Assignment (1) 8604

Question No 1

METHODS OF ACQUIRING

KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge, broadly speaking, consists of facts and theories that enable one to understand

phenomena and to solve problems. The pragmatic test of knowledge and one's command

of it is: Can I use this information to comprehend, explain, control, predict, or cope with a

given situation? Knowledge can range from the simplest perception of an object to the

most profound understanding of a complex theory. Knowledge can be obtained from

direct personal experience or from the many secondhand sources that inundate us

constantly with rival claims of useful information.

Knowledge claims on any level of complexity or from any source may range from those

that are highly reliable to those that are completely unreliable. The flickering motion

pictures recorded on our consciousness may trick us into making inaccurate observations

of phenomena. The secondhand authority upon whom we rely for information may not

know what he is talking about. To be certified as reliable, knowledge must pass

successfully certain tests: it must be supported by evidence. What evidence is required?

How much evidence is required? At what point does man really know he knows? The

degree of reliability required of knowledge depends on the use that is to be made of it.

Scientists have developed exacting methods of observation and specific criteria for

validating facts and theories. Moreover, they have not merely discovered knowledge,

presented supporting evidence, and stored it forevermore in a knowledge warehouse. Our

scientists' work is never done. The discovery of new evidence, the imaginative reordering

of old evidence, and the intellectual insights of gifted men all these illuminate new,

unified patterns of meaning. These patterns, in turn, give broader and deeper

understandings of phenomena, understandings that repeatedly upset the knowledge

warehouse. Acquiring reliable knowledge is not a one-shot, finished business; it is a

complex, challenging, continuous adventure.

We are all somewhat scientific in nature; we are creatures capable of knowing and have a
desire to test our capacity. We are also notoriously inconsistent. On the one hand, we are

curious, exploratory animals who want to understand our environment and to solve

problems; on the other hand, we are lazy creatures of habit who seek personal comfort

and social approval. In many instances, acting without accurate knowledge does not

deeply disturb us. We accept alleged knowledge without testing it settle for ad hoc

solutions, improvise something that works in the immediate situation even though in the

long run the consequences may be undesirable. Indeed, we may not only refrain from

exerting the self-discipline to obtain reliable knowledge ourselves but also may ruthlessly

repress others who construct theories or develop inventions that would make us change

our behavior or beliefs. The adventure of coping with new ideas and adopting new life-styles may excite
us or frighten us. Not uncommonly, we fear change. We fear that it may

adversely affect our economic or social status, may require us to reeducate ourselves, or

may force us to alter our customary lie patterns. We feel safer sticking with the status

quo. The acquisition and expansion of reliable knowledge is not an automatic, selfperpetuating process.
It rests on our willingness to develop critical thinking skills and the

moral fiber necessary to accept change as a constant.

Centuries of effort were required for our predecessors to improve their capacity and

readiness to obtain reliable knowledge. To gain some insight into the tortuous pathway

they traversed, the following discussion briefly examines various sources of knowledge

they have drawn upon to solve problems: (1) authority, (2) personal experience,

(3) deductive reasoning, and (4) the scientific method.

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

When his habitual method of dealing with situations produced discouraging results, man

resorted to crude trial-and-error methods of seeking solutions. Through considerable

experience with problem solving, he was gradually able to refine his knowledge-seeking

methods. Periods of complacency and retardation periodically halted cultural progress,

but exciting leaps forward also occurred, and the long term trend was characterized by an

extension of knowledge.

Authority
Seeking advice from an authority was a well-established method of solving problems even

in the earliest civilizations. Pre-literate man appealed to the medicine man to relieve him of

pain and plied the tribal chieftain with questions about the elements. When floods, famine,

lightning, or leprosy terrified him, he blindly accepted the ancestral explanations that his

elders imparted, and he appealed to supernatural powers for help. Rather than attempting to

determine truth independently, modern man may also seek advice from authorities. A trial

lawyer may ask a psychiatrist to testify concerning the sanity of the defendant, a ballistics

expert to give opinions concerning weapons, and a handwriting specialist to compare

signatures. A housewife may consult a childcare book or a doctor concerning the spots on

her son's chest. Turning to authorities to obtain knowledge often saves time and effort but

care must be employed in choosing authorities and evaluating their pronouncements.

Tradition in many situations modern man does not evaluate the truth or falsity of his beliefs

any more than his forefathers did. He unconsciously or unquestioningly accepts many

traditions of his culture, such as the customary modes of dress, speech, food, worship, and

etiquette. In the World of practical affairs this automatic acceptance of approved patterns of

behavior is often necessary, for one cannot question all things. But one should not make the

mistake of assuming that everything that has customarily been done is right or that an

appeal to the accumulated wisdom of the ages will always lead to the truth.

Historical records reveal that man has not only solved many problems and accumulated

much wisdom but has also formulated many erroneous explanations of phenomena. Many

long-revered educational, medical, and scientific theories have been proved false. For instance, man
once believed that children differed from adults only in size and dignity,

that asafetida bags warded off disease, and that the planets revolved around the earth.

Truth is not a guaranteed product of a popularity contest: a statement is not true merely

because “everyone knows it” or “everybody has always believed it.” Age, alone, is not

sufficient to establish the truth or falsity of a belief.

Church, State, and Ancient Scholars Preliterate man turned to Tribal leaders when

seeking knowledge. In medieval times, man believed that ancient scholars and

churchmen had discovered the truth for all time and that their pronouncements could not
be questioned. The Scholastics, for example, Accepted Aristotle's conjecture that women

have more teeth than men as absolutely true, even though simple observation and

enumeration would have provided evidence to the contrary. When invited by Galileo to

view the newly discovered moons of Jupiter, one scholar refused to look through the

telescope. He was convinced that the moons could not possibly be seen because Aristotle

had not mentioned them in his discussions on astronomy. Like most scholars of that era,

the man who declined Galileo's invitation clung blindly to faulty Grecian theories and

attacked any new idea that contradicted the accepted authorities.

With the rise of strong secular states after the Middle Ages, man began to turn to kings,

legislatures, and courts as sources of information. Today, many citizens also expect

government officials to solve problems concerning agricultural surpluses, international

trade, and labor-management difficulties. Some people appeal to the courts for interpretations on basic
issues confronting them, such as the validity of Darwin's theory of

natural selection, segregated school practices, and the use of prayers in public schools.

From the earliest times to the present, man has sought guidance and information from his

oracles, leaders, and rulers.

Man often prefers to rely on the judgment of outstanding authorities whose beliefs have

withstood the test of time, because he fears that if he himself searched for answers to

difficult questions he might make errors. But if modern man can make errors when

searching for knowledge, his ancestors must have been subject to the same weakness. If

tradition, the church, and the state are to be the source of all reliable information, what

happens when these institutions render opinions that conflict with one another? The

authorities in different churches and states do not always agree, and traditions of cultures

vary. Man may encounter perplexing problems when he turns to the multiplicity of

existing authorities in a search for answers to his questions. Ignoring the cultural

accumulations of the centuries is imprudent, for little progress will occur if each

generation rejects the judgment of the ages and starts from scratch to accumulate

knowledge. On the other hand, refusing ever to question any accepted belief—total

reliance on dogmatic authority—will result in social stagnation.

Expert Opinion When searching for knowledge, man sometimes seeks the testimony of

experts who, because of their intellect, training, experience, or aptitudes, are better

informed than other people. Experts are necessary in a complicated culture such as ours.

An effort must be made, however, to find out whether the experts are recognized by other authorities in
the field and whether they are in a position to know the facts about the

particular problem under consideration. One should check not only the credentials of

experts but also the arguments and evidence upon which they base their claims to

knowledge. Accepting experts' opinions unconditionally and for all time is a dubious if

not a dangerous practice.

