O LEVEL PHYSICS 5054 PAPER 4: ALTERNATIVE TO PRACTICALPAPER 4 FORMAT + 30 marks + Lhour + 4 questions © 1 long question with table graph calculation etc. (14-16 marks) © 3 short questions (4-6 marks each) THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ‘At the core of Physics and other sciences lies a problem-solving approach called the scientific method. ‘The scientific method has five basic steps, plus one feedback step: Make an observation. Ask a question Form a hypothesis, or testable explan: Make a prediction based on the hypothesis. Test the prediction Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions Nn ayewno The scientific method is used in all sciences—including chemistry, physics, geology, and psychology. The scientists in these fields ask different questions and perform different tests. However, they use the same core approach to find answers that are logical and supported by evidence. Let’s apply these steps to a simple experiment. 1. Make an observation Hot water and tea cool down to room temperature when left for a long time, 2. Aska question Which would cool more quickly, hot water or hot tea? 3. Form a hypothesis, or a testable explanation. The rate of cooling depends on purity (this statement doesn't have to be correct]. 4, Make a prediction. ‘The water is purer compared to tea so it will cool quickly. 5. Test the prediction (The main Experiment takes place here) Heat the water and tea, let them cool for § minutes while measuring temperatures every 1 minute. Record the results in a table, preferably plot a graph for both water and tea (temp on y axis and time on. x axis). 6. Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions. Analyse the results to see if the prediction was correct or it was proved wrong. Also, was the hypothesis supported by the experiment? Is purity related to rate of cooling? If experiment supports a theory/hypothesis then it becomes part of scientific literature (Iike your textbooks) otherwise we goback to the drawing board to come up with new theories, that’s how science evolves and our knowledge about the universe deepens. DEPENDENT, INDEPENDENT AND CONTROLLED VARIABLES Background: When conducting experiments, one needs to deal with variables, those factors or elements that are likely to vary or change. A typical study has an independent variable and a dependent variable. The independent (or manipulated) variable is something that the experimenter purposely changes or varies over the course of the investigation. The dependent (or responding) variable is the one that is observed and likely changes in response to the independent variable. ‘When conducting an experiment, all other variables must be kept the same throughout the investigation; they should be controlled. The variables that are not changed are called controlled variables. They are kept the same to do a FAIR TEST. For examples, comparing the rate of cooling of different liquids. Independent variable: Type of liquid: you will vary the type of liquid yourself during the experiment Dependent variable: Temperature: You will measure at regular intervals, they “depend” on the type of liquid Controlled variable: All other factors that affect rate of cooling, Some examples: * Total Time: each liquid should be given same amount to coo! + Type of container: each liquid should be kept in the same type of container. * Volume of liquids: volume of each liquid must be same © Initial temperature: the hotter the liquid the faster it cools, so initial temperature of all liquids must be same.Examples: [A student investigates how the resistance of a filament lamp changes as the potential difference V across it changes. (O/N 19 P41 G3) © Independent variable: © Dependant variable: © Control variable(s): A student in a laboratory investigates how the length | of a spring varies when different loads L are added to it. (O/N 19 P42 Q1) © Independent variabl © Dependant variable: © Control variable(s): A student investigates how the current in a thermistor depends upon temperature. (0/N 18 P42 Q1) © Independent variabl © Dependant variable: © Control variable(s): A student investigates how the resistance of a wire depends upon its length. (O/N 17 P42 Q4) © Independent variable: © Dependant variable: © Control variable(s): A student investigates how the height of a ramp affects the distance travelled bya toy car along the floor. (0/N 16 P41 Q2) © Independent variable: © Dependant variable: © Control variable(s):TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES y Y = x = Directy Proportions As xincreases, y ‘Asx increases, y a” increases linearly decreases linearly y y x cad sa ‘Ae riereases y nrases a xincreates,yineressen Asxinceases,yncreases ‘aly, en Baan constant oan Bit'noe tina {o) Asinceases yineroaes wit (G) Asrereasesy increases with Simca rae ects rte y Y ca > Inversey Proportional aoe ‘As increases y decease, Asxinceases,y decreases y bitnon near bit non tinarty {or Aor meemes, y decreases wth (G) Aer mereaes,y doeases wih decreasing rate increasing rate‘Afier you have gathered your data in an experiment, you may wish to know how these two variables are related to each other. One simple way of examining the mathematical relationship between these two variables is to plot a graph. The graph will indicate the general trend of the mathematical relationship between the two veriables, Arthe evel of this course, there are two common mathematical relationships that you may encounter. IF x and y are the variables that you ae investigating, the two mathernatical relationships are: (i)_y= kx (y is directly proportional to x; k = constant) k (i y= £ by is inversely proportional to x4 k ~ constant) vem ” 10 Figure 39 shows a y= ke relationship. Notice that in this relationship, + whenx increases to 2x, y increases t0 235 1 + when x decre: a ass 10 5 eae In this relationship, we say y is (directly) proportional to x. You may encounter some cases where the variables x and y are not linearly related. For example, the mathematical relationship between x and y could be y = £ or y= ke, whete k is a constant, In such cases, the graph of y against x would be a curve, which ‘makes it difficult for us to determine the constant k. Instead, we can modify the variables s0 that we can plot a straight line graph. For example, 1 Ify =, we plot a graph of y against + If y = kx?, we plot a graph of y against x".Test yourself 1 25. 