DJM20053 THERMOFLUIDS

CHAPTER 3:
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

Prepared By:
Nurul Shahida Binti Zulkifly
Pensyarah
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Mekanikal, PUO
 INTRODUCTION
 Pure substance - substance that has a fixed composition.
 A pure substance is comprised of a single chemical element or compound.

 Is Ice Water a Pure Substance ?

 Example : H2O, N2, O2, Ar, Ne, Xe.

 PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES

 solid (ice) liquid (water) gas

(water vapor).
 PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES
Summary of nomenclature:
 Saturation Pressure
The pressure at which the liquid and vapour phases are in equilibrium at a given
temperature.
 Saturation Temperature
The temperature at which the liquid and vapour phases are in equilibrium at a
given pressure.
 Compressed or subcooled liquid (Between States 1 & 2)
A liquid state in which the fluid remains entirely within the liquid state, and below
the saturation state.
 Saturated liquid (State 2)
All fluid is in the liquid state. However, even the slightest addition of energy would
result in the formation of some vapour.
 PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES
 Saturated Liquid-Steam or Wet Steam Region (Between States 2, 3 & 4)
Liquid and steam exist together in a mixture.
 Saturated steam (State 4)
All fluid is in the steam state, but even the slightest loss of energy from the
system would result in the formation of some liquid.
 Superheated steam (State 5)
All fluid is in the steam state and above the saturation state. The superheated
steam temperature is greater than the saturation temperature corresponding to
the pressure.
 PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES

Saturated liquid line Saturated liquid line

T P
Dry saturated steam Dry saturated steam
Critical line Critical line
point P2 = const. point
P2 > P1
COMPRESS SUPERHEATED
P1 = const.
LIQUID STEAM
SUPERHEATED
REGION COMPRESS REGION
STEAM
LIQUID T2 = const.
WET STEAM REGION WET STEAM T2 > T1
REGION
T1 = const.
REGION REGION

v v

The point at which the saturated liquid curve and the saturated vapor curve meet
– critical point.
At the critical point, the saturated liquid and saturated vapor phases are the
same.
 PROPERTIES OF WET MIXTURE
 Wet steam region - Between the saturated liquid and the
saturated steam, there exist a mixture of steam plus liquid.
 To introduce a term describing the relative quantities of liquid and
steam in the mixture - dryness fraction.
 DRYNESS FRACTION

 Mass of dry steam contained in 1 kg of a mixture of liquid and

steam.
 Symbol : x

x kg of steam

total mass = 1 kg

(1 - x ) kg of liquid
  The steam dryness fraction (x) is defined as follows;

mass of dry saturated steam

steam dryness fraction, (x) =
total mass

mass s a t u r a t e d s t e a m mg
x= =
mass t o t a l m f + mg

where mass total = mass liquid + mass steam

 Example:

Sat. steam
Sat. steam

Sat. liquid
At point A, x = 0
Sat. liquid
At point B, x = 1
P x = 0.2 x = 0.8
Between point A and B, 0  x  1.0

Note that for a saturated liquid, x = 0;

and that for dry saturated steam, x = 1.
A B

ts

v
vf vg
 Specific volume
v = xv g
Where,
v f = specific volume of saturated liquid (m3/kg)
vg = specific volume of saturated steam (m3/kg)
x = dryness fraction

 Specific enthalpy
h = u + Pv (kJ/kg)

h = hf(1 – x) + xh g
h = h f + x(h g – h f )
 h = h f + xh fg
 Where,
h f = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg)
hg = specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg)
hfg = difference between hg and h f (that is, hfg = hg - h f )

 Specific Internal Energy

u = uf (1 – x) + xu g
 u = u f + x(ug – u f )
Where,
u f = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg)
ug = specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg)
u g – u f = difference between u g and u f
 Specific Entropy
s = sf(1 – x) + xs g
s = s f + x(sg – s f )
 s = s f + xsfg