Personal Experience

When confronted with a problem, man often tries to recall or to seek a personal

experience that will help him reach a solution. When searching for food, ancient nomads

probably remembered that certain berries always made them ill, that fish were more

plentiful in some streams than others, and that grains ripened at particular times of the

year. When trying to determine the quickest route to work, modern man may time himself

on different roads. When deciding where to plant seeds, a gardener may try to remember

in what part of the yard flowers grew best last year. When given a handful of coins to

divide with his brother, a small boy may recall that selecting the biggest piece of candy

on a plate is usually a wise choice; because of his previous experience with candy, he

may decide to keep the big nickels and give his brother the little dimes.

Appealing to personal experiences is a useful and common method of seeking

knowledge. An uncritical use of personal experience, however, may lead to incorrect

conclusions as the boy who selected the nickels with his “candy measuring stick”

discovered. A person may make errors when observing or when reporting what he has

seem or done. He may (1) omit evidence that does not agree with his opinion, (2) use

measuring instruments that require many subjective estimates, (3) establish a belief on

insufficient evidence, (4) fail to observe significant factors relating to a specific situation,

or (5) draw improper conclusions or inferences owing to personal prejudices. To avoid

dangerous pitfalls, the modern research worker exercises many precautions when he turns
to experience in his search for reliable knowledge.

Deduction

To obtain more reliable knowledge, Aristotle developed the syllogism a deductive

argument which provides a means of testing the validity of a particular conclusion. A

syllogism consists of three statements or propositions. The first two statements are called

“premises,” since they furnish the evidence or grounds for the conclusion, which is the

statement standing last. Aristotle defined the syllogism as “a discourse in which certain

things being posited, something else than what is posited necessarily follows from them.”

The following categorical syllogism is an example of such a discourse:classification in science, and the
search after scientific laws by means of the statement

and testing of hypotheses. Likewise alternative arguments represent an unsettled state of

knowledge, but within limits; the alternative often being quite well within the possibility

of progressive elimination or verification. The disjunctive syllogism is a combination of

knowledge and ignorance, like the alternative, but is an advance upon the alternative in

the direction of more definite knowledge, and reaches a conclusion by means of what is

known and can be asserted in the minor premise [1 20:1 14-1 15].2

In personal and professional life, you use deductive reasoning when solving problems.

The lawyer, doctor, soldier, and detective often resort to deductive argument in

investigating a murder case, a prosecuting attorney may search through piles of

evidence—existing knowledge select previously unconnected facts, and combine them in

such a way that they logically imply a hitherto unsuspected conclusion. Deductive

reasoning enables him to organize premises into patterns that provide conclusive

evidence for the validity of his particular conclusion.

The modern research worker also utilizes deductive reasoning to carry out certain phases

of his work. Some men scoff at the role of reason in research and contend that an

investigator is only concerned with facts he can obtain through observation and

experiment. But collecting facts is not sufficient. Without deduction “most of our preoccupation with
facts would be fruitless, since we could not fit them into the increasingly

deductive systems which we call sciences. The latter are man’s must economical
instruments” (86:113). The scientist frequently tries to pigeonhole a particular instance

under an already established principle from which the instance can be deduced. Through

the use of the tools of deduction, he hypothetically manipulates and explores possibilities

that may open up new areas of inquiry.

In daily discourse many assertions are deductive in nature and may be logically correct

without appearing in a syllogistic form. Outside of logic texts one rarely finds arguments

set off in the middle of the page and explicitly labeled. The premises may or may not

precede the conclusion, and some premises may be missing. The conclusion may come

first, last, or even in the middle of the argument. One must be able to recognize

arguments that appear in prose or discourse; locate the premises and conclusion; supply

the missing premises, if necessary; restate the argument in a complete and explicit form;

and then apply logical standards to determine whether the argument is logically correct or

fallacious.

When analyzing a deductive argument, one must pay close attention to language. Words

may have more than one meaning; consequently, language may play tricks that lead

thinking astray. A syllogistic argument is not valid unless each term is used in the same

sense throughout the argument. A shift in the meaning of any term leads to an error in

reasoning. Examine the following syllogism:

Only man can talk.

Numbers in brackets refer to the numbers bibliography on pages 507-515.

No woman is a man.

All women cannot talk.

The above argument would be valid if the term “man” had the same meaning in each

premise, but in the major premise the term “man” means “human being,” and in the

minor premise it means “human male.” Since the meaning of the middle term “man” has
been changed during the course of the argument, there is no mediating term which links

the two premises together so that they yield a logical conclusion.

The categorical syllogism has severe limitations. The content of the conclusion of the

syllogism cannot exceed the content of the premises. A categorical syllogism deduces the

consequences of preexisting knowledge; it does not enable man to gain new knowledge

or to make new discoveries. A second weakness of deductive reasoning lies in the possibility that one or
more of the premises are not materially true. When the validity of a

deductive argument is checked, questions are not raised about the content (truth or

falsity) of the statements but about the forms of the arguments. One asks: Are these

premises related to the conclusion in such a way that a person cannot accept the premises

and reject the conclusion? The formal reasoning in an argument may be sound even if the

argument is based on false premises. Consider the following as an example:

Deobold B. Van

Dalen,(1973)

Understanding Educational Research, 3rd ed. New York,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, pp. 10–17

1.3

All professors of education hold doctoral degrees.

All men in this meeting are professors of education.

Hence, all men in this meeting hold doctoral degrees.

The conclusion “All men in this meeting hold doctoral degrees” is valid, for it necessarily

follows from the premises given. But the conclusion is not true in fact, for some

professors in the meeting hold only masters' degrees. In this instance the major premise

was not true in fact.

The conclusion reached by a deductive argument produces reliable knowledge only if it is

deduced from true premises and the premises are properly related to the conclusion.
Deductive logic, therefore, cannot be relied upon exclusively in searching for the truth,

because it is not a self-sufficient means of securing dependable knowledge.

Induction

If the conclusions reached by deductive reasoning are true only if derived from true

premises, man must find some way of determining whether his premises are true.

Consequently, he has devised inductive reasoning to complement deductive reasoning as

a means of searching for knowledge. In inductive reasoning, an investigator initiates his

inquiry by observing particular instances (concrete facts). From his examination of these

facts, he establishes a general conclusion about the whole class to which these particular instances
belong. If an investigator arrives at general conclusions through induction he

may use them as major premises .for deductive inferences.

Perfect Induction One form of induction is complete enumeration. In this form of

induction, one simply counts all the instances in a given class and announces his results

in a general conclusion. In other words, a conclusion about all instances of a class is

drawn from premises, which refer to the observed instances of the class. For example; to

determine the occupations of the members of a club, one questions each member,

tabulates the results, and announces the conclusion. All twenty-five members of this club

are teachers. Perfect induction obtains reliable information. But how often does one have

an opportunity to examine all the instances to which a conclusion refers? This type of

enumeration cannot be employed as a method of investigation in the solution of most

Problems.

Baconian Induction Francis Bacon (1561-1626) severely criticized the medieval practice

of deducing conclusions from self-evident or authoritative premises. He held that man

should not enslave himself to other men's thoughts. Rather than accepting the premises

(generalizations, theories) handed down by authorities as absolute truths, Bacon believed

the investigator himself should study nature closely and establish general conclusions on

the bases of direct observation.

The system Bacon recommended for arriving at generalizations was laborious. He

advised the investigator to tabulate all the facts concerning nature and to study these facts
for their “forms,” that is, for the underlying essence of the phenomena. To accomplish

this task, the investigator was to compile three tables: (1) positive instances—instances

where certain phenomena appeared, (2) negative instances—instances where certain

phenomena did not appear, and (3) instances where certain phenomena appeared in

varying degrees and where the form varied accordingly. The purpose of the tables was to

determine what properties were invariably connected with certain forms. Bacon

cautioned against formulating any solution to a problem until all the facts had been

gathered. His demand that the investigator first search for the facts was justified, but the

exhaustive collection of facts he required was beyond the realm of human capacity.