18 10 ams 02 04 06 08 10 ‘This graph shows the relationship between the resultant force F on an object and the acceleration a of the object. (a) What can you say about the relationship between F and a? (b) If you are told that this relationship is correct even for very large values of acceleration, predict the resultant force needed to accelerate the object at a 1.2 ms? (Hint: When a =0.6 m s, F=15 N) (ii) a= 2.0 m s*? (Hint: When a = 1.0 m s?, F=25 N) 2. The graph of current / against length of a resistance wire, d, is plotted after obtaining the results from an experiment. With reference to the graph, answer the questions on the next page. us 12 10 08 0s 04 02 ° aim 01 02 03 04 05 ceEXPERIMENTS YOU SHOULD LEARN FROM THEORY: General Physics and Newtonian Mechanics 1. Investigate how the period of a pendulum depends on its length Investigate how the period of a block suspended from a spring depends on it mass Measure the diameter of a wire (with and without micrometre screw gauge) Determine the acceleration due to gravity for a falling mass Determine the density of regular solid, irregular solid, and liquid Investigate how the extension of a spring depends on the load applied Verify the principle of moments Determine the position of centre of mass of an irregular piece of lamina Thermal Physics 9. Compare good and bad absorbers/emitters of infrared radiation (heat) 10. Investigate rate of heating/cooling of liquids depending on various factors 11. Calibrate a thermometer (vs length, voltage, etc) 12. Determine the specific heat capacity of a solid or a liquid 13. Determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice 414. Determine the specific latent heat of vaporisation of steam Waves and optics 15. Demonstrate reflection and refraction of waves in a ripple tank 16. Demonstrate the law of reflection using sound waves or light waves 17. Demonstrate the characteristics and find the position of the image formed by a plane mirror 18. Demonstrate refraction through a rectangular glass block and determine its refractive index 19. Demonstrate the law of refraction using semi-circular glass block 20. Demonstrate total internal reflection and determine the critical angle in a semi-circular glass block 21. Demonstrate refraction and total internal reflection through prisms 22. Determine the focal length of a thin converging lens (rough and accurate method) 23. Demonstrate that sound needs a medium to travel 24. Determine the speed of sound (rough method, CRO method, echo method) 25. Determine the periad and frequency of sound using CRO Electricity and magnetism 26. Plotting of magnetic field lines of a bar magnet, a straight current carrying wire, a solenoid 27. Demonstrate electrostatic attraction and repulsion 28. Investigate howa current depends on p.d across a metallic wire, a resistor, afilament lamp, a diode 29. Determine the resistance of a component 30. Investigate how the resistance of a component (metal, thermisor) depends on temperature 31. Investigate how resistance depends on length of a wire using potentiometer circuit 32. Investigate how resistance of an LDR depends on intensity of light 33. Determine the resistance of fixed resistors using colour codes 34, Determine the period and frequency of alternating current/voltage using a CRO PN ay aw Atomic physic 35. Determine the type of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) coming from a sample 36. Determine the half life of a radioactive sampleESSENTIAL ATP PAST PAPER PRACTICE QUESTION SECTION-WISE General Physics and Newtonian Mechanics 2. $054/43/0/N/18/03 . $054/41/O/N/18/Q2 (G| . $054/41/0/N/17/Q2 (G} . $054/42/0/N/17/Q1 (G| 5. $054/41/0/N/16/04 5. $054/42/0/N/15/03 . §054/42/0/N/15/02 . $054/42/0/N/14/Q4 5054/42/0/N/14/Q2 (6) ). 5054/41/0/N/14/04 11, 5054/43/0/N/14/Q3 (6 12. 5054/42/Mm/1/18/04 (6) 13. 5054/42/M/3/18/03 14. 5054/41/M/J/18/03 15. 5054/41/M/s/18/Q2 (6) 16. 5054/42/M/)/17/Q3 17. $084/a1/m/i/17/03 18. 5054/42/M/3/16/04 19. 5054/42/M/3/15/Q1 20. 5054/41/M/s/15/Q2 (6) 21. 5054/42/M/1/14/04 22. 5054/43/M/)/14/03 BeeNoveuN BRED Thermal Physics . $054/41/0/N/18/Q1 - §054/42/0/N/17/02 5054/41/0/N/16/03 . $054/41/0/N/16/Q1 |. $054/41/0/N/14/03 5. 5054/42/M/)/19/Q (6) $054/43/m/1/19/04 5054/a1/M/i/18/031 ). $054/42/M/1/17/03 10. 5054/41/M/3/16/04 11. 5054/42/M//15/04 32. 5054/43/Mm/1/14/Q2 (6) wrNauewne Waves and optics - $054/42/0/N/18/03 - §054/42/0/N/18/02 | §054/42/0/N/17/03 . 5054/42/0/N/15/A1 (6) . $054/41/0/N/15/03 ». $054/42/M/1/19/02 . 5054/41/M/1/19/02 $054/42/M/1/18/02 @NaneYNE9. 10. 1. 12. 13, 5054/41/M/1/18/Q4 5054/42/M/s/17/Q4 (G) 5054/41/M/)/17/Q3 5054/42/M//16/02 5054/41/M/}/15/03 Electricity and magnetism 18, Rs . $054/42/0/N/18/04 5054/42/0/N/18/Q1 (6) . $054/41/0/N/18/Q4 . $054/42/0/N/17/Q4 . $054/41/0/N/17/03 9 §054/42/0/N/16/03 5054/42/0/N/16/02 (G] §054/42/0/N/15/04 5054/41/O/N/15/Q1 ). $054/42/0/N/14/03 - 5054/42/0/N/14/Q1 . 5054/42/M/)/19/04 5054/41/M/i/19/Q1 (6) - 5054/42/M/1/18/Q1 - 5054/42/M/s/17/02 - §054/41/M1/17/04 - 5054/41/M/1/16/1 5084/42/M/1/15/03 . 5054/41/M/s/15/04 ). 5054/42/M/1/14/02 . 5054/41/M/1/14/Q1COMPARING TWO VALUES When asked to compare two values and decide if they are constant or not; always consider the limits of experimental accuracy/error. In Experimental data, two values even (slightly) different are considered constant if the difference is within the Limits of Experimental Accuracy. First value - Second Viwe Percentage dif ference (%) = x 100 First Value Usually a difference of (£10%| is considered to be within limit of experimental accuracy If difference between values (being compared) is within (10%) then the values are considered to be equal/same If difference between values is greater than (+10%) then the values are considered to be too far apart and hence NOT equal Examples:CALCULATING VALUES FROM RAW DATA ‘As part of your calculations to obtain the result, you may have to add, suberact, multiply oe divide numbers. With a calculator, these mathematical operations can be easily carried ore However, the problem with using calculators is that the value obsained, after doing crane operations, often has too many significant figures. You must be very careful in arpressing your results with the correct number of significant figures. The following sarrles wll ilstate some ofthe aceeptable ways of expressing your raul with che Correct number of significant figures. Mattiptying and dividing numbers In multiplication and division, it is often accepeable to round off the product or quotient rene number of significant figures as the least accurate factor. For example, (a) 16.42 x 02t1 = 346 (Calewlator value: 3.46462) (4 sig. fis.) G3 sig. fig.) (3 sig. fig.) (b) 56 x 0.530 = 3.0 (Calculator value: 2.968) (2 sig. fig) G sig. fig.) (2 sig. fig.) © 65 + 1450 © = 045 (Calculator value: 0.44827586206) (Q sig. fig. (4 sig. fig.) (2 sig. fig.) {a} 100.2 + 05 = 2x 10% (Calculator value: 200.4) (4 sig. fig) (1 sig. fig.) (1 sig. fig.) ‘Adding and subtracting numbers The following examples will illustrate how calculations in addition and subtraction are handled. (a) 60.5 + 153 = 62.0 (Caleulator value: 62.03) (o) 2.432 +47 = 44 (Calculator value: 4.132) () 2921 + 3 + O07 = 7 — (Calculator value: 6.621) (a 154 — 0.232 = 15.2 (Calculator value: 15.168) (e) 120 - 183 = 102 (Caleulator value: 101.7) Notice thar in all the above examples of addition and subtraction, the final value is ee decimal place, ones, tens or hundreds, as the least accurate operand.TABLES Tables are used to record the date during the experiments. We don't only include columns for measured or observed (raw data) values in the table but we also need to have columns for values that need to be calculated from the