AUDA-NEPAD

AFRICAN UNION DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

REVIEW OF FOREST
AND LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION
IN AFRICA 2021
COVER PHOTO CHAPTER 4
©FAO/Luis Tato A Karamojong pastoralist man takes his cows to graze, Kochunoi,
Dry Sahelian landscape in Hapandou village, Zinder Region, Uganda
Niger
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 1
Great Green Wall community nursery, Koyli Alpha, Senegal
Farm landscape in Jomba, Rwanda
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 2
Aerial view of cultivated fields Betroka Region, Southern
A young PhD student of FAO partner INERA, Burkina Faso, Madagascar
monitoring restored plots under Action Against Desertification in
support of Africa's Great Green Wall

CHAPTER 3
A view of terraced hills, Gicumbi, Rwanda
REVIEW OF FOREST
AND LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION
IN AFRICA 2021
Stephanie Mansourian
FAO International consultant
Nora Berrahmouni,
Senior Forestry Officer
FAO Regional Office for Africa

Published by
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
and the African Union Development Agency-NEPAD (AUDA-NEPAD)
Accra, 2021
Mansourian, S., & Berrahmouni, N. 2021. Review of forest and landscape restoration in Africa. Accra. FAO and
AUDA-NEPAD. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6111en

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CONTENTS
Acknowledgements vii
Abbreviations and acronyms viii
Executive Summary x
About this Report xiv
Purpose xiv
Methodology xiv
Structure xiv
Chapter 1 Introduction: background and context 1
1.1. Importance of Forests and Tree-based Landscapes in Africa 2
1.2. Reversing the trend 3
1.3. International policy context 4
FLR, the UN Rio Conventions and the UNFF Global Forest Action Plan 4
Chapter 2 Restoring what and for whom? 7
2.1. Brief overview of options for restoration 8
2.2. Why restore, what is being restored, by whom and for whom? 9
Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 15
3.1. Reviewing restoration potential and pledges 16
3.2. Current status of forests in Africa 17
African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100) 17
3.3. FLR in the African subregions 21
3.4. Major multicountry FLR initiatives and programmes 31
Chapter 4 Key Success Factors 35
Chapter 5 Opportunities and challenges for FLR in Africa 41
5.1. Opportunities 42
5.2. Challenges for FLR in Africa 43
Chapter 6 Going forward: translating commitments into action for the UN Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration 47
References 50
Annex I: List of projects (major donors) 55
Annex II: Interviewees 66
iv

FOREWORD
The African continent is endowed with diverse forest restore 100 million hectares by 2030. In addition, the
ecosystems that offer a wide range of benefits to its Pan-African Agenda on Ecosystem Restoration for
people. Home to the second largest rainforest on the building resilience led to commitments to restore 200
planet – the Congo Basin – Africa hosts 17 percent of million hectares. The Great Green Wall Initiative for
the world’s forests and 31 percent of woodlands across the Sahara and Sahel, launched in 2007, also led to
the Sahel and other regions. These landscapes deliver the commitment of restoring 100 million hectares of
numerous products and services, including food, fuel, degraded lands. On 1 March 2019, the United Nations
shelter and freshwater, protect against hazards and General Assembly declared 2021–2030 The UN Decade
provide habitats for wildlife. on Ecosystem Restoration. All these efforts are expected
to massively scale up the restoration of degraded
Worryingly, however, these natural assets are currently landscapes as a proven measure to fight climate
undergoing structural changes due to degradation and change and enhance food security, water supply and
fragmentation as the result of both natural processes biodiversity.
and human (anthropogenic) activities. As much as 65
percent of productive land in Africa is degraded, while The Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa
desertification affects 45 percent of the continent’s 2021 is a timely stocktake of the continent’s efforts
land area. Every year, nearly three million hectares of on restoration. Although Africa presents the largest
Africa’s forests are lost, leading to a 3 percent loss of restoration opportunity among all continents – with
GDP associated with soil and nutrient depletion. As more than 700 million hectares of degraded landscapes
a result of degraded forests and croplands and the that can be restored – progress remains slow. A review
associated loss of land productivity and desertification, of current approaches and exploration of emerging
Africa spends more than USD 35 billion on food opportunities is key to accelerating restoration efforts.
imports annually. Rural smallholder farmers and
households suffer the most from degraded lands as The AUDA-NEPAD remains committed to working with
their activities directly depend on healthy soils, tree a broad base of other African institutions, Member
cover and clean water. Degraded forest landscapes not States and partners to fast-track restoration efforts on
only intensify the effects of climate change but also the continent. Transforming African agriculture and
severely threaten the ecological functions that are vital building resilient communities in the face of climate
to building prosperous and resilient economies to the change is intricately linked to our success in restoring
communities. degraded lands into healthy, productive and diverse
ecosystems.
The urgent need to reverse these negative and
devastating trends has prompted African leaders
to commit to the restoration of the continent’s Dr Ibrahim Assane Mayaki
ecosystems. Through its roadmap for development,
Chief Executive Officer
Agenda 2063, the African continent commits to
African Union Development Agency-NEPAD
ecosystems restoration by protecting, restoring and
(AUDA-NEPAD)
promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably managing forests, and combating
desertification. In 2015, the African Forest Landscape
Restoration Initiative (AFR100) was launched to
 v

Food production – a fundamental cornerstone of The African continent embraced FLR through the
human development – is reliant on factors such as AFR100 partnership, launched in 2015, with a challenge
soil properties, water and climate, and goods and to restore 100 million ha of land by 2030, also taking
services from natural ecosystems, such as forests. In advantage of the Great Green Wall of the Sahara and
turn, trees and forests in the landscape play a key role the Sahel initiative launched in 2007. Other initiatives
in sustaining all these features and therefore in food such as the Regreening Africa programme or the work
production. Productive landscapes are particularly led by the Green Belt movement, developed under the
important in Africa, where the majority of people live in pioneer and Nobel prize winner Wangari Maathai, all
rural areas where poverty levels remain unacceptably play important roles in rolling out FLR.
high. Here, people are reliant on agriculture and
natural resources for their livelihoods, food security We are pleased to launch today, jointly with our partner
and nutrition. Several countries in Africa have suffered the AUDA-NEPAD, this first ever Review of Forest and
from land degradation, which in many cases has Landscape Restoration in Africa as we enter the UN
prompted positive changes in land use and major Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Findings from this
attempts to restore rural landscapes, including through report highlight the many successes already visible in
massive tree-planting campaigns. Africa, identify factors contributing to these successes,
and present opportunities and challenges going
Extending well beyond tree-planting, forest and forward. Far from being exhaustive, we expect it to
landscape restoration (FLR) is an all-encompassing provide a useful baseline, a starting point from which
approach to returning trees and forests to landscapes we can assess progress during the UN Decade and
where they have been lost. As such, it holds the beyond.
promise of meeting multiple objectives, including
food production, disaster risk reduction and climate
change mitigation and resilience. The FLR process is Abebe Haile-Gabriel
long-term and can take many different pathways but
Assistant Director-General and
ultimately seeks to return forest quality and quantity
and their goods and services where they have been Regional Representative for Africa
lost, in order to meet the needs of people and improve Food and Agriculture Organization
the environment. It is a sustainable, forward-looking of the United Nations (FAO)
solution.
 vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank all those who contributed The authors would like to thank AFR100 Secretariat and
in one way or another to the preparation of this AFR100 Management team members (AUDA-NEPAD,
document. In particular would we like to thank the BMZ, FAO, GIZ, IUCN, the World Bank and WRI) for their
interviewees and reviewers who provided valuable contributions and inputs to the preparation of the
insight: Patrick Bahal’okwibale, Ellysar Baroudy, concept for this report.
Christophe Besacier, Benjamin Caldwell, Susan
Chomba, Jonathan Davies, Sean DeWitt, Mamadou Our thanks go to Joas Fiodehoume, who copy-
Diakhite, Ernest Foly, Victoria Gutierrez, Seif Hamisi, edited the document, Creatrix Design Group, who
Sam Kanyamibwa, Shono Kenichi, Petra Lahann, provided layout and design, and Zoie Jones, Regional
Jörg Lohmann, Bonani Madikizela, Cecile Ndjebet, Communications Officer at the FAO Regional Office for
Ousseynou Ndoye, Tony Rinaudo, Moctar Sacande, Africa, and her team for their invaluable support.
Mignane Sarr, Claudia Vogel and Sheila Wertz.

Nora Berrahmouni, Mamadou Diakhite, Stephanie

Mansourian, Teko Nhlapho, Amanda Nyingwa and
Soalandy Rakotondramanga contributed to the
preparation of the concept for this report.
viii

ABBREVIATIONS AND
ACRONYMS
AAD Action Against Desertification ECCAS Economic Community of Central
ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of African States
States EUR Euro
AFR100 African Forest Landscape Restoration FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of
Initiative the United Nations
A/R Afforestation/Reforestation FERI Forest Ecosystem Restoration Initiative
ALAP African Landscapes Action Plan FIP Forest Investment Programme
AMU/UMA Arab Maghreb Union FLEUVE Front Local Environnemental pour une
ANR Assisted Natural Regeneration Union Verte
ARCOS Albertine Rift Conservation Society FLR Forest and Landscape Restoration
ASFF Africa Sustainable Forestry Fund FLRM Forest and Landscape Restoration
AU African Union Mechanism
AUDA-NEPAD African Union Development FMNR Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration
Agency-NEPAD FRA Forest Resources Assessment
BMZ German Federal Ministry for Economic GAMS Gums for Adaptation and Mitigation in
Cooperation and Development Sudan
BRICKS Building Resilient, Information, GBM Green Belt Movement
Communication, and Knowledge GCF Green Climate Fund
Services GDP Gross Domestic Product
BRIDGES Boosting Restoration, Income, GEF Global Environment Facility
Development, Generating Ecosystem GGW Great Green Wall
Services GGWSSI Great Green Wall for the Sahara and
CAFI Central African Forest Initiative Sahel Initiative
CAR Central African Republic GPFLR Global Partnership on FLR
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre
CCB Climate, Community and Biodiversity IFAD International Fund for Agricultural
CCSEDG Climate Change, Socio-Economic Development
Development and Governance IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on
CDM Clean Development Mechanism Development
CEN-SAD Community of Sahel-Saharan States IKI International Climate Initiative
CILSS Permanent Inter-State Committee for INDC Intended Nationally Determined
Drought Control in the Sahel Contributions
COMDEKS Community Development and IPBES Intergovernmental Science Policy
Knowledge Management for the Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Satoyama Services
COMESA The Common Market for Eastern and ISOEWR Information System, Observatory, Early
Southern Africa Warning and Response
CRGE Climate-Resilient Green Economy IUCN International Union for Conservation of
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo Nature
EAC East African Community LDCF Least Developed Countries Fund
EbA Ecosystem-Based Adaptation LDN Land Degradation Neutrality
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African NAPA National Adaptation Programme of
States Action
 ix

NASA National Aeronautics and Space SLWM Sustainable Land and Water
Administration Management
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s SNRLP Sustainable Natural Resources and
Development Livelihoods Programme
NGO non-governmental organization TFCG Tanzania Forest Conservation Group
NRM Natural Resource Management TOELP Tunisia Oases Ecosystems and
NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product Livelihoods Project
OECD Organisation for Economic TRI The Restoration Initiative
Co-operation and Development UN United Nations
OSS Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat
PPP Private Public Partnership Desertification
REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation UNDP United Nations Development
and Forest Degradation Programme
ROAM Restoration Opportunities Assessment UNEP United Nations Environment
Methodology Programme
RPTIP Rural, Pastoral and Transhumance UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention
Infrastructure Project on Climate Change
SADC Southern African Development UNFF United Nations Forum on Forests
Community USD United States Dollar
SAWAP Sahel and West Africa Program in VCS Verified Carbon Standard
Support of the Great Green Wall WCA Wildlife Conservation Area
SER Society for Ecological Restoration WHO World Health Organization
SLM Sustainable Land Management WRI World Resources Institute
SLMGE Sustainable Land Management and WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
Green Economy
x

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The purpose of this report is to assess the current implementation of forest and landscape restoration
(FLR) in Africa. It presents the context for FLR on the African continent, highlights major FLR initiatives,
and provides an overview of FLR in Africa at the start of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
(2021–2030). It identifies key challenges, opportunities, actors and processes, illustrated with some
case studies. Data collection was both primary (interviews) and secondary (extensive desk research).
The report contributes to tracking progress on the implementation of AFR100 and other FLR initiatives
in Africa on the ground. It provides a baseline for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and is
expected to be updated at regular intervals. The report is prepared under the jointly implemented
regional technical cooperation programme by FAO Regional Office for Africa (RAF) and the African
Union Development Agency-NEPAD (AUDA-NEPAD) “Support to the implementation and monitoring of
the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100)” and in close collaboration with AFR100
Management Team members and partners. It is also responding to the recommendation of the 22nd
Session of FAO African Forestry and Wildlife Commission, held in March 2020 in South Africa.

The report is structured as follows: Chapter 1 introduces the importance of Africa’s forests and
tree-based landscapes and to the challenges they and their people face, as well as the relevance of
restoration and the global policy context. The next chapter presents an overview of FLR and restoration
more generally. The third chapter provides a more detailed overview for Africa’s subregions of the
current status of forests with examples of FLR initiatives (or other relevant ones that may not have the
FLR label but are in fact aligned with FLR). Chapter 4 then reviews some key success factors for FLR in
Africa. Chapter 5 presents opportunities going forward and remaining challenges. The last chapter is
more forward-looking and speculative, highlighting potential priorities for FLR in the UN Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration.

