Poetical and Wisdom Literature

B.Th.-III

What is Poetry?
Poetry is a type of literature that aims to evoke an emotional response in the reader through
language chosen and arranged for its meaning, sound, and rhythm.

Poetry in the Old Testament

● It make up one-third of the Hebrew Literature
● We find poems are sprinkled throughout the OT Bible:
- Exodus 15:1-18: The song of Moses and Mariam
- Judges 5:1-31 : The song of Deborah
- Isaiah 5:1-7 : The song of Vineyard
● The largest book of the Bible, Psalms, is entirely poetry.

Narrative vs Poetry
The function of narrative/ story
To won someone’s thinking by laying out:
- arguments,
- supporting data, and
- responding to their objections

The function of poetry

To influence someone's feelings.

Robert Frost, the famous English writer

“Poetry is when an emotion has found its thought and the thought has found words.”

General Characteristic of Poetry

● It is very compact
● It tries to express truth, feelings or experiences in imagery
● It is primarily written. It is highly structured. The structure is express in:
- Parallelism
- Word plays
- Sound plays

THE TWO KEY ELEMENTS OF HEBREW POETRY

1. Parallelism
● Parallelism refers “to the practice of balancing one thought or phrase by a corresponding
thought or phrase containing approximately the same number of words, or at least a
correspondence in ideas.”
● There are several types of parallel arrangement of thoughts, with three being basic.
i. Synonymous: the thought of the first line is basically repeated in different words in the
second line (Ps. 2:4; 3:1; 7:17).
ii. Antithetical: the thought of the first line is emphasized by a contrasting thought in the
second line (Ps 1:6; 34:10). They are often identified with “but.”
iii. Synthetic: the second line explains or further develops the idea of the first line (Ps
1:3; 95:3).
iv. Climactic: the second line repeats with the exception of the last terms (Ps. 29:1).
v. Emblematic: One line conveys the main point, the second line illuminates it by an
image (Ps. 42:1; 23:1).

2. Figures of Speech
Hebrew poetry uses vivid images, similes, metaphors, and other rhetorical devices to
communicate thoughts and feelings. Some of these are as follows:
i. Simile: This is the simplest of all the figures of speech. A simile is a comparison
between two things that resemble each other in some way.
(cf. Ps. 1:3-4; 5:12; 17:8; 131:2).

ii. Metaphor: This is a comparison in which one thing is likened to another without the
use of a word of comparison as in “like” or “as.” In Psalm 23:1, David says, “The Lord is my
Shepherd,” that is, He is to me like a shepherd is to his sheep (see also 84:11; 91:4).

iii. Implication: This occurs when there is only an implied comparison between two
things in which the name of one thing is used in place of the other
(cf. Ps. 22:16; Jer. 4:7).

iv. Hyperbole: This is the use of exaggeration or overstatement to stress a point

(Ps. 6:6; 78:27; 107.26).

v. Paronomasia: This refers to the use or repetition of words that are similar in sound, but
not necessarily in sense or meaning in order to achieve a certain effect. This can only be
observed by those who can read the original Hebrew text. Psalm 96:10 reads, “For all the gods
(kol-elohay) of the nations are idols (elilim). This latter word means nothing, or things of naught;
so that we might render it, “The gods of the nations or imaginations.”28 (see also Ps. 22:16;
Prov. 6:23).
vi. Pleonasm: This involves the use of redundancy for the sake of emphasis. This may
occur with the use of words or sentences. In Psalm 20:1 we are told, “May the Lord answer you
in the day of trouble! May the name of the God of Jacob set you securely on high!” Here “name”
appears to be redundant. It means God Himself and has more emphasis than if only the term
“God” had been used.

vii. Rhetorical question: The use of a question to confirm or deny a fact (Ps. 35:10; 56:8;
106.2).

viii. Metonymy: This occurs where one noun is used in place of another because of some
relationship or type of resemblance that different objects might bear to one another (Ps. 5:9;
18:2; 57:9; 73:9).

ix. Anthropomorphism: The assigning of some part of the human anatomy to God’s
Person to convey some aspect of God’s being like the eyes or ears (cf. Ps. 10:11, 14; 11:4; 18:15;
31:2).

x. Zoomorphism: The assigning of some part of an animal to God’s Person to convey

certain truths about God
(cf. Ps. 17:8; 91:4).
 THE BOOK OF PSALMS
I. Introduction
The book of Psalms is believed to capture the greatest interest among all the books in the Old
Testament. It possesses a captivating quality that both engages the mind and stirs emotions. The
profound reverence and devout sentiments that saturate the Psalms, born out of a deep, personal
connection with God, resonate powerfully with contemporary individuals.

II. Author
More than seven composers can be identified when considering the human aspect of authorship.
Name No. References

David 73 Ps 3—9; 11—32; 34—41; 51—65; 68—70; 86; 101;

103; 108—110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138—145

Asaph 12 Ps. 50, 73-83

Korahites 12 Ps. 42-49; 84; 86; 87; 88

Solomon 2 Ps. 72, 127

Moses 1 Ps. 90

Ethan 1 Ps. 89

Anonymous 49 The rest of the psalms.