measured values. Here is what you need to be careful with, while making tables. record all data, which is relevant to the experiment, in a single table * include in the table of results columns for raw data and for values calculated from them. * the number of decimal places in one column should all be consistent with each other. © use column headings that include both the quantity and the unit and that conform to accepted scientific conventions. As an example of accepted practice in column headings, if the quantity being measured is current in mill amperes, then ‘I/ mA’ would be the usual way to write the column heading, but ‘J in mA’ or * (mA)’ or ‘current /mA’ would be allowed. Headings such as */ mA’ or just ‘mA’ are not acceptable. The quantity or the unit or both may be written in words rather than symbols. Conventional symbols or abbreviations (such as p.d.) may be used without explanation. Examples:PLOTTING GRAPHS 4. Displaying Data on Graphs Graphs are plorted 10 show the relationship between two quantities, The quantity tha eee gee acre eee ca Lard that you vary (dependent variable) is plotred on the y-axis. ‘Te following points should be noted when drawing graphs: fa) Both axes should be labelled: name of quantty/anit ex. timesecond times oF ts {b) Use a convenient scale ro draw the graph as large atthe availble space allows. The ‘aes chould ie within a rectangle that is not smaller than 10 cm by 14 em. Py avoid using ‘scales’ and other awkward scales, Such scales veually lend vo ‘evors in plotting and deduction. Gi) The number of significant figures on the scale should not be less than char in the table of results. {@) Points must be clearly and accurately marked. Crosses () and encircled dows © are ‘useful for plotting points. (4) Do noe attemps to join all she plored points on the graph. It is not likely dhs you Pil obtain a straight line or a smooth curve by joining all the points as there may be ae oar tnors in the experimental readings. Instead, use a transparent ruler t0 help Jou deaw the best straight line or a flexible curve ruler to draw a smooth cure Through most of the points. Remember 10 use a sharp 2B pencil to draw the straight Hee aee ve. For a straight line the ‘line of best fi’ is drawn through the points such that they are distributed equally on both sides of the line. (e) When determining the gradient ofa straight lin, draw a large triangle (with broken lines) and use the coordinate method to determine the gradient. Do not forget to label the coordinates on the graph. (f) Evidence of how a reading is obtained from a graph must be shown. eg. (i) the triangle for calculation of gradient, {i eference lines (in broken lines) ro find a point on the x-axis corresponding, to a point on the y-axis and vice versa. Figures 29 to 38 show what are considered desirable and undesirable graphs. (in yy 08. 20. mts 08, 15, * on 10 02. Desirable 05 Desirable 0.100 0.200 9,900 0.400 0500 vin a) : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 aFigure 28 a Figure 30,Unoesirabie: points are joined up ° FIN 0 01 02 03 04 05 06 «Figure 31 te) v os Undesirable: (too few points for a curve (i axes have no units a8: 0: 02. yiem 18 Undesirabie: awkward scale for x-axis and y-axis 16 4 ” 10 xfom o 3 6 8 2 4 Figure 5 (dy Tre. 10 8 6. 4 2 Uncedrabe Stale Or 20s rot eppropoa oll o 1 23 4 6 aFigure 32 (p w 10} os: points are joted up wihout oe! Srawing a smooth cure oa) 02} ° us © 0 2 0 © 50 6 a Figure 34 (hy pom © 50 40 20 Undesirable: aad ponts are crowded tone corner 10 0 aor 15 20 25 90 Figure 36@ w a “ : pre : ore deere cence = 4 tm fem? “oe 0 2 o2 45 8 ‘afigure 37 aFigue 38 Test yourself Plot a graph of V against b based on the values given in the following table. Would 1 you expect a straight Viem? | bicm 65 | 18 120 | 37 iso | 48 235 | 67 305 | 86 38.0 | 10.5 465 | 13.0 2. Plot a graph of V against 9 based on the values given in the following table. Would you expect a straight line or a curve? Viem> | arc 70 | 70 72 | 140 76 | 200 82 | 370 as | 45.0 96 | 55.0 10.5 | 640 122 | 700INTRODUCTION TO COMMON LABORATORY INSTRUMENTS Common Instruments for measuring length ‘The St unit for length is the metre (m). In length measurement, we choose an in Tee fs suitable for the length to be measured, Table 1 summarises the commonly nent x ems and the range of lengths which they are suitable for measurement, 7d ‘yTable 1 Instruments used for measuring length “Length to be measured Suitable instrument —_| several metres (m) measuring tape 0.1 cm several centimetres (cm) to 1 m| metre or half-metre rule | 0.1 cm between 1 cm and 10 cm vernier calipers 0.01 em less than 2 cm miccometer screw gauge | 0.01 mm (or 0,001 em). 1, The metre rule This instrument is commonly used in the laboratory to measure lengths of objects such as wires or the distance between two points. To use the metre rule, it is best to measure from, for example, the 1.0 cm mark, and then subtract 1.0 em from the reading at the other end. This is because for most metre rules, the zero mark is at the edge of the rule; wear and tear of the metre rule may make this mark Unsuitable for measuring purposes. ‘aFigure 1 Halt metre cl For accurate measurements, the eye must Imaasuing ape always be placed vertically above the mark being read (Figure 2). This is to avoid parallax. errors which will give rise to inaccurate measurements (Figure 3). Accurate length of object = 1.9 cm > frayed ond object et SCA a | Frrerprrrr ya TTT em 2 3 2 Accurate measurement‘The vernier calipers The vernier calipers (Figure 4) are commonly used for accurate mersurements of up to 0.1 mm or 0.01 ci, Using a vernier scale (Figure 5), the second decimal place in em can be obtained without having to estimate fractions of a division by eyesight. ‘Figere 4 Vernier caters Figure 5 shows the vernier calipers being used to measure the diameter of a sphere. The Procedure is as follows: (a) Grip the object (inthis case, a sphere) gently using the outside jaws of the calipers. (b) Read the main scale directly opposite the zero mark on the vernier scale. Tn this ase, the reading on the main scale is 31 am or 3.1 am. a (6) Look for the mark on the vernier scale which coincides exactly with a marking on ‘main scale. In this case, the 4th vernier mark is found to coincide with the mark ‘on the main scale. The number of this mark (in this case, 4) is the reading for tenths of a millimetre, i. 04 mm (or 0.04 cm). (Note that the vernier seal is readings accurate to 0.1 mm (4) The diameter of this sphere is then found by adding the main scale to the vernier scale reading of 0.04 cm, ic. diameter of sphere (3.1 + 0.04) em 3.14 om. ‘The vernier calipers also have a set of inside jaws which is used internal diameters of tubes and containers. The procedures for read and vernier scale are the same. inside jaws Pilg main sale ‘2 [o_o \o "0 Sat “he ines ee tyry ee scale reeding othe vernier scale eading. 