The African continent hosts 17 percent of the world’s these trends for current and future generations. Forest
forests (636 639 000 ha) and 31 percent of the world’s and landscape restoration is one approach that is being
“other wooded lands”. These forests are very diverse embraced by Africa’s leaders to do just that.
– from mangroves to Afromontane forests, dry forests
and tropical rainforests. Africa is home to the second Reversing forest loss and land degradation requires
largest rainforest on the planet: the Congo Basin. An first and foremost addressing the drivers behind this
estimated 60 million people depend directly on these loss and degradation, but it also requires scaling
forests while over 60 percent of Africans depend either up restoration. African governments have stepped
directly or indirectly on their goods and services. And up to their responsibilities with over 120 million ha
these forests are fundamental to addressing some committed to restoration through AFR100, 200 million
of the major challenges of our time: the biodiversity ha through the Pan-African Agenda on Ecosystem
extinction crisis, climate change and food security, Restoration and 100 million ha through the Great Green
all of which will have severe impact on the most Wall for the Sahara and Sahel Initiative. Although these
vulnerable rural populations that are already facing areas overlap, they illustrate the extent of the political
food and energy insecurity. will for restoration.

Yet, between 2015 and 2020, Africa lost 4.4 million ha of Forest landscape restoration (FLR) was first defined
forest each year. As much as 65 percent of productive in 2000 as “a planned process that aims to regain
land in Africa is degraded, while desertification affects ecological integrity and enhance human wellbeing in
45 percent of Africa’s land area. It is urgent to reverse deforested or degraded landscapes”. This definition
 xi

has evolved, but in all cases the approach retains In the 2010–2020 period, only 11 out of 58 (19 percent)
two important features: its scale (landscapes) and African countries and territories showed an overall
its intention to reconcile both human and ecological increase in forest cover, according to their national
priorities. To further describe the characteristics of FLR, reports to the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment.
the Global Partnership on FLR defined six principles in In the same period, 26 African countries and territories
2018: (1) focus on landscapes; (2) engage stakeholders out of 58 (45 percent) reported annual forest expansion
and support participatory governance; (3) restore figures (either through afforestation or natural
multiple functions for multiple benefits; (4) maintain expansion).
and enhance natural ecosystems within landscapes;
(5) tailor to the local context, using a variety of For each of the five subregions (Northern, Eastern,
approaches; and (6) manage adaptively for long- Central, Western and Southern), the status of and
term resilience. Having multiple objectives is central threats to forests are outlined and a selection of
to FLR, and these can include ecosystem objectives FLR projects (or those which are compatible with
(e.g. connectivity for wildlife, strengthening the value FLR) presented. Most of the projects reviewed had
of protected areas, ecosystem resilience, etc.) and a strong climate change dimension, aiming at not
human objectives (e.g. alternative income-generation, only sequestering carbon, but also reducing the
improved agriculture and agroforestry for food security, vulnerabilities of rural people and building their
disaster risk reduction, etc.) resilience. Many projects addressed job creation and
food security concerns. A number of continent-wide
In the African context, the urgency of reversing land initiatives, such as and Regreening Africa, are also
degradation serves as a major driver for FLR. As such, highlighted. A selection of 100 projects aligned with
FLR in Africa extends well beyond forested landscapes FLR and funded by major donors is listed in Annex I.
to include the vast drylands, including grasslands,
(for example, where trees may not dominate the Key success factors for FLR in Africa are institutional,
landscape) but still play a fundamental role in the social, political and economic. Local ownership and
resilience of both the land and its people. In this report, stakeholder engagement are fundamental success
FLR interventions refer mainly to active or passive factors. Ultimately, FLR takes place on the ground with
restoration in wider projects or programmes that have local communities that are most affected by forest loss
both a socio-economic and an ecological component. and degradation; they need to embrace the approach
Recognising the importance of reversing not only forest if it is to be carried through in the long term. At the
loss and degradation but also land degradation, FAO same time, high-level political support for FLR provides
refers to “forest and landscape restoration”. the political foundation for any FLR action to take
place. Champions are also important to generate the
African governments have made ambitious restoration momentum necessary and bring in more stakeholders
commitments. In 2015, the African Forest Landscape around FLR. Access to finance is critical, particularly
Restoration Initiative (AFR100) was launched to restore for those on the ground. Another success factor for
100 million ha by 2030. Three years later, the Pan- FLR is its integrative nature, given its relevance to and
African Agenda on Ecosystem Restoration for building linkage with other priorities, such as climate change,
resilience led to the commitment to restore 200 million desertification, biodiversity, food security and disaster
ha. And the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and Sahel, risk reduction. Knowledge-sharing and lesson-learning
launched in 2007, also led to the commitment to provides another avenue for success by inspiring
restore a 100 million ha zone of degraded lands across replication. A favourable policy environment provides
the Sahel. Yet, Africa continued to lose forest in the last the foundations for long-term and sustainable FLR
decade, with a net annual forest loss of 3.94 million ha implementation and impact. Using partnerships and
during the 2010–2020 period. Estimates suggest that collaboration to push FLR forward is also critical as
the continent also has 660 million ha of degraded land many stakeholders operating at different levels need to
and 132 million ha of degraded cropland. Although 625 be brought together.
million ha are regenerating, and 11.39 million ha have
been planted in the last decade, that is insufficient to Forest and landscape restoration can present an
address the scale of the problem. opportunity in the long term for Africa. At the same
xii

time, it faces ongoing challenges. Opportunities investment needs to be scaled up if FLR is to reach the
include the fact that FLR has multiple dimensions ambitious scales proposed. The limited availability
that link to other priorities, including food and job of credit for farmers often prohibits them from
security, combatting climate change, desertification investing in improved techniques, including investing
and biodiversity loss. Significant funding has also been in tree-planting. Indeed, often the cost of FLR is a
committed to FLR that presents a unique opportunity limiting factor. Illegal exploitation and trade of forest
for implementation under the upcoming UN Decade products remains a major cause of deforestation
on Ecosystem Restoration. In the context of post- and forest degradation in Africa which needs to be
COVID-19 recovery plans, FLR’s holistic perspective tackled. Conversion to agriculture and unsustainable
can be an important contribution related to land agricultural practices are major drivers of forest and
use. The positive economic growth witnessed by land degradation. Climate change is affecting much
Africa can be both an opportunity and a challenge of Africa in severe ways, and reversing forest loss and
for FLR. Mainstreaming FLR in development plans is degradation becomes harder under such conditions.
critical. FLR also plays a central role in the UN Decade
on Ecosystem Restoration, the UN Decade of Family Overcoming existing constraints and building on
Farming (2019–2028), in the renewed commitments opportunities and success factors provide a pathway
under the UNFCCC’s nationally determined to accelerating FLR implementation at scale. The
contributions (NDCs) and implementation under the next ten years will be decisive for FLR in Africa, and
Paris Agreement, and Post-2020 Global Biodiversity indeed, globally. Some of the pathways to move from
Framework, all of which are likely to lead to significant commitments to large-scale actions include:
investments in Africa. • Responding to local needs in FLR programmes
Challenges remain, however. They include first and and projects and adapting FLR implementation
foremost the ongoing and accelerating rate of forest to local conditions;
loss and degradation. Many of these challenges, • Seeking to meet the multiple socio-economic
however, are not unique to Africa. FLR is a challenging and ecological objectives of FLR with high levels
concept and many different interpretations of the term of ambition;
and the approach co-exist (some of which are clearly
not aligned with the FLR principles and model). Ill- • Ensuring that landscape improvements aligned
defined or inequitable tenure and property rights are with FLR strive for the best possible outcomes
major challenges across large parts of Africa leading – social, economic and ecological in any given
to insecurity and conflict with subsequent impacts context;
on FLR investment and implementation. Human
and technical capacity to implement FLR effectively • Designing locally relevant regional and
remain insufficient. Locally relevant tools for FLR are subregional FLR implementation strategies;
missing (for example, in monitoring FLR progress; see
• Giving successful FLR initiatives more visibility
Berrahmouni et al., 2015). Poor infrastructure creates
so that they can be replicated and scaled up;
access difficulties in many parts of Africa, making it
difficult for support staff to enter the landscape and • Ensuring that sufficient and sustained funding
support FLR implementation, but also for products reaches local stakeholders;
from the landscape to reach markets. Information
gaps and the lack of mechanisms to share results • Applying a systemic change to bring together
hamper the dissemination of success stories, and an different sectors to collaborate on FLR (as FLR
ability to build on existing knowledge and expertise. is not just the remit of the forestry sector but
Two major challenges associated with restoration should involve actively other sectors such as
through planting of native trees, shrubs and grasses agriculture, livestock, water, tourism, rural
concern on the one hand, the supply of sufficient development, energy, urban development,
seeds of the appropriate species and on the other, the etc.);
genetic diversity of this source material. Private-sector
 xiii

• Investing to expand knowledge of FLR in the • Fully integrating FLR into post-COVID-19
African context; development plans, including preventing future
emerging diseases by using a “One Health”
• Improving participatory monitoring to correct approach, and protecting and restoring natural
errors, adapt to changing conditions and learn habitats.
from the process;

• Promoting multistakeholder partnerships at

local, landscape, country, subregional and
continent levels for FLR implementation;

Farmers loading fodder from a restoration site on their carts. Tera, Niger

©FAO/Giulio Napolitano
xiv

ABOUT THIS REPORT

analysed. In parallel, a survey has been circulated to
Purpose gather data on projects. However, limited feedback
at the time of production signified that this source of
As we start the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem information was not included in the current report
Restoration (2021–2030), the purpose of this report is (but will be used for future editions of this report).
to assess the current implementation of FLR in Africa. National reports to the Convention on Biological
It presents the current context of FLR on the African Diversity (CBD) were also reviewed for a selection of
continent. Numerous initiatives related to FLR are countries to identify projects. Furthermore, data from
underway in Africa, and this report seeks to highlight the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020
the key initiatives in order to present in one document was analysed. Case studies were selected, notably
a coherent picture of FLR in Africa. The report also taking into account reported information in the Forest
identifies key challenges, opportunities, actors and Resources Assessment (FRA) 2020. The 11 countries
processes, illustrated with some case studies (the reporting an increase in forest cover in the FRA 2020
intention is not to provide a comprehensive overview are showcased.
of existing or planned projects for this first edition,
although it is anticipated that future editions of this
Review of FLR in Africa may do so). This first report
presents a baseline, and regular updates are expected.
Structure
The report is prepared under the jointly implemented
The report is structured as follows: the first chapter
regional technical cooperation programme by FAO
introduces the importance of Africa’s forests and tree-
Regional Office for Africa (RAF) and the African Union
based landscapes and the challenges they and their
Development Agency-NEPAD (AUDA-NEPAD) “Support
people face, the relevance of restoration, and the
to the implementation and monitoring of the African
global policy context. The second chapter presents an
Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100)” and
overview of FLR and restoration more generally. The
in close collaboration with AFR100 Management Team
third chapter provides a more detailed overview for
and partners. It responds also to the recommendation
Africa’s subregions of the current status of forests and
of the FAO’s African Forestry and Wildlife Commission,
examples of FLR initiatives (or other relevant ones that
at its 22nd session held in March 2020 in South Africa.
may not have the FLR label but are in fact aligned with
FLR). Chapter 4 then reviews some key success factors
for FLR in Africa. Chapter 5 presents opportunities
Methodology going forward and remaining challenges. The last
chapter is more forward-looking and speculative,
This report was produced using both primary data identifying potential priorities for FLR in the UN Decade
collection (semi-structured interviews with key on Ecosystem Restoration.
stakeholders involved in FLR in Africa) and desk-based
research. The websites and project databases of major
organizations were surveyed; project databases of
multilateral donors (GEF, GCF, the World Bank) were
reviewed; project and programme documentation was
 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021 1

©FAO/Petterik Wiggers

CHAPTER 1
Introduction: background and context
2 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

1.1. Importance of and nitrogen cycling (Le Quéré et al., 2009; Pan et
al., 2011) and pollination (Potts et al., 2016). They
Forests and Tree-based contribute to soil formation and erosion control
(Bennett et al., 2009). Forests represent a habitat for
Landscapes in Africa wildlife species and a place of recreation, tradition
and spirituality (Plieninger et al., 2015), for millions
of people. Forests are sacred to many cultures in
Close to a fifth (17 percent) of the world’s forests can
Africa, including the Kaya forests of Kenya or those
be found in Africa (Figure 1) as can 31 percent of the
of Coptic monasteries in Ethiopia. These forests and
world’s “other wooded lands” (IPBES, 2018b). The
tree-based landscape are teeming with products
continent is home to the second largest rainforest on
that are essential to everyday life and livelihoods of
the planet: the Congo Basin. These Central African
the majority of Africa’s people (OSS, 2019). The list of
forests are estimated to provide subsistence to over 60
products includes, for example, food, feed, building
million people (de Wasseige et al., 2015). In contrast,
materials, medicines and importantly, energy. More
the western part of Africa is home to vast expanses of
than 62 percent of Africa’s population depend on the
drylands, within which trees form agrosilvopastoral
goods and services from ecosystems, many of which
landscapes, play a fundamental role, particularly in
are forested (IPBES 2018b). An estimated 90 percent
terms of soil and water protection, food provision and
of the continent’s population depends on firewood
fuelwood (FAO, 2019). Mangroves, montane forests and
and charcoal for energy, especially for cooking (IPBES,
Miombo dry forests also feature among Africa’s unique
2018b). Forests provide a primary source of medicinal
landscapes.
products to about 80 percent of the populations,
Forests and tree-based landscapes are fundamental with a total of 5 400 medicinal plants having been
to sustaining life on earth (IPBES, 2018) and are of documented in Africa (IPBES, 2018b). A meta-analysis
particular relevance to the African continent where by Reed et al. (2017) covering the ecosystem services
the vast majority of the population is rural. Forests impacts in tropical forests, found that overall, the
and trees provide ecosystem services such as water presence of forest and trees has a primarily positive
regulation (Creed and van Noordwijk, 2018), carbon effect on crop yields in Africa. Forests and trees play

FIGURE 1: Africa’s forests by subregion

Africa: Forest area (in 1 000 ha)

800,000.00

700,000.00

600,000.00

500,000.00

400,000.00

300,000.00

200,000.00

100,000.00

1990 2000 2010 2020

Eastern and Southern Africa Northern Africa Western and Central Africa

Source: FAO, 2020.