III. Date
The Psalms cover a wide period of time, starting with Moses around 1410 B.C. (Psalm 90) and
extending to the late sixth or early fifth-century BCE during the post-exilic period (Psalm 126).
This period encompasses approximately nine hundred years of Jewish history.

III. Purpose
The primary purpose of the book of Psalms was considered to serve as a hymnal for the
worshipers of the ancient Israelites. It offers a means of prayer and praise for the saints of the
Old Testament. However, this purpose has transcended time and enriched believers of all
generations in expressing their faith in diverse situations.

V. Structure
The book of Psalms is generally categorized into the following divisions:
Book 1 Psalms 1—41
Book 2 Psalms 42—72
Book 3 Psalms 73—89
 Book 4 Psalms 90—106
Book 5 Psalms 107—150

VI. Different Types of Psalms

1. Hymns
a. General Praises of God
Characteristically, the General Praises of God have a simple, threefold structure.
i. They open with a call to praise God.
ii. The main section gives the grounds for praise, often introduced by the word ki (‘for’).
iii. The psalm closes with a renewed call to praise, which often echoes the introduction.
Eg. Psalm 117
v. 1 Praise the LORD, all you nations!
Extol him, all you peoples!
v. 2 For great is his steadfast love towards us,
and the faithfulness of the LORD endures for ever.
Praise the Lord!
v.1 - call to praise God
v.2a - the ground for praise
v.2b - the renewed call to praise

Eg. Psalm 113

vv. 1–3 are the introductory call to praise,
vv. 4–9b give the grounds for praise and
v. 9c is the conclusion of renewed call to praise.
Eg. Psalm 150
v. 1 is the introductory call to praise,
v. 2 give the grounds for praise and
v. 3-6 is the conclusion of renewed call to praise.

b. Psalms celebrating Yahweh’s kingship

General Praises centre on the theme of Yahweh’s lordship over creation (Psalms 8; 29; 104).
Others celebrate his acts in history (Psalm 104).

c. Songs of Zion
● Although there are a number of references to the temple and Zion in the psalms, there is a
group of six hymns which centre on Zion as their main theme. They praise Yahweh by
praising the city that he has chosen to be the centre of his worship, and his protection of
it.
● These Songs of Zion are: Psalms 46, 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122.
● They do not have the characteristic structure of the General Praises.
2. Laments
 ● The Laments are the commonest type of psalm.
● They form about one-third of the Psalter.
● They express the psalmist’s response to God when in a situation of need or affliction.
● The laments psalms are of two types:
i. individual lament, and
ii. communal lament.
● The various components that make up the structure of lament psalms are:
i. The Address to God,
ii. The Complaint,
iii. The Confession of Trust
iv. The Petition,
v. The Imprecation, and
vi. The Vow of Praise.
The first four components are common in both individual and communal lament psalms.
However, the vow of praise is rare in the communal lament psalm.

i. The Address to God : It is the act of addressing or invocation to God. The psalmist
usually calls out to God by name. Addressing God by name is a crucial step in establishing
contact and facilitating communication with Him. The act of calling upon God by name is not a
trivial matter but rather an event that has the power to unite both the caller (psalmist) and the
called (God) and bring about a transformative experience for the caller.

ii. The Complaint: In the present world, a complaint is associated with negative
connotations. But, in psalms, it is something much more lively and positive than we think of
today. The complaint in Psalms is directed towards God and consists of three elements: a
complaint against God (a “you” compliant), a complaint about one’s own suffering (an “I” or
“we” complaint), and a complaint about the acts of enemies (a “they” complaint). These three
aspects of the complaint are interrelated and reflect the three basic relationships that comprise
human existence: self-existence, existence together with others, and existence over against God.
Although not all complaints may include all three aspects, in its basic nature, every complaint
encompasses these aspects and is expressed through the human experience of lamentation.

iii. The Confession of Trust: It implies confidence in God. The act of expressing
confidence in God’s ability and willingness to act is a reflection of the broad range of the
Psalms’ acknowledgement of God. It brings to God’s attention what He has done for His people
in the past. This reminder recollected history and made God aware of His activities in the past
and how they contrast with the present. This prompts those who are in crisis to realise two
things. Firstly, they start to see their own history in a similar light, recognising integrating
coherences in the midst of the distress they are currently experiencing. Secondly, they
understand that the entirety of their history depends solely on God’s action, which brings healing
to them. These realisations move people to offer a statement of confidence or praise in God. By
holding on to God’s gracious activities in the past, even in the midst of present troubles, the same
power that kept Israel alive after it had fallen apart remains effective.

iv. The Petition: The nature of petition or request in the Psalms differs significantly from
our conventional understanding of the term. It resembles what we refer to as an “entreaty.” In our
current usage of the word “petition,” two distinct phenomena are combined: (1) a plea made
during times of distress (which is always in some way a request for deliverance), and (2) a
request for something (which implies a need, but not necessarily an urgent one). The second
aspect of asking for something is not commonly found in the Psalms. Typically, the petitions in
the Psalms pertain to obtaining relief from a state of acute distress

v. The Imprecation: It invokes judgment, calamity or curses upon one's enemies or those
perceived as the enemies of God. Imprecation

vi. The Vow of Praise: When making a vow of praise in the Psalms, the speaker commits
to praising God, usually at a public offering following their deliverance. This vow is typically
found within individual laments rather than corporate ones.

