

t k (t)e k , (5)
k

1

where k,(t), k(t), and k(t) represent the time-varying amplitude, delay, and
phase of the kth

path signal, is the Dirac delta function. This shows that, in general, the
and   received signal

is a series of time-delayed, phase-shifted, attenuated versions of the

transmitted signal. The variables h(t,), k(t), k(t) and k(t) are
random.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES

Because the wireless channel is not a reliable propagation medium,

techniques to achieve reliable and efficient communication are
necessary. In mobile channels, for example, the Rx has to constantly
track changes in the propagation environment to ensure optimal
extraction of the signal of interest. As the receiver moves, the
57
surrounding environment changes affecting the received signal’s
amplitude, phase, and delay. The multipath received signals are
combined at the antenna either constructively or destructively. During
destructive combining, the received signal may not be strong enough to
produce reliable communication because of the degradation in the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). It is not uncommon in shadowed signals for
the amplitude of the received signal to drop by 30 dB or more within a
distance of a fraction of a wavelength

58
 (Eng, 1996). Hence, achieving reliable communication over a wireless
channel is a daunting task.
To counter this problem, techniques have been developed for efficient
wireless communication. These include spread spectrum, multiple
access, diversity, equalization, coding, and related techniques such as
multicarrier modulation, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing,
multicode and multirate techniques, and multiple input multiple output
system, to mention only a few. All these techniques are aimed at
increasing the reliability of the channel and the performance of the
system. Discussion of some of these techniques is beyond the scope of
this chapter. However, a summary of the major wireless communication
techniques follows.
Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum (SS) is a modulation technique in which the

transmitted bandwidth Bss is much greater than the data bandwidth Bs.
The idea is to transform a signal with bandwidth Bs into a noise-like
signal of much larger bandwidth Bss. Spreading is usually achieved by
modulating the data with a pseudo-random noise (PN) sequence called
the “chip” at a rate that is much higher than the data rate. The
significance of SS is evident from the capacity equation, given by

C  B 1SNR , (6)
log
2

where C is the channel capacity in bits and B is the bandwidth in hertz.

Observe that by increasing the bandwidth B, we may decrease the
SNR without decreasing the capacity and, hence, the performance.
The main parameter in SS systems is the processing gain, Gp, defined as
59
 Spread B T
Gp   ss  b , (7)
Bandwidth
Information Bandwidth Bs Tc

60
where Tb and Tc are the bit period and the chip period, respectively. Gp
is sometimes known as the “spreading factor” (Rappaport, 2002). From
a system viewpoint, Gp is the performance increase achieved by
spreading. It determines the number of users that can be allowed in a
system, and hence the amount of multipath reduction effect. It is used
to describe the signal fidelity gained at the cost of bandwidth. It is
through Gp that increased system performance is achieved without
requiring a higher SNR. For SS systems, it is advantageous to have Gp
as high as possible, because the greater the Gp, the greater the system's
ability to suppress interference. SS techniques are used in cellular
mobile telephones, global positioning satellites (GPS), and very small
aperture satellite terminals. The strength of this system is that when Gp
is large, the system offers great immunity to interference.
There are two major methods of SS modulation: direct sequence
spread spectrum and frequency hopping spread spectrum. In DSSS, the
frequency of the given signal is spread across a band of frequencies, as
described earlier. The spreading algorithm changes in a random fashion
that appears to make the spread signal a random noise source. FHSS is
the repeated switching of fc from one band to another during
transmission. Radio signals hop from one fc to another at a specific
hopping rate and the sequence appears to be random. In this case, the
instantaneous frequency output of the Tx jumps from one value to
another based on the pseudo-random input from the code generator. The
overall bandwidth required for FHSS is much wider than that required
to transmit the same information using only one carrier. However, each
fc and its associated sidebands must stay within a defined bandwidth.

Diversity

61
Diversity is one of the techniques widely used to increase system
performance in wireless communication systems. Diversity combining
refers to the system in which two or more closely similar copies of some
desired signal are available and experience independent fading. In
diversity systems, the received signals from several transmission paths,
all carrying the same information with individual statistics, are
combined with the hope of improving the SNR of the decision variables
used in the detection process. Diversity-combining techniques could be
based on space (antenna), frequency, angle of arrival, polarization, and
time of reception (Eng, 1996; Yacoub, 1993). For example, in space
diversity, the transmitted signal is received via N different antennas with
each multipath received through a particular antenna. This can be
regarded as communication over N parallel fading channels. Diversity
reception is known to improve the reliability of the systems without
increasing either the transmitter power or the channel bandwidth.
Regardless of the type of diversity used, the signals must be combined
and detected at the receiver. A proper combination of the signal from
various branches results in improved performance. The method of
diversity combining chosen will affect the receiver performance and
complexity. The common combining techniques in wireless
communication are maximal ratio combining (MRC), equal gain
combining (EGC), and selection diversity (SD). In MRC, the received
signals from individual paths are weighted and added so as to emphasize
more credible signals and suppress less credible ones (Yacoub, 1993).
In EGC, the received signals are equally weighted and then combined
without regard to the individual signal strength. In SD, the branch with
the best or most desirable signal is selected and the weaker ones are
ignored.

Multiple Access
62
Because the RF spectrum is finite and a limited resource, it is necessary
to share the available resources between users. Multiple access
techniques are the primary means of sharing the resources in wireless
systems. These techniques are multiplexing protocols that allow more
than a pair of transceivers to share a common medium, which can be
achieved through frequency, time, or code, giving rise to three popular
techniques known as frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time
division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access
(CDMA). In FDMA, the whole spectrum is divided into subbands, and
the subbands are assigned to individual users on demand. The users use
the entire channel for the duration of their transmissions. If the
transmission path deteriorates, the user is switched to another channel.
This access technique is widely used in wireless multiuser systems.
Instead of dividing the available frequency as in FDMA, the available
time is divided into frames of equal duration in the case of TDMA. Only
one user is allowed to either transmit or receive in each time frame. The
transmissions from various users are interlaced into cyclic time
structure. Instead of using frequencies or time slots, CDMA techniques
distinguish between multiple users using digital codes. Each user is
assigned a unique PN code sequence, which is uncorrelated with the
data.
Because the signals are distinguished by codes, many users can
share the same bandwidth simultaneously (i.e., signals are
transmitted in the same frequency at the same time).

CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS

Currently, cellular mobile communication is undoubtedly the most

popular RF wireless communication system. In cellular systems, instead
of using a single large coverage area with one high-power transceiver
63
(used in traditional mobile systems), the coverage area is divided into
small, localized coverage areas called cells. Figure 7 compares the
traditional mobile telephone

64
with the cellular telephone structures. Each cell has a base station (BS)
or cell site, which in comparison uses much less power. The BS can
communicate with mobiles as long as they are within range. To
prevent interference, adjacent cells are assigned different portions of
the available frequencies. With a certain distance between two cells,
the assigned spectrum of a given cell can be reused. To explain the
concept of cellular mobile communication, a summary of the major
concepts and techniques is now presented.
Cells and Clusters

A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system, commonly

represented as a hexagon. The term cellular comes from this hexagonal
or honeycomb shape of the coverage area. Each cell has a BS
transmitting over a cell. Because of constraints imposed by natural
terrain and manmade structures, the true shapes of cells are not
hexagons. The coverage area of cells is called the footprint. The BS
simultaneously communicates with many mobiles using one channel
(pair of frequencies) per mobile. One frequency is for the forward link
(BS to the mobile), and the other frequency is for the reverse link
(mobile to the BS). Each cell size varies depending on the landscape,
subscriber density, and demand within a particular region. Cells can be
added to accommodate growth, for example, creating new cells by
overlaying, splitting, or sectoring existing cells. These techniques
increase the capacity of the system. Sectoring existing cells and then
using directional antennas can also increase capacity.
A cluster is a group of cells. No frequencies are reused within a
cluster. Figure 7 illustrates a 7-cell cluster, indicated by the dotted
circle. Frequency can be reused for all cells numbered 7. Frequencies
used in one cell cluster can be reused in another cluster of cells. A
larger number of cells per cluster arrangement reduce interference to
the system.
65
Frequency Reuse

66
Frequency reuse is a technique of allocating channels to cellular
systems. Because of the unavailability of spectrum at the cellular band,
channel frequencies must be reused. Cells are assigned groups of
channels that are completely different from those of neighboring cells.
Cells with the same number have the same set of frequencies. If the
number of available frequencies is 7, the frequency reuse factor is 1/7,
which implies that each cell is using one seventh of available
frequencies (Rappaport, 2002). Frequency reuse introduces interference
into the system.
Interference

In cellular mobile communications, there are two types of intrinsic

interference: co-channel interference (CCI) and adjacent channel
interference (ACI). These interferences are a result of frequency reuse.
CCI is the interference between signals having the same frequency (i.e.,
the reuse frequencies), whereas ACI is the interference between signals
having frequencies close together. For example suppose channel 1 has
frequencies 825.030 MHz (mobile) and 870.030 MHz (BS), and channel
2 has frequencies 825.060 MHz and 870.060 MHz. Channels 1 and 2
have frequencies close to one another, which will result in ACI. Any
other signals having the frequencies of channel 1, 825.030 (mobile) and
870.030 MHz (BS), are co-channel signals and will suffer from co-
channel interference. Note that the interference effect is related to the
ratio of the reuse distance D and the cell radius R. This is known as the
Q-factor (Q = D/R) and is used to measure the level of CCI. A higher Q
value improves transmission quality due to smaller CCI. That is,
increasing D improves isolation of RF energy between cells and hence
minimizes interference. The ACI is mainly due to imperfect filtering
allowing nearby frequencies to leak into the passband of the desired
signal (out-of-band interference).

67
 Large Cell 5
3 2
5 5
Radio tower
7
3 2 3 2 4

1 Pico Cells
7 D 7
4 R 1 4 1 6
6 6 Small Cell
3
1
2
Original frequency Cel e er transceiver
Coverage reuse lul a 3. Good transmission

6. Demand in 2. M quality
ar
excess of Cl u 4. Acceptable delays

capacity ust l in call setup

1. Large
7. Limited
er t 5. Good frequency
coverage
service areas i reuse
area
p 6. Demand
2. Single high
l proportional to
power 1. S
e capacity
transceiver m
7. Extended service
3. Poor
al
l areas
transmission l
o
quality co
w
4. Excessive
ve
delays in call ra
p
setup ge
o
5. Limited
ar
w
68
 60o 1 o

612 cell 2 cell

54 3 sector 0 sect
or

Figure 7: Traditional and cellular mobile radio structure showing

frequency reuse, cell splitting, and cell sectoring (R = cell radius, D =
frequency reuse distance).
Cell Splitting and Sectoring

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller

cells, each with its base station. As the traffic load carried by a large
cell reaches capacity, cell splitting is used to increase system capacity.
In this way, heavy-traffic regions can be split into as many smaller
areas as necessary to provide acceptable service levels. Cell splitting
decreases R, while leaving Q relatively unchanged. Notice that more
cells imply that more cell boundaries will be crossed more often,
increasing trunking and handoff. Only those cells that have traffic
overloads are candidates for splitting. However, if cells are split in only
a part of a system, serious channel assignment problems may result.
The difficulty encountered when all the cell sites are not split can be
resolved by implementing cell overlay.
Cell sectoring is the process of dividing cells into sectors and
replacing a single omni- directional antenna with a directional antenna.
Common sectors sizes are 120°, 90°, 60°, and 30°.

69
Cell sectors of 60° and 120° are illustrated in Figure 7. When cells are
sectored, R is unchanged, D is reduced, the amount of frequency reuse
is increased, and hence capacity is increased. It is observed that the
spectral efficiency of the system is enhanced because the frequency can
be reused more often.
Handoff

Handoff is the process used to maintain a call in progress when the

mobile user moves between cells. Handoff is generally needed when a
mobile is at a cell boundary or reaches a gap in signal strength. Because
adjacent cells do not use the same frequency, a call must either be
dropped or transferred from one radio channel to another when a mobile
user crosses the line between adjacent cells. Because dropping the call is
unacceptable, the process of handoff is necessary. As the user moves
between cells, the transmission is “handed off” between cells to
maintain seamless service.