 Chapter 1 Introduction: background and context 3

© Cameroon Ecology
Mangroves in the coastal village of Lonji in southern Cameroon

an important role in risk mitigation by providing desertification affects 45 percent of Africa’s land area
a “security net” function for millions of rural people (IPBES, 2018b). Reversing this trend is essential and
(Dudley et al., 2008). This role is increasingly apparent recognising this urgency, many governments and
in the face of climate change and anticipated impacts. other stakeholders in Africa are actively engaging
in forest and landscape restoration (FLR). At its 31st
The role of forests in poverty alleviation is also Session hosted by Zimbabwe, the FAO Regional
increasingly better understood (Miller et al., 2020). This Conference for Africa (normally attended essentially
is particularly important in a continent that is home to by ministers of agriculture) called for FAO’s support
the ten countries featuring at the bottom of the Human in elaborating/strengthening its work programme on
Development Index (UNDP, 2020). Extensive research in climate change, biodiversity and sustainable natural
21 African countries highlighted the positive correlation resources management, especially land degradation,
between trees and dietary diversity (Ickowitz et desertification, floods, etc., building on flagship
al., 2014). Forests contribute directly to the gross programmes such as Africa’s Great Green Wall or the
domestic product (GDP) of many countries in Africa, Green Cities Initiative.1
with estimates of the contribution of forests to GDP for
example at up to 6 percent in the Republic of the Congo
(de Wasseige et al., 2015). The contribution of forests
to the informal economy, although unquantified, is 1.2. Reversing the trend
assumed to be significantly higher.
While protecting forests is important, restoring them
Forests are fundamental to addressing major where they have been lost and degraded is also
challenges of our time: the biodiversity extinction necessary; necessary because without those trees in
crisis, climate change and food security. In addition, as the landscape, soils, water and the goods and services
the world faces a global pandemic (and the spectre of provided by forests and trees are lost or impaired.
more to come) it is increasingly apparent that clearing Restoring forests in the African context is about much
forests raises the threat of zoonotic diseases such as more than returning trees to the landscape. It is
COVID-19 or indeed other diseases that have already about meeting both development and environmental
plagued Africa, such as Ebola (Sen, 2020). priorities in a context that is primarily rural and
predominantly low in terms of human development.
Yet, at the time of writing, Africa continues to
The loss and degradation of forests exacerbate
lose forests at a rate of 4.4 million ha per year
impacts on already vulnerable populations with direct
(FAO, 2020). Up to 65 percent of productive land
repercussions on their livelihoods.
in Africa is degraded (Chomba et al., 2020) and

1 http://www.fao.org/3/ne288en/ne288en.pdf
4 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Reversing forest loss and land degradation requires and investment costs and risks are minimized. The
first and foremost addressing the drivers behind private sector has also increasingly engaged with tree-
this loss and degradation (di Sacco et al., 2021), but planting more broadly (Mansourian and Vallauri, 2020).
also scaling up restoration. One of the first and most But the role of governments in restoration remains
famous proponent of tree-planting is the Kenyan Nobel fundamental, and African governments have stepped
laureate Wangari Maathai, who started planting trees up to their responsibilities with over 120 million
in Kenya with women in the 1970s to promote job ha committed to restoration through AFR100, 100
creation, empowerment (particularly of women) as million ha through the Great Green Wall for the Sahara
well as to reverse environmental degradation (Case and Sahel Initiative, and 200 million ha through the
Study 1). Today many initiatives promoting restoration, Pan-African Agenda on Ecosystem Restoration. FAO
particularly FLR, exist in Africa, and indeed around the estimates that a total of 221 million ha need to be
globe. restored in Africa’s drylands – 166 million ha across
Northern Africa, the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, and
In order to begin to define opportunities for FLR, 55 million in the Southern Africa subregion (Sacande et
global and regional maps of priority areas have been al., 2020 b).
developed, starting with 2 billion ha globally needing
restoration (Laestadius et al., 2011) to 0.9 million
ha considered available for restoration (Bastin et al.,
2019). In their research on lowland tropical rainforest 1.3. International policy
landscapes to identify global restoration opportunities,
Brancalion et al. (2019) found that the top six countries
context
with the highest mean “restoration opportunity
score” were in Africa: Burundi, Madagascar, Rwanda, The launch of the Bonn Challenge on FLR in 2011 by
South Sudan, Togo and Uganda. These restoration IUCN and the German Government gave FLR a new
opportunities are intended to delimit areas where dimension. Countries started committing to restoring
interventions are expected to be more cost-effective, millions of hectares of forest landscapes to meet the
where socio-environmental benefits are maximized challenge of reaching 150 million ha by 2020. Three of

BOX 1:

FLR, the UN Rio Conventions and the UNFF Global Forest Action Plan

CBD: The current draft of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework refers to restoration under
Goal A: “The area, connectivity and integrity of natural ecosystems increased by at least [X%] supporting
healthy and resilient populations of all species while reducing the number of species that are threatened
by [X%] and maintaining genetic diversity”. It also includes a proposed target (Target 1) that “by 2030,
[50%] of land and sea areas globally are under spatial planning addressing land/sea use change, retaining
most of the existing intact and wilderness areas, and allow to restore [X%] of degraded freshwater, marine
and terrestrial natural ecosystems and connectivity among them”.

UNFCCC: The 2015 Paris Agreement emphasizes “activities relating to reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests
and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries”.

UNCCD: Land Degradation Neutrality refers to restoration: “Land Degradation Neutrality [in affected
areas][in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas] is a state whereby the amount and quality of land
resources, necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security, remains
stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems. This state can be
achieved by the prevention or mitigation of land degradation, the adoption of sustainable land
management policies and practices, and the recovery of degraded land.”

UNFF global Goal 1: “Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest management,
including protection, restoration, afforestation and reforestation, and increase efforts to prevent forest
degradation and contribute to the global effort of addressing climate change.”
 Chapter 1 Introduction: background and context 5

the most significant pledges are from Africa: Ethiopia initiative includes restoration as a central component,
(15 million ha); the Republic of Sudan (14.6 million as does the first goal of the United Nations Forum on
ha) and Cameroon (12,062,800 ha). In 2014, at the Forests’ (UNFF) Strategic Plan for Forests 2030.
UN Climate Summit, the New York Declaration on
Forests endorsed and extended the Bonn Challenge The UN Sustainable Development Goals also
objectives to 350 million by 2030 (the Bonn Challenge acknowledge the importance of restoring ecosystems,
then also adopted this new target). Restoration more with Goal 15 aiming to “protect, restore and promote
generally has become prominent in the international sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
environmental governance framework. Research manage forests, combat desertification, and halt
has highlighted how FLR can contribute to many of and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity
these international commitments and framework loss.” Under SDG 15, Target 15.3 calls to “combat
agreements (UNEP, 2016; UNEP, 2018; Gichuki et al., desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including
2019) and to the SDGs (Mansourian, 2018). land affected by desertification, drought and floods,
and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world”.
Ecosystem restoration was already part of the CBD’s This last target was integrated into the UNCCD’s LDN
Aichi Target (Target 15) and in 2015 was included in framework.
the Paris Agreement to the UNFCCC. Many nationally
determined contributions (NDCs) refer to forests The current launch of the UN Decade on Ecosystem
(see Box 3). Restoration is also expected to feature Restoration (2021 2030) has further raised the profile of
prominently in the framework of the post-2020 restoration and FLR is seen as a major approach to the
biodiversity framework. The CBD’s draft “Post-2020 broader priority of ecosystem restoration.
framework” also refers to restoration (see Box 2).
Within the UN Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD) the ‘land degradation neutrality’ (LDN)

BOX 2:

Forest restoration in a selection of intended nationally determined

contributions (INDCs) under the UNFCCC

Excerpts from a selection of countries’ INDCs:

Algeria: “The country aims to accelerate and intensify its National Reforestation Plan with a global
objective of reforestation of 1 245 000 ha.”

DRC: "The country foresees to support projects to plant about 3 million ha latest by 2025 through
afforestation and reforestation that would enable the sequestration of about 3 million tonnes of CO2."

Ethiopia: “Improve and diversify economic opportunities from agroforestry and sustainable afforestation
of degraded forest area. Ethiopia intends to increase its ambition by expanding its forest cover, beyond the
initial target for the afforestation and reforestation of 7 million hectares.”

Ghana: “Continue 10 000 ha annual reforestation/afforestation of degraded lands (unconditional); double

10 000 ha annual reforestation/afforestation of degraded lands translating to 20 000 ha on annual basis
(conditional); support enhancement of forest carbon stocks through 5 000 ha per annum enrichment
planting and enforcement of timber felling standards (conditional).”

Kenya: “Making progress towards achieving a tree cover of at least 10 percent.”

Namibia: “Afforest 5 000 ha per year; reforest 20 000 ha per year; reduce deforestation rate by 75 percent.”

Source: INDCs available on the UNFCCC website.

6 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

CASE STUDY 1:

Green Belt Movement

“Tree-planting became a natural choice to address some of the initial basic needs identified by women.”
(Professor Wangari Maathai in her Nobel lecture)

The Green Belt Movement (GBM) was founded in 1977 by late Professor Wangari Maathai. She was
inspired to reverse forest loss while at the same time providing work opportunities for women in
her homeland of Kenya. In the 1970s, rural women in Kenya, at the forefront of farming and food
production, were seeing their streams running dry and their landscapes becoming bare, making food
production for their families more challenging. Maathai’s GBM demonstrated the reach of restoration,
by empowering communities, particularly girls and women, supporting democratic institutions,
improving rural environmental education, promoting climate resilience, improving food security, among
other benefits. For Professor Maathai, democracy, human rights and environmental conservation
were inextricably linked. As of today, the GBM has planted over 51 million trees in Kenya (Green Belt
Movement website). It works in close collaboration with the Kenyan Government to align with the
priorities identified by the government.

Between 2007 and 2011, the GBM carried out the only forest-based Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) project in Kenya – the Aberdare Range/Mt. Kenya Small-Scale Reforestation Initiative. The aim
of the project was to restore environmentally sensitive lands in the catchment areas of the Tana River
within the Aberdare and Mt. Kenya Reserve Forests while at the same time generating carbon credits.
Through the project, GBM together with the local communities reforested 1 649 ha using a mix of fast,
medium and slow growing indigenous species.

Professor Maathai was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 in recognition of her lifelong work in
sustainable development, democracy and human rights.