Imperfect induction whereas perfect induction establishes a conclusion by an exhaustive

enumeration of all instances that are subsumable under it, imperfect induction arrives at a

generalization by observing only some instances that make up the class. The research

worker utilizes imperfect induction more often than perfect induction, for in most investigations he
cannot examine all of the instances to which a conclusion refers. From

observing some instances, however, he can draw a general conclusion regarding all

similar instances, some of which he has not observed.

When examining all the instances of a class under consideration is not practical, the

investigator does the next best thing: he arrives at a generalization by observing an

adequate and representative sample from the entire class. To check on the purity of the

water in a swimming pool, for instan

QUESTION NO 2

CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH BY PURPOSE

2.1 Introduction

Educational research is classified into Basic research Applied research and Action

research. The basic and applied researches are differentiated by their purposes. The

primary purpose of basic research is the extension of knowledge whereas the purpose of

applied research is the solution of an immediate, practical problem.

However, some misconceptions have developed with the use of the terms basic and
applied research. One such misconception is that basic research is complex and applied

research is simple in its methodology. A related misconception is thatapplied research is

often sloppy and haphazard but of great practical value, whereas basic research is precise

and exacting but of no use in a real situation.

Likewise, one type of applied research is action research. Action research is usually

conducted by teachers and administrators for solving a specific problem or for providing

information for decision making at the local level.

Effort has been made in this unit to highlight the actual role played by basic research,

applied research and action research with their characteristics.

2.2 Objectives

After studying the unit, it is hoped that the student will be able to:

1.

explain the nature and concept of basic research.

2.

describe the characteristics of basic research.

3.

discuss the nature a scope of applied research.

4.

differentiate applied research from basic research.

5.

explain the nature, need and scope of action research.

6.

specify different aspects of the process of action research.

7.

identify the limitations of action research.

2.3 Basic Research

This type of research is also regarded as fundamental/pure research. It builds up broad

generalizations, principles and theories of education. It results in the discovery of

useful concepts such as those of motivation, reinforcement, concept formation etc. It is

not concerned with day to day problems.

The basic research has the following characteristics.

1.

It aims at developing educational theories and principles that will be applicable to a

broad population.

2.

It requires expert training.

3.

It makes use of a wide range of methods to locate the research problem.

4.

Highly specific hypothesis are developed.

5.

It involves careful attention so that error is reduced to the minimum.

6.

It calls for a complex analysis of data.

7.

The generalizations usually remain confined to books and research reports.

William Wiersma (1986, P.13) has very rightly stated that a sound theory increases the

fruitfulness of research by providing significant leads for inquiry, by relating seemingly

discrete findings by means of similar underlying processes and by providing an

explanation of observed relationship.

However, this research is done by the outstanding experts with the help of desired

facilities. It demands higher level of problems, procedures, tools, controls, analysis etc. It

is expected to be more expert as it has far reaching consequences.

J.C. Aggarwal (1991, pp. 25-37) has discuss the classification of research in the below

mentioned book. Please read for full comprehension.

J. C. Aggarwal,

(1991)

Educational Research: An Introduction; New

Delhi, Arya Book Depot, pp. 25–37

2.1

2.4 Applied Research

This type of research is also called functional research. Education like Medicine is an

applied science. Walter R. Borg (1987,P.11) has stated, “The primary function of

research in education as in medicine--is to find improvements for education or medicine

both to be understood as fields of human actions, not as fields of knowledge.”

Applied research does not aims at solving the practical problems which are faced by the

teachers, educational planners, administrators, curriculum specialists etc. Applied

research deals with problems of practical value. Applied research is less rigorous than the

basic research.

Applied research involves both the classroom teacher and the research specialist. The

comparison of applied versus basic research is discussed as under:

It is argued that in a country having limited resources, research should be given a practical

orientation. Researches that do not shave apparent relevance to the solution of practical

problems are considered an unnecessary luxury. The contrary point of view asserts that in

the absence of sound analytical concepts there are obvious limitations to the extent to which

applied research is possible. Not only will the lack of conceptual refinement improvise

analysis and limit methodological sophistication, it will also result in a constricted

perception of cause and effect relationships.

Unless applied research is taken to mean the publication of facts through simplistic tables of

percentages and averages, a job which can be done on the existing capital of the social

sciences in Pakistan, there is no gainsaying the fact that basic research is an essential base for

the development of applied research. Apart from the fact that basic research does not have

application as its immediate goal, the two are deeply interrelated, particularly in the case of

the social sciences whose concepts and theories derive from the analysis of social reality as an

on-going process. A research designed to diagnose social reality and to introduce correctives

for the achievement of goals uses a theoretical base no less than it helps enrich it.

Thus, the difference between basic and applied research is not as sharp as that between the
applied and theoretical social scientist. To illustrate, survey research can be taken as an example of
'pure' applied research. However, a few survey researches do not lend

themselves to generalizations germane to theory building. Whether such attempts are

actually made depends upon the training and professional orientation of the researcher. In

such areas of organizational performance, intergroup conflicts or the administration of and

response to social change, the opportunities for testing hypothesis and for theory building

are enormous. Perhaps the seriousness with which the distinction between theoretical and

applied research is made will be lost as more and more Pakistanis social scientists acquire

components in quantitative research methodology. Both basic and applied research have an

important part in the development of the social sciences and must be supported.

However, it would be of great interest to quote what William Wiersma (186, p13) has

stated regarding basic and applied research, “The relation of theory and research is one of

mutual contribution. Theory can point to areas in which research is likely to be fruitful,

can summarize the findings of a number of specific studies, and can provide a basis for

explanation and prediction. Research findings, on the other hand, can test theories which

have been worked out, can clarify theoretical concepts and can suggest new theoretical

formulations or extend old ones. Moreover, the process of reciprocal contributions is a

continuing, one, research stimulated by theoretical considerations may raise new

theoretical issues, which in turn lead to further research and so on,... To conduct research

without theoretical interpretation or to theorize without research is to ignore the essential

function of theory as a tool for achieving economy of thought.

2.5 Action Research

The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order

to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions is called action research.

There is no doubt that research work done by professional students of educational

research is seldom noticed by the workers in the actual field of action. Now it is

increasingly being realized that the practitioners of education must be involved in

research work. Action research is a step ahead of common sense approach. A good

teacher does not merely depend upon tradition, or experience of others or

recommendations of expert bodies. In action research he is deliberately more systematic

and scientific in dealing with the problem.

A useful definition of 'Action Research' is the research a person conducts in order to

enable him to achieve his purposes more effectively. A teacher conducts action research

to improve his own teaching. A school administrator conducts action research to improve

his administrative behaviour.

Some people differentiate action research from applied research in as much as the former

is confined to classroom situations and the latter probes into practical problems of greater

complexity and wider applicability.

There are eight aspects of the process of action research. These include the following:

1.

Self-dissatisfaction. The teacher feels dissatisfied with the situation.

2.

Identification of the problem. The teacher pinpoints the problem.

3.

Defining the problem. After identifying the problem, the teacher defines the problem.

4.

Problem analysis. The teacher then locates the causes of the weakness.

6.

Use of tools. The teacher decides about the research tools to be used.

7.

Action programme. The teacher works out the experiment.

8.

Evaluation. The teacher finds out the difference in the result.

Moreover, the Action Research has the following advantages.

1.

The person must improve if the problem is to be solved is active in, the changed

process from the beginning.

2.
Facts and evidences are stressed which keep the changed process anchored more

continuously to reality. The approach is experimental and tentative rather than

dogmatic.