Where,
s f = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg K)
s g = specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg K)
s fg = difference between s g and s f (that is, s fg = s g - s f )
P
v = xvg
bar
h = hf + xhfg
u = uf + x(ug – uf )

s = sf + xsfg

ts

v m3/kg
v vg
uf u ug
hf
h hg
sf
s sg
 STEAM TABLE
 The steam tables which will be used in this unit are those arranged
by Mayhew and Rogers.
 The property of steam tables:
Symbols Units Description
p bar Absolute pressure of the fluid
ts oC Saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure p bar
vf m3/kg Specific volume of saturated liquid
vg m3/kg Specific volume of saturated steam
uf kJ/kg Specific internal energy of saturated liquid
ug kJ/kg Specific internal energy of saturated steam
hf kJ/kg Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid
hg kJ/kg Specific enthalpy of saturated steam
hfg kJ/kg Change of specific enthalpy during evaporation
sf kJ/kg K Specific entropy of saturated liquid
sg kJ/kg K Specific entropy of saturated steam
sfg kJ/kg K Change of specific entropy during evaporation
 These steam tables are divided into two types:
Type 1: Saturated Water and Steam
Type 2: Superheated Steam

 Example 1:
Complete the following table below:
t Ps vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg

oC bar m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K

0.01 206.1

0.02337 8.666

100 1.01325
 Example 2:

p ts vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sfg sg

bar oC m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K

0.045 31.0 2558

10 0.1944

311.0 5.615
 Example 3:
For a steam at 20 bar with a dryness fraction of 0.9, calculate the:
a) specific volume
b) specific enthalpy
c) specific internal energy

 Example 4:
Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific enthalpy of steam at 8
bar and specific internal energy 2450 kJ/kg.
 SUPERHEATED STEAM TABLES

 A steam is called superheated when its temperature is greater than the

saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure.

 The equation of degree of superheat is:

Degree of superheat = tsuperheat – tsaturation

 For the pressure above 70 bar, the specific internal energy is not
tabulated. The specific internal energy is calculated using the equation:
u = h – pv
 Example 5:
Complete the missing properties in the following table for Superheated
steam.

p t 300 350 400 450

(ts )

vg 0.0498 v 0.0800
40
(250.3)
ug 2602 u 2921

hg 2801 h 3094

sg 6.070 s 6.364
 Example 6:
Steam at 100 bar has a specific volume of 0.02812 m3/kg. Find the
temperature, degree of superheat, specific enthalpy and specific internal
energy.
 INTERPOLATION
 Interpolation - In this process it is customary to use a straight line that
passes through two adjacent table points, denoted by  and .

f(x)

Interpolation

x
 
 Linear interpolation
y

y2 (x2 , y2)

y
(x , y)

y1 (x1 , y1)

x
x1 x x2

 The value of x can be determined by:

x − x1 x − x1
= 2
y − y1 y 2 − y1

x=
(y − y1 )(x 2 − x1 )+ x
(y 2 − y1 ) 1
 There are two methods of interpolation:
i)single interpolation
ii)double interpolation

 Single interpolation
Single interpolation is used to find the values in the table when one of the
values is not tabulated.

 Double interpolation
Double interpolation must be used when two of the properties
(eg. temperature and pressure) are not tabulated in the Steam Tables.
 Example 7
Determine the saturation temperature at 77 bar.

80

77

75

ts
290.5 ts 295
 Example 8
Determine the specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 103
bar.

 Example 9
Determine the specific volume of steam at 8 bar and 220 o C.

 Example 10
Determine the specific enthalpy of superheated steam at 25 bar
and 320 o C.
 PERFECT GAS
 A perfect gas is a collection of particles that:
- are in constant, random motion,
-have no intermolecular attractions (which leads to elastic collisions in
which no energy is exchanged or lost)
- are considered to be volume-less points.
- two laws of perfect gas
a) Boyles law
b) Charles law
 BOYLES LAW

 Provided the temperature T of a perfect gas remains constant,

then volume, V of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure P of the gas.
 P x V = constant represent an isothermal process.
 P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 = constant
P

P  1/V

1/V
 Example 11:
A quantity of a certain perfect gas is heated at a constant temperature
from an initial state of 0.22 m 3 and 325 kN/m2 to a final state of 170
kN/m2. Calculate the final volume of the gas.
 CHARLES LAW

 Provided the pressure P of a given mass of gas remains

constant, then the volume V of the gas will be directly
proportional to the absolute temperature T of the gas.
 V / T = constant represent a constant pressure process
 V 1 /T 1 = V 2 /T 2 P

1
2

V2 V
0 V1
 Example 12:
A quantity of gas at 0.54 m 3 and 345 o C undergoes a constant
pressure process that causes the volume of the gas to decreases to
0.32 m 3 . Calculate the temperature of the gas at the end of the
process.
 UNIVERSAL GAS LAW

 Combination of two law (Boyles and Charles).

