ae Eg UNIT - IV Network Topologies and Network Devices 4.4 | Network Topologies CT 17, Marks 4 * The physical topology of LAN refers to the way in which the stations are physically interconnected * Topology is also defined as, the manner in which nodes are geometrically arranged and connected is known as the topology of the network. + Physical topology of a local area network should have the following desirable features. 1. The topology should be flexible to accommodate changes in physical locations of the stations, increase in the number of stations and increase in the LAN geographic coverege The cost of physical media and installation should be minimum, 3. The network should not have any single point of complete failures. # Network topology refers to the physical layout of the network. Each topology has its own strengths and weaknesses + Four types of topologies are commonly used in the network. They are bus, star, ring and mesh topology. 4, Bus Topology + Bus topology also called horizontal topology. + In bus topology, multiple devices are connected one by one, by means of connectors or drop cables. + When one computer sends a signal up (and down) the wize, all the computers on the network receive the information, but only one accepts the information (using address matching), The rest discard the message. + Bus is passive topology because it requires termination. Cable cannot be left unterminated in a bus network, ‘Advantages of Bus = 1) Easy to use and easy to install 2) Needs fewer physical connectivity devices 3) A repeater can also be used to extend a bus topology network 4) Low cost Disadvantages of Bus 1) Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably. 2) It is difficult to troubleshoot 2 bus. 3) Failure of cable affects all devices on the network. 4) Difficult to add new node. 4.1.2 | Star Topology +A star topology consists of a number of devices connected by point-to-point links to a central hub, + Easy to control and traffie flow is simple. Fig. 4.1.1 Bus topology @-a ae = = = 7 = Fig. 4.1.2 Star topology Data travels from the sender to central hub and then to the receiver. Advantages of Star Topology : 1) It is easy to modify and add new nodes to a star network without disturbing the rest of the network. 2) Troubleshooting techniques are easy. 3) Failures of any node do not bring down the whole star network. Disadvantages of Star Network : 1) If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate. 2) Bach device requires its own cable segment. 3) Installation can be moderately difficult, especially in the hierarchical network. 4.1.3 | Ring Topology #In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer, with the last one connected to the first, The signals travel on the eable in only one direction. Since each computer retransmits what it receives, +Ring is required. Advantages of Ring : 1) Cable failures are easily found. an active network. Termination is not 2) Because every node is given equal access to the token, no one node can monopolize the network. Fig. 4.1.3 Ring topologyData Communication nd Computer New 43 [Network Topologies and Network Devees Disadvantages of Ring 1) Adding oF removing nodes disrupis the network 2) It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring netwrork 3) Failure of ane node on the ring can affect the whole network 4) Cost of cable is more in ring network. 4.1.4 | Mesh Topology ‘= The mesh topology has a link between each device in the network. It is more difficult to install as the number af devices increases. 7 ~~ ti wake am ny i neki / + Much of the bandwidth available in mesh [ aaa configuration is wasted sites with multiple links. ‘Advantages of Mesh 1) Troubleshooting is easy. 2) Isolation of network failures is easy. Fig. 4.1.4 True mesh topology Disadvantages of Mesh = 1) Difficulty of installation. 2) Costly because of maintaining redundant links. 3) Difficulty of reconfiguration. 4.1.5 | Comparison between Bus and Ring Topology iA Bus topology Ring topology Node Node 2, Bus requires proper termination. Cable cannot be leit Termination is not required. ‘unterminated. 3. Bus ie a passive network topology. Ring is an active network topology.[Data Communication and Computer Netwoek wa Network Tepologies and Network Davieat 4 There is lesa in data integrity as the bus length 5. Ituses point to multipoint communication links. 6 Recommended when large number of devices are to be attached. Hybrid Topology ‘Transmission erors exe minimized because transmitted signal is regenerated at each node. {uses point-to-point communication links ‘Recommended when moderate number of devices are to bbe attached. + A hybird topology is e combination of two or more topologies. For exemple, bus topology connected fn each branch of star network is shown in the Fig. 41.5, Node Noe Node Nose Nose ‘swten CI |___ de Node Nove C4 Node Node NN o ba Fig. 4.1.5 Hybrid topology Board Questions oe the problem faced in ring topology, 2. State any four topologies 3. Explein tree topology awith nent dingram 4. What is topology ? List its types 5. State advantages and disadvantages of bus topology. 6. Explain mesh topology with suitable diagram. 7. Draco diagrom of hybrid topology. 8. State advantages and 9. Sinte any two 2 10. Draw and explain the working of star topology, 11. Explain tree topology with neat diegram idoontages of star topology, antages of bus topology. 12, Compare ster bus toith star-ring topology. CEEData Communication ane Compuner Network 4 42 + Connecting devices are divided into five different types based on the layer in which they operate in a network. Fig. 4.2.1 shows the connecting devices. +The device which operates below the physical layer such as passive hub. +A repeater or an active hub operates at the physical layer. +A bridge or a two layer switch operates ot the physical and data link layers +A router or layer three switch operates at the physical, data link and network layers. +Those which can operate ot all five layers of gateway. 4.2.4 | Hubs +All networks (except those using co-axial cable) require a central location to bring media segment together. These central locations are called hubs. + Hubs are special repecters that the electromechanical limitations of a media signal path, +The hub incoming signals to the other media segments. overcome organizes the cables and transmits + There are three main types of hubs : passive, active and intelligent. « Fig. 4.22 shows the hub. 5 [Network Topologies and Network Devices LED Fig. 4.22 Hub (@ port) Functions of Hub Following functions are provided by hub 1, Facilitate adding, deleting or + moving ‘workstations, 2, Extend the length of the network. 3. Provide flexibility by supporting multiple interfaces. For exemple, ethernet, token ring, FDDL 4. It offers fault tolerance feature. 5, Provide centralize management services. 