Eg. Psalm 54
Individual lament Psalm
v. 1 Address to God
v. 2 The Petition
v. 3 The Complaint
v. 4 Confession of trust
v. 5 The Imprecation, and
v. 6-7 The Vow of Praise.

3. Songs of Thanksgiving
● The Songs of Thanksgiving (SoT) express thanks and praise to God for some specific act
of deliverance that the psalmist has experienced.
● Therefore, it can be seen as the psalmist’s response to God answering the prayer uttered
in a Lament and as accompanying a sacrificial thank-offering.
● It is also a form of witness to the saving work of God.
● These give the SoT a setting that is quite distinct from that of the Hymns of General
Praise.
● The SoT expresses praise by speaking about God, whereas the General Praises express
praise to God.

● Songs of Thanksgiving are of two categories

i. Individual Thanksgiving
 ii. Communal Thanksgiving
● The Individual and Communal Thanksgivings have a threefold structure.
i. The introduction, which invokes Yahweh’s name. It may include a declaration of intent
to thank Yahweh, and can be expanded by various hymnic additions.
ii. The main section is essentially an account of the psalmist’s experience. This may
include:
- a description of his previous state of distress.
- the prayer for deliverance which he uttered in that state.
- an account of Yahweh’s act of deliverance.
- a reference to the fulfillment of his vow
iii.The conclusion, which often includes an exhortation to praise Yahweh addressed either
to the congregation or to himself.

Eg. Psalm 116

vv. 1-2 Introduction:
- invocation of Yahweh’s name and expression of the intention to ‘call on him’
vv. 3–19a Main section:
v.v.3-4: Description of the psalmist’s state of distress, including the prayer he uttered
vv. 6–9: a reference to Yahweh’s act of deliverance
vv. 10-19a: Expression of intention to fulfill his vow
v. 19b conclusion:
- Exhortation to praise Yahweh

4. Royal Psalms
It concerns the relationship between God and the king.
- Psalms 20 and 144 are prayers appealing for Yahweh’s aid prior to engagement in battle
- Psalm 132 is clearly closely related to the narrative in 2 Samuel 6–7, which records
David’s search for the Ark of the Covenant, his bringing of it to Jerusalem and Yahweh’s
promise to him delivered through Nathan the prophet.

5. Psalms of Confidence
It does not form a distinct literary type but the “mood” signifies the psalms. It is also called the
Songs of Trust.
Eg. Psalms 11, 23 and 62

6. Wisdom Psalms
● The presence of ideas, and of linguistic and stylistic features, that are characteristic of the
wisdom literature form the wisdom psalms.
 ● These psalms generally address the question of the meaning of life, and in particular the
problem of the prosperity of the wicked and the suffering of the righteous.
Eg. Psalms 1, 34, 37, 49, 73, 111 and 112.

7. Torah Psalms
It expresses the praise of God’s Torah (Law)
Eg. Psalms 19 and 119.
● Psalm 19 falls into two halves.
-The first (vv. 1–6) speaks of creation, especially the sun, as a witness to God’s glory.
-The second (vv. 7–14) extols the Torah
● Psalm 119 is an anthology of meditations on the Torah.

VII. Theology in the Psalms

Major Theological Themes in the book of Psalms
1. The Understanding of God
1.1 Practical Monotheism
1.2 Creator
1.3 Lord of History
1.4 God’s steadfast love
2. The Understanding of Humanity
3. Life After Death
4. Sacrifice
5. Imprecation in the Psalms

1. The Understanding of God

1.1 Practical Monotheism
Psalm 81:9–10
9
There shall be no strange god among you;
you shall not bow down to a foreign god.
10
I am the LORD your God,
who brought you up out of the land of Egypt.
Open your mouth wide, and I will fill it.
This psalm clearly echoes the Ten Commandments

Exodus 20:2-3
2
“I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.
3
“You shall have no other gods before me.
- The existence of other gods is not denied, but the belief in one true God i.e. monotheism is
pertained in the heart of the psalmist. This is a practical monotheism.
- It is the same kind of practical approach to theology that is expressed when the psalmist reports
‘fools’ as saying, ‘There is no God’ (Pss 14:1; 53:1).
 - This is not an attribution of philosophical atheism. Rather, as the content of what follows
indicates, it is saying that these people live as if God did not exist.
- Unlike those who ‘act wisely’, they do not ‘seek after God’. As a result they are corrupt. It is
against the background of practical monotheism.
- The statements such as: ‘For the LORD is a great God, and a great King above all gods’ (Ps.
95:3); and ‘The LORD is king!… all gods bow down before him’ (Ps. 97:1a, 7c) emphasize
God’s incomparability and superiority without denying the existence of other gods.
- This is one way of expressing the move from practical to absolute monotheism! Belief in absolute
monotheism, that Yahweh is the only God, is clearly expressed in the attacks on the idols of the
nations in Psalms 115:4–7; 135:13–18.