4.

An integral part of action research is the experiment which actually is changedevaluated.

5.

Action research emphasizes a desirable decentralization of decision making and

action.

The main functions of action research in the field of distance education are:

1.

Action research will powerfully and rapidly develop the technique of teaching.

2.

Action research assists in vitalizing and dignifying the work of the teacher.

3.

Action research assists in developing professional experiences, open-eyed and

open-minded scientific spirit enquiry.

4.

Action research assists in creating new interest and new confidence in the ability of

the individual teacher.

Sources of problems for Action Research are given below:

The first important source for locating and electing problems for an experiment or project

or research is the classroom itself. For example a teacher who finds that the performance

of the students in mathematics in his class is poor. He may think that perhaps it is because

of his method of teaching which is not helpful in developing mathematical abilities or it

is because the students are not making use of the instructional material or it is because the

students 'of the class lack speed of calculations.

The second source for identifying problems for an experiment or research is the staff

meeting of the school.

The third source is the chairman of department or regional director who can suggest
students problems for enhancing the classroom efficiency.

The institution library seems to be an important source for locating problems for research.

Sometimes the ministry of education or some national agencies dealing with education

throw out some new problems for experimenting in the institution, e.g. a department may

conduct an experiment to see whether the suggestive activities in the new syllabus are

effective to achieve the desired outcomes.

However, Action Research has the following drawbacks:

1.

Action research is relatively of poor quality.

2.

The applicability of the findings of action research to another school in the event of

teacher transfer is questionable.

3.

The classroom teacher does not have enough time to conduct action research.

5.

Action hypothesis. Action hypothesis is forme

2.8 Introduction

Research in every field and more so in the field of education is demand of day. Progress

in any field is directly linked with research in that field. Our problems and difficulties in

the field of education further necessitate a purposeful and 3ined research effort.

Such research efforts are distinguished on the basis of their different purposes and

approaches and that is what may technically be called difference in methods. Likewise,

research studies, adopting different methods, however, do not as a rule, differ

significantly in their procedures, selection, formulation, collection, analysis and

interpretation of new data and reporting of the work done are common steps to all types

of methods of research.

These types of research are classified as (1) historical research (documentary) descriptive

research (normative) (3) quasi experimental research (4) qualitative research.

When classified in the above manner, there is not much developing or confusion among
the different methods. They are neither mysterious nor unduly complex. Basically they

are simple and founded on common sense.

Keeping in view the importance of each research method, effort has been made to discuss

in detail the concept, scope and characteristics of various methods research in the unit.

2.9 Objectives

After studying the unit, if is hoped that the student will be able to:

1.

discuss the classification of research methods;

2.

explain the historical research method;

3.

describe the descriptive research;

4.

specify the quasi experimental research;

5.

evaluate the qualitative research.

2.10 Historical Research

The use of historical sources and techniques in the field of educational research is known

as historical research method. Historical research justifies itself when used to find out the

solutions of the present day problems on the basis of the experiences of the past.

However, the value of historical research in education is given as under:

1.

It inspires respect for sound scholarship and reverence for great teachers.

2.

The history of education enables the educational worker to dete fads and frills.

3.

The history of education enables the educational worker to vie present educational

problems in the light of their origin and growth.

4.
Past educational experiences my serve as a basis for tentative generalizations in

analyzing current educational issues and problem

Historical research has certain characteristics which are given below:

1.

It is based on reports of observations which cannot be repeated.

2.

It is liable to be subjective.

3.

In history, rational process of analysis and inference is verbalized.4.

Science predicts the future course of events, and history uses preserve evidence to

retrodict the past.

There are three main-steps involved in historical research. These include:

1.

The collection of data through primary and secondary sources;

2.

It involves internal and external criticism of the data collected;

3.

Presentation of facts which involves problems of organization composition,

exposition and interpretation.

In collecting data of historical research, the sources are normally classified into two main

categories - primary sources and secondary sources.

Primary sources are those original documents which are the first witnesses a tact.

However, some include information in-the form of oral or written testimonial or the

records written or preserved by actual participants or witnesses of an event. For example,

charters, official records, constitutions, court decisions, autobiographies, diaries, letters,

pictures, films, paintings, books and recordings etc. Other primary sources include

remains or relics, tools, weapons, house-hold articles, cloths etc.

Secondary sources-are sources of information transmitted by one who was not present on

the scene of the original event. He was neither a participant nor an eye witnesses of the
original event. In fact, information supplied is second hand. Most of the encyclopedias

and history text books come under the category of secondary sources. The secondary

sources sometimes prove very helpful as they provide information about primary sources.

Moreover, the historical report writing involve the, mechanical problem of

documentation, the logical problem of selecting the topics, the logical problem of

arrangement of topics and sub-topics, and the philosophical problem of interpretation.

However, the following guidelines should be observed in historical research.

1.

The primary sources should be used as extensively as possible.

2.

Personal bias should not be allowed to influence research procedure.

3.

Proper recognition should be given to the inter-relationship of education with other

social institutions and forces.

4.

The significant facts must be distinguished from trivial or range facts in a situation.

5.

The facts should be synthesized and integrated into meaningful generalizations.

6.

Care should be taken in interpreting the words and expressions in the light of their

usage in earlier times.

However, the scope of historical research may be mentioned in the areas of biography,

history of institutions and organizations, development of ideas through the ages, sources

and influences, legal bases of education and bibliographical studies

2.11 Descriptive Research

This type of research is also called normative, survey research. It concerns itself with the

present phenomena in terms of conditions, practices, beliefs, process, relationships or

trends is variously termed as descriptive survey - status, normative or trend study or

survey.
Descriptive research has the following characteristics.

1.

It is concerned not with the characteristics, of individuals but with characteristics of

the whole population or a sample thereof.

2.

It collects data from a relatively large number of subjects

3.

It provides information useful to the solution of local problems.

4.

Its scope is very vast.

5.

Surveys may be qualitative of quantitative.

6.

Descriptions may be' either verbal or expressed in mathematical terms.

In solving a problem one has to evaluate the present conditions and then seek information

concerning 'what we may want' and 'how to reach there’. Normative-a survey research

may involve one of more of these elements in different situations.

This type of research helps in locating existing problems, in securing historical

perspective through a series of cross-sectional pictures' of similar conditions at different

timed, in suggesting the course of future developments, in developing many tools, in

contributing to the advancement of knowledge and in providing the background ideas and

data from-which many more studies may be conducted.

Such studies are factual and hence supply practical information.

These researches employ application of a scientific method by critically analysing and

examining the source materials, by analysing, interpreting data and by arriving at

generalizations and predictions.

Descriptive research is classified into the categories such as survey studies, case studies,

developmental studies, follow-up studies, correlational studies, trend analysis and

documentary analysis.
In the system of distance education, this-type of research is quite useful as it helps in

making surveys concerning aims, outcomes of instructional programmes, survey

concerning administrative problems of procedures. Moreover, institution appraisal,

financial study, building survey, staff development training survey and teacher training

Question No 3

Classification of Educational Research

Educational research may be classified under three categories; basic research’, ‘applied

research’ and ‘action research’. It must, however, be remembered that there are no clearcut lines that
differentiate these types of research. Basic research has been primarily the

activity of psychologists rather than educators. Most of the educational research is

applied research. Action research, usually, is the domain of classroom teachers.

Basic or Fundamental Research Meaning

Meaning This is sometime also called ‘pure research’ or ‘fundamental research’. It is

aimed at the discovery of basic truth or principles and is not immediately concerned with

direct field application. Basic research emphasizes control and precision and gives less

attention to direct application of the result in a field situation. According to Travers,

“Basic research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge and does

not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value”.

Laboratory approach––Basic research is usually carried out in the laboratory and a good

deal of equipment and apparatus is needed to carry out experiments.