0 ‘teadng = main scale + vornier scale 311mm +04 mm Taitmm Figure 5The vernier calipers must be checked for zero errors. Before placing the object to be measured between the jaws of the vernier calipers, close the jaws fully to check whether the zero mark on the main seale coincides exactly with the zero mark on the sliding veenier scale, If the two zero marks coincide (Figure 6), there is no zero error. 1 4K 1 Oe ‘a Figure 6 No zor0 error However, if the zero mark on the sliding vernier scale is slightly to the right (Figure 7) or to the left (Figure 8), then there is a zero error in each case, ° 1 ° main scale vernor scale ] ° 10 ° 10 | main scale verier scale ‘aFigure 7 All measurenents shoud BA measurements should bbe reduced by 0.03 cm be increased by 0.03 cm In Figure 7, the third mark on the verier scale coincides with a mark on the main scale, When using this instrument, 0.03 em should be subtracted from every reading to obtain the correct measurement, In Figure 8, although the seventh mark on the vernier scale coincides with a mark on the main scale, the distance berween the two zero mackings is not 0.07 em but 0.03 em. Therefore, when using this instrument, 0.03 cm should be added to every reading to obtain the correct measurement. Test yourself Stare the readings shown in the diagrams below: 1 cr 0 20 t mm Readings ——___— 0 10 2: 2 30 why bitiiiit 10 Reading:3. The micrometer screw gauge ‘The micrometer screw very accurate measure his precision of shows the main fe Bauge (Figure 9) is able ro take ts of eagths up to 25 mm, Mt £0.01 mm (or 0.001 em). Figure 10 atures of this instrament and its use. The procedure for measuring the diameter of an object (in this cane, bal berg it follwag fon at Meno ser ame (2) Turn the thimble unl the anvil and spindle gently grip the object to be measured. Then turn the ratchet until it elicks, The ratchet prevents the user from exerting, ‘excessive pressure on the object (6) Read the main scale at the edge of the thimble, In this case, the reading on dhe main scale & 8.5 mm, (Note that the main scale is eaibrated in mm and has 1 mm and $ mm markings) i (6) Read the number of hundedels of millimeter (7 mm or 0.01 mm) on the eimble scale aligned with the datum line of the main ssa. tn thi case, the umber is 40 which gives a value of “$7 =0.40 mm. (Note thatthe thimble scale has 0 div which is equivalent to 5° — 0,50 ma, One complete turn of he guivalent 10 2 — 0430 man. One com ! divisions will cause a movement of 0.5 mim along the sleeve.) (d) The diameter of the ball bearing is then found by adding the main 8.5 mm to the thimble reading of 0.40 my isc. diameter of ball bearing = (8.5 + 040) mm $5 wn 3 nt ‘ eniscgsheuale eer ; en ch pe ee vee ae bball bearing ‘datum ine "a oa ster 1 net cone 2 = ed ‘gauge (or micrometer in short, in (© 2007 Marsal! Cavendish Itermaona 3) Pe Lad-ading 5. The diagrams below show the intial zero reading of a micrometer ard a Fe showing the diameter of a ball bearing. zero reading diameter reading Whar is the actual diameter of the ball bearing? —— 6 The diagrams below show the intial zero reading of a micrometer and a reading showing the diameter of a small coin. seo wading ° = = 45 mm: a ‘What is the actual diameter of the coin? — Instrument for measuring time The SI unit for time is the second (s). For most of the experiments requiring ume measurements, the stopwatch is uscd. 1. The stopwatch Stopwatches are used to measure short time intervals. There are two types, namely the digital stopwatch and the analogue stopwatch. The digital stopwatch is more accurate than the analogue stopwatch as it can read up to +0.01 s unlike the latter which only reads up to £0.I s. To measure a time interval, the stopwatch needs to be started and stopped by hand. This manual operation introduces an error called the human reacsion time which can be quite flange fraction of a second. The human reaction time varies from one person to another. Young people usually have shorter reaction times than older people. For most people, it is about 0.3 5 to 0.5 s. In experiments involving regular oscillations, you will need t0 use a stopwatch to time a large number of oscillations. This is wo minimise the error in timing due to human seaetion time. In timing oscillations, take note of the following, points: Ignore the first few oscillations. Smet iming only when oscillations are steady. la) {b) When oscillaions become ‘abnormal’ (eg. elliptical oscillations in a pendulum), the timing of such oscillations must be rejected. lc) Repeat timings and use the average time. This will reduce errors due to human Pion time and human errors when counting the number of oscillations (either read or less than the required number) slightly more (© 2007 Marshal! Cavendish Intenaticnal(S) Pe Lid (es Wide Pracca woo6 The micrometer must be checked for any 7ero error. Before placing the object 10 be measured between the anvil and spindle, turn the ratchet until anvil and spindle meet. If the zero mark on the thimble scale is in line or coincides exactly with the datum line of the main scale (Figure 11), there is no zero error, Ifthe zero mark on the 1c or does not coincide with the thimble scale is out of fin datum line of the main scale instrument has zero error as in Figures 12 and 13, the For Figure 12, the zero error is +0.03 mm, thus all measurements taken (such as for the case in Figure 10) should be reduced by 0.03 mm, The value obtained from Figure 10 will then become 8.90 ~ (+0.03] mm = 8.87 mm. due to the zero etror of +0.03 mm (positive zero error). For Figure 13, the zero error is ~0.03 mm (negative zero error), thus all measurements taken (such as for the case in Figure 1D) should be increased by 0.03 mm. The value obtained from Figure 10 will then become 8.90 ~ (0.03) mm = 8.93 mm due to the zero error of =0.03 mm. In general, for a micrometer with zero error, the calculation to obtain the corrected reading is: corrected reading = reading shown ~ zero error Test yourself State the readings shown in the diagrams below: ae 2. ‘AFigure 11 No zero error ‘AFigure 12 Z2r0 error = +063 mm All feasurements should be juced by 003 mm, at 45 saFigure 12 Zero etor = ~O18 mm. ll urements should be 7 0.03 mm Introduction to Insruments (© 2007 Marshall Cavendish tnterational ($) te Lad _$_—adInstruments for measuring mass ff a car) are measured ‘The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). Large masses (e.g, mass of in tonnes (1 tonne = 1000 kg) while small masses (c.g. mass of a pencil) are measured in grams (1 gram (g) = 10" kg). 1. Thesstiding mass balance and the electronic balance Most masses used in laboratory work are measured either by the sliding mass balance pr the electronic balance as shown in Figures 14 and 15 respectively For the sliding mass balance, the unknown mass is placed on the pan and its mass value is obtained by sliding the movable masses along the beam until the pointer tests at the zero indicator. I is basically 4 beam balance. curate than the slid ‘The electronic balance is easier to use and also more accurate than the sliding balance, The unknown mass is simply placed on the pan and its mass read directly a screen. -AFagure 18 siing mass baarce Figure 15 8 ‘When you are using the sliding mass balance, note the follo (a) Do not place wer objects on the scale pan, (b) When weighing chemicals or granular solids, place them: other suitable containers) of known mass, b ‘When you are using the electronic balance, note the fo (2) Do not weigh anything wer or dizty. (b| If you have to press any buttons, do so. gently. 