1.2 Creator
- The creation of the world by Yahweh is a repeated theme in the Psalter.
- Psalm 104 extols Yahweh by describing the wonders of his creation. This psalm has a good deal
in common with Genesis 1.
- The hymns in the Psalter allude Yahweh’s creation of the world in Psalm 19:1. It says, ‘The
heavens are telling the glory of God; and the firmament proclaims his handiwork.’
- Psalm 8:5–8 expresses the same understanding of God’s purpose in creating humans as does
Genesis 1:26.

1.3 Lord of History

- Yahweh is not only the Lord of nature, he is also the Lord of history. His mighty deeds in history
are another theme of the Psalter.
- The most frequently mentioned of these is the exodus, the liberation of the Israelites from
oppression in Egypt in the time of Moses (e.g. Pss 77:11–20; 78:13, 53; 80:8; 81:5; 114:1, 3, 5;
135:8–9; 136:10–15).
- There is also often mention of the events which followed this, the wilderness wanderings (e.g. Pss
68:7–8; 78:14–31; 81:7; 114:4, 6, 8; 136:16) and the settlement in Canaan (e.g. Pss 78:54–55;
114:2, 5; 135:10–12; 136:17–22).
- This whole complex of events is the theme of a few psalms, such as Psalms 78, 105, 106 and 136.
- Even the exile in Babylon is seen as one of Yahweh’s deeds, an act of judgment on the nation’s
sin. It is on this background that Psalms 74, 79 and 137 are written.
- The restoration from exile is the theme of Psalm 126.

1.4 God’s steadfast love

Psalm 86:5
For you, O Lord, are good and forgiving,
abounding in steadfast love to all who call upon you.

- This statement, with some variations, is found in: Exodus 34:6; Numbers 14:18; Nehemiah 9:17;
Psalm 103:8; Jonah 4:2.
- ‘Steadfast love’ (hesed in Hebrew) is used over 100 times of Yahweh in the Psalter.
- The English translations of this word vary considerably: e.g. steadfast love, loving kindness,
loyalty, mercy.
 - The word denotes his attitude of faithful, loving commitment to them.
- Because of his steadfast love, Yahweh could be relied on to deliver his people, both individually
and as a nation.

2. The Understanding of Humanity

- One of the clearest statements in the Hebrew Bible of the dignity and role of humans is Psalm
8:3–8. It has much in common with Genesis 1:26–28.
- Alongside this there is expression of the transitoriness of human life by the image of the
withering of grass or wild flowers (Pss 90:5–6; 102:11; 103:15–16) or the comparison of human
life with breath (Pss 39:5; 62:9) or a shadow (Ps. 102:11).
- As elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible the weakness of humans in comparison with God can be
expressed by referring to them as ‘flesh’ (Pss 56:4; 78:39).
- The Hebrews did not think of the human person as an immaterial soul contained in a material
body, but more holistically as an animated body.
- Although the Hebrew word nefesh is often translated ‘soul’ in English versions of the Bible, it
does not mean ‘soul’ in a dualistic sense. In fact the word has a range of meanings, depending on
its context.
Eg. Ps 69:1 “neck” (‘breath’); Ps. 38:12 – “life”; Ps. 35:25 – “desire”
- The psychosomatic unity of the human person in Hebrew thought is evidenced in the way that
various parts of the human body are used to refer to aspects of the human personality.

3. Life After Death

- The realm of the dead is referred to in a variety of ways in the psalms.
- In Psalm 30 it is referred to twice by words that mean ‘pit’ (bor in v. 3; shahat in v. 9) and once
by the word Sheol (possibly meaning ‘destruction’).
- Of these terms, Sheol is the most common. It is a place of darkness (Ps. 88:6) and silence (Ps.
115:17) located in ‘the depths of the earth’ (Pss 63:9; 86:13).
- In some psalms those in Sheol are said to be cut off from Yahweh (Pss 6:5; 88:10–12), but there
is evidence of some development of thought since in Psalm 139:8 the psalmist says, ‘If I make
my bed in Sheol, you are there.’
- A careful reading of the psalms makes it clear that in them death and Sheol are not just an event
at the end of life and the place where the dead go. They are spoken of as powers that threaten the
living.
- Many of the references to the danger of, or deliverance from, death and Sheol are to situations of
distress and suffering of various kinds.
- Existence in Sheol hardly qualifies to be described as ‘life after death’.
- However, there are three psalms that many commentators think reflect an emerging belief in a
worthwhile afterlife.
i. Ps 16:9-11 – the psalmist expresses his joyful confidence in Yahweh. His relationship
with Yahweh means more to him than anything else.
ii. Psalm 49:10-15 - the psalmist seems to express confidence in a worthwhile existence
with God after death.
iii.Psalm 73 - While worshiping in the temple the psalmist found the answer to his problem
(v. 17). The prosperity of the wicked evaporates in the face of death (vv. 18–20) but his
 fellowship with God will not (vv. 23–24). It is possible that ‘afterwards’ (v.24) here
means ‘after my present troubles’, but it seems much more likely that it means ‘after
death’ in view of vv. 18–20.
- All these three psalms is the psalmist’s sense that his relationship with Yahweh is so real and
deep that not even death will be able to end it.