Researcher use animal subjects—As research workers are concerned with fundamental

principles of behavior and research with animals permits a much higher level of control

than is possible with human subjects; basic research uses animal rather than human

subjects.

Research done by workers in other fields—A lot of basic research bearing implications

on education has been done by workers in the other behavioral sciences such as

sociology.

Applied Research

Meaning—Applied research or often called 'field research' is concerned primarily with

establishing relationships and testing theories in the field setting and applying to other

samples of the population from which the research subjects are taken. For example, a

study of the friendship pattern of eighth class students is very valuable if the sample has

been chosen in such a way that the results may be expected to apply reasonably well to

other samples of the same population. Travers observes that applied research is undertaken to solve an
immediate problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge

is secondary.

Applied research sacrifices controls and precision to some extent as compared with

fundamental research.

Basic and Applied Research

Meaning––In basic research, the researcher attempts to control a situation by the use of

laboratory techniques or other techniques. In applied research, the researcher is engaged

in conducting enquiries in the complicated psycho-sociological climate of on-going

educational activities. There are a large number of variables in applied research which

limit control and precision.

Applied research is of course, conducted in real situations which provide motivation to

the researcher who is interested in the immediate solution of the problem. In basic

research, motivation is intrinsic and the value of research is in its contribution to the

advancement of knowledge.

Both the basic research as well as applied research is committed to the high standards of

scientific objectivity and scholarship. In each type of research, the researcher tries to

define the problem being studied with precision, derives his hypotheses from a rich

background of information related to the problem, designs the study so that it results in a

genuine test of hypothesis, collects and analyses facts or evidence carefully and attempts

to draw generalizations objectively. However, the conditions under which the two

researchers conduct their studies may differ as observed earlier if terms of the control and

precision.

Action Research

Meaning—Action research sometimes called on-the-job research involves the application

of the steps of the scientific method to classroom problems. Action research is similar to

applied research in many ways. Applied research, usually involves a larger number of

samples as compared with action research. In action research many research projects are

carried out in a single classroom by a single teacher, while others may be carried on by

all teachers in a school or even a school district.

According to Best, “Action Research is focused on the immediate application, not on the

development of theory, nor upon general application.” Action research places its

emphasis on a problem, 'here and now'. It is applicable in local setting.

In the words of Jane Franseth of the U.S. office of education, “Action research is a

systematic examination conducted by individuals or groups studying their own practices

in search of sound answers to unresolved problems in their work and aimed at improving

their own performance on their own jobs”.

Corey says of action research, “One of the best ways to enable people to improve their curricular
practices is to make it possible for them to study what they are doing to

experiment with ideas that seem to be more promising and to get evidence to find out if

they are better”.

Action research is not mainly concerned in obtaining generalized scientific knowledge

about educational problems but in obtaining specific knowledge concerning the subjects

involved in the study.

Stephen M. Corey, a pioneer in the field describes action research as:

''Most of the study of what should be kept in the schools and what should go and what

should be added must be done in hundreds and thousands of classrooms and thousands of

communities. The studies must be undertaken by those who may have to change the way

they do things as a result of the studies. Our schools cannot keep up with the life they are

supposed to sustain and improve unless teachers, pupils, supervisors, administrators and

school patrons continuously examine that they are doing. Single and in groups, they must

use their imagination and creatively and constructively to identify the practices that must

be changed to meet the needs and demands of modern life, courageously try out those

practices that give better promise, and methodically gather evidence to test their worth.
This is the process I call action research. I hold no special brief for the name, but it has

some currency and is sufficiently to descriptive.”

Lehmann and Mehrens (1971) point out; “Action research is a type of applied or decision

oriented research, but with the stipulation that the researcher is the same person as the

practitioner who will make and live with the decision.”

Practitioner and Action Research

In Action research in education, the researchers are usually teachers, curriculum workers,

principals, supervisors or others whose main function is to help provide good learning

experiences for pupils.

The fundamental point is that teachers, supervisors, and administrators would make better

decisions and engaged in more effective practices if they, too, were able and willing to

conduct research as a base for these decisions and practices. The process by which

practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct, and

evaluate their decisions and actions is what a number of people have called action research.

A publication entitled ‘Research in Education’ publishes by National Institute of Basic

Education stated as;

“Action research is the research a person conduct in order to enable him to achieve his

purposes more effectively. A teacher conducts action research to improve his own

teaching. A school administrator conducts action research to improve his administrative Action research
can be easily taken up by a school teacher. The idea of 'Action Research’

is to enable the teacher to tackle everyday problems that he faces in the classroom. It

aims at developing in the teacher an attitude of inquiry rather than making him a research

scientist. There is no theorizing here as in fundamental research. During the course of

classroom teaching the teacher starts with certain expectations or aspirations. In actual

practice when he finds that those are not fulfilled, he feels dissatisfied. This

dissatisfaction leads him to take up action research. The teacher then rise to focus his

attention on the problem and clearly apprehends it. Suppose, he finds that the children in

his class do not have a good handwriting and he is eager to improve the handwriting of

his children. First he finds out the causes of bad handwriting of the children. This may be
designated as diagnosing the problem. Then the teacher carefully analyses the causes and

tries to pick up those which he can remove. For example, he finds out that the following

are the causes of bad handwriting:

i. The children do not have enough good specimens of handwriting to copy.

ii. The children do not have comfortable seats; and

iii. They do not have proper pens to write.

He may now start his experiment. He evaluates the handwriting of some children before

the start of the experiment. Then he provides good specimens of handwriting and good

writing material to a group of children during their writing periods and again evaluates

their handwriting after say three months. Then he makes a comparison of the results

achieved in the improvement of the handwriting of the children experimented upon with

those not subjected to the experiment. From this he draws his conclusion. This is an

example of simple 'Action Research.'

All teachers can try out experiments of this type. The main point in “Action Research' is

that the approach of the teacher is more careful, disciplined and objective rather than

haphazard and slipshod.

This type of research i.e. ‘Action Research’ is necessary for all types of teachers. This

will help them in achieving objectivity in their life and also enable them to grow

professionally. The school will benefit from such programmes of 'Action Research’,

because they will go a long way in improving the existing school practices.

The purpose of action research is not only to improve school practices but also at the

same time to improve those who are to improve the practices.

It is unrealistic to assume that every teacher can carry on a continuous programme of

research. Not everyone who is a good teacher wants to carry on a continuous research

programme. What is important is that every teacher is sympathetic to the spirit of research.

Summer research programmes—There are a good many research programmes in which

teachers may participate away from their schools. For most teachers these would be limited

to summer programmes some of which provide good incentives. Many universities are in a

position to provide space and supervision in the summer time for teachers and students
from other schools without interfering with their own regular programme.Limitations of the Teachers in
Undertaking Research

1.

Lack of background and formal preparation in the statistical and measurement

procedures in education.

1.2. Certain limitations in time and/or ability to pursue studies that go beyond the

confines of the classroom i.e. follow up studies.

2.3. Heavy teaching loads and extra-curricular responsibilities.

Assets of the Classroom Teachers

1.

Their direct contact with the pupils and knowledge of their problems, their

intellectual potential, their socio-economic development and the like.

2.

Ability to record happenings in the classroom and put them in proper perspective as

they affect the teaching-learning process.

3.

Some capacity to manipulate the educational environment and observe the

corresponding reactions of the pupils.