421.1] Passive Hubs +A passive hub is just a connector. A passive hub simply combines the signals of network segments There is no signal regeneration. This type of a hub is a part of the transmission media; its location in the Internet model is below the physical layer. +The hub is the collision point. A passive hub reduces by half the maximum cabling distances permitted. With passive hub, each computer receives the signal sent from all the other computers connected the hub. = —— vee Seas wat eae el Dai 42.4 Types of connecting devices* ‘Data Communication and Computer Network 424.2] Active Hubs An active hub is actually a multiport repeater. An active hub is that regenerates or amplifies the signals. ‘© By using active hubs the distance between devices can be increased. It is normally used to create connections between stations in a physical star topology. An active hub is expensive than passive hub. ‘One of the disadvantages of an active hub is that they amplify noise along with the signal + Hubs can also be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy. Fig. 423 shows the hierarchy of hubs. The hierarchical use of hubs removes the length limitation of 10 Base-T. Fig. 4.2.9 A hierarchy of hubs Inteligent Hubs + Intelligent hub regenerates the signal and performs some network management and intelligent path selection. Intelligent hub includes switching hubs. Many switching hubs can choose that altemative path which, will be the quickest and send the signal that way + Advantages of this hub is ell transmission media segment permanently connecting to hub because each segment will be used only when a signal is sent to a device using that segment 4.22 | switch # It supports transmitting, receiving and controlling traffic with other computers on the network. 422.1] Layer 2 Switch ‘Layer 2 switch performs at the physical and data link layer. 80% [Network Topologies and Network Devices et is a bridge with many ports and a design that allows better performance * Layer 2 switch operates using physical network addresses, identify individual devices. Most hardware devices are permanently assigned this ‘number during the manufacturing process. + Switches operating at Layer 2 are very fast because they are just storing physical addresses, but they ‘usually aren't very smart. # They don’t look at the data packet very closely to Jeam anything more about where it’s headed. Layer Such + Layer 3 switches use network or IP addresses that identify locations on the network. They read network addresses. more closely than Layer 2 switches. + They identify network locations es well as the physical device. A location can be © LAN workstation, a location in a computer memory or even a different packet of data travelling through a network, + Switches operating at Layer 3 are smarter than Layer 2 devices and incorporate routing functions to actively calculate the best way to send a packet to its destination. * But although they are smarter, they may not be as fast as their algorithms, fabric and processor don't support high speeds 42.23] Layer 4 Switch slayer 4 of the OSI model coordinates communications between systems. Layer 4 switches are capable of identifying which application protocols (HTTP, SNTP, FTP) are included with each packet and they use this information to hand off the packet to the appropriate higher-layer software, = Layer 4 switches make packet forwarding decisions based not only on the MAC address and IP address, but also on the application to which a packet belongs. Because Layer 4 devices enable you to establish priorities for network traffic based on application, you can assign a high priority to packets belonging to vitel in-house applications such as peoplesoft, with different forwarding rulesata Communication and Computer Netmork 47 for low priority packets generic HTTP-based Internet traffic. “Layer 4 switches also provide an effective wire-speed security shield for your network because any company or industry-specific protocols can be confined to only authorized switched ports or users, ‘This security feature is often reinforced with traffic filtering and forwarding features. 4224) + Hub is a broadcasting device while switch is a point to point communication device. ‘Hub operates at physical operates at data link layer + Switch is an intelligent device so it is expensive, while hub is not an intelligent device so it is comparatively cheap. Difference between Hub and Switch layer while switch + Switch uses switching table to find out the correct destination while bub simply broadcasts the incoming packet. + Switch can be used as a repeater but hub cannot be used as a repeater. + Switch is very sophisticated device and widely used while hub is an ordinary old type of device and not that widely used. + Fig. 4.24 shows hub and switch. 423 Repeater + Repeater is an electronic device. It operates only in the physical layer. The basic purpose of a repeater is to extend the distance of LAN. +A repeater receives a signal and before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal [Netwrosk Topologies and Network Devices + Fig, 42.6 shows the repeater. (Refer Fig. 426 on next page) +. repeater does not actually connect two LANS; it connects two segments of the same LAN. A repeater is not a device that can connect two LANs of different protocols. +A repeater amplify the signal; it regenerates the signal. When it receives a weakened or corrupted signal, it creates a copy, bit for bit, at the original strength. does not Charactoristics of Repeater + Repeaters have the following characteristics. 1. Repeaters are used to regenerate an existing, aseband signal 2. Repeater will pass a broadcast 3. Repeater is used primarily in a co-axial bus topology. 4. Repeater operates at physical layer of OSI model 5. Segments connected by a repeater must use the same media access control method. Repeater does not filter packets. 7. Repeater can pass traffic between different types of media (eg. co-axial to FOC) provided appropriate interfaces exist. 8. Repeater does not aecelerate or change the signal. It simply regenerates it 9. Segments connected by a repeater must have the same network address. ‘Types of repeaters are as follows 2. Multiport repeater 1, Single port repeater 3, Smart repeater 4. Optical repeater Fig. 42.4 Hub and switchData Comaanication aed Computer Network rey [Network Topologies and Network Devices a2 Soe Fig. 42.5 Repeater +A single port repeater operates with actually two segments : one type has a signal taken from it to boost and pass to the next segment and the other type is a multiport repeater. In this, implementation is simple. Connect one segment to another cable segment + Multiport repeater has one input port end multiple outpat port. «Smart repeater is a hybrid device and very similar to a bridge in functionality. Packet filtering is done by sinart repeaters + Repeaters that repeat optic signals are called optical repeaters, Repeaters are implemented in all types of cable, 4.24 | Bridge +A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layer. A bridge extends the maximum distance of network by connecting separate network segment. A bridge simply passes on all the signals ft receives. It reads the address of all the signal it + Bridge performs data link functions such as error detection, frame formatting and frame routing, + Fig. 4.26 shows a bridge 424.1] Bridge Architecture 42,7 shows the layered architecture of two-port bridge. + At each port of bridge, it has physical layer and ‘MAC sublayer. aa LaNt cones] uve] pune Fig. 4.2.7 Bridge architecture [row # The physical layer and MAC sublayer protocols at each port of bridge match with the protocols of the respective LAN. +The MAC sublayer have relay and routing function between them. When a MAC frame is received by the bridge, it examines the destination address, it reformats the frame as required by the other LAN. ‘The data fields of MAC frame are of no interest to a bridge. 