ELEMENTS OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SECURITY

In all communication systems, whether wireless or not, it is extremely

important to ensure the authenticity of all messages. Also, because
wireless system consists of both wireless and wired component, system
security involves the security of both components. In a wireless system,
communication through an open-air medium makes the information
more vulnerable to additional security risk. Given that RF signals
propagate beyond walls and buildings, the task of securing wireless RF
transmissions has become more complex. This situation is compounded
by additional difficulties of a wireless system such as limited
bandwidth, high latency, and unstable
70
connections. In all cases, however, the objective is to authenticate the
user, secure the data, and ensure that the traffic is not altered during
communication.
Security Methods and Practices

One of the important ingredients in the security or integrity of

information transmission is secrecy. The need for secure
communications particularly over the airways is more profound than
ever, given that the conduct of much of our commerce, business, and
personal matters is being carried out by computer and communication
systems. The main components of the security processes for
communication systems cryptographic techniques, security protocols,
access control methods.
Cryptography. Cryptography is the transformations of a message
into coded form by encryption and the recovery of the original message
by decryption. Encryption and decryption is the primary tool used to
ensure secure communication, which makes the message indecipherable
to anyone other than the intended user. Encryption of a message could
be as simple as permuting the message bits in a prespecified manner
before transmission or as complex as source and channel coding and
decoding (Agrawal, 2003; ITsecurity.com, 2002). Cryptographic
systems offer three important services: (a) secrecy—the denial of access
to information by unauthorized users; (b) authenticity—the validation of
the source and use of a message; and (c) integrity—the assurance that a
message in transit is not modified by accidental or deliberate means.
Conventional cryptography, commonly referred to as single-key
cryptography or secret-key or shared-key cryptography, uses a single
piece of private and secret information known as key. This form of
cryptography operates on the assumption that the key is known to the
transmitter and the receiver only, and that once the message is
encrypted, it is not possible to be deciphered without knowledge of the
71
key. Another type of cryptography is the public-key cryptography or

72
two-key cryptography, in which each user is provided with the key
consisting of a public portion generating the public transformation, and a
private portion (secret), generating the private transformation (Computer
Security Resource Center [CSRC], 2001). Finally, because of the limited
bandwidth and processing power of wireless systems (e.g., mobile
device), robust encryption schemes may be difficult to attend.
Security Protocol. Protocol is a set of rules that govern the
communication between the transmitter and the receiver. In wireless
systems, wired equivalent privacy (WEP) and the wireless transport
layer security (WTLS) are the two main security protocols. WEP is the
standard for encryption in the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standard. One
weakness of WEP is that a single key is shared between all the users
(mobile stations) and access points (APs). This is not very reliable and
also cumbersome to manage as security problems have been reported
with the WEP (CSRC 2002a, 2002b; Mathews, 2002). However, the Wi-
Fi protected access (WPA) provided better security features compared
with the WEP. Yet no matter how messy the birthing process, WPA
seems to be a improvement over the present state of WLAN security by
providing improved encryption and simple but robust user authentication
that can be used in home wireless networks.
The WTLS is the security layer in the WAP that adds security to
mobile devices with little computing power by making the encryption
process efficient. At the WAP gateway, the wireless data must be
unencrypted from WTLS and reencrypted into a wired encryption
protocol like the secure socket layer (SSL).
Access Control. Illegal intrusions into a network are controlled by
access-control methods or devices such as firewalls, RADIUS (remote
authentication dial-in user service), and authentication servers. A
firewall provides preliminary filtering of unauthorized traffic to

73
specific resources or network segments, and a typical firewall
classifies traffic on the basis of predefined addresses (IP addresses).
Authentication and authorization mechanisms restrict access to the
network and its resources, enabling usage only when provided with a
legal identification and password. With authentication the genuineness
of the user, or lack of it, is determined. Unfortunately, this is not very
reliable, because user identifications and passwords can be obtained or
guessed, and therefore a user connecting to a network or service may not
necessarily be the authorized user.
A secure wireless system must be capable of protecting the
confidentiality, integrity, and nonrepudiation of the message
(Bhargarva & Agrawal, 2001; Venkataraman & Agrawal, 2000).
Threats on security can be viewed as potential violations of security.
Hence, a wireless communication systems requires secure medium
access control (MAC) protocols. MAC protocols must be able to have
various mechanisms to handle the diverse traffic demands of different
services in as securely as possible. Figure 8 summarizes the various
categories of attacks that could be brought on wireless.
Wireless Security

Authentication Privacy Integrity Availability Non-repudiation

Receiver Only Message System Receiver

is sender content is resources must be able
confiden and exactly should be to prove that
t of the intended the same available the sender
senders receiver as what only to the did send the
identity should was sent authorized message
understan by users. (sender
d the original cannot deny
message sender it)
74
Figure 8: Wireless security services.

Security maintenance services enhance the security of all information

transfers in the wireless system, by implementing countermeasures to
the various possible attacks. Security requirements of wireless systems
depend on the amount of investment and the characteristics of
applications running on the system. For example, electronic funds
transfer, reservation systems, and typical

75
control systems have different levels of security demands and
expectations. For most systems, the cost for security increases
exponentially with increased level of security needed. Hence, there is a
tradeoff between the level of increasing system security and the
potential cost incurred. The wireless security services are summarized in
Figure 8. To provide efficient security, the system must address the five
cardinal security service depicted in Figure 8. Some of the mechanisms
used for preventing or mitigating the effect of attacks in wireless
systems are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3 List of Security Mechanisms

Security Remark

mechanism
Security Enforces security during the operation of a system by
prevention preventing security

violations. It is implemented to counter security attacks.

Security Detects both attempts to violate security and to address
detection successful
security violations. An intrusion detection system
(IDS) comes under this category
Recovery Used to restore the system to a presecurity violation
start after a security

violation has been detected

Wireless Security Risk and Threats

76
According the National Institute for Standards and Technology
(NIST), security threats in general can be classified into one of the
following categories (NIST, 2003): (a) fraud and theft,
(b) malicious hackers, (c) malicious code, (d) threats to personal privacy, (e)
employee sabotage,

77
(f) loss of physical and infrastructure support, (g) industrial espionage,
(h) errors and omissions, and (i) foreign government espionage. All of
these represent potential threats in wireless systems as well. These
threats, if successful, place information at risk. Security services (e.g.,
confidentiality, integrity, and availability) of wireless systems are the
prime objectives of all security methods and practices.
Risks in wireless networks include the risk of wired network in
addition to the new risks introduced by the wireless nature of the
system. Threats can be accidental or intentional.
Accidental threats result due to operational mistakes of system and
hardware or software failure. Intentional threats (attacks) are actions
performed by an entity with an intention to violate security. Specific
threats and vulnerabilities to wireless systems in general are
summarized in Table 4.