8 restucton to instrementsMethods of measuring volume This section covers the basic methods of measuring the volumes of solids and liquids. 1. Volume of regular solids Instruments: metre rule, vernier calipers oF micrometer Method + Measure the dimensions of the solid object and use the appropriate formula to compute the volume in cm’ or m’. Some examples are: ame of a sphere = 4m? where r= radius ofthe sphere, ‘block = lbh where I= length, b= breadth and b = height, and ‘mrp where r = radius of circular base and b = height. (a) Vol {b) Volume of rectangular’ {e) Volume of a cylinder = 2. Volume of irregular solids Inctnements: measuring cjlinder (with displacement can, when necessary) Method: {q) For small objects that sink in water, the volume of the object is given by V = Vz ~ Vj (Fignre 16) where folume of water before immersing the object, and vi Vj = volume reading after immersing the object wmoison} |ly P ~> Precaution: Ensure that your ye is > feve with the bottom ofthe curved tiga surace (meriscus) before reading ¥ oF Ven om spall object AFigue 16 use a sinker such as a lump of (b) For small objects (such as a piece of cork) that float, igure 17). ral to ensure that the small object is totally immersed ( “P Volume of cork is given by v=Y-% cork XK a (©2007 Marsal! Cavendish International (S) Pe Lit Physics Meters Practeal Book 9SeS (©) For large objects that sink, we use a displacement can and = measuring cylinder (Figure 18). es eae Jo] empty Ci wooden block befor immersing the object after immersing the objct ‘figure 18 For large objects that float, use a sinker in the same way as in (b). 3. large volume of liquid Instrument ; measuring cylinder + Pour the liquid into a measuring cylinder and read the volume V direct, Method Sanger" “> Pen ‘oume ‘gure 18 | 4. Asmall volume of liquid = burote Instrument : burette Method: Pour the liquid into a burette and read the volume directly. ‘ ‘4 Figure 20 5 10 inwoducten to nstuments (© 2007 Marshall Cavendish International (S) Pe Lt!Test yourself 1. Give a brief description of the method you would use to find the volume of the following: Volume to be determined Method (b) the cork scopper of a bottle (e) a quarter-cup of milk: 2 (d)_a matchbox (c) a bottle filled with dishwashing liquid 2. Gine the measuring cylinder reading (in cm?) for the following diagrams. aia iio scale 2 wh miInstruments commonly used in Thermal Physics experiments 1, The thermometer Although there are many types of thermometers, the one that is commonly used in schoo! laboratories to measure temperature is the mercury-in-glass thermometer. The mercury-in- glass thermometer 6 often calibrated with a Centigrade scale On a mercury-in-glass thermometer, (°C is the temperature of pure melting ice and 100 2c ture of steam at standard atmospheric pressure. You can expect 100 divisions ter between 0 °C and 100 °C. Some mereury-i ercury-in-glas, =10 °C and 110 °C. is the tempe to be marked on the therm castre temperatures betwe thermometers If you want to express the temperature reading in kelvins (K), you can convert from the Centigrade scale to the Kelvin scale by adding 273, or using the formula: TIK) = °C) + 273 When using a mercury-in-glass thermometer, take note of the following points: (a) Avoid using a thermometer as a stirrer, unless you are permitted 20 do so. (b) Take temperature readings to the smallest half-division. (c) Avoid parallax errors when taking temperature readings by reading the scale with the eye at the same level as the meniscus of the mercury column. (d) Temperature readings should be taken as quickly as possible. (c) If you are measuring the temperature of a liquid in a container, stir the liquid ‘continuously with a stirrer to ensure that the temperature is uniform throughout the liquid. 2. The Bunsen burner Take note of the following points when using a Bunsen burner: (a) Close the airholes when you are lighting the burner. \¢ temperature and the colour of the flame can be controlled by opening or closing (b) 1 produce a very hot blue the airboles, Open aitholes allow air to mixx with the gas 10 flame (6) A Bunsen burner that is working properly does not produce a loud noisy hiss (4) Ifthe Bunsen burner is operating noisily, turn off the gas and check the Bunsen burnes (e) ‘The size of the flame can he controlled by adjusting the gas rap. 12 tntodueson te Instumeres (© 2007 Marshall Cavendish Inmermational (S) Pe Li!Instruments commonly used in Light experiments In school laboratories, light experiments are generally performed using the ray box method ‘or the optical pin method. oe EO In the ray box method, light in the form of a narrow beam from an illuminated object is used in the experiment, The ray box consists of a light bulb or a lamp in a suitable box. Sometimes, an electric torch is used as a ray box. Experiments using a ray box are best carried out in the laboratory with the lights switched off or dimmed. In the optical pin method, optical pins are placed upright on a soft board as objects and to align with the images formed, Two pins are usually used to locate the path of a ray by placing one behind the other 1, Optical pins When using pins, note the following points: (a) The two pins used to locate the path of the ray of light must be placed as far apart as possible (preferably more than $ cm) when they are aligned. (b) The pins must be placed vertically upright on the softboard. (c) Ifyou are confused by the various images of different pins, use your finger and move the particular object pin slighty. The image that moves is the one that is formed by that object rin. 2. Lenses When performing experiments involving lenses, note the following points: (a) The lens must be upright. Ifthe lens is tilted, the image formed on a vertical screen may not be as sharp as it could be. {) Object and image distances should be measured along a line parallel to the principal axis. {¢) The illuminated object should be placed in line with the optical centre of the lens. (© 2007 Marshall Cevensh International (S) Pe Lad Physics Matas Practica! Book 43Instruments commonly used in Electricity and Magnetism. experiments Symbols in circuit diagrams In electrical experiments, circuit diagrams are drawn to show the arrangement of the apparatus. The following are some symbols you may encounter: * coll | two or rossing another ——]p\P Bc corumen (battery) connected) — + Fa, ao vets —W)— _cotimeter a variable resistor (imeostat) Figure 21 1. The accumulator The lead-acid accumulator is « wet cell, When it is fully charged, itis capable of delivering 4 constant e.m.. of 2 V for a fairly long period of time. When its e.m.f. drops below 1.8 V, it should be recharged before it is used as an electrical supply. Electrical energy is stored in the form of chemical energy when a fully charged accumulator is not being used. As the lead-acid accumulator has a very low internal resistance (0.01 2), itis capable of delivering a very high current when the circuit resistance is low. 2. The dry cell The dry cell is an electrical source that is very convenient to use. Ie is not as fragile as the lead-acid accumulator. Often, a dry cel isin the form of a battery that delivers an e.mf. of 1.5 V. Unlike the lead-acid accumulator, the internal resistance of a dry cell is quite high. As a result, dry cells are usually not able to deliver currents greater than 1 A. In school laboratories, dry cells are placed into holders so that they can be conveniently connected to other circuit devices. 