42.42] Functions of Bridges + A bridge performs following basic functions. 1. Frame filtering and forwarding : ‘When the bridge receives a frame at any of its ports, it takes any of one actions. i) If the destination address is available on the same port by which it is received, the bridge discards the frame. ii) If the destination address is on different physical port, it forwards the frame onto that port. = LAN2 Fig. 4.2.6 BridgeData Communication and Computer Network iil) If the bridge does not find the destination address, it forwards the frame over all its physical ports except from which it is received. 2. Learning the address : = When a frame is received at a bridge and if source address is not available in the database, it updates the database. This entry consists of the address, port on which address was received and a timer value when the address was arrived. 3. Routing » © When multiple LANs and multiple interconnecting bridges are configured, the bridges need to have routing capability. The bridge must know the alternative routes and their associated costs in terms of number of hops. Alternative and duplicate routes must be distinguished. In the network duplicate routes interfere in the self address leaming mechanism. The process of deciding which frames to forward and where is called bridge routing. 802 Bridges + IEEE 602.1 committee has standardized concepts for interconnecting 802-type LANs, they are - 1, Fixed-routing bridges 2. Transparent or spanning tree bridges 3. Source routing bridges 4. Remote bridges 42.43] Fixed Routing Bridges + Fixed-routing bridges maintain a routing table (routing directory) which contains the information of addresses of each stations and the LANs. « Each bridge has a routing table for LAN to which it is connected + When a frame arrives on that LAN the bridge finds the destination address in the appropriate routing table. + The table entry specifies to which LAN, the bridge should forward the frames. If alternate routes are available between two LANs then typically the route with least number of hops is selected. These type of bridges are called fixed-routing becouse the content of the table does not change. [Neework Topologies and Network Devices « Fixed-routing is the simplest and most commonly adopted strategy. It is most suited for small LANs, which are relatively stable 4244] Transparent/Spanning Tree Bridges In transparent bridge mechanism, bridges automatically develop 2 routing table and update table in response to changing topology. + The algorithm consists of three mechanisms i) Frame forwarding ii) Address leaming iii) Loop resolution 1) Framo forwarding : bridge port, a bridge must decicle whether to discard or forward it to which LAN. This decision is made by looking up the destination address in a big database in the bridge. This database contains station addresses to which frames should be forwarded through that port. This information pertains to both source and destination addresses. If the destination address is not in the forwarding database, it is sent out on all ports of the bridge except the one on which the frame was received. This process is known 88 flooding When the destination address exists in the forwarding database, the port identifier of stored address is compared with the identifier of the port on which the address was received. If the two identifiers are equal, the frame is not forwarded since it is addressed to a station on the same LAN in which it originated. When the port identifiers are different, the frame is forwarded to the bridge port When a frame arrives on a assodated with the address as listed in the forwarding database. Ii) Address learning: It is also. known as backward learning it takes care of destination address. When a frame is received at a bridge, its source address is compared with the addresses in forward database. If the source address is not found, there, the bridge makes a new entzy to the data base, lil) Spanning treo algorithm : For frame forwarding. and address learning processes to operate properly, there must be only one path of bridges and LANs between any two segments in the entire bridgedData Comanunizatcn and Computes Network 40 LAN. Such a topology is known as a spanning tree and the methodology for setting it up is called the spanning tree algorithm, «Before learning spanning algorithm, the following concepts are needed D Root bridge : Each bridge has a unique identifier. ‘The bridge with the identifier is called the root bridge 2) Root path cost : Each port of a bridge has an associated cost parameter which is the cost of transmitting a frame through the particular port, When a frame transverse a path through several bridges, the path cost is the sum of all the intervening port cost parameters. Root path cost is the minimum path cost from a bridge to the root bridge. lowest 3) Root port : Each bridge determines its port through which if a frame is transmitted, it will reach the root bridge incurring the root path cost. This port of the bridge is called the root port. Designated bridge and designated port : If a LAN has several bridges connecting it to the root bridge, one of the bridge is called the designated bridge and all the frames from the LAN transmitted through designated bridge. The corresponding port of the bridge is called the designated port. 5) Construction of spanning tree : For spanning tree algorithm to work properly, each bridge ‘must have unique identifier. Bach port within 1 bridge must have distinet identity + First a root bridge is selected. Then each bridge selects a port through which the least cost path to the root bridge is found, This is called a root port. + Then a specific designated bridge is selected for each LAN. Lastly each bridge puts its root port and all bridge ports to LANs for which it is designated into a forwarding state. The other bridge ports are said to be in a blocked state. + When the network is in operation, the spanning tree algorithm exchanges status information between are [Netowore Topologies and Network Devices bridges via messages called bridge protocol data units (BPDUs) + Each BPDU contains the following information. 