Table 4 Threats and Vulnerabilities to Wireless Systems in General

Security Risk Remarks

and

Threats
Wired system These include all the vulnerabilities that exist in a
risks conventional wired

network.
Unauthorized This includes unauthorized access to a network through
wireless
access
connections, bypassing any firewall protections.
Fraud and theft 1. Due to the portability of wireless devices, theft is

78
 more likely to be committed by authorized and
unauthorized users of the system. Hence, the
information contained in the device can be
compromised.
2. Stolen wireless devices can reveal sensitive or private
information.

79
Malicious 1. Malicious hackers or crackers can break into a
hackers system without authorization, usually for personal
gain or to do harm. Such hackers may gain access to
the wireless network access point by eavesdropping.
2. Sensitive information may be intercepted and
disclosed and perhaps maliciously used.
3. Malicious entities may steal the identity of
legitimate users and masquerade on the
networks.
4. Malicious entities may be able to violate the privacy
of legitimate users and be able to track their actual
movements.
5. Data may be extracted without detection from
improperly configured

devices.
Malicious code 1. Denial of service attacks may be directed at
wireless connections or devices.
2. Malicious code such as viruses, worms, Trojan
horses, logic bombs, or other unwanted software,
designed to damage files or bring down a system,
can easily be introduced into a wireless system.
3. Sensitive data may be corrupted during improper
synchronization.

4. Through wireless connections, malicious entities

may connect to the wired network for the purposes
of launching attacks and concealing their activity.
5. Interlopers may be able to gain connectivity to
network controls and

80
 thereby disable or disrupt operations.
Industrial and 1. Industrial and foreign espionage involve gathering
proprietary data

81
foreign from corporations or intelligence information from
espionage governments through eavesdropping. In wireless
networks, the espionage threat stems from the
relative ease in which eavesdropping can occur on
radio transmissions.
2. Spying for military applications also fall under this
category.

Security attacks can be broadly divided into two groups: active and
passive attacks. These two broad classes are then subdivided into other
types of attacks as illustrated in Figure 9. An attack is said to be passive
when an unauthorized user simply gains access to a network without
modifying its content such as in eavesdropping and traffic flow analysis.
In eavesdropping, the attacker simply monitors transmissions for
message content. An example of this attack is a person listening in on
transmissions on a local area network between two workstations, or
tuning into transmissions between a wireless handset and a base station.
In traffic analysis, the attacker, in a more subtle way, gains
intelligence by monitoring the transmissions patterns for messages
between communicating units, which can yield significant amount of
information through the flow of information.
An attack is said to be active when an unauthorized user makes
modifications to a message, data stream, or file. It is possible to detect
this type of attack, but it may not be preventable.
Active attacks may be in the form of one or more of the following:
masquerading, replay, message modification, and denial-of-service
(DoS). In masquerading, the attacker impersonates an authorized user
and thereby gains certain unauthorized privileges. In replay, the
attacker monitors transmissions (passive attack) and, using the obtained
information, retransmits messages as the legitimate user. Message
82
modification involves an attacker who alters a

83
legitimate message by deleting, adding to, changing, or reordering the
message. In DoS, the attacker prevents or prohibits the normal use or
management of communications facilities. DoS involves hijacking of
the resources, thereby preventing authorized user from utilizing
network resources.
In general, it is harder to detect passive attacks because they do not disturb
the system.

Encrypting messages can partly solve the problem. The consequences of

passive or active attacks include loss of privacy, loss of proprietary
information, legal and recovery costs, tarnished image, and loss of
network service (Agrawal & Zeng, 2003).

Security Attacks

Active Attacks Passive Attacks

Message Denial-of-
Masquerade Replay Eavesdropping Traffic Analysis
Modification Service

Figure 9: Different types of security attacks.

SECURITY OF WLAN

The technology of wireless network, which enables one or more devices

84
to communicate without physical connection, range from complex
systems such as cellular phones and WLAN to simple devices such as
wireless headphones, microphones, and other devices that do not process
or store information. All these technologies use radio waves for
transmitting and receiving information. Based on the coverage area,
wireless networks can be classified into wireless wide area network
(WWAN), WLAN, and wireless personal area network (WPAN).
WWAN technologies include

85
mobile cellular (2G) network, cellular digital packet data (CDPD),
global system for mobile communications (GSM), and Mobitex. WLAN
includes systems such as IEEE 802.11a (54 Mbps @ 5 GHz), IEEE
802.11b (11 Mbps @ 2.4 GHz), IEEE 802.11g (54 Mbps @ 2.4 GHz),
and
HiperLAN (54 Mbps @ 5 GHz, used in Europe). WPAN are network
technologies such as Bluetooth and HomeRF. Although their coverage
areas are different, their communication techniques are similar because
they transmit and receive information using radio waves. Because
wireless network and technology are so diverse, I limit our discussion
on the security issues related to the IEEE 802.11 WLAN technology as
an example.
Security Methods in Wireless LAN

WLAN is a flexible data communication system implemented as an

extension to or as an alternative for, a wired LAN (CSRC, 2002;
ITsecurity.com, 2002). Using RF technology, WLAN transmits and
receives data over the air, minimizing the need for wired connections. It
combines data connectivity with user mobility. A WLAN has wireless
client stations that use radio waves to communicate to an access point
(AP). The client stations are generally equipped with a wireless network
interface card (NIC) consisting of the radio modem and the necessary
logic and software to interact with the access point. An AP, a stationary
device that is part of the wired infrastructure, comprises essentially a
radio modem on one side and a bridge to the wired network on the
other. The AP is analogous to a cell-site (base station) in cellular
communications. All communications between the client stations and
the wired network go through the AP. Having gained strong popularity
lately, WLAN is used in health care, retail, manufacturing,
warehousing, and academia.
The preferred protocol for WLAN is the IEEE 802.11 standard (The
86
IEEE Working Group for WLAN Standards, n.d.). Without
authentication and encryption, WLANs are extremely

87
vulnerable. The security services are provided largely by the WEP
security protocol. WEP has two main design goals: to protect against
eavesdropping and to prevent unauthorized access. WEP uses RC4
encryption on a 40- or 128-bit shared key. Encrypts of payload is
undertaken while frame is “in the air.”
IEEE 802.11 defines mechanism for encrypting frames using WEP as
follows:

1. A key is shared between all members of network.

2. The encryption algorithm for WEP is RC4. It is used to generate

the key stream, which is added to the plaintext code using modulo-
2 addition (exclusive-ORed) against plaintext to produce
ciphertext.
3. The decryption algorithm for WEP is also RC4 which is exclusive-
ORed with the ciphertext to reproduce plaintext.
4. WEP appends 24-bit initialization vector (IV) to the shared key and using
this combined key

+ IV, it generates RC4 key schedule. WEP selects new IV for every packet.