Need and Importance of Action Research in Indian Schools

The need and importance of action research in Indian Schools is being felt by all

concerned to keep pace with latest developments in the field of education. A teacher

while teaching his students comes across numerous problems. Sometimes he tries to

tackle them with great patience and other times being in an angry mood, he scolds the

students, turns them out of the class, gives punishment of one form or the other and still

at some other times, he overlooks them. If the teachers are encouraged to come out with

their problems and are provided necessary facilities in the form of guidance and help in

conducting action research, they can solve their problems themselves with great

satisfaction to themselves and consequently leading to their professional growth and

development.
J. W. Best suggests, “If classroom teachers are to make an active research contribution, it

will probably be in the area of action research. Studies will be made for the purpose of

improving school practices. Many educational observers see in action research one of the

most promising avenues of teacher growth, professional improvement and the

development of better curriculum”.

W. C. Radford discusses the functions of the school as; “What is the function of the

school in educational research? Should it be doing research, and if so, are there any limits

to it? I think that there is a limitation—what I call a geographical one. I do not believe

we can expect a school, established to serve a particular community, to go beyond that

community in its research. Each school is an entity with its own setting, and its own

particular complex of factors affecting its operation. I believe that the school should be

doing research but within that setting and on its own complex. Every aspect of the

educational process is therefore study-learning experiences, pupil-teacher relationships,

administration. Nothing inside the school is more important than what is going on

within it. All, or almost all aspects of the process can be examined, studied, appraised

and the conclusions drawn used to affect the process immediately

behaviour

Question No 4

2. WHAT IS AN EXPERIMENT?

An experiment is a scientific device for obtaining an answer to the question, "If this is

done, under carefully controlled conditions, what will happen?" An experiment is a

situation in which the relationship between cause and effect is determined. The

underlying logic being: If two situations are alike in every respect and if one element is

added to one but not to the other, the resultant difference may be considered to be the

effect of the element added. Similarly, if two situations are alike in every respect and one

element is removed from one situation but not from the other, any observable difference

may be attributed to the element removed.

2.1 Law of Single Variable

The earliest assumptions of experimental research v ere based upon the law of the single
variable. The law, in its simplest form, has been stated in the preceding para. The law

provided the base for experimental ion in early stages. Boyle's Law and Charle's Law are

the examples to understand this concept of experimentation. Boyle's Law states that when

temper cure is constant, the volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the

pressure exerted upon the gas. In other words when pressure is increased, volume

decreases i.e.

V

where V is volume and P is pressure.According to Charle's Law the volume of an ideal gas is
proportionate to the temperature

ii when temperature increases, volume increases. Symbolically

V

where V is

volume and T is temperature.

2.2 Major Components of an Experiment

In a simple conventional experiment, reference is usually made to an experimental group

and to a control group. The Experimental group is exposed to the influence of the factor

under consideration and the control group is not exposed to it. Observations are then

made to determine what difference appears or what change or modification occurs in the

experimental group as contrasted with the control group. For example, an educational

administrator wants to recommend the purchase of some special type of furniture for

primary school students in the schools under his/her supervision. But before he makes

such recommendations, he/she wants to we the superiority of this special furniture over

two traditional type of furniture in these schools. We can very easily conduct an

experiment on random by selected students and dividing them in two unbiased groups

and exposing one group to that special type of furniture and not exposing the other group

to the special furniture (i.e. continue use of the old type of furniture). The effect of the

new furniture on the desired aspect i.e. the physical growth of the students or on the

achievement level of the students over a period of time can be observed. In case there is

some difference in the effect, the recommendations can be made by the educational

administrator for the purchase of the new type of furniture.

Now in this case, the group "A" which was exposed to special type of treatment will be

named as experimental group, whereas the other group which was made to sit on the

same traditional furniture, will be named as control group.

2.3 Variables

The dictionary meaning of the word variable is that characteristic which is able to assume

different numerical values. In research terminology "variables" are the conditions or

characteristics that an experimenter manipulates, controls or observes. A researcher

studying the effect of the use of audio- visual aids on academic achievement manipulates

and controls the use of audio-visual aids and observes the academic achievement of

students. For this purpose he selects two unbiased groups of students and provides

instruction to one group through the usual lecture methods and to the other through the

use of audio-visual aids. This is what is meant by controlling or manipulating. Then the
researcher records the academic achievement of the two groups of students. This is what

we mean by observation. In this experiment 'audio-visual aids' and 'academic

achievement' are the two variables. In the context of Boyles' Law 'volume of gas' and

'pressure' were the two variables whereas in case of Charles' Law 'volume of gas' and

'temperature' were the two variables An independent variable is the condition or characteristic that the
experimenter

himself manipulates or controls in order to observe and ascertain its impact on the

phenomenon to be observed. In the educational researches cited above (in para 2.2)

'special type of furniture' and 'audio-visual aids' are the independent variables. In

laboratory experiments which established Boyle's Law, for example pressure of

different quantitative value (independent variable) was applied on the gas and the

volume of the gas was measured.

(b) Dependent Variable.

A dependent variable is that condition or characteristic that appears, disappears or

changes as the experimenter introduces, removes or changes the independent

variable. The experimenter is free to assign any value to the independent variable

but he can only observe or record the resultant value of the dependent variable. In

the research on the efficacy of the use of audio-visual aids the experimenter can

vary the extent of the use of audio-visual aids during teaching, but he can only

record the academic achievement of students which is perhaps dependent on the

teaching methods used. In establishing his law, Boyle could freely vary the amount

of pressure to be exerted on the gas and would then observe/record the volume of

the gas corresponding to each value of the pressure.

In educational research independent variables may be a particular teaching method,

amount and types of reinforcement (reward), curricular organization, type of

teaching material, frequency and duration of any activity, etc. The dependent

variables may be performance on tests, number of errors, speed and accuracy in

performance of any task, and any other behavioural change which can be

observed/quantified.
(c) Intervening Variables

In many types of researches specially in behavioural sciences, the relationship

between the independent and dependent variables is not a simple stimulus-response

type relationship. Certain variables intervene between the stimulus and the

response or between the independent and the dependent variable. These are known

as intervening variables. For example, in an experiment conducted to investigate

the impact of a certain type of training on the administrative performance is the

dependent variable. But the efficiency of the headmaster may be affected by his

family background, socio-political conditions, his motivation for work, his will to

implement desired changes, etc. These and other factors may intervene in

determining the effect of training on his' management performance. In behavioural

sciences, such intervening variables cannot be avoided. However, it is important

that the experimenter should be conscious of these intervening variables and should

adopt the experimental design most suited for controlling these variables as far as

possible.

(d) Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are those uncontrolled variables which are not manipulated by the researcher but
they may have a significant influence upon the results of a

research study. In a study about the "democratic versus authoritarian control in the

educational institutions and their relative effect on the performance of the

teachers," there may be certain extraneous variables which cannot be manipulated

by the experimenter but they do affect the results of the experiment. The inborn

competence of the educational managers, the enthusiasm on their part, their

missionary zeal or their socio-economic levels are such variables which cannot be

manipulated by the researcher but which may affect the performance of teacher

(dependent variable).

3. TECHNIQUES OF CONTROLLING

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Although the extraneous variables cannot be completely controlled by the experimenter,

but there are certain measures and techniques which can as used to minimize the effect of

extraneous variables. Some of these techniques are discussed below.

(a) Removing the variable:

Extraneous variable may be controlled by eliminating such variable completely.

For example, if in a study on education managers, wide differences are expected in male

and female behaviour, that is if sex is an extraneous variable, the study may be

deliminted to one sex only. In an experimental research on the impact of noise on

computational errors it may be expected that noise may have greater impact on the

performance of men than that of women. In that case the study may be restricted to either

male subjects or to female subjects. This will help eliminate the sex variable. Similar

decisions may be made to eliminate other extraneous variables.

(b) Randomization:

Randomization is the method of selection of subjects for the study. Randomization

ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

and of being assigned to the experimental and the control group. Randomization

can be achieved by a pure chance selection of subjects from the population.