4) The identifier of this bridge and the port of this bridge ii) The identifier of the bridge that this bridge considers to be the root. iii) The root path cost for this bridge + Consider the configuration shown in Fig, 42.8. Bach bridge has a bridge identifier and each port has a port cost as shown. vo we wane Fig, 4.2.8 Multiple interconnected LANs = All bridges consider themselves to be the root bridge by broadcasting » BPDU on each of its LANs. On any LAN, only one claimant will have the lowest bridge identifier and will maintain this belief. The others will accept this fact by comparing the bridge identifier in the BPDUs they receive. + Thus bridge 8 will be identified as the root by ridges B> and Bs. They will identify the root port as well. Bridge By, will consider bridge By as the + Bridge By and B; release BPDUs indicating the root bridge identifier and the path cost to the root. These BPDUs are released only through port other than the root port. Thus, the BPDU released by bridge By in LAN3 will indicate root bridge identifier as By and root path cost as 5. + Similarly, the BPDU released by bridge By in LAN and LANA will indicate the root bridge identifier as B, and the root path cost as 10. When bridge By receives these BPDUs, it will realize that the root identifier is B, and the root is accessible through bridge By at a lower path cost of 5. Therefore,Data Communication and Computer Network an bridge B, is the designated bridge for LAN3 and the port of bridgB connected to LANG is chosen as the designated port for transmission of frames to the root. «The port of bridge Bs connected to LANG i put in the blocked state. Bridge B, will further propagate this information to other bridges connected to LANS. It will indicate the root identifier as B; and the root path cost is 9. This process continues and. finally we have the spanning tree with no loops. ‘The results of this activity are shown in Fig. 4.29. 5 Besgrane soa Fig. 42.9 Spanning tree configuration Advantages of Transparent Bridge 1. Easy to use. 2 Just install the bridge, no software changes are needied in hosts Disadvantages of Transparent Bridge 1. Does not support multipath routing. 2. The path between any two hosts may not be the optimal path. 3. Broadcast and multicast frames must be flooded in all cases, 42.45) Source Routing Bridges In spanning tree routing algorithm, the bridge uses the MAC destination address of a frame to direct it The route is decided by the bridges. [Network Topologies and Network Devices Th source routing, each station on the extended LAN is expected to know the route over which the frame is to send. + The routing information is included in the frames. ‘The bridges do not maintain any routing information. + When sending a frame to a different LAN, the source machine sets the high order bit of the source address to 1 + Each LAN has a unique 12-bit number and each bridge has a 4-bit number that uniquely identifies it in the context of its LANs. A route is then sequence of bridge, LAN, bridge, LAN .... numbers «A source routing bridge is only interested in those frames with the high order bit of the destination set to 1. For each such frames, it scans looking for the number of LAN on which the frame arrived. If this LAN number is followed by its own bridge number, the bridge forwards the frame onto the LAN whose number follows its bridge number in the route. If the incoming LAN number is followed by the number of some other bridge, it does not forward the frame. Discovery Frame : If the destination address is not known, the source issues a broadcast frame asking where it is ? This broadcast frame is discovery frame. These frames will thus travel through all possible paths between the source and destination stetions. + Along the way, each frame records the route it takes upon reaching the destination, the bridges record their identity in it, so that the original sender can see the exact route taken and ultimately choose the best route Advantages of Source Routing Bridge 1. Uses the optimal route 2. Better use of resources. 3. Also can make use of multiple path to same destination, Disadvantages of Source Routing Bridge 1. Not transparent to hosts. 2 Bach host must detect bridge failure on its own, 3. Instolling new bridges non-trivialData Comamunication and Computer Network 4a 42.48] Remote Bridges # A common use of bridges is to connect two oF mare distant LANs. But if two LANs are located at greater interconnected. So the complete system acts like one large LAN. For this, one bridge may not serve the purpose because of the distance limitation of the LANs or the non-availability of a high speed transmission medium, + One alternative is taken as 2 full duplex leased connection from the telephone network and connect the LANS using two bridges one at each end of the leased connection. These bridges are called remote bridges + Fig. 42.10 shows remote bridge. O O Remon oige Remom bisge2 distance, these LANs are to be Fig. 42.10 Remote bridges to connect distant LANS +The bridges establish a data link connection between two or more LANs through leased circuit and carry out the bridge operation. + On one port of the bridge, HDLC protocol takes care of the transmission errors of the leased network connection. + HDLC protocols implement the MAC frame transport service The MAC frame is encapsulated in the information field of an HDLC frame using a header and trier at the transmitting end. A new MAC header and trailer then be generated at the destination bridge. Features of bridge at a glance A) Bridge can do following : 1. Filter traffic by reading packet address. 2 Link dissimilar network 3. Link segments of a network together. [Network Topologies and Network Devices B) Bridge cannot do following = 1, Determine the most efficient path to transmit data. 2 Traffic management function. C) Benefits provided by a bridge : 1. Expand the length of an existing network 2 Increase the number of workstations on the network 3. Reduce traffic congestion. 4 Provide a connection to a dissimilar netviork 5. Move data across a intermediate network with a dissimilar protocol. 42.47] Comparison of Transparont and Source Routing Bridge St parameter. —_-Tansparent Source routing No, ‘bridge bridge 1 Orientation __Connectionless_ Connection-or1 ented 2 Configuration Automatic Manual 3 Routing Suboptimal Optimal 4 Complexity Inthe bridge in the hosts 5 Failures Handled by Handled by the bridges the host 6 Locating Bockward Discovery learning frame Transparency Fully Not ‘teansparent transparent 4248] Difference between Bridge and Repeater 11. Bridge operates the data link layer while repeater operates at physical layer of OSI model. 2, Bridge understands the complete frames while repeaters do not understand complete frames, 3, Bridge will not forward a collision from one segment to another. With repeater, collision cccurs on one segment, repeater causes the same problem to occur on all other segment. 