5. Encapsulation transports the IV and ciphertext from sender

(encryptor) to receiver (decryptor).
6. WEP uses a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) code of length 32
for integrity check of the frame. The CRC is computed over data
payload and appended to the frame before encryption. WEP
encrypts CRC with rest of data payload.
7. Authentication process is only a one-way client medium; access
control protocol address only.
WEP does not provide end-to-end security, but only for the
wireless portion of the connection, as shown in Figure 10.
88
 Convevtional wired security methods 802.11 security

AP AP




Hub
Laptop
Admi Print comput
nist er er
rato (Mobil
r Wired e unit)
unit LAN

PC unit PC Wor Mainframe

unit kstati
on

Figure 10: Security infrastructure in IEEE 802.11 wireless networks.

Security Services for IEEE 802.11 Standards

89
The 802.11 standard addresses three basic security services—
authentication, confidentiality, and integrity. These three basic security
services are summarized as follows:
Authentication—WEP authentication process is used to
provide access control to the network through denying access to
client stations that cannot be authenticated properly.
Authentication can be achieved through cryptography or
noncryptographic means. The authentication process is
illustrated in Figure 11. Please note that the noncryptographic
techniques are highly vulnerable to attacks
802.11 Authentication

Identity based challenge-response based

Cryptography
(Uses RC4)

Non- cryptography
(RC4 not used)

Open system authentication Closed

(Null SSID is accepted) system authentication
(Must have valid SSID)

A station is allowed A station is allowed A station is

to access the network to access the allowed to
if it transmits an network if it access the
empty string for the transmits a valid network if
SSID SSID for the AP WEP key is
known

90
Figure 11: Authentication processes in 802.11 WLAN standards. AP
= access point; SSID = service set identifier; WEP = wired equivalent
privacy.

Confidentiality—In the 802.11 protocol, confidentiality or privacy is

implemented through the use of cryptographic techniques with the RC4
symmetric-key encoding. Before transmission, the data stream is added
to the “key stream” using modulo 2 additions. Key sizes ranging from
40 bits to 104 bits can be used. In practice, however, most WLANs use
40-bit keys, which is not reliable. In general, increasing the key size
increases the security of a cryptographic technique. It has been shown
that the WEP confidentiality approach is vulnerable to attacks (CSRC,
2002; ITsecurity.com, 2002).
Integrity—Data integrity is achieved by using a simple encrypted
CRC encoding and decoding technique. A CRC-32 code or a frame
check sequence is computed on each packet prior to transmission. The
integrity-sealed packet is then encrypted using the RC4 key stream to
provide the encrypted message. On the receiving end, decryption is
performed, and the CRC is recomputed on the message received. The
CRC computed at the receiving end is compared with the one computed
with the original message. Any discrepancy signifies a violation of
integrity.
These three techniques are the only security services provided by
the IEEE 802.11 WLAN protocol. Security services provided by the
IEEE 802.11 WLAN protocol did not address other security services
such as audit, authorization, and nonrepudiation.
Security Vulnerability in IEEE 802.11 Standards

The WEP protocol used in 802.11-based WLANs is perceived to have

some security problems. The use of 40-bit key in the WEP
91
cryptography has been found to be vulnerable to both passive and
active attacks (CSRC, 2002; Cardwell & Woollard, 2001; Ewalt, 2001).
Because significant

92
attention is now being focused on the security of 802.11, more
vulnerability is likely to be discovered. To present a concise
discussion on the issue of security for WLAN, some of the problems
associated with WEP security techniques in the IEEE 802.11
WLAN standard are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4 Security Problems With Current 802.11 WLAN

Security Remar
Issues ks
and
Vulnerabili
ty
Cryptograph 1. Cryptographic keys are short. Standard 40-bit keys
y are inadequate and vulnerable to attacks. The longer
the key, the less likely the key can be recomputed
from a brute-force attack. It has been shown that 80-
bit or more key size is more secure.
2. Keys are shared. If keys are shared,
confidentiality could be compromised.
3. Keys not updated automatically and frequently.
Cryptographic keys

should be changed often to prevent brute-force attacks.

Authenticati 1. No user authentication. In 802.11, only the device
on is authenticated. A stolen device can be used to
access the network.
2. Device authentication is based on challenge-
response. One-way challenge-response
authentication is subject to attacks. Mutual
93
authentication is required to provide verification
that users and the
network are legitimate.

94
 3. Authentication not automatically enabled. Identity-
based systems are highly vulnerable particularly in a
wireless system because only simple service set
identifier; identification occurs.
4. Authentications by MAC address lookup.
Wired 1. RC4 used in WEP has a weak key schedule. The IV in
equivalent WEP uses a 24- bit key sent in the clear text portion.
privacy It has been shown that using this key combined with
(WEP) a weakness in the initial few bytes of the RC4
keystream, it is possible to attack the system
successfully.
Packet 1. Packet integrity is poor. Cyclic redundancy check
integrity (CRC)-32 and other linear block codes are
inadequate for cryptographic integrity. Message
modification is possible.
2. Cryptographic protection is required to prevent
deliberate attacks.
3. Use of noncryptographic protocols often facilitates
attacks against the network.
Securit 1. Security features in hardware, although poor in some
y cases, are often not enabled when shipped, and users
hardw do not enable them when installed. Hence, many
are systems operate without security.
2. Bad security is generally better than no security.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND SECURITY STANDARDS

The first-generation (1G) and second-generation (2G) of cellular mobile

95
telephony were intended primarily for voice transmission. This will not
be adequate for the new generation of users. The need for multimedia
communications over wireless channels, the rapid growth of wireless
voice

96
subscribers, the continued popularity of the Internet, and the increasing
use of portable computing devices suggests that high-speed, high-
capacity, and high-quality wireless communication systems will become
a major focus in the telecommunication industry. In today’s technology
era, emerging personal communication systems are expected to provide
a wide range of services that require high data rates—not only for voice,
but also in data, images, video, and multimedia information transmission
over wireless channels. With the continued growth of the Internet and
World Wide Web, mobile users are continually looking for high-
performance wireless Internet technology to enhance their
communication capabilities. The third-generation (3G) systems were
intended to provide high data rates (between 384 kbps for low mobility
users to 2 Mbps for stationary users; The Shoesteck Group, 2001),
significantly expands the range of options available to users and allows
multimedia communication via wireless terminals.
Unfortunately, these objectives have not been fully realized.