PV
= constant = R
T
where R - gas constant. The unit of R is Nm/kg K or J/kg K .
*Each perfect gas has a different gas constant.
 For m kg, P V = m RT
 Another form of the characteristic equation can be derived using the
kilogram-mole as a unit;
m = nM
where m - kg of the gas, M - the molecular weight of the gas and n - the
number of moles
 So, the equation can be P V = n M RT or

 Now Avogadro’s hypothesis states that the volume of 1 mole of any gas
is the same as the volume of 1 mole of any other gas, when the gases
are at the same temperature and pressure. Therefore V / n is the same
for all gases at the same value of P and T. That is the quantity PV/nT
is constant for all gases. This constant is called the universal gas
constant, and is given the symbol R o .

 M R = R o then,
where R o = 8314 Jol/mol K
R = 287 J / k g K
 Example 13:
0.046 m3 of gas are contained in a sealed cylinder at a pressure of 300
kN/m2 and a temperature of 45 o C. The gas is compressed until the
pressure reaches 1.27 MN/m 2 . If the gas is assumed to be a perfect gas,
determine:
a) the mass of gas (kg)
b) the final temperature of gas (K)
Given : R = 0.29 kJ/kg K
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT
VOLUME
 is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the unit mass
through one degree temperature raise.
 Symbol : C v
 Unit : J/kg K or kJ/kg K
 For a reversible non-flow process at constant volume;
dQ = mC v dT
 For a perfect gas Q 12 = mC v (T 2 – T1)
 From the non-flow energy equation; Q – W = (U 2 – U 1 )
mc v (T 2 – T1) – 0 = (U 2 – U 1 )
 (U 2 – U 1 ) = mC v (T 2 – T1)
 Example 14:
3.4 kg of gas is heated at a constant volume of 0.92 m 3 and temperature
17 o C until the temperature raise to 147 o C. If the gas is assumed to be
a perfect gas, determine:
a) the heat flow during the process
b) the beginning pressure of gas
c) the final pressure of gas
Given C v = 0.72 kJ/kg K and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT
PRESSURE
 If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with an amount of heat energy sufficient to
raise the temperature of the gas by 1 degree while the pressure of the gas
remains constant.
 Symbol : C p
 The unit of C p is J/kg K or kJ/kg K .
 For a reversible non-flow process at constant pressure; dQ = mC p dT
 For a perfect gas; Q = mC p (T 2 – T 1 )
 Work ; W = P (V2 –V1)
 Example 15:
The initial state of gas is following below:
Pressure 293 kN/m2 ,volume 0.082 m3 and temperature 180 o C. Then the
gas is cooled at constant pressure until the temperature become 24 o C.
Calculate the heat transfer and the work done.
Given C p = 1.005 kJ/kg K and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
 Relationship Between The Specific Heats
R = Cp – Cv
 Specific Heat Ratio ()
C
= p
Cv
R R
where C v = and C p =
( − 1) ( − 1)

 Example 16 :
A certain perfect gas has specific heat as follows
C p = 0.846 kJ/kg K and C v = 0.657 kJ/kg K . Find the gas constant and the
molecular weight of the gas.
 CHARACTERISTIC OF GAS EQUATION
 Once a fluid has entered a system, it may be possible for it to
undergo a series of processes in which the fluid does not flow (non-
flow process).
 The equation for non-flow process;
U1 + Q = U2 + W
U 2 – U 1 = Q –W
 Example : internal combustion engine.

SUCTION WORKING
STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE EXHAUST
STROKE STROKE

The cycle of fan internal combustion engine

 THERMODYNAMICS PROCESS
 Thermodynamic process can be classified based on their flow
characteristics as:

Flow Process Non-flow Process

• It is a process in which both mass • It is a process in which only the
and energy enters and leave the energy enters and leaves the
boundary( this is an imaginary system but not mass.
cover separating the system from
the surroundings). • It is also called controlled mass
approach or closed system.
• It is also called controlled
volume process and the system • Examples: Gas Trapped in a
is called an open system. piston-cylinder, Food items in a
pressure cooker, Refrigerator.
• Examples: Flow through Nozzle,
Diffuser, Tubes.
 NON-FLOW PROCESS
• There are 5 types of non-flow process.