4. Bridge uses the destination address to determine ‘whether to forward a frame. Repeater cannot understand the destination addressData Communication and Computer Network 413 [Network Topoiogtes and Network Devices Fig. 4.2.11 Goteway 5. Bridge performs frame filtering, Repeater cannot perform frame filtering 6. Bridge and repeater, both are hardware devices used to extend a LAN, 4.2.5 | Gateway Gateway connects two independent networks, A gateway is protocol converter. + Tt operates in all geven layers of the OSI model *A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) and convert it to a packet formatied for another protocol (eg. Apple Talk) efore forwarding it +The gateway must adjust the data rate, size and data format. Gateway is generally software installed within a router. Fig. 42.11 shows the gateway. poster +A router is a three layer device that routes packets based on their logical addresses, Router connects two oF more networks. It consists of combination of the hardware and software. Fig. 42.12 shows the router. + A router normally connects LANs and WANS in the Internet and has a routing table that is used for ‘making decisions about the route. Routers connect dissimilar networks together and have access to information from physical, data link and network layer. +The key feature of a router is to determine the shortest path to destination. A router forwards packet by examining protocol address at network layer, look up the address in the routing table, then forward the packet to the next hop. + Router uses one or more routing algorithms to calculate the best path through an intenetwork. 4.2.7 | Difference between Various Network Connecting Device Hubs and Repeaters + Hubs do not amplify signals like repeaters do. + Repeaters have only two lines (input and output) while a Hub has many. Hubs and Switches + Hubs cannot lessen the size of collision domain rather increases it. But switches can reduce the size of collision domain. + Hub requires Half - duplex communication while Switch requires Full - duplex communication Hubs and Bridges + Bridges can connect two or more LANs but Hubs connect several hosts directly. « Bridges are Data Link Layer's devices but Hubs are Physical Leyer devices. Fig. 4.2.12 Router in OS! mode!Data Communication and ommputee Network Bridges and Router + Routers are used to connect different networks of different architectures but in case of Bridges, different architectures cannot be used. + Bridges are Data Link Layer's devices but Routers are Network Layer devices Bridges and Switches + Number of ports in Switch is more as compared to bridge. ‘+ Bridges can connect two or more LAN's but Switches connect several hosts directly. 4.2.8 | Modem + Modem means modulator and demodulator. *Data communications equipment is the communications modem. data *Data communication modems designed to operate over the limited bandwidth of the public telephone network is called voice band modems. +Modem uses tones (ce. frequencies, phases or amplitudes to represent the binary data, Tones are what the phone system is designed to handle, since voice is made up of many tones combined. + Different modems use Frequency Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation (PM) and Amplitude Modulation (AM) or some combination of these to achieve the sinewaves) of various Modulator and [Newark Topologies and Network Devices desired data rates and low-error performance aver different types of telephone lines + Digital modulation uses three basic types of modulation for the conversion of a binary signal into a suitable form for transmission over the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). +The three basic modulation types are known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) respectively. 42.8.1] Need of Nodem «Modems are the means of communication among remote devices using analog signals. #'The purpose of a data communication modem is to interface computers, computer networks, and other digital terminal equipment to analog communications facilities. 42.82] Block diagram and Working of Modem i 4.213 shows a block diagram of data communications modem. ‘+ Primary blocks of modems are 1, Serial interface circu 2. Modulator circuit 3. Bandpass Filter and Equalizer circuit 4. Telco Interface circuit (GIA converter, anopass —liee ra a ee 2 Tek Sai 5 T interface: interface - aaa ae — ae cig a facet oe eee a Fig. 4.2.13 Bloek diagram for a modem(Data Communication and Computer Networi as Network Topalogis ad Network Devicas 5. Demodulator circuit 4, Explain the advantages af repeater. 6. Carrier and Clock Generation circuit CoE RAL ‘Serial interface circuit interfaces the modem 5, List én whici layer following device works : transmitter and receiver to the serial interface. a) Router b) Repeater c) Bridge d) Gateway Tranamit section accepts digital information and COSTAL converts it to the appropriate voltage levels, The 6. Explain the concept gateway along with it receive section receives digital information from the ee ee ss demodulator circuit, converts it to the appropriate working voltage levels. 7. State the functions of bridge. + Modulator Circuit : It receives digital information ae eee from the serial interface circuit. The digital 8, What is ib ? Give types of hub. information modulates an analog carrier producing a digitally modulated analog signal. 9 Describe router with neat and labeled diagram. + Bandpass Filter and Equalizer cireuit : These State the situetion under which router are modules are used in the transmitter and receiver necessary in network section of the modem. The transmit bandpass filter 10 limits the bandwidth of the digitally modulated analog signals to @ bandwidth appropriate for transmission over a standard telephone circuit. The Explain the operation of modern CORALINE 11. Describe repenter. State the situation under which receive bandpass filter limits the bandwidth of the ‘epetier ane nacestary fm network signals allowed to reach the demodulator circuit, Cea thus reducing noise 12. Conpore hub and switch. ATTA + Telco Interface circuit : Primary functions of this 15. Drew and explain working of bridges modules are to match the impedance of the modem to the impedance of the telephone line and regulate i ao an iat oc Ty A CSAC the amplitude of the transmit signal seemed wigicle inco the, digtlly nastkicea | | 2S Deeb the flowing wit gran vociag ional cr dill ea I Rees i) Coys TAT + Carrier and Clock Generation circuit : The carrier 16, Describe the Sypes of bub, generation circuit produces the analog carrier Le necessary for the modulation and demodulation ‘17. State the functions of Processes. The clock generation clrult generates the 1) Hub 2) Repester 3) Bridge 4) Router appropriate lock andl timing signals required for aE performing transmit and receive functions in an orderly and timely fashion. 18. Describe role of medem in networking. ee 19. What is router ? List types of router. COREE Board Questions 1. Compare hub, switch and bridge. CoAT 20. Describe gateways with its two advantages and 2. With neat diagram explain gateways. fo disadvantages. ISOTE: Summer-16, Mars CAE 21. Describe the following 3. With the help of nce! diagram, describe the 1) Bridges and working of routers. Also enlist types of routers. 