Farm landscape in Jomba, Rwanda

©FAO/Petterik Wiggers
 Chapter 2 Restoring what and for whom? 7

©FAO/ Gideon Vink

CHAPTER 2
Restoring what and for whom?
8 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

2.1. Brief overview of manipulations and silviculture treatments can

be applied under the broad banner of restoration,
options for restoration including for example, enrichment planting with
desired species, removal of exotic species to reduce
competition and agroforestry to promote both tree
Restoration can take many different forms. A total of
cover and food production (Stanturf et al., 2017).
26 terms associated with restoration (sensu lato) have
been identified, each potentially (but not always)
associated with different methods (Mansourian, 2018). What is forest and landscape restoration?
Some of the most prevalent ones are explained here Forest landscape restoration was first defined in 2000
in Box 1. Stanturf et al. (2014) highlight the different by a group of experts convened by the World Wide
forms that forest restoration can take, and emphasize Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International Union
the importance of clear terminology as well as an for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (Mansourian et
understanding of both starting (baseline) conditions al., forthcoming) as “a planned process that aims
and endpoints or objectives for restoration. Forest to regain ecological integrity and enhance human
restoration can be active, through the planting of wellbeing in deforested or degraded landscapes”. Over
native species, or mixes of native and non-native time, the definition and indeed the term, has evolved
species and through assisted natural regeneration. It (e.g. Sabogal et al., 2015; Besseau et al., 2018). The
can also be passive, by removing causes of degradation definition used by the Global Partnership on Forest and
to allow or encourage natural regeneration. Diverse Landscape Restoration (GPFLR) – by a group of over

BOX 3:

Common terms associated with forest landscape restoration

Reforestation: “Re-establishment of forest through planting and/or deliberate seeding on land classified
as forest.” (FAO, 2012)

Afforestation: “Establishment of forest through planting and/or deliberate seeding on land that, until
then, was not classified as forest.” (FAO, 2012)

Rehabilitation: “Emphasizes the reparation of ecosystem processes, productivity and services.” (Clewell
et al., 2004)

Reclamation: “The main objectives of reclamation include the stabilization of the terrain, assurance of
public safety, aesthetic improvement, and usually a return of the land to what, within the regional context,
is considered to be a useful purpose.” (Clewell et al., 2004)

Natural regeneration: “A gradual process of recovery of the structure, function, and composition of the
pre- disturbance ecosystem.” (Chazdon and Guariguata, 2016)

Ecological restoration: “The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded,
damaged or destroyed.” (Clewell et al., 2004; Gann et al., 2019)

Ecosystem restoration: “The process of managing or assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has
been degraded, damaged or destroyed as a means of sustaining ecosystem resilience and conserving
biodiversity.” (CBD, 2016)

Assisted natural regeneration: “Deliberate human protection and preservation of naturally regenerating
woody vegetation on forest land or abandoned agricultural land or exclosures.” (Chomba et al., 2020)

Farmer-managed natural regeneration: “An agroforestry practice that involves the deliberate protection
and management of naturally regenerating woody vegetation by farmers on agricultural land.” (Chomba
et al., 2020)
 Chapter 2 Restoring what and for whom? 9

30 partners engaged in FLR – is “a process that aims

to regain ecological functionality and enhance human
2.2. Why restore, what is
well-being in deforested or degraded landscapes.” FAO
refers to “forest and landscape restoration” to highlight
being restored, by whom
the importance of landscape restoration more widely.
The difference here concerns the role of trees in the
and for whom?
landscape that do not necessarily qualify as forests.
Thus, for example, trees in a productive landscape may Objectives
play a significant role (e.g. protecting crops from wind Loosely defined, forest and landscape restoration
erosion) and restoring them may lead to substantial signifies improving the landscape. Improvements for
ecological and social benefits. The intention behind one set of stakeholders may, however, not be perceived
FLR has always been to improve forested landscapes as an improvement by another set of stakeholders
by returning the quality and quantity of forests in the (Mansourian, 2017). For example, while woodlots of
landscape. Nevertheless, it is important to highlight fast-growing non-native species may be perceived
that FLR was never intended to bring trees where they as providing minimal biodiversity benefits by a
are not naturally occurring, e.g. in grasslands (Veldman natural scientist, they may be a major improvement
et al., 2015; Bond et al., 2019). Only landscapes where for a local village requiring fuelwood. The objectives
forests and trees have a natural role to play are of restoration can diverge significantly depending
appropriate for FLR. on the stakeholder (Table 1). A review of initiatives
labelled as FLR in Burkina Faso found that the three
Forest and landscape restoration aims to reconcile most common objectives were the recovery of
both the social and ecological dimensions of ecological functionality, an increased resilience of local
restoring forested landscapes. To further describe communities to climate change and the promotion of
the characteristics of FLR, the GPFLR defined six agrosilvopastoral productivity (Vinceti et al., 2020). It
principles in 2018: (1) focus on landscapes; (2) engage is useful to review some of these potential objectives,
stakeholders and support participatory governance; and to outline a typology of objectives for FLR. In 2014,
(3) restore multiple functions for multiple benefits; a broad typology of objectives for FLR was proposed
(4) maintain and enhance natural ecosystems within (Mansourian and Vallauri, 2014) that can be used as a
landscapes; (5) tailor to the local context using a variety starting point. Importantly, the essence of FLR is that
of approaches; and (6) manage adaptively for long- it should aim for multiple objectives, both social and
term resilience (Besseau et al., 2018). These form key ecological.
elements of what FLR is and how it is different to other
restoration efforts.

A boy stands next to a tree in a farmland area belonging to agro-pastoralist communities of the region in Amudat, Uganda

©FAO/Luis Tato
10 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Table 1: Some objectives for FLR

OBJECTIVES OF FOREST AND

EXAMPLES FROM AFRICA
LANDSCAPE RESTORATION

In Tanzania’s East Usambara landscape, village land forest

Connectivity for wildlife reserves were established as a tool to improve connectivity
between existing protected areas (Mansourian et al., 2019).

The South African Government initiated the Subtropical

Thicket Restoration Programme, as part of the Eastern Cape
Strengthening the value of Biodiversity Conservation Plan – a large-scale restoration
protected areas effort that includes private lands in order to support the
natural values of the protected areas and re-establish
connectivity across the landscape (Keenleyside et al., 2012).

Tooro botanical Gardens in Uganda is operating the largest

Securing endemic plant species tree nursery of native tree species and has been working
Ecological objectives
and maintaining a genetic pool with local communities to bring 52 ha of degraded forest
reserves under restoration (SER website).

On Praslin Island (Seychelles), reforestation along the

shoreline aims to improve soil physiochemical properties
Ecosystem resilience to reduce the coastal ecosystem’s vulnerability to increased
episodes of intensive rainfall due to climate change (and
reducing erosion and fire risks) (Adaptation Fund website).

The Conservation action plan for the Greater Virunga

Habitat and food for keystone landscape (DRC/Rwanda/Uganda) includes restoration,
species notably for the endangered mountain gorilla (Plumptre et
al., 2016).

In Madagascar, FLR helped to improve water sources.

Water protection
(https://www.wwf.mg/en/?uNewsID=309810)

In Ethiopia’s Machakel district, East-Gojam zone (Amhara

Soil stabilization region) tree-planting seeks to reduce soil erosion and
stabilise soils (We Forest website).
Both ecological and
Restoring more trees in the landscape provides improved
socio-economic
conditions for crops in the face of droughts, and ultimately,
objectives Resilience to drought
helps improve the resilience of rural communities as has
happened in Niger (World Vision website).

The FAO/GCF project Gums for Adaptation and Mitigation

in Sudan (GAMS) aims to enhance the adaptive capacity of
Carbon sequestration
local communities and restore the carbon sink potential of
the Gum Arabic belt (FAO website).

In Tanzania’s East Usambaras landscape, WWF worked with

local communities to diversify the local economy through
Alternative income generation beekeeping, butterfly farming and growing aromatic plants,
which raised the target communities’ incomes by 239
percent (Mansourian et al., 2019).

The Acacia Operation Project in six Sahelian countries aimed

to contribute to sustainable development, food security and
Socio-economic Improved agriculture and
the fight against desertification through the promotion and
objectives agroforestry (food security)
integration of gum and resin production into rural economic
activities in Africa (FAO website).

In Kenya’s coastal forest, the Mijikenda have restored the

Kaya, sacred ancestral villages surrounded by forests. These
Cultural values Kayas are between 10 and 900 hectares and represent
valuable remnants of the forest (WWF and UNESCO
websites).
 Chapter 2 Restoring what and for whom? 11

Table 1: Some objectives for FLR

OBJECTIVES OF FOREST AND

EXAMPLES FROM AFRICA
LANDSCAPE RESTORATION

The German Government through the IKI funding

mechanism, is funding ten charcoal-producing communities
Secure source of fuelwood and
in the Bono East and Savannah regions of Ghana.
building materials
Afforestation is being carried out on degraded land for
Socio-economic
sustainable energy wood production (IKI website).
objectives
On Djibouti’s coastline, mangroves were restored to protect
Disaster risk reduction farmland and freshwater aquifers from saltwater intrusion
and flooding (UNEP, 2017).

(Source: adapted from Mansourian and Vallauri, 2014).

CASE STUDY 2:

Agdals in Morocco’s High Atlas

The agdals (or aqdals) represent an age-old Berber traditional way of managing the land in Algeria,
Morocco and Tunisia. It involves setting aside areas, enabling them to regenerate. Although it faded in
the twentieth century because of a centralized approach to forestry, it is still present in the High Atlas
Mountains in Morocco. In practice, six categories of agdals have been identified, depending on the land
use (Auclair et al., 2006). For example, there are agdals for pastures and also for forests. A set of rules
apply to the set aside area. The authority responsible for defining the specific rules may be the assembly
of family chiefs, a religious authority or a representative of the State. They define the geographical
limits of the agdal and the rules for it, assign patrolling roles to members of the community and impose
sanctions when necessary. Three modes of organization and management also exist for agdals. These
are defined according to the ultimate authority of the agdal. There is the agdal of the taqbilt (agdal-
n-taqbilt), where the community is fully responsible for the organization and management of the
agdal; the agdal of the Saint (agdal-n-ougourram) where the supervision (and therefore the definition
of the rules, supervision of their application, etc.) of the agdal falls to a saint (zaouia) or to a religious
institution; and the agdal of Makhzen where a government representation is the ultimate authority.
Forests in agdals appear to be better managed and protected.

Source : Auclair et al., 2006 and Herzenni, 2008.

12 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Activities relate to broader socio-economic and governance

Diverse methodologies and activities can be carried aspects that contribute to the wider FLR programme.
out to meet these objectives. The Restoration For example, the integration in Kenya’s constitution
Opportunities and Assessment Methodology (ROAM) of a target to secure a minimum 10 percent forest
recognises seven broad categories of activities cover, provides a strong incentive and political
in the framework of FLR: (1) planting forests and framework within which restoration can take place
woodlots; (2) natural regeneration; (3) silviculture; and be promoted (Mansourian, 2020). This was a
(4) agroforestry; (5) improved fallow; (6) mangrove policy intervention that will make a major difference
restoration; and (7) watershed protection and erosion to FLR implementation. Capacity-building at all levels
control. When identifying activities associated with FLR, is also fundamental: without the appropriate skills
a distinction can be made between core restoration (from those required to manage land directly to those
interventions that typically refer to putting trees back required to develop businesses that can support
into the landscape, and supportive interventions families or access markets), knowledge (about species,
that bring in the wider landscape dimensions (Figure but also about market opportunities or about running
2). Core restoration interventions can be divided into a tree nursery) or expertise, the long-term objectives of
active restoration, that involve “a range of human FLR are difficult to achieve. Similarly, without adequate
interventions in an effort to accelerate and influence monitoring in place, it is difficult to know what works,
the successional trajectory of recovery” and passive what does not work, and what remedial actions are
restoration that aims to remove prior anthropogenic necessary. Monitoring enables improvements in
land-use types to allow the forest to recover naturally processes and helps to speed up FLR initiatives by
or unassisted (Meli et al., 2017). Active approaches promoting the practices that work, and stopping or
include assisted natural regeneration and a diversity correcting those that do not.
of efforts to plant trees (indigenous or mixes of native While comprehensive programmes that include diverse
and non-native, fast growing or slow growing, food and interventions are more likely to achieve the multiple
fodder species, energy species, etc.). They also include and long term objectives of FLR, punctual interventions
efforts to combine trees with agriculture, through associated with capacity-building, improvement of
agroforestry, agro-ecology, climate-smart agriculture, knowledge on genetic diversity or policy changes, can
conservation agriculture, dynamic agriculture and all contribute to the eventual scaling up of restoration
other methods. Passive efforts to FLR include physical interventions.
or social fencing/exclosures to remove grazing or
other pressures. The long-standing farmer-managed
natural regeneration (FMNR) efforts carried out by A typology for FLR
farmers in Niger (Case study 3) have been highlighted There is no single approach to FLR as it remains highly
repeatedly. Passive restoration can also be prompted context-dependent. However, mapping some activities
through governance measures, such as traditional – both core and supportive – and some possible
land governance systems like the hima or agdal land objectives, can provide guidance and a typology to
management systems of Northern Africa (Case study 2). support FLR implementation.
Several activities are important, and in some cases,
essential, to achieve the broader and long-term
objectives of FLR. These supportive FLR interventions
 Chapter 2 Restoring what and for whom? 13

Figure 3:2:
FIGURE A typology of FLR objectives and activities

Potential activities
Multiple FLR
objectives
Core restoration Supporting FLR
Expanding
interventions interventions
recreation areas

Planning:
Restore sacred sites Passive: Mapping
Fencing Engaging
Removing invasive Understanding
species Prioritising
Improved food
Removing Negotiation
security
herbivores
Fuel load reduction
Diversify income
Enabling:
Incentives
Improved soil & Active: Funding
water conservation Site preparation Capacity building
Planting Participation
Managing/tending Removing drivers of
Disaster risk Agroforestry FMNR loss/degradation
reduction

Increase species
diversity Sustaining:
Cross-sectoral
collaboration
Improve
Policies
connectivity
Integration
Monitoring
Expand wildlife Lesson learning
habitat Adaptive
management

Source: Adapted from Mansourian and Vallauri, 2014 and Sabogal et al., 2015.
14
©FAO/Giulio Napolitano Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Farmer harvesting fodder from one of the project restoration sites, Tera, Niger

In practice, and in light of the typology outlined above, rural population and significant land degradation.
different projects and programmes – even without the In this context, the two dimensions – social and
label ‘FLR’ – can be considered as contributing towards ecological – of FLR are paramount. Also, the
FLR. For example, projects that plant mangroves while importance of reversing land degradation serves as
engaging local communities and seeking to define a major driver of FLR in Africa. As such, FLR in Africa
alternative livelihoods so that mangroves are no longer extends well beyond forested landscapes to include
destroyed, may be considered as FLR. Equally, projects the vast grasslands in the drylands, for example
that seek to reduce deforestation by promoting the where trees may not dominate the landscape but
planting of small village woodlots for the purposes of play a fundamental role to the resilience of both
the community, may count towards FLR. the land and its people (FAO, 2015b). In this report
FLR interventions refer mainly to active or passive
In Africa, FLR takes place within a complex context of restoration, with a social, economic and ecological
rapid change, diversity across subregions, a largely component.
 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 15

“Without forests we are nothing”

— (Interviewee 5²).