4. Sacrifice
- Since, as we have seen, most of the psalms were used in worship in the temple in Jerusalem it is
not surprising that there are many references to sacrifice in the Psalter. A number of different
sacrifices are mentioned.
i. The word that is normally translated ‘sacrifice’ in the psalms (zevah, e.g. Pss 4:5; 27:6; 54:6;
116:17) probably refers to the shelamim zevah, which is variously translated as
‘peace/communion/well-being offering’. The basic idea seems to have been that of
communion between the worshippers and God.
ii. In the case of the ‘burnt offering’ or ‘whole offering’ (‘olah, Pss 20:3; 51:19; 66:13, 15) all
of the animal was burnt on the altar, except the hide, which went to the priest. This offering
seems to have been regarded as a gift to God.
iii. The purpose of the ‘thank-offering’ (todah, e.g. Pss 56:12; 107:22; 116:17) is indicated by
its name. It was a specific form of the communion offering.
iv. The ‘freewill offering’ (nedavah, Ps. 54:6) was also a form of thank offering.

- Like the rest of the Hebrew Bible, the Psalter assumes the existence of the sacrificial system
without providing any theological explanation of the meaning of the sacrifices or how or why
they were thought to be effective.
- Within the Psalms there are some passages that can be seen as critical of animal sacrifices (Pss
40:6–8; 50:8–15; 51:16–17; 69:30–31; 141:2).
- These have some similarity to passages in the prophets that are critical of sacrifice (1 Sam. 15:22;
Jer. 7:21–23; Hos. 6:6; Amos 5:21–24; Mic. 6:6–8).
- Although these passages have sometimes been understood as rejecting sacrifice altogether, most
scholars regard them as asserting that moral righteousness and obedience are more important than
the ritual of sacrifice, and that without these as their background, sacrifices are worthless.
- The psalmist says, ‘Sacrifice and offering you do not desire, but you have given me an open ear’
(Ps. 40:6ab), he is probably saying that hearing and obeying God is more important than offering
sacrifices.
- In the oracle in Psalm 50:8–15 God initially expresses acceptance of the people’s sacrifices (v. 8)
but then goes on to refute any idea that he needs them.
- This may be a polemic against the view that sacrifice is a way of bribing or manipulating God to
do what the offerer wants.
- Psalm 51:16–17 declares:
For you have no delight in sacrifice;
if I were to give a burnt-offering, you would not be pleased.
The sacrifice acceptable to God is a broken spirit;
a broken and a contrite heart, O God, you will not despise.
 - Psalm 141:2 may reflect a situation in which the psalmist was unable to offer a sacrifice and so
offered what was possible – prayer: ‘Let my prayer be counted as incense before you, and the
lifting up of my hands as an evening sacrifice.’
- The Psalms remind the worshippers that the prerequisite for acceptable sacrificial worship in the
temple is a life lived in obedience to Yahweh’s moral demands.

5. Imprecation in the Psalms

- For many modern readers one of the disturbing features of the psalms is the imprecation.
- Psalm 139 is a classic example of this.
- After a moving meditation on Yahweh as his omniscient (vv. 1–6) and omnipresent (vv. 7–12)
Creator (vv. 13–18), the psalmist bursts out, ‘O that you would kill the wicked, O God, and that
the bloodthirsty would depart from me’ (v. 19). He goes on to express his hatred for ‘those who
hate you, O LORD’ (v. 21).
- Similar sentiments are expressed in: Psalms 58:6–11; 69:22–28; 83:9–18; 109:6–20; 137:7–9;
149:5–9.
- Christians tend to feel uncomfortable with these passages because they seem incompatible with
Jesus’ teaching about loving one’s enemies (Matt. 5:43–48; Luke 6:27–31).
- In the face of this modern discomfort with the imprecations, some scholars have argued for their
theological importance.
- Erich Zenger argues that the imprecation psalms express a truth about God that is affirmed in
both the Old and New Testaments.
- God has not only created the world, he is also the Lord of its history and will have the final word
about its history as its Judge.
- In a world marred by sin and evil, God’s coming in judgment is a source of hope, not fear,
because this coming will be in order to establish justice, to make everything ‘as it should be’.
- The imprecations in the psalms are the expressions of someone who is suffering from oppression
and longs passionately for justice to be done by God.
- Zenger argues that the concentration of modern Western theology on personal sin, and a
consequent tendency to ignore issues of social injustice and the suffering it brings (issues of
which the Hebrew prophets were very aware) is part of the reason why Western Christians find
the imprecations uncomfortable reading.
- One of the values the imprecations have today is that they expose the reality of violence and
oppression in human experience.
- They both give the victims a means of expressing their suffering and challenge those who are
comfortable to identify with the victims.
- Zenger also stresses that it is theologically important to recognize that the psalmists are appealing
to a God whom they regard as personal and just.
- They are not calling for vengeance to fall in an automatic way. They express their deepest
feelings of hatred and aggression and then leave everything in God’s hands.
- It is notable that Psalm 139 ends with the psalmist asking God to examine him and his thoughts
and to remove what is evil in him (vv. 23–24) – at least being open to the possibility that this
might include his own feelings of hatred.
- The Laments give those who are suffering both the ‘permission’ and the vehicle to express their
raw feelings to God as they call for justice to be done by God.
 THE BOOK OF PROVERBS