2) Repesiere CEST‘Data Communication and Computer Netwesie 4 Netoncre Topologies and Netw Devices 43 | Wireless Infrastructure Components “= Wireless LANs consist of components similar to traditional Ethernet-wired LANs. In fact, wireless LAN protocols are similar to Ethernet and comply with the same form factors. The big difference, however, is that wireless LANs don't require wires User Devices = Users of wireless LANs operate a multitude of devices, such as PCs, laptops, and PDAs, The use of wireless LANs to network stationary PCs is beneficial because of limited needs for wiring, Laptops and PDAs, however, are commonly equipped with wireless LAN connectivity because of their portable nature. + User devices might consist of specialized hardware as well. For example, bar code scanners and patient monitoring devices often heve wireless) LAN connectivity Radio NICs # A major part of # wireless LAN includes a radio NIC that operates within the computer device and provides wireless connectivity +A wireless LAN radio NIC, sometimes referred to as a radio card, often implements the 802.11 standard, The cards generally implement one particular physical layer, 802.1a_ or 802.11b/g. As a result, the radio card must utilize a version of the standard that is compatible with the wireless LAN. ‘+ Wireless LAN radio cards that implement multiple versions of the standard and provide better interoperability are becoming more common. such as ‘+ Radio cards come in a variety of form factors, including: ISA, PCI, PC card, mini-PCI, and CF. PCs generally utilize ISA and PCI cards; but PDAs and laptops use PC cards, mini-PCI, and CF adapters. Access Points ‘An access point contains a radio card that communicates with individual user devices on the wireless LAN, as well as a wired NIC that interfaces to a distribution system, such as Ethemet, # System software within the access point bridges together the wireless LAN and distribution sides of the access point. The system software differentiates access points by providing varying degrees of ‘management, installation, and security functions. Routers + By definition, a router transfers packets between networks, The router chooses the next best link to send packets on to get closer to the destination. Routers use Internet Protocol (IP) packet headers and routing tables, as well as internal protocols, to determine the best path for each packet. + A wireless LAN router adds a builtin access point function to a multiport Ethernet router. This combines multiple Ethemet networks vrith wireless connections "A typical wireless LAN router includes four Ethemet ports, an 80211 access point, and sometimes a parallel port so it can be a print server This gives wireless users the same ability as wired users to send and receive packets over multiple networks, + Routers implement the Network Address Translation (NAT) protocol that enables multiple network devices to share a single IP address provided by an Internet Service Provider (ISP). Ropeators + Access points, which require interconnecting cabling, generally play a dominant role for providing coverage in most wireless LAN deployments + Wireless repeaters, however, are a way to extend the range of an existing wireless LAN instead of adding more access points. There are few standalone wireless LAN repeaters on the market, but some access points have a built-in repeater mode, +A repeater simply regenerates @ network signal to extend the range of the existing network infrestructure. +A wireless LAN repeater does not physically connect by wire to any part of the network. Instead, it receives radio signals from an access point, end-user device, or another repeater; it retransmits the frames, This makes it possible for a repeater located between an access point and distant user to act as a relay for frames traveling back and forth between the user and the access point+ ‘Data Communication and Computer Network Antennae + Most antennae for wireless LANs are omnidirectional and have low gain. Nearly ell access points, routers, and repeaters come standard ‘with omnidirectional antennae. ‘+ Omnidirectional antennae satisfy most coverage requirements; however, consider the use of optional directive antennae to cover a long, narrow area. In some cases, the antenna is integrated within a radio card or access point and there is no choice to make. If a need exists to use a directive antenna (higher gain), ensure that the radio card or access point has an external antenna connector. 44 ‘Two Marks Questions with Answers aa ‘Ans. : network. List the advantages of star topology. 1) If any link fails, it does not affect entire 2) Easy fault identification and fault isolation. 3) Easy to modify and add new nodes. 4) Robust topology. Q2 What is router ? List types of rower. danas: A. network layer device that connects necworks with lilerent physieal media. we translates between different network architectures. ‘Types of Routers « There are several types of routers in the market, 1. Broadband Routers * Broadband routers can do different types of] things. Broadband routers can be used to connect computers or to connect to the Internet. 2. Wireless Routers * Wireless routers create a wireless signal in your| home or office. So, any PC within range off Wireless routers can connect it and use your Internet 3 What is a switch 2 ‘Ans.: A. switch is a networking device that manages networked connections between devices on a star network. 80% [Network Fopologies and Netw Devices 04 What ae warsrecelvers ? ‘Ans. : Transreceivers are combination transmitter and receiver. Transreceivers are also called as ‘Medium Attachment Unit (MAU). QS Explain media converter. Ans. : different cable types like twisted pair, fiber, thin and thick co-axial cables within networks. Media converters interconnect 6 Sicte different ypes of repeaters ‘Ans.: 1) Single port repeater 2) Multiport repeater 48) Smart repeater 4) Optical repeater 7 Stote important characteristics of repocter. ‘Ans.: 1) It regenerates baseband signal 2) It passes broadcast 3) It does not filter packets 4) Ik operates at physical layers of OSI model 5) It does not change the signal 8 What i the function of NIC ? ‘Ans.: NIC is used to allow the computer to communicate the Xe supports transmitting, receiving and controlling traffic with on network. other computers on network 9 State the funcions of bridge OR Lis the functions of bridges. ‘Ans. 1) Frame filtering and forwarding, 2) Learning the address 3) Routing 2.10 Diferentate tetween hub and switchData Communication ane Computer Netrork as les anc Network Devices Q.11Differentcte between a rouler ond gateway Sr. No Router Gateway 1. Router operates at Gateway operetes network layer. at application layer. 2 Router does not Gateway converts conver protecol. _protacal. 42 What is repeater 2 ‘Ans.: Repeater is a hardware device used to strengthen signals being transmitted on a network, 13 What is hub ? ‘Ans. : Networks require a central location to bring media segment together. These central locations are called hubs. 0.14 Stole important types of hubs. ‘Ans.: 1) Passive hub 2) Active hub 3) Intelligent hub. 35 Mention the functions of hub Ans.: 1) Facilitate adding deleting or moving work stations. 2) Extend the length of network. 3) It provides centralize management services. 