©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

CHAPTER 3
FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments
and Current Situation

2 Anonymised quotes from the interviews are used to illustrate some sections of the report.
16 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

3.1. Reviewing restoration their own “restoration challenge” with the launch of
the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative
potential and pledges (AFR100) in 2015, a pledge by over 30 African countries
to restore 100 million ha by 2030 (see Box 4; Figure 3).
In addition, three years later, under the Pan-African
The potential for restoration in Africa has been
Ecosystem Restoration Action Agenda, countries
estimated at over 720 million hectares, an area nearly
pledged to restore over 200 million ha by 2030. And
as large as Australia (UNEP, 2018). Within Africa’s
under the Great Green Wall, countries pledged to
drylands, FAO estimates that a total of 221 million
restore an 8 000 km stretch of degraded land across
ha are in need of restoration – 166 million ha across
Africa from East to West, for a total area of 100 million
Northern Africa, the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, and
ha. It is important to note that there is potential
55 million in the Southern Africa region (Sacande et al.,
overlap with some of these pledges and, therefore,
2020b). Stepping up to the challenge, African countries,
they cannot be aggregated.
inspired by the Bonn Challenge on FLR, proposed

Figure 3:3:
FIGURE AFR100 Infographic

5 mha 0.5mha 3.2mha 1.4mha 3.5 mha

Burkina Faso Benin Niger Chad Central African Republic

10mha 8 mha
Mali Democratic Republic of Congo

2 mha 14.6mha 2.5mha

Senegal Sudan Uganda

2mha 15 mha
Guinea Ethiopia

0.7 mha 5.1mha

Sierra Leone Kenya

1 mha 2 mha
Liberia Rwanda

5 mha 2 mha
Cote d’Ivoire Burundi
4 mha

2 mha 1.4mha Nigeria

5.2 mha
Ghana Togo
12 mha
Tanzania

Cameroon
4 mha
Madagascar
2 mha
Republic of Congo
1 mha
Mozambique

3.6 mha 2 mha 2 mha 0.5 mha 4.5 mha

South Africa Zimbabwe Zambia Swaziland Malawi

Source: AFR100 modified to comply with UN, 2018.

 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 17

BOX 4:

African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100)

In 2015, as the world leaders were coming together in Paris for the watershed Paris Agreement under
the UNFCCC, 10 African leaders (from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia,
Madagascar, Malawi, Niger, Rwanda, Togo and Uganda) decided to embrace the FLR agenda by
launching their own regional version of the Bonn Challenge: the African Forest Landscape Restoration
Initiative (AFR100). Under this agreement, African governments committed to bringing 100 million ha
under restoration by 2030. Today, this initiative regroups 31 governments, and commitments have
exceeded the target of 100 million ha, standing in June 2021 at 129 912 800 ha (see Figure 3). This
represents by far the most significant commitment under the Bonn Challenge, with the Africa region
making up over 60 percent of the total share of the area committed under the Bonn Challenge by
January 2021 (210 211 080 ha).

The Secretariat of the AFR100 is held by the African Union Development Agency-NEPAD with support
notably from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), FAO,
IUCN, the World Bank and the World Resources Institute (WRI), among others. Twelve financial partners
and 28 technical partners are also contributing to the AFR100. Other major international financial and
technical partners include the World Bank, which has earmarked USD 1 billion in development finance
through the Africa Climate Business Plan. Private financing from impact investors totalling USD 481
million have also been pledged for restoration under AFR100.

3.2. Current status of services in any terrestrial and associated aquatic

ecosystems” (IPBES, 2018). The same panel estimates
forests in Africa that about 20 percent of Africa’s land surface (660
million ha) is degraded (IPBES, 2018b).

Forest loss Some of the most threatened forests of Africa are

Despite the importance of forests, according to FAO’s the mangroves of Western and Eastern Africa and
latest global forest resources assessment (FRA), the Madagascar, and dry forests with more than 50 percent
world is losing 10 million ha of forests each year of dry forest land having been converted to agricultural
(FAO, 2020) – an area the size of Iceland – and the use (Chidumayo and Gumbo, 2010). About 30 percent
African continent is not spared with a large share of of mangrove forest cover were lost in West Africa alone
this loss. Alarmingly, while the overall global trend of over the 1980–2006 period (UNEP, 2007). Latest figures
deforestation appears to be slowly decreasing, the suggest that the rate of loss of mangroves has dropped,
trend in Africa has been on the increase with a net although still at an average continent-wide annual rate
forest loss of 3.94 million ha/year in the 2010–2020 of loss of 2 330 ha in 2010–2020, down from 6 610 ha
decade (up from 3.4 million ha annually in the previous per year in 1990–2000 (FAO, 2020).
decade) (FAO, 2020). The rate of deforestation in the
It is estimated that Africa has a further 132 million ha
2015–2020 period represented 4.41 million ha/year
of degraded cropland (Cai et al., 2011). Projections
(Ibid).
suggest that forest cover will continue to shrink, down
to less than 600 million ha by 2050 (UNEP, 2016).
Forest and land degradation About 45 percent of Africa’s land area is impacted by
desertification and 55 percent of this area is at high or
While data on deforestation is easier to obtain, data
very high risk of further degradation (UNCCD, 2020). At
for forest and land degradation is more complex, given
the same time, the populations of Africa are the most
the subjective nature of degradation (Hobbs, 2016).
vulnerable to land degradation and desertification.
The IPBES defines land degradation as the “many
Climate change and its impacts further add to the
human-caused processes that drive the decline or
vulnerability of populations already facing multiple
loss in biodiversity, ecosystem functions or ecosystem
challenges in their daily lives.
18 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Drivers of forest loss at 12 million ha per decade. Algeria and Burundi

Subsistence and industrial agriculture, extraction for started with negative figures in the 1990–2000 period,
fuelwood, timber and construction materials, and followed by an increase (or stabilisation) of forest
climate change are among the top direct drivers of cover in the next two decades. Cabo Verde saw a
forest loss and degradation (Hosonuma et al., 2012), significant increase in the 1990–2000 period (24 340
although there are subregional differences, as shown ha/year), followed by a more modest increase in the
in the next sections. following two decades (at 3 000 ha/year). Djibouti
saw no change in the 1990–2010 period, followed by a
modest increase (200 ha/year) in the 2010–2020 period.
Forest growth Ghana saw massive losses in the 1990–2010 period
In 2020, an estimated 625.25 million ha of forests (1 075 000 ha/year from 1990 to 2000 and 905 680 ha/
were regenerating in Africa and 11.39 million ha had year from 2000 to 2010) followed by an increase in the
been planted each year by 2020 (FAO, 2020; Figure 4). 2010–2020 period (at 42 780 ha/year). Mauritius saw an
Agroforestry, woodlots and timber plantations each increase in the 1990–2000 period (860 ha/year), offset
made up about a third of the increase in tree cover by a larger decline in the 2000–2010 period (3 540 ha/
in sub-Saharan Africa (700 000 ha) in the 2011–2019 year) and a modest increase in the 2010–2020 decade
period (FAO, 2020b). (380 ha/year). Morocco saw an increase in the 1990–
2000 period (21 250 ha/year), followed by a significant
In the period 2010–2020, only 11 out of 58 (19 percent) increase in the next decade (168 030 ha/year) and a
African countries3 reported an increase in forest lesser increase in the 2010–2020 period (67 920 ha/
cover (see Table 2) to the Global Forest Resources year), while Tunisia witnessed a steady decline in the
Assessment (FAO, 2020). Of these, only Réunion increase, although each decade saw an increase in
showed a sustained positive trend in forest cover forest cover (23 870 ha/year, 19 580 ha/year and 15 300
change from 1990 to 2020, with Eswatini showing a ha/year, respectively).
relatively stable increase over the last three decades

FIGURE 4: Area of naturally regenerating forest and planted forest in Africa

Naturally regenerating forest area (1990 - 2020)

750

600

450

300

150

0
1990 2000 2010 2020

Source: FAO, 2020.

3 The countries included in the analysis are the 58 countries and territories reporting under FRA2020 for the Africa region.
 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 19

Table 2: Eleven countries and territories show an overall increase in forest cover
in the 2010–2020 period

CHANGE 1990–2000 CHANGE 2000–2010 CHANGE 2010–2020

‘000s ha

Northern Africa

Algeria -88.00 339.00 31.00

Morocco 21.25 168.03 67.92

Tunisia 23.87 19.58 15.30

Western Africa

Cabo Verde 24.34 3.00 3.00

Ghana -1,075.65 -905.68 42.78

Eastern Africa

Burundi -82.54 0.00 85.70

Djibouti 0.00 0.00 0.20

Rwanda -30.00 -22.00 11.00

Southern Africa

Eswatini 12.14 12.15 12.13

Mauritius 0.86 -3.54 0.38

Réunion 3.02 3.02 4.45

A total of 26 African countries and territories out of natural expansion) (see Table 3). In addition, eight
58 (45 percent) in the FRA2020 reported annual forest countries reported 0 ha per year for forest expansion;
expansion figures (either through afforestation or the remainder did not report at all.

Table 3: 26 countries and territories showing annual forest expansion

FOREST EXPANSION (‘000S HA/YEAR)

1990–2000 2000–2010 2010–2015 2015–2020

Northern Africa

Algeria 6 48.4 9 4

Mauritania 32.28 35 37.35 39.93

Morocco 2.9 17.88 10.74 11.56

Sudan 226.98 209.54 98.29 93.92

20 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Table 3: 26 countries and territories showing annual forest expansion

FOREST EXPANSION (‘000S HA/YEAR)

1990–2000 2000–2010 2010–2015 2015–2020

Tunisia 6.71 6.3 2.95 2.1

Western Africa

Cabo Verde 3.14 2.2 1.12

Guinea 12

Mali 5 30 0 0

Niger 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Nigeria 0.01 0 0 0.01

Senegal 11 11

Togo 1 1.5 2 2

Central Africa

Cameroon 0.3 2 2 2

Gabon 4.13 9.68 7.37 7.37

Eastern Africa

Burundi 0 0 17.14 0

Djibouti 0 0 0 0.2

Ethiopia 19 19 19 19

Uganda 9.84 9.84 9.84 9.84

Southern Africa

Madagascar 3.6

Mauritius 0.1 0.01 0.08 0.21

Mayotte 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.01

Mozambique 0 45.44 60.6 27.78

Réunion 0.3 0.3 0.41 0.48

South Africa 362.6 362.6 162.6 162.6

United Republic of
28 28 0 5
Tanzania

Zambia 0.45 1.5 1.5

 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 21

Out of the 11 countries and territories reporting an form an important component of landscapes with,
increase in forest cover in the 2010–2020 period (Table for example, the nationally determined contribution
2). Algeria, Cabo Verde, Djibouti, Morocco and Tunisia of Egypt including “the increase of the country’s CO2
also reported an annual expansion of forest cover absorptive capacity through plantations”. Up to 30
through afforestation or natural expansion (Table percent of forests in the subregion are managed for soil
3). However, the six other countries did not. Fifteen and water conservation (FAO, 2018). Algeria, Morocco
countries that reported annual forest expansion did and Tunisia all reported an increase in forest cover
not report a net increase in forest cover, suggesting between 2000 and 2020 (FAO, 2020). However, trends
that losses were greater than gains. overall in the region are on the decline, with the main
threats being habitat transformation for agriculture,
climate change, fire, urbanisation, demographic
3.3. FLR in the African change and overgrazing (IPBES, 2018b; FAO, 2019).

subregions In 2017, the Mediterranean region (both northern and

southern shores) endorsed the Agadir Commitment to
restore 8 million ha by 2030. Framed in the context of
In this section we briefly introduce the forest status for the UNCCD’s Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN), it has
each subregion,4 threats to the forest and tree-based four main components:
landscapes, highlight a selection of FLR projects and
programmes. These were selected either because they • Assess the ongoing national efforts on FLR;
have the FLR label or have led to an increase in forest
cover while also improving social conditions (two • Reinforce regional cooperation on FLR and LDN;
basic dimensions of FLR). In addition to the projects • Cooperate, among interested partners, to
highlighted here, Annex I presents a selection of 100 develop a consensual and diversified strategy
projects aligned with FLR collected from major donor for the financing of FLR efforts and reinforce
databases (Figure 5). The main donors identified national capacities.
include the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the
Green Climate Fund (GCF), the German government • Assess efforts through the establishment of a
(BMZ or BMU), as well as some projects funded through voluntary monitoring and notification system
carbon credits under Plan Vivo or the Livelihoods for FLR and LDN efforts.
Carbon Funds. There is an evident surge in the number
of restoration projects funded in recent years. As a
Only one country in the region made a pledge under
result, many of the projects have only just started and
the AFR100 (Table 4). Three Northern African countries
there is to date, little information on impacts.
(Algeria, Egypt and Mauritania) have developed action
plans for implementation of the Great Green Wall
Northern Africa (GGW).
(Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco,
Republic of Sudan, Tunisia)
Table 4: AFR100 pledges from Northern
Dominated by the Sahara desert, 99 percent of the
Northern Africa region is dryland, for a total of 725 Africa
million ha (FAO, 2019). Of this area, about 2 percent AFR100 PLEDGES
are forests. “Other wooded lands” account for another
1 percent (FAO, 2019). The majority (two-thirds) of COUNTRY Area pledged (ha)
the forests are broadleaves, and almost a quarter is
coniferous (Ibid). Algeria and Morocco represent major Republic of Sudan 14 600 000
centres of plant endemism. Forests here are made up
of emblematic dominant tree species such as fir, cedar,
argan tree, atlas cypress, olive tree, xeric pine (Aleppo
pine, maritime pine and black pine, Berber thuya,
Selection of FLR projects/programmes:
cork oak, holm and holly oak, red juniper, thuriferous Algeria: The government launched a 20-year
juniper and carob species) (IPBES, 2018b). The area national reforestation plan in 2000. According
classified as “other wooded land” consists mostly to its CBD report, Algeria had set aside 4 million
of grassland with trees and shrubs (53 percent) and ha for natural regeneration and rehabilitated
grassland with shrubs (38 percent). Nevertheless, trees 300 000 ha of degraded pastureland (Republic