One of the challenges of realizing these objectives is the effects of

the wireless channel, which includes fading, delay spread, and co-
channel interference. To achieve high-speed, high- quality, and high-
capacity communications over wireless channels, countermeasures
should be employed to combat these impairments.
New wireless or cellular mobile radio technologies, services, and
applications are constantly under investigation. Some of the
technologies are currently under research and development, and some
are experiencing limited field tests. These technologies include the 3G
technologies and the fourth-generation (4G) technologies. The goal of
these technologies is to integrate seamlessly a wide variety of
communication services such as high-speed data, video, and multimedia
traffic as well as voice signals. Some of these technologies can be
realized by combining existing technologies. For example, one of the

97
most promising approaches to 3G is to combine a

98
wideband code division multiple access air interface with the fixed
network of a global system for mobile communications (GSM). It is
expected that these new technologies will increase the performance of
the existing wireless systems. These technologies will provide
multimedia capability at much higher rates with Internet connectivity.
Although 3G technologies have been deployed, they have not
experienced market success compared with the 2G systems. The 3G
standard was created by the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) and is more widely known as International Mobile
Telecommunications – 2000 (IMT-2000). The aim of IMT-2000 is to
harmonize worldwide 3G systems to provide global roaming.
Harmonizing so many standards proved extremely difficult.
Furthermore, the definition of what is and what is not “3G” is murky.
Figure 12 shows the various terrestrial radio interfaces referred to as 3G
standards and is based on the IMT-2000 standardization. Of many
variants, only three dominant standards (wideband code division
multiple access [W-CDMA], CDMA2000, and TD- SCDMA) allow full
network coverage over macro cells, micro cells, and pico cells and can
thus be considered as full 3G solutions. As shown in Figure 12, other
non-CDMA technologies such as UWC-136 and DECT+ are also
considered 3G technologies. In W-CDMA technology, data is
transferred over wireless networks in digital format over a range of
frequencies, which makes the data move faster but also uses more
bandwidth than digital voice services. The competing 3G CDMA
technologies differs technically but provide comparable services.
Although there are five terrestrial standards, most of the attention in the
industry has been focused on the CDMA standards. As technology
improves, the functionality of handheld devices is becoming more
feature-rich and portable. For example, mobile phones have increased
functionality that now allows them to serve as PDAs and digital cameras
in addition to phones. Smart phones can now provide voice services, e-

99
mail, text messaging, paging, Web access, voice recognition, and

10
0
 digital camera capability. Next-generation mobile phones, already on
the market, are quickly incorporating PDA, infrared (IR), wireless
Internet, e-mail, and global positioning system capabilities. More
significantly, manufacturers are combining standards as well, with the
goal to provide a device capable of delivering multiple services. Table 5
summarizes the services and applications of the various generations of
wireless services.

IMT-2000 IMT-2000 IMT-2000 IMT-2000

IMT-2000 TDMA
CDMA CDMA CDMA FDMA/TDM
Single Carrier
Direct Spread Multi-carrier TDD A

W-CDMA
(UMTS)
CDMA2000 1X
CDMA2000 1xEV
UTRA TDD &
TD-SCDMA
UWC- DECT+
136 &
3G CDMA Technology
EDG
E

Figure 12: IMT-2000 terrestrial radio interfaces

Another emerging application in wireless communication is the use

of ultra wideband (UWB) systems for local area network. UWB is
defined as any radio technology with a spectrum that occupies a
bandwidth greater than 20% of the center frequency, or a bandwidth of
at least 500 MHz (FCC, 2000; Intel, n.d.). UWB systems transmit
signals across a much wider frequency than conventional systems. The
amount of spectrum occupied by a UWB signal, that is, the bandwidth of
the UWB signal, is at least 25% of the center frequency. In the United
States, the FCC has mandated that UWB radio transmissions can legally

10
1
operate in the range from 3.1 to
10.6 GHz, at a limited transmit power of –41 dBm/MHz. Consequently,
UWB provides dramatic channel capacity at short range that limits
interference. UWB communication systems offer several potential
advantages. Because of the potentially large processing gain, many of
the characteristics and advantages of spread spectrum communication
carry over to UWB systems. For instance, a UWB system is capable of
supporting multiple users; is robust against jamming,

10
2
interference, and multipath fading; and is suitable for applications
requiring low probabilities of interception and low probability of
detection by unintended user. It follows that their wide bandwidth
makes them more robust to multipath interference with multiuser access
capability. UWB provides the highest bandwidths with the lowest
vulnerability to multipath interference. It also offers potentially high bit
rate transmission with capacity increasing almost linearly with power.
The fine time resolution makes it a good candidate in applications such
as ranging, remote sensing, search and rescue missions, and
measurement applications under extremely harsh weather conditions.
Unfortunately, before UWB systems can become fully implemented
and commercially viable, many challenging problems need to be
resolved. Some of these include wideband antenna design, timing
acquisition and synchronization, channel modeling, and interference
from or to other systems. For example, the performance of UWB
systems under realistic channel model is being investigated. In addition,
with low transmission power and a highly spread bandwidth, acquisition
of a UWB signal is difficult (Fleming, Kushner, Roberts, & Nandiwada,
2002). For instance, if packets are transmitted, a long preamble is
needed to ensure acquisition of each packet at the receiver, reducing
throughput and increasing overhead. This problem is amplified when
multiple hops are traversed in a network from the source to the
destination. Also, because UWB systems are overlaid on existing
wireless systems, issues of interference become critical (Fontana, 2002;
Siwiak, 2001). Interference suppression algorithms are needed to
minimize interference from or to other users. Other research interests
include the implementation of UWB systems in a dense network
environment.
Another wireless communication application is local multipoint
distribution services (LMDS), a fixed wireless technology that operates
in the Ka band and offers LOS coverage over distances