Introduction
The Book of Proverbs is a valuable collection of moral and ethical instructions, including personal
conduct, family dynamics, work ethics, and the pursuit of justice. The teachings within this book offer
guidance to readers, showing them how to navigate wisely and pursue godliness while avoiding the
pitfalls of unwise and ungodly conduct. Its enduring appeal stems from its extensive range of subjects,
which remain relevant to everyday life. At its core, Proverbs presents wisdom as a transformative
relationship, one that begins with a reverent fear of the LORD (Prov 1:7).

Author
The book of Proverbs is a compilation attributed to various authors, primarily Solomon, who is renowned
for his wisdom. It also acknowledges contributions from “the wise,” Agur, Lemuel, and the men of
Hezekiah. These diverse voices come together to offer timeless insights and guidance for righteous living.

Date
The exact date of the final compilation of the book of Proverbs remains uncertain. However, the content
suggests a span of multiple centuries. Sections attributed to Solomon may date back to the 10th century
BCE and Hezekiah in the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE. Thus, the book of Proverbs represents a
collection of wisdom literature that developed over a significant period, offering timeless insights for
moral and ethical living.

Purpose
The Book of Proverbs has a multifaceted purpose: to cultivate wisdom and discipline, provide insight and
understanding, promote prudent living, impart prudence to the simple, and enable comprehension of the
sayings of the wise. Its overarching goal is to guide readers towards a life characterized by wisdom and
skill. This wisdom is not merely practical, but also rooted in a reverent fear of the LORD, emphasizing
the importance of honouring God. Ultimately, the Book of Proverbs aims to nurture wisdom and skilful
living by establishing a foundation of reverence for the Lord.

Structure of the Book of Proverbs

1:1-9:18 The proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel.
10:1-22:16 The proverbs of Solomon.
22:17-24:22 The words of the wise.
 24:23-34 These are also the sayings of the wise.
25:1-29:27 These are other proverbs of Solomon that the officials of King Hezekiah
of Judah copied.
30:1-14 The words of Agur son of Jakeh.
30:15-33 A collection of numerical proverbs.
31:1-9 The words of King Lemuel.
31:10-31 An acrostic poem about the capable wife.

LITERARY FORMS
Prose would seem to be an eminently suitable medium for giving moral and religious instruction. But the
book of Proverbs is written entirely in Hebrew poetry. In one sense this is surprising.

Why then is the book of Proverbs written in poetry?

There is no clear answer, but plausible reasons can be suggested.
First, the most obvious is that poetry is easier to memorize than prose.
Second, there is the fact that poetry, with its use of the sound of words and of imagery, often has a more
powerful persuasive effect than can be achieved in prose. Much of the wisdom literature is concerned
with persuading people about how, and how not, to behave.
Third, the use of poetry may be intended to make a distinction between ‘law’ and ‘wisdom’, a distinction
that has not always been recognized in popular piety.

Within the book of Proverbs itself there are two main forms of literature.
i. In Proverbs 1–9; 22:17–24:22; 31:1–9 what is called the ‘Instruction’ form predominates.
ii. In the rest of the book the ‘wisdom sentence’ form is predominant.

THE INSTRUCTION
McKane carried out a detailed study of the literary form of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Instructions
and identified a common literary form that he called the Instruction form.

The characteristics of the Instruction form are that:

1. It contains a command (positive or negative)
2. It is followed by a motive clause (‘because/for . . .’) and
3. Occasionally also by a final or purpose clause that gives the consequence of following the
advice proffered.
 4. Sometimes there is a conditional clause (‘if . . .’), which defines the condition or
circumstances in which the imperative applies.
Eg. Proverbs 3:1–2 is a straightforward example of command followed by motive.
Command : My son, do not forget my teaching,
but let your heart keep my commandments,
Motive : for length of days and years of life
and peace they will add to you.

Eg. Proverbs 1:10–19

Conditional clause : v.10a
Command : v.10b
Nature of enticement : vv.11-14
Command repeated : v.15
Motive clause : v.16
Extension of motive clause : vv. 17-19 (they take the form of expressing the
consequence of the actions of the ‘sinners’, so are better seen as a negative version of the
consequence clause in that they give the consequence of not heeding the command.)

THE ‘WISDOM SENTENCE’

In Proverbs the wisdom sentence is nearly always made up of two halves.
For example, Proverbs 16:18:
Pride goes before destruction,
and a haughty spirit before a fall.