4 FAO subregional classifications are used.

22
©FAO/Luis Tato Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Semiarid Sahelian landscape in Malamawa village, Zinder Region, Niger

of Algeria, 2014). By October 2020, more than a to restore at least, 121 000 hectares of cork oak
billion trees had been planted, many of them forests as well as providing sustainable revenue
being fruit trees (El Watan online). Algeria has to local populations (2019–2023).
revived and enhanced the development of the
“Barrage Vert” (that was launched in the 1970s) Morocco: The Middle Atlas Forest Restoration
using a landscape and sustainable management project: The project aimed to create an
and restoration approach, and building on appropriate technical and institutional
lessons learnt from the implementation of enabling environment in Morocco to promote
the Barrage Vert. The enhanced Barrage Vert a multifunctional forest management
is considered Algeria’s contribution to the approach. The project’s objective was to
implementation of the GGW for the Sahara and develop and implement an integrated
the Sahel Initiative.5 ecosystem management system to restore
the environmental and socio-economic forest
Algeria: Rehabilitation and integrated functions of the Middle Atlas landscape
sustainable development of Algerian cork oak (e.g. biodiversity conservation, water
forest production landscapes: The objective of regulation, sustainable land management) by
the project is to conserve, sustainably manage demonstrating and promoting the added-value
and harvest Algeria’s globally significant cork oak of the FLR approach (2006–2016).
forest ecosystems. The project intends notably

5 Direction générale des forêts. 2021. Initiative nationale pour la restauration du Barrage Vert, Algérie, 5 p.
 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 23

Sudan: Sustainable Natural Resources and Tunisia: Tunisia oases ecosystems and livelihoods
Livelihoods Programme (SNRLP): The project project (TOELP): The project aims to improve
aims to increase production, secure access sustainable natural resource management
to natural resources for vulnerable users and and promote livelihoods diversification in six
improve the sustainability of related livelihoods selected traditional oases in Tunisia. One of its
through scaling up community-based natural components is to restore and better manage
resource governance and management practices, the productive assets of the targeted oasis
technologies and business models. It includes ecosystems and their resources through the
ecosystem restoration and the resilience of establishment of a partnership between the
farming systems and communities to climate- various stakeholders. The emphasis is on both
change impacts. The project is targeting 720 the ecological and the socio-economic functions
000 poor smallholder farmers, agropastoralists of oases. Activities include the reintroduction
and pastoralists. One priority area is land-use of endangered tree species and of local forage
governance, including defining co-management crops (2014–2019).
arrangements, land registration and conflict
resolution mechanisms (2019–2024). There are nine projects/programmes related to FLR in
Northern Africa, listed in Annex I. The majority of this
Sudan: Integrated Carbon Sequestration Project: sample of projects (67 percent) started after the launch
Targeting the Butana region and its 1 000 000 of the AFR100.
inhabitants, this project aims to promote a
climate-friendly rural development path in
Central and Eastern Sudan by increasing the Western Africa
carbon stock and reducing net greenhouse gas (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Côte d’Ivoire,
emissions in the country, while at the same time The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia,
sustaining rural development in the project Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo)
area. Afforestation/reforestation (A/R) is one of
The Western African zone is made up of rainforest,
the project components aimed at increasing the
semi-desert grassland, savannah grassland with low
national carbon sequestration potential. One
trees, shrubs and savannah woodlands, as well as
of the project’s four objectives is to establish
mangroves and dry forests on the Islands of Cabo
at least 10 000 ha of forests in areas with high
Verde (IPBES, 2018b). Forests are primarily broadleaved
potential for sustainable biomass growth
and about 10 percent of the forest area is planted forest
using multiple A/R forms, mixed species and
(FAO, 2019). Trees are an important component of
suitable water harvesting methods. Through
food systems, with agroforestry and agrosilvopastoral
A/R activities, the project will also tackle wind
systems being practised widely, whereby trees are
and water erosion, soil deterioration, increased
interspersed with crops (or livestock) to protect the
drought effects and reduced ecosystem
soil from wind and erosion, to boost water capture and
productivity, all of which take their toll on the
provide shade and fodder for livestock, among other
livelihoods of rural populations (2012-2016).
benefits. Timber harvesting and agriculture have put
Sudan: Gums for Adaptation and Mitigation in pressure on the forests, and have intensified because
Sudan (GAMS): Enhancing adaptive capacity of of a rapidly growing population (IPBES, 2018b).
local communities and restoring carbon sink
The region was affected by severe droughts in the
potential of the Gum Arabic belt, expanding
1980–2000 period, which further exacerbated other
Africa’s Great Green Wall, the project aims to
pressures, leading to a forest cover decrease of 1.2
enhance climate resilience of livelihoods and
million ha per year in the 1990–2005 period (OSS, 2019).
agrosilvopastoral ecosystem services in Kordofan
As an exception in the subregion, Ghana has seen an
while reducing greenhouse gas emissions from
annual increase in its forest cover of 0.3 percent (Ibid.)
land use. It notably is restoring agroforestry
in the last 10 years, after significant deforestation in the
systems with gum arabic trees that can serve
1990–2010 period (FAO, 2020).
to both protect annual crops and produce a
marketable good (gum). A total of 1.58 million Five countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and
people are expected to benefit and 9.23 million Senegal) in Western Africa are part of the Great Green
tonnes of CO2 sequestered during the 20-year Wall for the Sahara and Sahel initiative (Case Study
investment lifespan (2020–2025). 4), and have committed to restoration under this
framework. In addition, all but three countries (Cabo
Verde, Guinea Bissau and The Gambia) in the subregion
are part of the AFR100 (Table 5).
24 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

natural resources of the upper watersheds. The

Table 5: AFR100 pledges from Western project led to an increase of 400 percent in the
Africa number of trees and of 33 percent in the number
of species in the forests of Dindéresso and
AFR100 PLEDGES
Kou between 2003 and 2009. This project was
COUNTRY Area pledged (ha) followed in 2019 by one entitled “Projet d’appui
à la gestion durable des ressources forestières”
Benin 500 000 (EUR 17 million) (2006–2012).
Burkina Faso 5 000 000 Cabo Verde: Removal of Invasive Plant Species
and Forest Protection in Monte Velha - The
Côte d’Ivoire 5 000 000
Associacao para o Desenvolvimento Comunitaria
Ghana 2 000 000 de Feijoal carried out this project between 2015
and 2016 to promote the implementation of
Guinea 2 000 000
anti-soil erosion techniques, forestation, using
Liberia 1000 000 endemic and native species in the Monte Velha.
All activities were carried out by the NGO in
Mali 10 000 000 collaboration with the Park authorities. The
Niger 3 200 000
objective was to improve forest quality by
recovering degraded areas affected by invasive
Nigeria 4 000 000 plant species as well as promoting better living
conditions for the beneficiaries by protecting
Senegal 2 000 000
their main source of income (2015–2016).
Sierra Leone 700 000
Côte d’Ivoire: Governance and sustainable
Togo 1 400 000 management of natural resources in the
Comoé and Taï area (Pro2GRN): The integrated
Total 36 800 000 governance of the Comoé and Taï regions
are being improved to enable the use of
natural resources in the long term, increase
Selection of FLR projects/programmes: agricultural productivity and professionalise
Benin: Enhanced climate resilience of rural the management of protected areas. It includes
communities in central and north Benin through agroforestry as one of its main areas of work
the implementation of ecosystem-based (2020–2024).
adaptation (EbA) in forest and agricultural
Ghana: Private public partnership (PPP) in the
landscapes: The project aims to interrupt
Forest Sector: This PPP aims to restore and
the vicious negative cycle, whereby rapidly
expand an existing 5 000 ha forest plantation to
degrading ecosystems are leading to greater
nearly 12 000 ha of sustainable commercial forest
vulnerability of communities to climate change
plantation made up of 10 percent indigenous
in central and northern Benin and to build the
tree species and 90 percent teak. The aim is
climate resilience of the local communities
for the programme to be certified under both
by integrating climate-resilient agricultural
the Forest Stewardship Council for sustainable
techniques with tailored restoration of
management and Verified Carbon Standard
degraded forest ecosystems. It focuses on seven
certification standards for carbon credits
municipalities and has three components:( (i)
(2016–2056).
the improved provision of ecosystem goods and
services for climate change adaptation through Senegal: Mangrove Restoration: Oceanium has
forest restoration; (ii) increased agricultural been working with over 500 villages to plant over
productivity to secure livelihoods in the face of 150 million mangrove propagules in the deltas
climate change; and (iii) strengthened capacity of Sine Saloum and Casamance. The success
and awareness to implement EbA and climate- rate so far is estimated at 85 percent. Several
resilient agriculture (2019–2024). international investors have engaged with this
programme, such as Fondation Yves Rocher
Burkina Faso: Projet d’appui à la gestion
and the Livelihoods Carbon Fund, making it the
participative des ressources naturelles dans
largest mangrove restoration initiative in the
la région des Hauts-Bassins: The objective
world (2011–ongoing).
of this project was to promote and facilitate
sustainable and participatory management of
 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 25

There are 24 projects/programmes related to FLR in Western Africa listed in Annex I. The majority of this sample of
projects (75 percent) started after the launch of the AFR100.

CASE STUDY 3:

Farmer-managed Natural Regeneration in Niger

Formally introduced to Niger in 1983, farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) had enabled
the restoration of previously barren lands. In a zone that is subject to particularly harsh conditions
exacerbated by climate change, FMNR promotes and re-invigorates a traditional farming system that
includes the growth of trees already present in the soil. Whereas past, Western-influenced farming
practices had encouraged their elimination, reviving these agroforestry practices has enabled the
“re-greening” of large swathes of this dry country with their adapted native species. In turn, this has
provided shade, soil and water conservation, fodder, medicinal plants and numerous other goods and
services to farmers, their families and livestock (WRI, 2008).

Important changes in the national forest law that enabled farmers to own new trees have supported
this transformation, as previous laws meant that trees belonged to the state, leaving farmers with little
incentive to manage them (IPBES, 2018).

Today, satellite images confirm an increase in vegetation cover in this part of the Sahel for the period
1987 to 2015 (IPBES, 2018). Additional benefits on food security have been registered such as an
increase in grain production (by half a million tonnes per year) and in fodder to feed livestock (Reij et al.,
2009).

The approach is also being seen as a promising method to promote FLR in other parts of Africa. In fact,
it continues to be promoted and adopted through numerous large and small scale projects as well as
being taken up spontaneously by farmers themselves across the continent. Indeed, according to WRI,
“over 300 million hectares of currently degraded land would respond positively to farmer-managed
natural regeneration”.

Source: World Vision.

Samburu women’s group demonstrating FMNR of indigenous acacia trees on communal grazing land. Isiolo, Kenya.

© World Vision/Tony Rinaudo

26 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

CASE STUDY 4:

Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative

In an effort to combat desertification, over 20 countries of the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-
SAD) came together in 2007 to establish the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative
(GGW), under the leadership of the then president of Nigeria, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, and the African
Union. Furthermore, a Pan-African Agency for the Great Green Wall was established in June 2010
gathering 11 countries (Burkina Faso, Chad, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria,
Senegal and Sudan) to boost GGW implementation in these GGW priority countries. The target for the
GGW is to restore 100 million ha of degraded land by 2030 through a mosaic of different sustainable
land uses and production systems stretching across 8 000 km of Africa from West to East (UNCCD, 2020).
Many partners are supporting this initiative, which recently (January 2021) was featured at the One
Planet Summit in Paris where financial and technical partners committed a further USD 14 billion to this
effort, through the “Great Green Wall Accelerator Initiative” (UNCCD website).

Under the political leadership of the African Union Commission and the regional coordination of the
Pan African Agency of the GGW, each country has established at country level, a national agency or
coordination unit, developed its national strategy and action plan, and identified intervention areas
to meet the objectives of the GGW. Implementation of the GGW initiative is seen as contributing to the
three Rio Conventions (GGW website) and to the SDGs in Africa’s drylands.

A GGW harmonised strategy was developed by AUC in collaboration with PAGGW and support of FAO and
GM-UNCCD and other partners in 2012 and endorsed in 2013 by the AU assembly. Countries supported
by FAO and the European Union have also developed their national strategies and action plans for
implementation of the GGW between 2010 and 2014. Restoration has been identified as one of the main
priorities for action.