3. The resistor The resistance ina circuit can be adjusted by using fixed resistors or variable resistors. The Fesistance in a circuit controls the size of the current in the circuit. O14 sete ers (© 2007 Marshall Cavencish Intemational (S) Pre Lid‘Figur 22 Variable resistor lor rheostat (©2007 Marstatt Cavendish International (8) Pe Lid (a) Fixed resistor This type of resistor is usually 2 coil of insulated wire housed in a protective container. ‘The wire is wound on plastic or ceramic formers. (b) Variable resistor The variable resistor, or theostat, is actually a long piece of wire. By controlling the Tengh of this piece of wire through which current flows, you control the resistance dnd hence the current, The longer the piece of wire through which current flows, the larger the resitance inthe circuit. What you sce in the variable resbtor is often a coil of wire, or a solenoid, instead of 2 long piece of wire. This is so that the variable 1c: and portable, The slider or sliding contact on the variable resistor resistor is compa‘ illows you to vary the amount of resistance needed in the circuit. For rheostats with three terminals, such as the one shown in Figures 22 and 23, you must always remember that only two of them should be wsed for circuit connection. You either use (i) terminals A and C only or (i) terminals B and C only. If you were to connect only terminals A and B to a circuit, you are using the rheostat as a fixed resistor, not a variable resistor, When only terminals A and B are connected :0 a circuit, moving the sliding contact S does not vary the resistance in the circuit. This is because the current will flow through the entire fixed length of the wire. s jo 1 T mic i ‘Figure 23 Rhoosat in sries with batteries and a bulb The ammeter ‘An ammeter is a device that measures the amount of current in a circuit. When you use ‘an ammeter in a circuit, you must connect it in series with the circuit. A good ammeter has very small resistance. Thus connecting the ammeter in series in the circuit does not increase the combined resistance of the circuit appreciably. ‘To know which terminals of the ammeter should be connected with other components in 4 cireuit, you must remember that the current passes through the ammeter from the positive (red) teeminal to the negative (black) terminal. Thus, the positive (ced) terminal of the ammeter should always be connected to the positive terminal of the cell and the negative (black) terminal of the ammeter to the negative terminal of the cell. Prysics Mars Practica! Bock 15Suppose you have a simple circuit consisting of a cell and a resistor (Figure 24), and you want to find the value of the current in the circuit. You can place the ammeter anywhere in the circuit because the current is the same at every point in a series circuit (Figure 25), Figure 24 ‘Figure 25 5. The voltmeter A voltmeter is a device that messures the potential difference between two points in a ircuit. When you use a voltmeter in a circuit, you must connect it in parallel with the two points across which you want to measure the potential difference. A good voltmeter has very large resistance. If you want to find the potential difference across a resistor (e.g. a light bulb), you connect the voltmeter in parallel with the resistor. Because the voltmeter has very large resistance, it draws only a small amount of current from the resistor. ‘To know which terminals of the voltmeter should be connected with other components in « circuit, you must remember that a very small current passes through the voltmeter from the positive (red) terminal to the negative (black) terminal. Suppose you have a simple circuit (Figure 26) consisting of a cell, a lamp and a resistoy, and you want to find the potential difference V, across the resistor and the potential difference V3 of the lamp. = Figure 25 «Figure 27 To find the potential difference across resistor Ry, you connect a voltmeter in parallel with the resistor (Figure 27). Ensure that the positive (red) terminal of the voltmeter is connected to the positive terminal of the cell. b 16 inoduction to Instruments (© 2007 Marshall Caveadish Intemational (S) Pte“To find the potential difference across the lamp, you connect a voltmeter in parallel with the lamp (Figure 28). Ll 6. Themagnet ‘Whenever you use permanent magnets in the school laboratory, demagnetising them or weakening them unnecessarily. you should avoid Remember the following points when you handle magnets: (a) Do not drop them or knock them unnecessarily. (b) Store them in pairs with soft iron keepers when you are not using them anymore, (e) Avoid placing magnets near hot objects such as a Bunsen bumer or a beaker of hot The plotting compass ‘The plotting compass has a small permanent magnetic needle pivoted at its centre. The magnetic needle should be able to swing freely in a horizontal plane inside a transparent plastic case. The needle is made of steel and itis very light. When placed in a magnetic field, it will settle and point along the direction of the fcld. 8. The plug key switch To ensure good electrical contact, twist the plug as you insert it into the switch. The ‘visting motion also helps t0 zemove the plug from the switch (© 2007 Marshal Cavendish Intemational ($) Pre Lid Pysics Matters Practical Book 7TAKING MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS 1. Measurement and Units In this practical book, we are going to do many quantitative investigations. Theye investigations will involve taking measurements of quantities and calculating, some resuige For measurements and calculations to be meaningful, units must be introduced. . In Physics, a quantity without units is of no use to anyone. Imagine asking someone for the distance between two points and getting the answer 2.3. The number 2.3 i, meaningless without units. It could mean 2.3 spans, 2.3 cubits, 2.3 inches, 2.3 kilomerr or 2.3 millimetres, All these measurements are different even though they have the same numerical value. Very clearly, units are important in measurement. Every time yon take measurements, remember that a measurement involves two parts (a) the number or numerical value representing the size of the measurement, and (b) the units of that