Randomization provides an effective method of eliminating systematic bias and of

minimizing the effect of extraneous variables. Randomization is also an effective

method of equating groups.

To test the relative efficacy of regular drill and spaced drill in improving spelling,

an investigator used the method of regular drill in one school in Dadu and the

method of spaced drill in another school of the same area. In this experiment the

subjects taught by the two methods might have had different intelligence level,

spelling competence, motivation and overall teaching-learning atmosphere even

before the experiment started. Thus a large number of extraneous variables would

affect the dependent variable and the conclusion reached world be of questionable

validity. Instead, the researcher should have assigned students to the two groups through
randomization. For each student, he should have tossed a coin and placed

him in one group if 'head' appeared and in the other if 'tail' appeared. It could then
be assumed that intelligent students from both the classes would he assigned

equally to the two group. Similarly, students assigned to the two group were most

likely to be equal in respect of their spelling, competence, motivation and other

extraneous variables and that the effect of these variables was more likely to have

been neutralized.

Matching cases:

Another method of controlling extraneous variables is that of assignment of

subjects with identical or nearly identical characteristics to the two groups. This

method is used is cases where assignment of cases through randomization is either

not feasible or not appropriate.

In the research on the impact of regular drill or spaced drill on the spelling

competence, another researcher wanted to have two groups with equal spelling

competence. He first gave the two available classes a spelling test and assigned

students to the two groups so that for each student in the regular drill group there

was a student in the spaced drill group with the same or almost the same score on

the spelling test. This methods assir'd that the two groups had the same spelling

ability at the beginning of the experiment and that any difference found after

exposing the two groups to the two methods of drill was due to the method of drill

itself.

"Matching cases method" can only match groups on the basis of one variable and

can thus control only one extraneous variable. Another limitation for the use of this

method is that some individuals are likely to be excluded from the experiment if a

matching subject is not available.

(d) Balancing cases:

This method consists of assigning subject to the experimental and control group s

in such a way that the mean and variance of the two groups are as nearly equal as

possible. Because identical balancing of groups is impossible, the experimenter

has" to decide how much departure from equality can be tolerated without loss of

satisfactory control. This method also suffers from the limitation pointed out in the
matching methods; namely the difficulty of equating groups on the basis of more

than one characteristic.

(e) Analysis of co-variance:

It is possible, with the help of statistical methods, to eliminate initial differences on

more than one variable. This method is preferable to the conventional method of

matching but it involves use of analysis of covariance which has been be described in

Question No 4

4. EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY

In most experimental researches carried outside the laboratory a number of extraneous

variables tend to confound the result in such a way that, it is difficult to evaluate their

influence on the result. When such extraneous variables are affecting the results it

becomes difficult to conclude that changes observed in the dependent variable are caused

by the independent variable. The extraneous variables in effect introduce rival hypotheses

which could account for the observed changes not attributable to the experimental

variable under consideration. Although these extraneous variables cannot be completely

eliminated a researcher should be able to identify and anticipate them, and take possible

measures to minimize their influence through appropriate research design and careful

execution. In order that the conclusions arrived at through an experimental research are

accepted as true, the experiment must have internal and external validity.

4.1 Internal Validity

Internal validity is the basic minimum limit necessary to make the results of the

experiment interpretable. Internal validity questions whether the experimental treatment

really makes a difference in the dependent variable. An adequate answer to this question

requires adequate internal validity. Before it can be answered, the researcher must be

confident that extraneous variables have not produced an effect that is being mistaken as

an affect of the experimental treatment. According to Best, an experiment has internal

validity to the extent that the factors that have been manipulated (independent variables)

actually have a genuine effect on the observed consequences (dependent variables) in the

experiment setting.
4.2 External Validity

The value of an experimental research lies in its ability to provide a basis for generalizing

from a sample to the total population. The conclusion of a research study that spaced drill

improved spelling more quickly among ten students of class IV in Pir Sohawa than

regular drilling has very little practical value unless the research enables us to generalize

to all primary school children.

External validity concerns the power of the experiment to generalize variable relationship

Lu a wider population of interest and to non - experimental settings. Achieving external

validity is difficult but sound experimental design, appropriate statistical analysis and

many replications with varied population samples in a variety of settings, may minimize

the problem. (Best: 153)

Experimental validity is an ideal to aspire to, for it is unlikely that it can ever be

completely achieved. Internal validity is very difficult. to achieve in the non laboratory

setting of the behavioural experiment where there are so many extraneous variables to

attempt to control. When experimental controls are tightened to achieve internal validity,

the more artificial, less realistic situation may prevail, reducing the external validity or

generalizability of the experiment.

_____________________________________________________________

5. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Experimental design is the blueprint of the procedures that enable the researcher to test

hypotheses by reaching valid conclusions about relationship between independent and

dependent variables. Selection of a particular design i based upon the purposes of the

experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, and the conditions or limiting factors

under which it is conducted. The design deals with such practical problems as how

subjects are to be manipulated and controlled, the way extraneous variables are to be

controlled, how observations are to made, and the type of statistical analysis to be

employed in interpreting data relationship

Question No 5

1. INTRODUCTION
You have already studied the historical and the experimental types of re searches. In this

unit, an attempt has been mane to explain descriptive research which is the pre-dominant

research method of the behavioural sciences. You mow how an experimenter makes a

hypothesis alter a critical analysis of the problem at hand and then sets about planning his

research carefully. He selects his subjects, applies some treatment to them and then

makes observations which may confirm or reject his hypothesis. Many types of behaviour

that interest a researcher cannot be observed under experimental conditions because the

significant variables may be harmful to the subjects. The prevailing practice of social

scientists is accordingly to systematically examine and analyze behaviour under

conditions that naturally occur in the home, the classroom, the community, etc. Herein

lies the advantages of descriptive research.

1.1 What is Descriptive Research?

In a descriptive research the investigator does not manipulate the variables or arrange

events to happen. Descriptive research involves events that have already taken place or

would have taken place even though there had been no observation or description. Thus a

descriptive research may be undertaken to study the administrative machinery for

educational planning in different provinces or causes of low female participation rate,

may be Investigated by studying community attitude towards female education. In these

studies the planning machinery is already in existence and the process of planning is

going on; the researcher cannot cause any, change and study its impact. He can only

describe and analyse the existing phenomena and may, at times, try to relate it with some

factor e.g. community attitude in case of low female participation rate.

According to Best, descriptive research describes and interprets "what is? It is concerned

with conditions or relationships that exist, practices that prevail; beliefs, points of views

or attitudes that are held; processes that are going on, effects that are being felt or trends

that are developing."

Descriptive research sometimes also investigates how an existing phenomenon is related

to some preceding event or what was the effect of that preceding event on the present

conditions. Its process involves gathering and tabulating facts, an element of analysis and
interpretation, comparison or contrast of variables as well as their measurement and

classification. An investigator, studying cause of low female participation rate, may try to

assess the role played by parental attitudes, poverty of parents, non- availability of female

teachers, distance of school from home,' non-functional curricula, etc., through obtaining

the views of parents, teachers, community leaders and out-of-school girls through a

questionnaire. He may then compare the views of fathers, mothers and daughters with

one another and with those of the views of community leaders and teachers. On the basis

of the analysis of data, he may also interpret the results.

The importance of this type of research lies in the fact that not much progress can be

made in solving problems unless we possess descriptions of the phenomena with which

194 we work. To continue with the example of the research study cited in the preceding pan it

is obvious that no effective policy can be formulated or to measures can be adopted,

unless we know why concerned parents did not send their daughters to the school and

that role was placed by community leaders and teachers.

1.2 Steps in a Descriptive Research

In descriptive studies, the researchers follow certain procedures and steps and do not

merely present private convictions or data based on cursory or casual observation.