4) Provides multiple interfaces. Q.16 What i the main junction of gateway ? Ans. A gateway is a protocol converter. G17 A gotewoy operates af which layers ? ‘Ans.: Gateway operates at all seven layers of OSI model G18 Which focors « gateway hondlos 7 ans. : Data rate, data size, data format O19 Whet is meant by active hub 2 Ans.: A central hub in a network that rettansmits the data it receives. 0.20 What is the function of switch ? ‘Ans.: A switch is a hardware used to perform switching which performs moving of information between different networks and network segments, 21 Write the types of Intemetworking ‘Ans. 1) Hub 2) Repeater 3) Bridge 4) Router connecting devices in 5) Gateway, oooUNIT - 5 Reference Models 5.1] OSI Reference Mode! Coa EIDE rm * The International Organization for Standardization (180) developed the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model, OSI model is most widely used model for networking. OSI model is seven layer standard, Fig. 5.1.1 shows OSI model Fig. 6.1.1 OS! modet + The OST model does not specify the protocols to be used to perform networking tasks but is a model for understanding and designing a notwork architecture. O81 model provides following services 1, Provides peer to peer logical services with layer physical implementation. 2. Provides standards for communication between system 3. Defines point of interconnection for the exchange of information between systems. 4. Each layer should perform a well defined function 5. Narrows the options in order to increase the ability to communicate without expansive conversions and translation between products. 5.1.1 | Layered Architecture ‘+ Most of all networks are organized as a series of layers, each one built upon the one below it Because of layer, it reduces the design complexity. # In layer protocols, a layer is a service provider and may consists of several service functions, Function is 9 subsystem of a layer. Each subsystem may also be made up of entities An entity is a specialized module of a layer or subsystem. ‘= Name of the layer, total number of layer, function, and content of each layer differ from network to network, Protocols are the rules that govern network communication. + Fig, 5.1.2 shows the five layer network. hoor Fig, 5.1.2 Layers, protocols and interfaces + Layer non one node carries on a conversation with layer n on other node. + The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machine are called peers‘Data Communication and Computes Netweske 5-2 @'The actual data flow is from upper layer to its below layer and then from physical medium to destination layer. ‘Between each pair of adjacent layers is called interface. The interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one. “+A sot of layers and protocols is called a network architecture. 5.1.2 | Peer to Peer Processes ‘« The process provides @ common technique for the layer to communicate with each other. The standard terminology used for layered networks to request services is provided. ‘sn Fig. 5:13 the layers N + 1, N and N - 1 are involved in the communication process for layer communication, with each other Fig. 5.1.9 Communication botwoen layors ‘+Following components are involved and their function is as follows 1. Service Data Unit (SDU) Protocol Control Information (PCI) Protocol Data Unit (PDU) Interface Control Information (IC1) Interface Data Unit (IDU) Reference Models Sr. BE Name 1 SDU Transfer user data Netto pete oe 2 PCI To perform service function. ft is used 3. PDU__ Combination of the SDU and PCL 4 mk 5 1pbu + When the IDU from layer N + 1 passes to layer N, it becomes the SDU to that layer. PCI is added to SDU at layer N. ICI performs its function and is discarded, Another ICI is added to PDU at layer N and it becomes IDU to layer N ~ 1. Thus a full protocol unit is pessed through each layer. + Each layer acids header to data. This header is used by the peer layer entity at another node of the network to invoke function. This process repeats itself through each layer + As each unit traverses through the layer, it has a header added to it ie. user data and header (SOU and PCD. This full protocol data unit is passed onto the communication path, where it arrives at the receiving site, ‘In short, each layer added its header to user's data and passes to its next layer. This layer process on that data and adds its own header and provides to next layer for processing. Through transmission channel data passes to receiving site. 5.1.3 | Layers in OSI Mode! 5.1.3.1 | Physical Layer «Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model, Physical layer co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a communication channel. It deals with electrical and mechanical specifications of interface and transmission media. It also deals with procedures and functions required for transmission. +The position of physical leyer with transmission medium and the next layer (datalink layer) is shown in Fig, 5.14ata Communication and Computer Netwark Reference Models Fig, 5.1.4 Physical layer Functions of data link layer Funetions of physical layer 1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media : +The design issue of physical layer considers the characteristics of interface between devices and transmission media. 2, Representation of bits : + Physical layer encodes the bit stream into electrical or optical signal. 3. Data rato +The physical layer defines the duration of a bit which is called as data rate or transmission rate, 4, Synchronization of bits = +The transmission rate and receiving rate must be same. This is done by synchronizing clocks at sender and receiver. Physical layer performs this function, 5.13.2] Data Link Layer +The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next. It transforms the physical layer to a reliable link making it an error free link to upper layer. Fig. 5:1.5 shows data link layer. 4. Framing : + The frames received from network layer is divided into manageable data units called frames 2. Physical addressing : + When frames are to be sent to different LANs, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define sender or receiver. 3. Flow control + When the rate of the data transmitted and rate of data reception by receiver is not same, some data may be lost. The data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the 4, Error contro! : + Data link layer incorporates reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanism to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames, 5. Access control : + When multiple devices are connected to same link, the data link layer determines which device has control over link. Fig. 5:4.5 Data link layerData Communication and Computer Networks 5.13.3] Network Layer «The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the source to destination. Fig. 5.1.6 shows network layer. Fram data in Inge Fig. 5.1.6 Network layer Functions of network layer 1. Logical addressing : Data link layer implements physical addressing, When a packet passes network boundary, an addressing system is needed to distinguish source and destination, network layer performs these function, The network layer adds a header to the packet of upper layer includes the logical addresses of sender and receiver. 