measurement. Test yourself 1. Name some common units and the SI unit for the following quantities: Quantity SI unit time length volume area temperature ‘angle charge current voltage HITTITE De nmr race 02 et ce a2, State what is wrong with the following statements Statement Remark Weight of a block of wood = 0.20 kg. ‘Temperature of water = 60° Angle of incidence = 45 eee Ammeter reading = 0.45 Amp ——E Voltmeter reading = 5 Vol es Resistance = 20 2. Conversion of Units Doing Physics experiments often requires quantities ro be converted from one unit to fnotier similar unit. For example, you may wish +0 express the value 0.800 g em”? in kgm. To do this, you must convert g to kg and cm” to m™*. Bat for those who have problems doing conversion of units, there is a simple method you may wich to ery. For those who are quite confident doing this conversion, you are advised to stick 10 your own methods. The simple method goes like this: Since 1 kg = 1000 ¢ and 100 cm= 1m, 100 em Tam and ‘These fractional forms are called factors. To express 0.800 g cm” in kg m™’, you can rmulkiply a series of factors so that the units you do not want (g cm”) will eancel out and the units you want (kg m-’) remain. 3 0.800 g 0.800 g cm”? can be expressed as 0a, Nha y 10. 100 sf 5 50004 * im Im sce ©2007 Marsh Caen nero) ee Lad oe 19To express 15 mm in m: since 1 m= 1000 mm oi 7000 mm 1S mm 1m. 1 * 1000 mm Test yourself A. (a) Express 35 cm in m. (b) Express 562 g in kg. (c) Express 200 cm? in m* (d) Express 3.2 m’ in cm’, (@) Express 102 mm in m. (0) "Express 0.98 m in cm, {g] Express 13 600 kg m™? in gcm™. —(h)_- Express 500 mm? in cm’, (i) Express 2500 cm min“! in ms, Gj) Express 150 ml in cm, (k) Express 10 mins in s. ()) Express 40 cm in m. (m) Express 100 mm in em 2. (a) Express 1200 mA in A (b) Express 100 mC in C (©) Express 0.7 A in mA (a) Express 80 mV in V (c) Express 400 mQ in 2 ‘Build Your Practical Skils (© 2007 Marshall Cavendish Iterations () PM —When reading measurements from an instrument, you have to record them with appropriate precision. This means that the number of decimal places in your reading should indicate how small a reading that instrument can measure. ‘The units of the reading should be stated by carefully looking at the instrument. They are usually mentioned on the instrument. If the reading is between two marks, you should be able to interpolate between the two marks to accuracy of half of the smallest reading, Try some of the following examples:1. Record the readings Vand J. Fig. 13 1Fig. 3.1 (a) State the weight of the cylinder before itis placed in water. Weight = oon - oosne NET] blue fiter blue light ray box 4 glass prism“ Fig. 2.1 (a) Measure the angle of incidence io! the ray on the prism at point X. is iy)wwe & Lor wooden _ block bench) Fig. 1.1 (full scale) (@) () OnFig. 4.1, measure the distances !and h om om a) TYPES OF ERRORS AND HOW TO REDUCE THEM Zero error The instrument has a zero error when its mark does not start from zero when nothing is being measured. Positive zero error Negative zero error Needle is ahead of zero (at 40.1) on the diagramat the left, we need to subtract 0.1 from the actual reading to account for zero error. Needle is behind of zero (at -0.1) on the diagram at the left, we need to add 0.1 to the actual reading to account for zero error.ts |s eT 1 8620080 ww Ifa meter rule is broken from sides, then we don’t measure the length from the zero mark. We place it, between two points and subtract the readings to avoid zero errors. In the diagram above the object was placed between points A (10 cm) and B (92 cm), so the length of object is 92-10=82 cm. Parallax error If the line of sight of the observer is not perpendicular to the mark on the instrument that he is reading, then he will get an error in his reading known as parallax error. 19.82, 19.70mI= 19.62mI*" In order to avoid parallax error, line of sight should be exactly at right angle (perpendicular) to the reading mark as shown in diagrams above. Some instruments (voltmeters, ammeters, etc) have mirrors behind the scale. If you can see the needles reflection on the mirror, it means you need to adjust your line of sight unless you cannot see the reflection anymore.set-square Set squares can be very handy in situations where the point of reading is far away from the instrument. They can be used as shown in the diagram on the left. reeding reading Figure 2.45 Human Reaction Time Error Humans cannot instantly react in real time to things happening in the world. Weall have a reaction time. For most people itis from 0.3sto 0.5s. We can never remove or reduce the HRTE, but can reduce its effect. When measuring short periods of time, examples: Period of swinging pendulum Period of mass oscillating while hanging from a spring Maximum Height of a Ping pong ball bouncing on a bench Time for a marble to drop from 1 meter above the bench pee To reduce the effect of HRTE in such situations, we can change the experiment so that the time is longer. This will reduce the percentage error in the reading. For example: * Fora repetitive motion, we can time 10 o 15 oF 20 oscillations, and then divide that time by the number of oscillations to get the time period for one oscillation. This applies to example 1 and 2 above. * Wecan drop the marble/ball from a greater height, this will increase the time and hence reduce the percentage error in the reading, © Repeating readings and taking their average/mean. Note: never say “the human reaction error is reduced”. Always say the “the effect of human error is reduced” or “percentage error in the reading is reduced”.ACCURATE READING VS IMPROVING EXPERIMENT How to obtain a more ACCURATE reading or measurement In ATP it is very frequently asked how you can measure a certain length or take a reading or perform an experiment more accurately. Accuracy can be achieved by following good practices relevant to an experimental procedure using the available equipment. ‘A few good techniques for common experimental procedures are discussed in detail in the end. How to IMPROVE an Experiment ‘When asked how to improve an experiment, suggest adding/changing a procedure or method or an strument that will improve the overall experiment in terms of reliability or ease. Do not just write about how to make (existing) measurements more accurate. For Example: If asked how to improve an experiment to determine time period of a pendulum, suggest using different lengths of thread or types of bob. HOW TO DESCRIBE AN EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ‘When asked to write down how to perform an experiment, your explanation should contain following points: © List of apparatus that you will use (if not already given in the question) * How you will use this apparatus? Visualize the steps of procedure and include every Practical Detail. Draw a diagram ifit helps you explain. © State the readings you will take and calculations involved. Think about the dependant, independent variables here. You can also draw a sample table in which readings will be recorded. * What