This is the basic unit of Proverbs 10:1—22:16 and 25:1—29:27. It has the parallelism that is a common
feature of Hebrew poetry.

Three types of parallelism are very common in Proverbs.

i. Antithetic parallelism
ii. Synonymous parallelism
iii. Progressive parallelism
Antithetic parallelism
In this type the second half of the sentence expresses a contrast to the first half, e.g. Proverbs 12:25
Anxiety in a man's heart weighs him down,
but a good word makes him glad.
There are two notable subgroups of this type of sentence.
i. One contrasts something that is an ‘abomination’ to the Lord with what ‘delights’ him. Eg. Prov. 11:1
A false balance is an abomination to the LORD,
but a just weight is his delight.
ii. The other groups are better . . . than’ sayings. Eg. Prov. 15:17)
Better is a dinner of herbs where love is
than a fattened ox and hatred with it.

Synonymous parallelism
Synonymous parallelism occurs when the second half of the sentence repeats the essential point of the
first half, but in different words, e.g. Proverbs 19:5
A false witness will not go unpunished,
and he who breathes out lies will not escape.

Progressive parallelism
In this type of sentence the second half builds on or extends what has been said in the first half,
e.g. Proverbs 20:4,
The sluggard does not plow in the autumn;
he will seek a harvest and have nothing.

Other Forms
There are a number of other, less common, forms in Proverbs. One of the most obvious is the numerical
proverb, which is concentrated in the section 30:15–33. Most take the form ‘three things . . . four . . .’, as
in Proverbs 30:18–19.

What is Proverbs?
- The term Proverbs is derived from the Hebrew word “mashal” meaning “to rule and to have
dominion.”
- In the book of Proverbs the term mashal is limited to the ‘wisdom sentence.”
Characteristic of Proverbs
1.They are brief.
2.They are grounded in experience.
3.They often arise from careful observation of life and the world.
4.They are expressed in a memorable form.
5.They claim to present a valuable insight.

Definition:
Based on the above characteristic biblical Hebrew proverb might be defined as ‘a reflection on life
crystallized in a brief, memorable sentence’.

Limitation of Proverbs
It is important to recognize some limitations of the proverb as a means of communication and teaching.

1. The single wisdom sentence lacks a context, which the hearer or reader has to supply. That
context is important for its meaning, since that was rooted in a specific observation or experience.
The reader has to intuit an appropriate context.
Eg. Proverbs 26:4–5.
Answer not a fool according to his folly,
lest you be like him yourself.
Answer a fool according to his folly,
lest he be wise in his own eyes.

2. Many biblical proverbs are simply observations of ‘the way it is’ and do not contain any explicit
evaluation. One should not simply assume that the statement of a reality means approval of it.
Once again it is important to compare proverb with proverb to get a ‘rounded’ view of what the
wisdom teachers were saying.
Eg. Proverbs 17:8 is balanced by Proverbs 17:23
8
A bribe is like a magic stone in the eyes of the one who gives it;
wherever he turns he prospers.
23
The wicked accepts a bribe in secret
to pervert the ways of justice.
Put together, we get the point that, while bribes often work, it is wrong to use them, at least in the
administration of justice.
 3. Finally, in expressing ‘the way things are’ proverbs are observations, not laws. They are
describing the norm, not expressing the inevitable.
Eg. Prov. 15:1
A soft answer turns away wrath,
but a harsh word stirs up anger.
Life and humans are too complex for a brief sentence to sum up all the truth about a given situation.
Those who are wise are aware of that and will use proverbs with due discretion.

Thematic Study in Proverbs

We have said that it is important to compare proverb with proverb to get a ‘rounded’ view of what the
wisdom teachers were saying. One way of doing this is to carry out a thematic study.
Some of the dominant theme in the book of Proverbs are:

1. The Liar
i. The book of Proverbs is very clear in its condemnation of liars and lying.
Eg. Prov. 6:16–17a; Prov. 12:22a.
ii. Lying is characterized as a form of hatred for the victim.
Eg. Prov. 10:18; Prov. 26:28.
iii. The sage is convinced that truth will endure but lies fail.
Eg. Prov.12:19

2. The Gossip
The gossip can be seen as an ‘overt whisperer’, and is linked with revealing secrets.
Eg. Prov. 11:13; Prov. 20:19

3. The Flatterer
i. The flatterer is literally a person ‘who makes smooth his words’. He is linked with the liar and is seen as
one who brings ruin and downfall to people.
Eg. Prov. 26:28; Prov. 29:5
ii. Boosting someone’s ego falsely only sets them up for a fall. For this reason the flatterer is contrasted
unfavourably with the person who is willing to tell others unpalatable truths.
Eg. Prov. 28:23
4. The Scoffer
i. The scoffer is characterized by pride and arrogance.
Eg. Prov. 21:24
ii. The scoffer is so sure that he is right that he is not willing to receive rebuke or seek wisdom from those
who can give it.
Eg. Prov. 1:22-25; 14:6; 15:12
iii. The scoffer attitude invites harsh treatment.
Eg. Prov. 19:25, 29; 21:11
iv. The scoffer is adept at causing trouble: strife, quarrelling, abuse.
Eg. Prov. 22:10