2. Routing : + Network layer route or switch the packets to its final destination in an intemetwork. 5.1.34] Transport Layer # The transport layer is responsible for delivery of message from one process to another. The network does the host to destination delivery of individual packets considering it as independent packet. But transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order with error control and process control. Fig, 5.1.7 shows transport layer. From appaton nye Te aniegon ayer Reference Modes Functions of transport layer 41, Port addressing Computer performs several operations simultaneously. Process-to-process. delivery means specific process of one computer must be delivered to specific process on other computer. The transport layer header therefore include port address. «Network layer delivers packet to the desired computer and transport layer, gets message to the correct process on that computer. 2, Segmentation and reassembly : +A message is divided into segments, each segment contains a sequence number which enables transport layer to reassemble at destination 3. Connection control : «Transport layer performs —_connectionless or connection-oriented services with the destination machine, 4, Flow control : + Transport layer performs end-to-end flow control while data link layer performs it across the link. 5. Error control : Error control at this layer is performed on end-to-end basis rather than across the link. The transport layer ensures error free transmission. 5.1.3.5] Session Layer # The session layer is network dialog controller ie, it establishes and synchronizes the interaction between communication system. Fig. 5.1.8 shows session layer, Fig, 5.1.7 Transport layor Fig. 6.1.8 Session layer80% ‘Data Communication and Computex Nettie 5 Functions of session layer 4. Dialog control ‘* Communication between two processes take place in either half duplex or full duplex mode. The session layer manages dialog control for this, communication. 2, Synchronization : *Session layer adds stream of data. synchronization points into 5.1.36] Presentation Layer ‘* The presentation layer deals with syntax and semantics of the information being Fig. 5.19 shows presentation layer. exchanged, Fig. 5.1.9 Presentation layer Functions of presentation layer 4, Translation : * Different computers use different encoding systems. The presentation layer maintains interoperability between the two encoding systems 2, Eneryption : + Encryption is transforming sender information to other form to ensure privacy while transmission Decryption is a reverse process. 3. Compression + Compression is a technique of reducing number of bits required to represent the data 5.1.37 Application Layer + Application layer is responsible for accessing the ‘user. It provides user interfaces and other supporting services such as e-mail, remote, file access, file transfer, sharing database, message handling (X-400), directory services (X.500). network [Reference Models Functions of application layer 1. Network virtual terminal : «Tt is a software version of physical term allows a user to log onto a remote host. 2. File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM) : + FTAM allows user to access files in remote hosts, to retrieve files and to manage files in computer, remote 3. Mail services : «E-mail forwarding, storage are the services under this category. 4, Directory services = «Directory services information and distributed database. include access for global Board Questions 1, State the functions of dat lnk layer ETA 2, Explain OS reference moved with its layered architecture eZ Describe date encapsulation in OST model mr 4, Lis any fur layers of O51 model CRA 5. Explain the functions of follwing leers 4) Piysical ¥) DLL ) Network d) Transport oe 6. Describe the OST model with neat diagram CoE Winter-12, Marks 2 State ony four prtocl associated wth application lager of OSI rece. ESATA 8. Write the mames. of lnyer that performs the folowing function ix OSI {D Data enapsuletion 2) Error detection 5) Fie rans) Encoding Ean 2. Expltn working of data Tink lger end netuerk ier SOS SSA 10, Enlist and explain functions of application layer. Ea 11,Explan IS0-OSI reference mode with diagram,Se ata Conmuniatin and Comps Nes se 72 Der onto oft Tn yer 13.Stte the names of to subloyers of date Tink loge. [iste re ore 2 14.Gioe the function of data link lye. | CE 1S.Explin the services proved iy neboork layer of | tie O51 mate! [se Sanne ars 4 N6State mane of protocol used at diferent lagers of OSI mode CoE T7-Explein OS! model with neat diagram. Which Iajer of OST model pectnges ro data Bit into date fromes 7 Describe bit stufing sith one | example EE IB.Explain the functions of network layer in OSI mmoiel oo 19, Explain layers of OSI mode! (any 2 layers). } ec a 5.2 | TCP/IP Modot COAT ro + The internet architecture, which is also sometimes called the TCP/IP architecture after its two main protocols + TCPAP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol «The TCPAP reference model is a set of protocols that allow communication across multiple diverse networks, “TCPAP is normally considered to be a four layer system. Layers of TCP/IP are Application layer, ‘Transport layer, Internet layer, Host to network layer. + Host to network layer is also called physical and data link layer. + The application layer in TCP/P can be equated with the combination of session, presentation, application layer of the OSI reference model. + Fig, 52.1 shows TCP/IP reference model. + TCPAIP defines two protocol at transport layer : TCP and UDP. ‘+ User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is connectionless protocol Reference Models Application layer Transpot layer Intoret layer Host to natwork Fig. 5.2.4 TCPIP reference model + UDP is used for application that requires quick but necessarily reliable delivery. * Intemet layer also called network layer. Internet layer handles communication from one machine to the other. Routing of packet takes place in internet layer. + TCPAP does not define any specific protocol in host to network layer. This layer is responsible for acepeting and transmitting IP datagrams. This layer normally includes the device driver in the operating system, + Detailed function of each layer is given below. 1. Application layer : Application layer includes all process and services that use the transport layer to deliver data. The most widely known application protocols TELNET, File Transfer Protocol (FIP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). TELNET is the Network Terminal Protocol, which provides remote login over the network. FTP is used for interactive file transfer. SMTP delivers the electronic mail 2. Transport layer : Application programs send data to the transport layer protocols TCP and UDP. An application is designed to choose either TCP or UDP based on the services it needs. +The transport layer provides peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation. Both ends protocol is defined in this layer. TCP is reliable connection oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one