– Reversible non-flow process:

• Isobaric Process (Constant Pressure Process)
• Isochoric/Isometric Process (Constant Volume Process)
• Isothermal Process (Constant Temperature Process)
• Adiabatic Process (Isentropic Process)
• Polytropic Process
I S O B A R I C P R O C E S S (CONSTANT P R E S S U R E
PROCESS)
An Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process
in which the pressure stays constant : ΔP = 0.

*Important Note:
 When the gas is cooled at constant pressure,
there will be a compression. The temperature
and volume will decrease during cooling and
work is said to be done on the gas.
 During expansion or heating process, work is
done by the gas (W1-2 is + ve); internal energy of
the gas increases (dU is + ve) and heat is
supplied to the gas (Q1-2 is + ve).
 During compression or cooling process, work is
done on the gas (W1-2 is - ve); internal energy of
the gas decreases (dU is - ve) and heat is
rejected by the gas (Q1-2 is - ve).
I S O B A R I C P R O C E S S (CONSTANT P R E S S U R E
 P,V,T Relationship: P RO C E S S )
P = Constant
p1V1 p2V2
=
T1 T2
V1 or T2 = V2
=
T1 T1 V1
 Work done by the gas:
W= P (V2-V1) = mR (T2-T1)

 Change in Internal Energy:

U 2 -U 1 = mC v (T2-T1)

 Heat Supplied or heat transferred:

Q = mC P (T2-T1)
Q = (U 2 -U 1 ) + W
Q = H 2 -H 1
 Example 17:
2.25 kg of fluid having a volume of 0.1 m 3 is in a cylinder at a constant
pressure of 7 bar. Heat energy is supplied to the fluid until the volume
becomes 0.2 m 3 . If the initial and final specific enthalpies of the fluid are
210 kJ/kg and 280 kJ/kg respectively, determine
a) the quantity of heat energy supplied to the fluid
b) the change in internal energy of the fluid
I S O C H O R I C P R O C E S S (CONSTANT V O L U M E
PROCESS)
 An Isochoric process, also called
a constant volume process, an
Iso-volumetric process or an
isometric process, is a
thermodynamic process during
which the volume of the closed
system undergoing such a process
remains constant.
 The Isochoric process here should
be a quasi-static process (consider
as equilibrium state).
*Important Note:
 The change in internal energy (dU) and the change in enthalphy
(dH) have the same expression for each process.
 During expansion or heating process, work is done by the gas (W1-2
is +ve); internal energy of the gas decreases (dU is -ve) and the heat
supplied to the gas (Q1-2 is +ve).
 During compression or cooling process, work is done on the gas (i.e.
W1-2 is -ve); internal energy of the gas increases (dU is +ve) and the
heat supplied by the gas (Q1-2 is -ve). Q
p p
2 1

1 2

v v
Q
heating process cooling process
I S O C H O R I C P R O C E S S (CONSTANT V O L U M E
 P,V,T Relationship:
P RO C E S S )
V = Constant
p1V1 p2V2
=
T1 T2
P1 P2 T2 P2
= or =
T1 T2 T1 P1
 Work done by the gas:
W= 0

 Change in Internal Energy:

dU = mC v (T2-T1)
U 2 - U 1 = mC v (T2-T1)

 Heat Supplied or heat transferred:

Q = dU + W1-2
Q = U 2 - U 1 = mC v (T2-T1)
 Example 18:
The specific internal energy of a fluid is increased from 120 kJ/kg to 180
kJ/kg during a constant volume process. Determine the amount of heat
energy required to bring about this increase for 2 kg of fluid.
 I S O T H E R M A L P R O C E S S (CONSTANT
TEMPERATURE PROCESS)
 A Process, in which the temperature of the
working substance remains constant during its
expansion or compression, is called a constant
temperature process or isothermal
process. This will happens when the working
substance remains in a perfect thermal contact
with the surroundings, so that the heat 'sucked
in' or 'squeezed out' is compressed exactly for
the mechanical work done by or on the gas
respectively. It is thus obvious that in an
isothermal process:
⚫ there is no change in temperature (T2 = T1)
⚫ there is no change in internal energy
(ΔU = 0)
P V n = C where n = 1
 I S O T H E R M A L P R O C E S S (CONSTANT
TEMPERATURE PROCESS)
 P,V,T Relationship:
T = Constant
p1V1 p2V2
=
T1 T2
P1V1 = P2V2