Furthermore, the PAGGW developed a comprehensive strategic framework with five main
components: (1) sustainable land management and green economy; (2) climate change, socio-
economic development and governance in the localities; (3) support research and development; (4)
communication, marketing and advocacy; and (5) information system, observatory, early warning
and response. Within these, there are 26 more objectives. To date (between 2007–2019), interventions
under the GGW have served to rehabilitate an area of 4 million ha (UNCCD, 2020). The next round of the
initiative (2021–2030) is intended to significantly scale up interventions.

Several on the ground projects are contributing to the initiative (see Case Study 5). Main interventions
are forest and watershed management (0.9 million ha), and terracing and soil measures (0.89 million
ha), followed by conservation/assisted natural regeneration (ANR) (0.73 million ha) and finally,
reforestation (0.68 million ha) (UNCCD, 2020).

Central Africa (IPBES, 2018b). The forests here are diverse, made
(Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, up of swampy forests, dryland rainforest, dry forests,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, woodlands and wooded savannahs and mosaics of
Gabon, and Sao Tome and Principe) forests, grasslands and savannahs (de Wasseige et al.,
2015). Main threats include road construction, mining
Central African forests are part of the second largest and primary industries (IPBES, 2018b). All but three
tropical forests on the planet, make up 89 percent of countries (Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Sao Tome
Africa’s tropical rainforests (IPBES, 2018b) and account and Principe) are part of the AFR100 (Table 6). One
for more than 90 percent of the carbon stored in country (Chad) is part of the Great Green Wall and has
Africa’s terrestrial ecosystems (Mayaux et al., 2013). The its GGW Strategy and action plan. Cameroon has also
lowland forests have a 30 percent rate of endemism requested the AUC to be part of the GGW.
among plant species, while the Afromontane forests
have a rate of plant endemism reaching 70 percent
 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 27

and management of underutilized species; (4)

Table 6: AFR100 pledges from Central support the development and implementation
Africa of a monitoring and evaluation system to assess
the effectiveness of the project’s interventions
AFR100 PLEDGES
in achieving desired restoration outcomes
COUNTRY Area pledged (ha) (2019–2024).

Cameroon 12 000 000 Central African Republic: Forest and

Landscape Restoration supporting Landscape
Central African Republic 3 500 000 and Livelihoods Resilience in the Central African
Republic (CAR): Operating under the banner
Chad 1 400 000
of The Restoration Initiative (TRI), this CAR
Democratic Republic of project will contribute to the restoration and
8 000 000
the Congo maintenance of critical landscapes to provide
global environmental benefits and more resilient
Republic of Congo 2 000 000
economic development and livelihoods, in
Total 26 900 000 support of the Bonn Challenge. Specifically,
the project will: (1) fill knowledge gaps, in
terms of ecosystem service valuation and
Selection of FLR projects/programmes: restoration opportunities; (2) restore more than
3 200 ha using agroforestry and agro-ecology
Cameroon: Protecting forests and the
practices; (3) carry out a needs assessment for
environment (PFE): In the regions, the project
the civil servants of the ministries in charge of
works with municipalities on sustainable
environment, forests, and agriculture and the
forest management. The aim is to enable
targeted local populations in the five pilot sites;
communities and their populations to use
(4) support the elaboration of a technical guide of
their forests profitably while at the same time
good practices in terms of FLR, the organization
conserving them, for example through improved
of regular “FLR technical days” gathering policy-
forest inventories, reforestation and long-term
makers and practitioners, and the elaboration
management plans. Thanks to an earlier phase
and diffusion of training material on FLR
of the project, about 16 000 women living in
(2018–2022).
rural areas were able to increase their income
by marketing non-timber forest products and Chad: Rural, Pastoral and Transhumance
better forest management in the targeted Infrastructure Project (RPTIP): The main objective
municipalities has increased forest revenues by of this project was to contribute to improved
an average of 27.5 percent (2020-2022). living conditions among the transhumant and
sedentary population. Reforestation and tree-
Cameroon: Supporting Landscapes Restoration
planting formed part of the activities to increase
and Sustainable Use of local plant species and
fodder material for pastoralists. By the time of
tree products (Bambusa ssp, Irvingia spp, etc) for
project completion, 294 ha had been restored,
Biodiversity Conservation, Sustainable Livelihoods
using fodder species of value to pastoralists. The
and Emissions Reduction in Cameroon: A medium-
project also led to reduced conflict between
sized project was also approved under the GEF,
nomadic pastoralists and settled communities
with four components: (1) strengthen national
by better delineating transhumance corridors
commitment to FLR and improving the policy
(2011–2019).
and regulatory framework governing FLR so that
is it more supportive of FLR and incentivizes Democratic Republic of the Congo: The
investment in FLR; (2) pilot and assess the Restoration Initiative (TRI): In South Kivu, a ROAM
effectiveness of restoration using Bambusa spp process was carried out and TRI is supporting
and other indigenous NTFPs and support the government and community partners to develop
development of NTFP value chains; (3) ensure a provincial-level strategy for FLR. Household
that institutional and technical capacities are surveys were carried out to better understand
strengthened and financing arrangements communities’ needs and priorities, and
developed and in place for effective landscape determine appropriate and relevant restoration
restoration for biodiversity and C02 emissions interventions (2018–2025).
impacts, and conservational and innovative use
28 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

There are eight projects/programmes related to FLR Kenya’s Green Belt Movement established by late
in Central Africa, listed in Annex I. The majority of this Professor Wangari Maathai is a trailblazer in forest
sample of projects (75 percent) started after the launch restoration (Case Study 1). Five Eastern African
of the AFR100. countries committed to the AFR100 (Table 7). Three
countries (Djibouti, Eritrea and Ethiopia) are part of the
GGW, both Djibouti and Ethiopia have GGW strategies
Eastern Africa and action plans adopted and all three countries
(Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, started GGW implementation.
Somalia, South Sudan and Uganda)

The Eastern Africa subregion displays a diversity Selection of FLR projects/programmes:

of forests, including Miombo woodlands, thickets, Burundi: Burundi Landscape Restoration
mangroves, montane and coastal forests, as well as and Resilience Project: The project aims to
planted forests (Mwangi et al., 2018). The rich Afro- restore degraded landscapes and improve
montane forests of the Albertine Rift straddle Central land management in the targeted hills of the
Africa and Eastern Africa. Population density is high, Bujumbura Rural and Muyinga Provinces, in the
and many forest areas have suffered significant communes of Buhinyuza and Isale. At least 80
anthropogenic pressures and trends show a general 820 small-producer households are expected to
forest decline (ibid). Overall deforestation rates are directly benefit from the project (2018–2023).
high, at 0.3-4 percent in Uganda and 0.05 percent in
1990-2010 in Kenya (Mwangi et al., 2018). The main Djibouti: Implementing NAPA priority
pressures on these forests are agricultural expansion interventions to build resilience in the most
for both subsistence and commercial agriculture; vulnerable coastal zones in Djibouti: The
unsustainable harvesting of wood products (e.g. wood mangroves on the coast of Djibouti provide
fuel, poles and timber), illegal harvesting and trade; valuable ecosystem goods and services to the
wildfires and infrastructure development. Other direct local populations. The project in Khor Angar and
drivers include overgrazing, wildlife and livestock Damerjog aimed to implement a set of urgent
damage, mining, industrial development and human measures that strengthen the capacity to predict
settlement (Mwangi et al., 2018). future changes, while helping local populations
to adapt to climate change through the adoption
Decentralization and community engagement in forest of more sustainable production methods,
management are making headway in this region. In particularly in the areas of water management,
Kenya for example, communities co-manage public agriculture, fisheries and tourism. By 2017,
forests through participatory initiatives whereas in the project had trained local populations in
Uganda, community-based forest management takes techniques to restore the mangrove, established
place through collaborative forest management in four tree nurseries and planted over 40 000
Central Forest Reserves and collaborative resource propagules. Framed in the context of climate
management in Wildlife Conservation Areas (WCAs). change, the project has helped communities to
adapt to the effects of more frequent droughts
and erratic rains (2010–2017).
Table 7: AFR100 pledges from Eastern
Africa. Ethiopia: Resilient Landscapes and Livelihoods
Project: The project focuses on selected
AFR100 PLEDGES watersheds and aims to improve climate
resilience, land productivity and carbon storage,
COUNTRY Area pledged (ha)
while at the same time increasing access to
Burundi 2 000 000 diversified livelihood activities. It has three core
components: (1) restoring degraded landscapes
Ethiopia 15 000 000 in selected watersheds and helping to build
Kenya 5 100 000 resilient livelihoods; (2) building capacity for
the promotion and management of Sustainable
Rwanda 2 000 000 Land and Water Management (SLWM) practices,
and improving information for better decision-
Uganda 2 500 000
making in supporting resilient landscapes
Total 26 600 000 and diversified rural livelihoods in the project
area; and (3) strengthening the rural land
 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 29

administration system to improve tenure rights, authorities are also actively involved notably
optimize land use, and empower land-users in the preparation of nurseries, tree-planting
to sustainably invest in productive landscapes. activities and farmer cooperatives. The project
By January 2021, about 71 000 ha of land had takes a holistic approach training farmers in tree-
been restored or was under active sustainable planting combined with agroforestry, alternative
management (2018-2024). crops, improved soil fertility through natural
means, and diversification of incomes, as well as
Ethiopia: Forest Landscape Restoration and enhancing access to markets (2020–2040).
Conservation with Livelihood Enhancement:
This project, led by the Society for Forest Uganda: Natural High Forest Rehabilitation
Landscape Restoration and Conservation Project on Degraded Land of Kibale National
worked with community-based organizations Park: The project has helped to restore over 6
(CBOs) to promote the implementation of small 000 ha of forest in what was a degraded part of
microeconomic and climate-smart income- the Kibale National Park. This climate mitigation
generating activities to reduce the vulnerabilities project, registered under the Verified Carbon
of communities to climate change, so that they Standard (VCS) and the Climate, Community
could restore landscapes and protect forest in and Biodiversity (CCB) schemes, has several
hilly areas. The project was expected to benefit objectives, including to restore 6 213 ha of
the communities by teaching them to restore degraded forest in the Kibale National Park
degraded landscapes, carry out sustainable by planting locally occurring indigenous trees
farming practices, and enhance their sustainable species and to promote regeneration of natural
income-generating opportunities (2019–2020). vegetation in the forest interior areas. It also
seeks to provide employment and new income-
Kenya: Mikoko Pamoja (which means generating opportunities for local communities
“mangroves together” in Swahili) is a mangrove adjacent to the park. The project was set up over
conservation and restoration project in Gazi Bay a 60-year period and removes 164 175 tonnes of
led by a community of 5 400 people. The project CO2 equivalent per year (1994–ongoing).
aims to mitigate climate change, conserve
biodiversity and enhance community livelihoods. There are 29 projects/programmes related to FLR in
It does this by preventing deforestation, restoring Eastern Africa listed in Annex I. The majority of this
mangroves with the local community. Payments sample of projects (59 percent) started after the launch
are made to the communities, who sell the of the AFR100.
carbon credits (3 000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent
per year) from their conservation and restoration
of mangroves in the voluntary carbon market. Southern Africa
Profits are reinvested in the community to (Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Eswatini, Lesotho,
improve clean water access for 3 500 community Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
members, provide educational materials to 700 Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and
school children, and to ensure the 117 ha of Zimbabwe).
mangrove forests remain protected (2013–date).
The Southern Africa region spans several
Rwanda: Agroforestry at scale for soil, water and biogeographical zones and a significant altitudinal
food: The Albertine Rift Conservation Society range, and as such exhibits diverse forests, from dense
(ARCOS) has partnered with the Livelihoods tropical forests in Angola, Comoros or Madagascar,
Carbon Fund (a fund established by 10 large to dry forests in Zambia or savannahs in Botswana.
multinational companies) to launch a 20-year Miombo woodlands are also present in several
agroforestry project in 240 villages in Rulindo countries (IPBES, 2018b). More than half of this region
and Bugesera districts in Rwanda. The project (54 percent) is made up of savannahs and grasslands
involves 30 000 smallholder farmers. The aim (Ibid). In South Africa, vast areas of planted forest can
is to plant over 6 million trees on 15 209 ha. be found consisting of fast-growing exotic species such
For the Livelihood Carbon Fund, that means as Pinus spp., Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia mearnsii,
the sequestration of 3 million tonnes of CO2 which are primarily used for the production of
over 20 years. For the local communities, it industrial roundwood (FAO, 2019).
means 120 000 people and 30 000 households
The Southern Africa subregion is subject to persistent
benefitting from the project and the creation
drought cycles. In addition, subsistence agriculture,
of 5 000 green jobs. Local village and district
fire, mining, overgrazing, fuelwood collection, illegal
30 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

logging, unsustainable wood harvesting for timber trained 481 farmers, many of them women, in
and wood fuel and infrastructure development all climate-smart agricultural practices (2015–2021).
affect the region (FAO, 2015, 2019). South Africa is
particularly vulnerable to invasive exotic species. Madagascar: Livelihoods Vanilla Project: In
Their uncontrolled spread poses a serious threat to 2017, the Livelihoods Fund for Family Farming
water security in a country receiving less than half of launched a ten-year project in the vanilla-
global average rainfall (500 ml/year). Seven countries growing region of Sava in Madagascar to
are committed to AFR100 (Table 8). Inspired by the promote agroforestry techniques in this sector.
GGW for the Sahara and the Sahel initiative, and In addition to improving practices for vanilla
under the coordination of SADC and the African Union farming and restoring trees in the landscape
Commission with support from FAO and other partners, (as windbreaks and firewalls), the project will
the dryland countries of the SADC have developed and enable farmers to generate higher revenues with
launched a Great Green Wall initiative for the SADC an estimated 60 percent of cured vanilla’s value
region. going back to farmers (instead of 5 percent to 20
percent today). The project has already helped
to organize over 600 producers into associations
Table 8: AFR100 pledges from Southern (2017–2027).