5. The righteous and the wicked

The righteous and the wicked are major characters in the book of Proverbs, and usually occur together in
proverbs as ‘antithetical twins.’
i. The speech of the righteous is a source of health and vitality, while that of the wicked threatens
destruction, hence the contrasting value put on what they say.
Eg. Prov. 10:11, 20
ii. At the root of this difference is the fact that the righteous know what is ‘acceptable’, probably meaning
what is acceptable to Yahweh, or perhaps that they say what is appropriate to the occasion, whereas the
wicked distort the truth.
Eg. Prov. Prov. 10:32

6. The wise and the fool

The wise and the fool are also major characters and ‘antithetical twins’ in the book of Proverbs. Much of
what is said about their use of words contributes to the book’s general teaching about words and how they
should be used.

Words are very powerful (Prov. 18:21). So, Proverbs lay down three main guidelines for the wise use of
words.
i. They should be used sparingly (Prov. 10:19; 13:3; 21:23)
ii. We should think before we speak (Prov. 29:20; Prov. 12:18)
iii. It is important to listen before speaking (Prov. 18:13)
This proverb condemns that all-too-common failing of being a good talker but a poor listener.
The liar, whisperer, gossip, scoffer, and so on, provide examples of the unhelpful and wrong use of
words. By contrast there are three ways of using words that are commended in the book of Proverbs.

i. Words should be ‘fitting’ (Prov. 25:11; 15:23)

- These proverbs commend words that are ‘fitting’ in the way they are expressed and in their
timing.
- A word that is poorly expressed may not be listened to or understood, however good its content.
- Good advice given at the wrong moment can be counterproductive.

ii. Words should be pleasant (Prov. 16:24; 15:4; 16:21; 16:23)

- Proverbs is not talking here about the ‘smooth words’ of the flatterer. But the kind of words
which build up a person.
- We cannot always be pleasant. At times it is necessary to use words of reproof as it builds up a
person’s character (Prov. 25:12).
- The desire not to hurt someone but to nip a problem in the bud (Prov. 27:5; 10:10)
- The wise reprover may not always be thanked, but will sometimes get due recognition (Prov.
28:23).

Proverbs and Theology

1. The Fear Of Yahweh
‘The Fear of Yahweh’ means having a loyalty to, and love for, Yahweh that is shown in obedience to his
commandments (Deut. 10:12-13, 20). It is the practical aspect of the fear of the Lord meaning ‘to walk in
his ways . . . for your own well-being’ that predominates in Proverbs. The importance of this concept for
the book of Proverbs is indicated by the placing of the ‘motto’ immediately after the prologue to the book.

The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge;

fools despise wisdom and instruction. (Prov. 1:7).

As we have seen, echoes of this run like a linking thread through the book:
The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom,
and the knowledge of the Holy One is insight. (Prov. 9:10)

The fear of the LORD is instruction in wisdom,

and humility comes before honour. (Prov. 15:33)

Charm is deceitful, and beauty is vain,

but a woman who fears the LORD is to be praised. (Prov. 31:30).
2. Wisdom And Creation
Proverbs 3:19–20 links wisdom with creation, and this is expanded upon in 8:22–36. In 8:22–30 the
cosmos is depicted as a well-ordered structure designed and executed by Yahweh. Wisdom seems to
embody the principles of order. In 8:31 Wisdom is depicted as playing (this is a common meaning of the
Hebrew word often translated ‘rejoice’ here) in the created world, and in particular, delighting in human
beings. Here Wisdom seems to be the mediator between the Creator and the creatures, especially humans.
It is not surprising, therefore, that 8:32–36 is a call to listen to Wisdom because ‘whoever finds me
[Wisdom] finds life and obtains favour from the LORD’.

3. Reward And Retribution

Scholars have often seen in Proverbs an assumption of a more or less mechanical association between an
action and its outcome, the so-called ‘deed–consequence nexus.’ Some proverbs Prov. 11:18; 22:8a seem
to support this.

However, there are at least three features of the material in the book of Proverbs that suggest the sages
had a rather more nuanced view than is sometimes attributed to them, as Van Leeuwen, among other
recent scholars, has stressed.
i. The first is the point made above about the inherent limitations of proverbs, and the indications of
this in those proverbs which seem to contradict each other (Prov. 26:4–5) or at least stand in
tension with one another (10:15; 11:4).
ii. Second, there are proverbs that reflect the complexity of real life by recognizing the opposite of
what is presented as the norm in the book. Poverty can be the result of injustice (13:23) and not
laziness (10:4). Injustice can lead to wealth (16:8). Indeed, several of the ‘better than’ sayings
reflect the injustices and inequalities of life, which leave the righteous at a disadvantage (e.g.
15:16).
iii. Finally, there are proverbs that recognize the limitations of human wisdom and understanding
and the unfathomable nature of divine wisdom. (Prov. 19:21; 20:24; 21:30).