10
3
up to 3–5 kilometers (Wireless Communications Association
International, n.d.). It can be used to provide digital two-way voice,
data, Internet, and video services to numerous customers from a single
node. LMDS is a broadband wireless point-to-multipoint
communication system operating in the Ka-band and above. LMDS is
one solution for bringing high-bandwidth services to homes and offices
within the “last mile” of connectivity, an area where cable or optical
fiber may not be convenient or economical. The technology is similar to
the cellular systems in that network architecture of microwave radios
placed at the client’s location and at the company’s base station to
deliver fixed services—mainly telephony, video, and Internet access.
With LDMS, customers can receive data rates between 64 kbps and 155
Mbps. Advantages of LMDS include low deployment costs, fast
deployment capability, scalable system architecture, and variable
component cost because no large capital investment is required. The
system requires LOS between the base station hub and the customer
premises, however, and LDMS signals are affected by weather
conditions.

Table 5 Service Differentiation by Wireless Communication Generations

2G 2.5G 3 3.5G 4G
G
(Evolve (Evolve
d 2G) d 3G)
9.6– 64–144 384 384 100
14.4 kbps kbps– kbps– Mbps
10
4
kbps
2 20
Mbps Mbps
1. Circ 1.Packet 1. Seamless 1. Interactive multimedia
uit services services broadband services—voice,
swit 2.Interact over video, wireless Internet
ched ive multiple 2. High speed, high capacity
2. Voice 3.Web accesses and low cost per bit
3. Simple
browsing 2. Improvements
messa , 4.E- of existing air- 3. Global mobility, service
ge/SM mail and interfaces portability, scalable
(including new
spectrum)

10
5
 S attachmen 3. Multimedia mobile networks
ts
4. Event 4. High 4. Seamless switching,
File
5. interactivity, variety of services based
notifica transfer real-time road on quality-of-service
tion s, maps requirements
transact 5. Medical imaging 5. Better scheduling and
5. Fax ions/e- call admission control
commer 6. Audio streaming techniques.
ce 6. Ad hoc networks and
6. Instant 7. Video streaming multihop networks and
messaging high capacity optical
8. Video telephony networking
7. Advanced antenna systems
and multihop systems

Multicarrier—CDMA or
8.

OFDM
Fair QoS End-to-end QoS End-to-end QoS
 TDM  GPRS  3GPP New air interface and
A (EDGE,UMTS) protocols
 MC1X
 GSM  W-CDMA

 PCD  CDMA2000

 CDM  TD-CDMA/
Aone TD-SCDMA

 DECT and

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6
 UWC-136

There are emerging security standards and technologies that should be

mentioned. The security industry, standards organizations, and IEEE are
all working to improve the security of wireless systems. For example,
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF; Cox, 2003) and the IEEE
802.11 Task Working Group I (TGI; IEEE Working Group, 2003) are
currently working on initiatives for improving WLAN security. The TGI
is defining a second version of WEP, based on the newly released
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). The AES-based solution will
provide a highly robust solution for the future but will require new
hardware and protocol changes.
In the meantime, a short-term solution to address the problems of
WEP, using the temporal key integrity protocol (TKIP) has been
proposed. The primary goal of TKIP is to remove all

10
7
known vulnerabilities of WEP and allow operation on existing wireless-
fidelity (Wi-Fi)-certified hardware. This will address the problems
without requiring hardware changes (only changes to firmware and
software drivers required).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this chapter, RF and wireless communication and the related

security issues have been discussed. The concept and general definitions
are presented. Within these topics, we have discussed the concept of
radio waves as propagating electromagnetic waves, including their
characteristics and behavior. For wireless and mobile radio systems, it is
important to understand distinguishing features of the channel, the
properties of the radio wave, and several techniques to enhance the
reliability of the channel and increase the performance of the system. RF
and wireless communication systems are being used in diverse arenas
such as in the home; by the military; and for travel, education, stock
trading, package delivery, disaster recovery, and medical emergencies.
For example, with wireless technology, field employees can connect a
portable computer via a wireless network to the area office. Sales
professionals can stay in touch with customers about products and
services and orders and contact the home office for status updates to
home offices and inventory. Airline staff can gather information about
ticketing, flight scheduling, and luggage using wireless devices. Public
welfare agencies such as police, fire safety, and ambulance services can
use wireless devices to relay information. Package delivery companies
such as Federal Express, UPS, and DHL have adopted wireless and
mobile computing technology for parcel tracking, as well as emergency
shipment drops or pickups.
Also, a summary of the various forms of wireless communication systems was
10
8
presented,

10
9
emphasizing cellular mobile radio, currently the most prevalent wireless
communication system. Finally, emerging wireless technologies were
briefly introduced.
Although wireless systems are commonplace in our society, the future
of the industry is filled with both promise and challenge. Future
wireless technologies under consideration include the full realization of
3G technologies and the development of 4G technologies. 4G wireless
technology based on ultra-wideband communications could enable the
use of low-power, high- bandwidth (100–500 Mbps) networks,
supporting devices with sense and radar capabilities.
Multimedia messaging will allow pictures and sound to be transmitted
along with text message over the mobile phone in a seamless manner.
Mobile handsets will support full-color display screens, some with
embedded Java capabilities, others with built-in digital cameras. It is
expected that Bluetooth technology will move from theory and hype to
practicality, and issues regarding the security of mobile commerce and
information security in general will dissipate.

GLOSSARY

1G, 2G, 3G, 4G First-, second, third-, and fourth-generation wireless systems.

Access Point A specially configured node that acts as a central

transmitter and receiver for on a wireless local area network radio
signals.
Ad Hoc Network A “spontaneous” network is a wireless LAN, in
which some of the network devices are part of the network only for
the duration of a communications session or while in some close
proximity to the rest of the network.
11
0
Amplifier An electronic device used to boost the strength of a signal
along a communications channel.

11
1
Antenna A device used for receiving or transmitting signals.

Authentication The process of determining the true identity of a

user. Basic authentication is simply using a password to verify that
you are who you say you are.
Bandwidth The capacity of a transmission channel.

Base station Central radio transmitter or receiver (or both) that

maintains communications with a mobile radio user.
Bluetooth Short-range wireless protocol allowing mobile devices
to share information and applications.
Broadband A classification of the information capacity or
bandwidth of a communication channel.
Cellular Wireless communication technique used in mobile phones.