 Work done by the gas:

P1
W = PV1In V2 or W = PV
1 1In
V1 P2
V W = mRT1 In P1
W = mRT1In 2
V1 P2
 Change in Internal Energy:
U2 - U1 = 0
 I S O T H E R M A L P R O C E S S (CONSTANT
TEMPERATURE PROCESS)
 Heat Supplied or heat transferred:
Q −W = U where U 2 −U 1 = 0
Q =W

V2
Q = PV
1 1In or Q = P1V1 In P1
V1
P2
 Example 19:
In an industrial process, 0.4 kg of oxygen is compressed isothermally from
1.01 bar and 22 o C to 5.5 bar. Determine the work done and the heat
transfer during the process. Assume that oxygen is a perfect gas and take
the molecular weight of oxygen to be M = 32 kg/kmole.
 ADIABATIC P R O C E S S
 No heat leaves or enters the gas.
 The temperature of the gas changes, as
the work is done at the cost of internal
energy.
 The change in internal energy is equal
to the work done.

P V n = C where n = 
 ADIABATIC P R O C E S S
 P,V,T Relationship:
PV  = PV 
1 1 2 2
 
P1 V2  P2 V1 
=  or = 
P2 V1  P1 V2 
1 1
−
V1  P2   or V2  P1  
=  = 
V2  P1  V1  P2 
−1 −1
T2  P2   or T2  V1 
=  = 
T1  P1  T1 V2 
 Work done by the gas:
W = mCV (T2 − T1 )
1 1 − PV
mR (T1 − T2 ) while C P − CV = R or CV =
R
W=
PV 2 2 or W=
−1 −1
−1
 ADIABATIC P R O C E S S
 Change in Internal Energy:
dU = U 2 -U 1 = mC v (T2-T1)

 Heat Supplied or heat transferred:

Q=0
 Example 20:
In a thermally insulated reciprocating air compressor, air at 0.98 bar and
20 o C is compressed into one sixth of its original volume. Determine the
pressure and temperature of the air after compression. If the compressor
cylinder contains 0.05 kg of air, calculate the required work output. For
air, take  = 1.4 and cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK.
 POLYTROPIC PROCESS
 The relationship between the pressure and volume during
compression or expansion of an ideal gas.

P V n = C where n>1
 POLYTROPIC PROCESS
 P,V,T Relationship:
PV n = PV n
1 1 2 2

P1 V2  V1 
n n
or P2
=  =  
P2 V1  P1 V2 
1
−1
V1  P2  or V2  P1  n
= 
n
= 
V2  P1  V1  P2 
n−1
n−1
T2  P2  n V 
=  =  1
T1  P1  V2 
 Work done by the gas:
PV − PV mR (T1 − T2 )
W= 1 1 2 2 or W=
n −1 n −1
 POLYTROPIC PROCESS

 Change in Internal Energy:

dU = U 2 -U 1 = mC v (T2-T1)

 Heat Supplied or heat transferred:

Q =U − W
 Example 21:
The combustion gases in a petrol engine cylinder are at 30 bar and
800oC before expansion. The gases expand through a volume ratio
(V2/V1 ) of ( 8.5/1) and occupy 510 cm3 after expansion. When the
engine is air cooled the polytropic expansion index n = 1.15. What is the
temperature and pressure of the gas after expansion, and what is the
work output?
 SUM MARY
 R = gas constant (unit Nm/kg K or J/kg K)
 M = molecular weight (unit kg/kmol)
 R o = universal gas constant
(unit 8.3144 kJ/kmol K or 8314 J/kmol K))
 C v = specific heat capacity at constant volume
(unit J/kg K or kJ/kg K)
 C p = specific heat capacity at constant pressure
(unit J/kg K or kJ/kg K)
  = specific heat ratio
P V = m RT Ro
P1V1 P2V2
= R=
M
T1 T2 Cp R
R = Cp - Cv = Cv =
Cv ( − 1)
😉 I MUST UNDERSTAND THE TYPES
0F NON-FLOW PROCESSES…