According to Van Dalen, the following steps may be taken by the investigate to carry out

a good research:

Examine their problematic situations;

Define their problem and sometimes state their hypotheses,

List the assumptions upon with their hypotheses and procedures are based,

Select appropriate subject and source materials;

Select or construct techniques for collecting the data,



Establish categories for classing the data that are unambiguous, appropriate for the

purpose of, the study and capable of bringing. about significant likeness,

differences or relationships,

Validate the data gathering techniques,

Make discriminating and objective observation,

Describe, ana1ye and interpret their findings in clear and precise terms.

ACTIVITY No. 1

A descriptive research study has been developed according to the steps suggested above.

Use the blanks provided against each step to develop another such study in the area of

educational planning and measurement.

A good descriptive research is not a bare description. It is, in fact, a collection of

evidence on the basis of a hypothesis or theory, tabulation and careful summarization of

data, analysis of results to draw meaningful generalization that will advance knowledge.

Data of descriptive research maybe expressed (i) qualitatively - in verbal symbols, or

(ii) quantitatively - in mathematics symbols.

Qualitative data -word descriptions -may predominate in studies that examine the general

nature of the phenomenon. An example of use of no quantitative data would be a study of

the educational conditions and practices in other countries. A survey of primary education

in different province would require verbal data concerning the administrative machinery

for planning and execution, the priorities of the provincial government and socio-cultural

hurdles in the way of universalization of primary education. Qualitative studies help

workers identify the significant factors to measure. A study may consist exclusively of

one form or may contain both forms.

3. INTERRELATIONSHIP STUDIES

Educationists collect facts to obtain an accurate description of existing status as they

make an effort to trace interrelationship between facts that will provide a deeper insight

into the phenomena. According to Van Dalen, three types of studies are included in this

type of descriptive research. These are:

i)

Case studies

ii)

Casual Comparative studies

iii) Correlation Studies.

Given below is a detailed discussion on each of the three types of studies.

3.1 Case Study

When the focus of attention is directed towards a single case or a limited number of

cases, the process is personalised and such researches are included in the Case Study

method of descriptive research. This study is extended to include any relatively detailed

description and analysis of a single person, event, institution or community. This type of

study is said to be 'idiographic', that is, it attempts to understand the behaviour or

attitudes of the individuals without attempting to generalize these findings to other

persons or groups. Here the emphasis is not upon the individual representing a type but

upon the Jndivj4ual as a unique personality with his own problems and needs.

The case studies in research can be undertaken for the following purposes:

i.

Uto provide the investigator with hypotheses that might be difficult to study in

other context.

ii.

a case study may provide the investigator unique situation that can be used to test

hypotheses:

iii.

the case study may provide new insights, help modify pie existing beliefs and point

out gaps in knowledge;

iv.
the case study may be useful in demonstrating how a theoretical model can be

exhibited in a concrete model.

Case study data may come from various sources. The researcher may ask the subjects to

recall the past experience or to express present situation interviews and questionnaires.

Personal documents such as diaries, letters and various physical, psychological or

sociological measurements may yield valuable information.

A case study is similar to a survey but instead of gathering data concerning a few factors

from a large number of social units, an intensive study of a limited number of

representative cases is made. It is narrower in scope but more exhaustive in nature than a

survey.

Let as discuss an example to clarify the concept of case studSuppose an EPM student was to determine
if the programmes offered by EPM

Department of the Allama Iqbal Open University are really meeting the objectives of

providing training to the educational planners and managers in the country will carry out

a case study of the EPM Department. For this case study he gives a detailed background

and history of the Department, its aims and bobjeclivesland the details of academic

programmes offered. He also discusses the admission procedures and the methods of

students evaluation. Discussion is also made abiat the feeding areas of the Department

and the areas where EPM graduates can go to serve. The future programmes are also

critically analysed and recommendations made by the researcher about the overall

functioning, of the department keeping in view the existing situation of the Department.

This case study may provide new insights and would be helpful in modifying the existing

programmes in the Department. It may point out the weaknesses or drawbacks in the

functioning of the Department. Thus it can help in diagnosing the weaknesses or

strengths of the Department so that it is better able to fulfill the aim of giving training to

educational planners and managers in the country:

Though a case study does not aim at generalization, it may provide insight into a

phenomenon and help in the formulation of some hypothesis. The existence lip of a

particular condition in a unique case may suggest a factor to look for in other cases. An in
– depth case study of the Mohammad brothers (Hanif, Mushtaq, etc.) and the Khan

family of squash (Roshan, Jahahgir, etc.,) may indicate presence of some condition in the

family environment that helps raising of sportsmen. Similarly there are families in

Pakistan which have produced many outstanding civil servants, army officers,

businessmen or professional. Case studies of these individuals/families could also be

fruitful.

3.2 Causal Comparative Studies

Some researchers, while carrying out descriptive research not only try to discover what a

phenomenon is, but also how and why it occurs. They try to determine what factors, or

circumstances, certain events or practices accompany the occurrence of the phenomenon.

In social sciences, where it is difficult to control various variables, causal comparative

method is employed instead of experimental research. It is not always possible for an

educational planner to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause

and effect relationship. So this method enables a researcher to analyse what happens in a

natural rather than laboratory situation. In an experiment, the researcher may

hypothesize; ‘If observed’. He then manipulates independent variable and exposes an

experimental group to experience A, while withholding the experience from a control

group and observers the result In a causal' comparative study, the researcher observes

phenomena B and searches back through a rnultimplicity of possible causes for the

factors-independent variables-that are related to or contributed to the occurrence of the

phenomena B.

For example, a researcher wants to determine the causes of riots in an, educational

institution. He cannot set up a control group to test whether certain factors will cause ariot. He will
compare the institutions where riots occurred with other institutions which

had no riots. He will study the likeness and difference between the two situations and will

determine the factors that appear to account for the riots in one instance and for its lack in

the other.

This type of research has some limitations. Lack of control is the greatest weakness of

this method. Suppose a researcher observes phenomenon B and hypothesizes that A

caused B. The data may show that A is related to B but without controlling A, he cannot

be certain that some other factor a C, D or did not cause the occurrence of B. So we can

that causal comparative studies do not produce precise reliable knowledge that an

experimental study can do. But they provide a way to probe problems that cannot be

probed in a laboratory situation.

3.3 Correlation Studies

Descriptions of phenomena are sometimes made by employing correlation technique,

which help in ascertaining the extent to which two variables are related or the extent to

which variations in one factors correspond with variations in another factor. The

investigator in these types of studies does not manipulate the independent variable but he

merely makes observations of both the 'independent' as well as the 'dependent' variable as

these occur in natural setting.

For example a researcher studying the relationship between I.Q. and achievement,

randomly selects some group and measures both the I.Q and the achievement through

some tests. The two variables in this type of research maybe closely related, moderately

related or completely unrelated. Generally, the magnitude of the correlation depends upon

the extent to which an increase or decrease in one variable is accompanied by an increase

or decrease in the other variable whether in the same direction or opposite direction. For

example, a high positive correlation exists if a high rank in one set is accompanied by a

high rank in the other (high I.Q. High achievement test score) and a low rank in one set is

accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative correlation exists of in general a

high rank in one set of scores corresponds with a low rank in the other (high I.Q, low

achievement test score). No or little correlation exists If a high score in one set is just as

likely to correspond with a low as with a high score in the other set Correlations,

therefore, range over a scale which extend from a perfect negative correlation, to no

correlation and to perfect positive correlation.*

The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a coefficient of correlation

merely quantifies the extent to which two variables are related and it does not imply that

cause-effect relationship necessarily exists. The meaning of the relationship is interpreted

by logical analysis rather than statistical computations. This Interpretation has all the

limitations to which causal-comparative studies are subjected.

* The concept of correlation and the method of computation of the coefficient of correlation shall