needs to be kept constant/controlled during the experiment for a FAIR test? Think about the controlled variables here. © How will the information from data be used to make a conclusion? * Inthe end always mention a method to improve accuracy of the experiment.GOOD EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES/PROCEDURE General Physics and Newtonian mehcanics Measuring Lengths avoid parallax in reading (ruler) / view perpendicularly place ruler close to apparatus check for zero error in ruler. Zero of ruler must be at the edge of ruler. If not, then the In case of a dead space: (© coincide the zero mark of the ruler with the object whose length is to be measured (© measure the dead space using another ruler and add the dead space to get corrected length/depth clamp ruler (if applicable) use a set square either side of a cylinder/sphere to measure diameter use a fiducial aid when measuring a length when measuring vertical heights ensure that the rule is held perpendicular to the base when measuring horizontal lengths ensure that rule is held at perfect horizontal level How to make sure an object is vertical use of set-square described use of plumb line line up with vertical object in room How to make sure an object is horizontal measures two ends (of ruler) from the bench (same height) use of spirit level align with horizontal object e.g. windowsill Use meter rule witha set square How to measure long distances (several meters): use Pedometer use Trundle Wheel measure one pace and count paces tape measure with repeated use How to measure length of a Pendulum accurately measure from support to the centre of bob (place rule closer to pendulum and avoid parallax error inreading the rule) measure diameter of bob using micrometer and add % of diameter to length of thread measure from support to top and bottom of bob then average vertical rule + set-square describedMeasuring small time period (of any oscillating object) * for oscillations (of a pendulum or a vibrating object), you should be able to define a complete oscillation # time N oscillations, usually N>10 + Time period T is given by: T= t/N © explain how to use 2 fiducial aid (a mark) at the centre of the oscillation © Start counting oscillations from centre rather than from extreme ends because the © amplitude at extreme ends will vary in each oscillation Measuring very small lengths (like thickness of paper, diameter of a wire) © measure the total length of N number identical objects (decide the value of N appropriately) © length of a single object = total length of N objects /N Recording time using a stopwatch * Note the precision/least count of the stopwatch and record the reading with correct precision. If the stopwatch reads to a hundredth of a second then write complete reading for e.g: 9.245 not just 9.0 or 9.2 and not 09:24s * Tominimize human reaction error, two persons should be used in experiments involving recording time. (Use of some signal to start/stop stopwatch } Recording volume of liquid/water * When Meniscus is Concave shaped (for water or any other colourless liquid) LOWER meniscus is read. * When Meniscusis Convex shaped (for mercury) UPPER meniscus is read. * Itisbetter to use test tube/cylinder/beakers made of Plastic than glass becaus (© Plastic is less fragile and cheaper ©. Plastic gives flat meniscus which is easier to read/ parallax error is avoided Investigating motion of an object using a Ticker Tape * Aticker tape is a paper strip which is attached to a moving object. As the object moves, ticks © (dots) are marked on the strip at equal time interval, say every 0.20 seconds * if the distance between dots is same, objects moving with uniform or constant speed + ifthe distance between dots is increasing then object is accelerating © If the distance between dots is decreasing then object is decelerating Thermal/Heat iments General * cover the container if experiment does not involve evaporation or boiling © insulate the container/provide lagging (insulating layer around the container) © stirto ensure uniform heating * wait for highest or steady temperature after stopping heating © choose volume/mass values of the quantities that give large changes in the temperature * use water bath to heat something in directly and to keep it at a desired temperature Thermometer handling + thermometer in clamp stand* thermometer with scale facing you * clamp not obscuring the reading * thermometer not touching the sides / bottom of test tube / * 3/40r 1/2 of thermometer immersed * parallax avoided (in reading thermometer) Recording TIME during heating/cooling experiments # Place timer close to apparatus / see both (Time & Temperature) together + two people with explanation (e.g. countdown) * parallax avoided (in reading clock) tht. iments Raytracing * use fine/sharpened pencil or draw neat thin lines © pins far apart/at least 5 cm apart * Pins should be vertical * bottom of pins should be viewed © use large angles © repeat with different angles/vary angle of incidence © check protractor for zero error When using Ray Box © use darkened room © use narrow slit/narrow beam/ray of light © ray/beam strikes the mirror in the centre Measuring Focal Length/ Using Lenses © Ensure that each item is aligned so that the centre of each item is at the same height and on the same horizontal straight line (ideally use the term optic axis) ‘© object and lens at same height (above bench) 0 object and lens and screen perpendicular to bench / ruler place lens / screen close to ruler check for zero error on ruler Use darkened room (if an illuminated object is being used) * move screen/object/lens backwards and forwards (until sharp image found) lens should be placed in lens holder if centre of image (on screen) is above center of lens then Raise the object or screen or lower the lens © If centre of image on screens below center of lens then Lower the object or screen or raise the lens Use a fiducial aid to mark the middle of the lens on the bench/ruler * sea translucent screenElectrical Experiments General check for a zero error on meter tap the meter to avoid the needle sticking due to friction always check that connections are clean and tight avoid parallax in reading analogue meters always check polarities (positive/negative terminals connected correct way round) switch off the current when not making a measurement, otherwise: © the battery will drain quickly © wires will heat up causing their resistance to change When measuring resistance use low currents/voltages to avoid heating and changing the resistance you are measuring initially choose the highest range for the ammeter/voltmeter, then reduce the range for the ammeter so that the deflection is almost full scale If current is too large (© Wire overheats/melts/burn © Damages ammeter/ammeter needle gets burnt © Fuses melt © Power supply trips/battery runs out quickly Advantages of Digital Ammeter/Voltmeter over Analogue No parallax errors needle does not stick easier to read / measure [NOT easier to use] easier to change range lower resistance