Channel A radio-frequency assignment made according to the frequency band

used.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) A method of encryption used by

WEP to provide integrity protection for WLAN.
Cryptography The science of information security usually involving
scrambling of plain text into encrypted text at the transmitter, and
decrypting the encrypted text back into plain text at the receiver.
The encrypted information cannot be understood by anyone for
whom it is not intended or altered in storage or transmission
without the alteration being detected.
Cipher Transformations that converts plaintext to ciphertext using the Cipher
key.

Ciphertext Data output from the cipher or input to the inverse cipher.

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DoS Denial-of-service. An attack that floods a network with an
overwhelming amount of traffic, slowing its response time for
legitimate traffic or grinding it to a halt completely.

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Decryption Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data back
into its original form so that it can be understood
Decipher Inverse transformations that converts ciphertext to plaintext using the
Cipher Key.

Data encryption standard (DES) Widely used method for data

encryption using a private key that is difficult to break. It uses a 56-
bit key for each 64-bit block of data. There are 72 quadrillion or
more possible combinations of keys.
Downlink Data transmission from a network to a subscriber.

Duplexer Device for isolating transmitter and receiver signals

while permitting a shared channel.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) Product of power
supplied to an antenna and its gain.
Encryption The conversion of data into a form called a
ciphertext that cannot be easily understood by unauthorized
users.
Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) A faster version of
the GSM wireless service designed to deliver data at rates up to 384
Kbps and enable the delivery of multimedia and other broadband
applications to mobile phone and computer users.
Firewall A set of related programs located at a network gateway
server that protects the resources of a private network from users
from other networks.
Frequency Rate of signal oscillation in hertz (1 hertz is one cycle per
second); the number of times a waveform repeats itself in a second.
Global Positioning System (GPS) A worldwide radio-navigation system.

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Ground Station The ground equipment needed to receive
or transmit satellite telecommunications signals, including
a dish and other electronics components.
GSM Global system for mobile communications; the mobile phone
platform used in Europe and many parts of the world.
Handoff Transfer of wireless call in progress from one site to another
without disconnection. HomeRF Home radio frequency (HomeRF) is
a home networking standard that combines the 802.11b and digital
enhanced cordless telecommunication portable phone standards into a
single system. HomeRF uses a frequency-hopping technique to
deliver speeds of up to 1.6 Mbps over distances of up to 150 feet.
HiperLAN HiperLAN is a set of WLAN communication standards
primarily used in Europe, adopted by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) A
worldwide professional association for electrical and electronics
engineers that sets standards for telecommunications and computing
applications.
IEEE 802.11 The IEEE’s proposed standard for wireless LANs that
places specifications on the parameters of both the physical and
medium access control layers of the network.
Infrared (IR) An invisible band of radiation at the lower end
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Isotropic Refers to a theoretical reference antenna that radiates equally well
in all directions.

Initialization vector (IV) A random data used encryption to make a message

unique.

Local Area Network (LAN) A network that connects computers in

close proximity via cable, usually in the same building.

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Malicious Code A term used to refer to various types of software
that can cause problems or damage to the network. The more
common types of malicious code are viruses, worms, Trojan horses,
macro viruses, and backdoors
Modulation Process of varying a characteristic of a carrier with an
information-bearing signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) A basic form of digital
modulation in which an analog signal is sampled, the sample is
quantized independently of other samples, and is then converted
to a digital signal.
Personal Communications Services (PCS) Any of several types
of wireless voice or data communications systems, typically
incorporating digital technology.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) A handheld computer that
serves as an organizer for personal information.
Propagation Radiation of electromagnetic waves.

Protocol A protocol is a set of rules or agreed-on guidelines for

communication.

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) A formal name for

the landline telephone network.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) A modulation

method for digital satellite transmission.
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)
Originally developed to manage dial-in access to Internet; now
being used to manage access control for other systems including
WLANs.

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Rivest Cipher 4 (RC4) A common encryption algorithm used by
the WEP protocol and TKIP.
Receiver A device on a transmission line that converts a signal to
whatever type of signal is needed to complete the transmission.
Radio Frequency (RF) A radio signal.

Spectrum Range of electromagnetic radio frequencies used in signal

transmission.

Spread Spectrum (SS) A communications technology in which a

signal is transmitted over a broad range of frequencies and then
reassembled when received.
Subscriber A cellular telephone user.

Service Set Identifier (SSID) A sequence of characters that

uniquely names a wireless local area network. This name allows
stations to connect to the desired network when multiple independent
networks operate in the same physical area.
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) A protocol for managing the security
of message transmission over the Internet.
Transport Layer Security (TLS) An authentication and
encryption protocol for private transmission over the Internet. It
provides mutual authentication with nonrepudiation, encryption,
algorithm negotiation, secure key derivation, and message
integrity checking. Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) A
wireless encryption protocol that fixes the known problems in the
WEP protocol for existing 802.11b products.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) A digital communication
technology used by some carriers to provide service.

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Transmitter The source or generator of any signal on a transmission
medium.

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Uplink Data transmission in the direction from the subscriber to
the network (back to the provider or Internet provider).
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) A technology designed to
provide users of mobile terminals with limited access to the Internet.
A standard for providing cellular telephones, pagers, and other
handheld devices with secure access to e-mail and text-based Web
pages. Wavelength Distance between points of corresponding phase
in two consecutive cycles of a wave.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) A security protocol, specified
in the IEEE 802.11 standard, that attempts to provide a WLAN
with a minimal level of security and privacy comparable to a
typical wired LAN.
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA). A 3G
mobile standard under the IMT-2000 banner, first deployed in
Japan.
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) The industry name for WLAN
communication technology related to the IEEE 802.11 family of
wireless networking standards.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) Wireless network
communication over short distances using radio signals instead
of traditional network cabling.
Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)_The security level for
WAP applications that was developed to address the problematic
issues surrounding mobile network devices—such as limited
processing power and memory capacity and low bandwidth—and to
provide adequate authentication, data integrity, and privacy
protection mechanisms.
Wireless Local Loop (WLL) A wireless system meant to bypass a
local landline telephone system.

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Cross References

[For the editor-in-chief.]

REFERENCES

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communication satellites (NASA Technical Memo, 107534).
Cleveland, OH: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Glenn Research Center.

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