Africa Madagascar: Forest Landscape Restoration in

Fandriana-Marolambo: Over a 13-year period,
AFR100 PLEDGES
WWF worked with local stakeholders in the
COUNTRY Area pledged (ha) Fandriana-Marolambo landscape in south-
central Madagascar to restore the goods,
Eswatini 500 000 services and authenticity of the moist forests
of the landscape of Fandriana-Marolambo
Madagascar 4 000 000
so as to support the development of the
Malawi 4 500 000 populations and to secure the objectives of
biodiversity conservation. Through active and
Mozambique 1 000 000
passive restoration as well as the promotion
South Africa 3 600 000 of alternative income-generating activities
the project led to a reduction in the rate of
Tanzania 5 200 000 deforestation in the landscape, the active
Zambia 2 000 000
or passive restoration of 6 786 ha and 1 400
households benefitting from new alternative
Zimbabwe 2 000 000 income-generating activities (2004–2017).

Total 22 800 000 Mauritius: Mainstreaming biodiversity into the

management of the coastal zone in the Republic
of Mauritius: The project’s objective is to
mainstream the conservation and sustainable
Selection of FLR projects/programmes: use of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Eswatini: Smallholder Market-led Project into coastal zone management and into the
(SMLP): The project aims to enhance food operations and policies of the tourism and
and nutrition security and incomes among physical development sectors in the Republic of
smallholder producer families through Mauritius through a ‘land- and seascape wide’
diversified agricultural production and market integrated management approach. It includes
linkages. One of its outcomes is to ensure soil an ecosystem restoration component to reduce
and water resources are sustainably managed erosion and soil loss in 200 ha of erosion-prone
for market-led smallholder agriculture in watersheds and restore ecosystem services
25 chiefdoms. The project has included the on 15.4 ha of freshwater wetlands and 23.9 ha
rehabilitation of five wetlands through fencing of associated buffer. Restoration includes the
to allow natural regeneration on some 50 ha removal of invasive exotic species such as the
of land and rehabilitation of an area of 82 ha of Chinese Guava (Psidium cattleianum) plant which
heavily degraded community sites by growing outcompetes the growth and regeneration of
various fodder and fruit tree species for the use native plants (2018–2021).
of the communities. Importantly, the project has
 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 31

Namibia: Building resilience of communities for landscape restoration and biodiversity

living in landscapes threatened under climate conservation in Tanzania: The objective of the
change through an ecosystems-based adaptation project is to strengthen integrated natural
approach: The project builds on the successful resources management and restoration of
results of the Community Development and degraded landscapes for building resilient socio-
Knowledge Management for the Satoyama ecological systems in Tanzania. It has three
(COMDEKS) programme, implemented by the components: (1) establishing national landscape
United Nations Development Programme restoration governance and regulatory structures,
(UNDP). It aims to use large-scale Ecosystem- and mainstreaming landscape restoration and
based Adaptation as a cost effective and sustainable land management into policies,
low risk approach to build climate resilience regulations and strategies; (2) engaging
within the eight large landscapes targeted for communities and local authorities in identifying
implementation. One component includes and implementing feasible restoration options
ecosystem restoration in the landscape to reduce at landscape level; (3) putting in place effective
the vulnerability of ecosystems and increase the M&E and data management systems that
resilience of local communities (2019–2024). would enable the project to gather gender-
disaggregated data, disseminate lessons and
South Africa: Working for Ecosystems: This facilitate learning, and scale up good practices
programme aims to reverse environmental (2018–2023).
degradation through ecological restoration and
maintenance programmes. It aims to regain There are 23 projects/programmes related to FLR in
natural ecosystem composition, structure and Southern Africa listed in Annex I. The majority of this
function and enhance ecosystem services. At sample of projects (61 percent) started after the launch
the same time, the aim is to improve livelihoods of the AFR100.
security and the productive potential of land,
improve natural species diversity, and promote
the development of a market for ecosystem
services and pro-poor economic development
3.4. Major multicountry
and empowerment in rural areas. It follows FLR initiatives and
from the Subtropical Thicket Restoration Project
started in 2004 (2004–ongoing). programmes
Tanzania: Securing long-term benefits for the
African Landscapes Action Plan (ALAP): In 2014, 200
communities and forests of the East Usambara
experts, practitioners and policy-makers from across
Mountains: In Tanzania’s East Usambara
Africa and beyond came together to synthesize lessons
landscape, WWF worked with its local partner,
learned from research and experience in integrated
Tanzania Forest Conservation Group (TFCG),
landscape management to jointly achieve food
for 10 years “to prevent the loss of globally
security, biodiversity and climate objectives. Stemming
important biodiversity values, improve the
from that meeting, a set of policy and programmatic
livelihoods of the local population and restore
plans for national, regional and international action
and maintain the multiple functions of forests.”
were developed around six action themes: policy,
Through three consecutive phases, the project
governance, business, finance, research and capacity
worked with 19 village communities to establish
development.
village land forest reserves as a mechanism to
improve connectivity between existing protected The Great Green Wall (GGW) for the Sahara and
areas. Several alternative income-generating the Sahel Initiative was launched in 2007 to restore
activities were introduced such as butterfly Africa’s drylands, including Northern Africa, the Sahel
farming or the cultivation of aromatic herbs and the Horn of Africa, in the context of sustainable
to reduce pressure on natural forests, while development and to address socio-economic and
improving livelihoods. Thanks to the project, environmental challenges (including biodiversity loss,
forest clearance went down by 88 percent climate change and desertification (see Case studies
(between 2006 and 2012) and targeted villagers’ 4 and 5). Initially interpreted as being a wall of trees,
incomes rose by 239 percent (Sumbi, 2013) or planting programme, a common understanding
(2004–2013). has evolved whereby it is a mosaic of sustainable
management and restoration of landscapes including
Tanzania: Supporting the implementation of
forests, crops and pastoral land), a truly sustainable
integrated ecosystem management approach
development programme across sectors and requiring
32 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

the solidarity of countries, sectors, policy-makers, developing country parties to the CBD to develop
communities, researchers, men and women and youth. and operationalize national targets and plans for
The programme is based on a more comprehensive ecosystem conservation and restoration. This is in
approach to restoration of the natural and human support specifically of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets
capital, with diversity of efforts, interventions and 5, 14 and 15. To date, it has provided funding to 12
programmes/ projects. projects, four of which are in Africa (Burkina Faso,
Kenya, Madagascar and Niger).
One such programme with on the ground results is the
Action Against Desertification (AAD) led by FAO since The Forest and Landscape Restoration Mechanism
2014 (which also extends to the Caribbean and the (FLRM) was established by FAO in 2014 to scale up,
Pacific [ACP]). It aims to restore drylands and degraded monitor and report on FLR activities as a contribution
lands in support of expanding resilience in Africa. It to the Bonn Challenge and Aichi Biodiversity targets.
focuses on Great Green Wall countries and emphasizes It helps to coordinate and facilitate the development
South-South Cooperation (Case study 5). and implementation of projects, programmes and
related activities in FAO member countries, in close
Since 2014 and with funding from the Korea collaboration with other key stakeholders such as
Forest Service of the Republic of Korea, the Forest members of the GPFLR. Key actions supported by the
Ecosystem Restoration Initiative (FERI) supports FLRM include the preparation and the implementation

CASE STUDY 5:

Action Against Desertification

Action Against Desertification (AAD) is a EUR 41 million European Union–FAO-funded programme

launched in July 2014 and implemented by FAO and partners in support of Africa’s Great Green Wall and
Small Island Developing States in the Caribbean and Pacific.

Within Africa, AAD delivers the objectives of the GGW in six countries (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, the
Gambia, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal) to support local communities, governments and civil society to
restore degraded land and manage fragile ecosystems in a sustainable way. Since 2018, AAD has been
extending in other three countries (Eritrea, Mauritania and Sudan) through BRIDGES project with
funding support from Turkey.

Through this project, actions that are carried out include:

• Land restoration: putting rural communities at the heart of restoration and upscaling
interventions.

• Non-timber forest products: supporting economic growth and sustainable management of

natural resources.

• Capacity development: strengthening capacities in sustainable land management and land

restoration.

• Monitoring and evaluation: collecting data, keeping track of progress, measuring impact.

• Information-sharing: knowledge exchange and awareness-raising about land degradation and

desertification.

• South-South Cooperation: sharing lessons learned on how to reverse land degradation.

To date, 63 000 ha have been restored and over 12 million seedlings and 120 tonnes of forest seeds
from over 100 mixed native species, of trees and fodder grasses, were planted using a restoration model
combining plant science, local knowledge, community mobilization and mechanised technology. A total
of one million people have been reached through the programme.

Source: FAO website: www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification.

 Chapter 3 FLR in Africa: Context, Commitments and Current Situation 33

of national FLR Action Plans; the promotion of was implemented, focusing on coordination,
networking; support to partnerships on FLR; striving monitoring and knowledge. It complemented SAWAP
for increased intersectoral collaboration; and exploring by aiming to improve accessibility of best practices and
investment opportunities and greater involvement of monitoring data for SAWAP implementing countries.
the private sector to develop appropriate value chains The BRICKS project was executed by existing regional
linked to FLR opportunities. institutions (the Permanent Inter-State Committee
for Drought Control in the Sahel [CILSS], the Sahara
Regreening Africa is a partnership between CARE and Sahel Observatory [OSS] and the regional office of
International, Catholic Relief Services, GIZ/Economics IUCN in Burkina Faso).
of Land Degradation, ICRAF, Oxfam, Sahel Eco and
World Vision. It is funded by the European Union for A recently approved GEF project on “Large-scale
5 years (2017–2022). The overall goal is to improve Assessment of Land Degradation to guide future
livelihoods, food security and increase resilience to investment in SLM in the GGW countries (GEF Trust
climate change of smallholder farmers, by restoring Fund, NASA/USAID)” is to be implemented from 2019
ecosystem services, particularly through agroforestry. to 2024 to improve the science-based evidence about
It aims to reverse land degradation on one million sustainable land management (SLM) in the GGW region.
hectares across eight countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Focusing on Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Niger and Senegal
Kenya, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal and Somalia) in it aims to assess available tools and methodologies for
sub-Saharan Africa. For example, in Mali, Regreening scientific measurement of the ecological impacts of
Africa aims to engage 80 000 smallholders to regreen land degradation and SLM practices, and monitoring
160 000 ha in four districts: Bla, Koutiala, San and and knowledge management systems. The total budget
Yorosso. In Kenya, the project aims to have an impact for this project is USD 5.6 million.
on the livelihoods of 50 000 smallholders and begin
restoring 150 000 ha of degraded land by 2022 The Large-scale Forest Landscape Restoration
(Regreening Africa website). Overall, a total of 301 225 in Africa project is funded by BMU’s International
households had been reached by the project by 2020. Climate Initiative (IKI) for 6 years starting in 2019. It
Restoration activities that were carried out included aims to increase the economic, ecological and climate-
agroforestry, FMNR and tree planting. By 2020, 442 179 related benefits from large-scale FLR in Cameroon,
ha were under restoration in all eight countries. The Kenya, Malawi and Rwanda. The project will provide
project has helped to strengthen the value chains of field support, capacity-building and policy advice,
several products, such as baobab fruit, shea butter or leverage further resources for FLR, share experiences
mango (Regreening Africa, 2020). and monitor results. Because funding comes from a
climate budget line, the establishment of new carbon
Carried out between 2012 and 2020, the Sahel and stocks and reduction of pressure on existing ones is an
West Africa Program in Support of the Great Green important component of the project.
Wall (SAWAP) contributed to bringing 1.6 million ha of
land under sustainable land and water management The global project Forests4Future (F4F) (BMZ) is
(SLWM) (with Ethiopia alone representing 68 percent of being carried out in Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Madagascar
that figure) and reached over 19.4 million beneficiaries and Togo. The objective of F4F is to restore tree-rich,
(as of 2019) across 12 member countries (Benin, productive landscapes and improve forest governance.
Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, As an overarching FLR project, F4F provides conceptual
Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan and Togo). A total of support to the AFR100, is involved in its steering group,
74 680 farmers received training in SLM practices and deals with issues related to the Bonn Challenge and
improved agricultural technologies. Farmers adopted other international FLR-related initiatives and it also
SLWM in a total of 821 542 ha across the 12 countries. advises the German government on FLR. It supports
Improved forestry management was either planned activities contributing to achieving the national FLR
or in place in 6 of the 12 project counties, on a total of goals in Ethiopia, Madagascar and Togo, including
455 702 ha. Data on change in forest and vegetation reforesting an area of 2 000 ha.
cover were found to be less reliable (World Bank, 2021). The Central African Forest Initiative (CAFI) was
SAWAP’s total budget was about USD 1.3 billion (USD launched at the UN Sustainable Development Summit
100 million from the GEF and USD 1.2 billion from the in September 2015. It is a collaboration between
World Bank) (UNCCD, 2020; World Bank, 2021). the six Central African countries (Cameroon, Central
Alongside SAWAP, a regional project named BRICKS African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the
(Building Resilient, Information, Communication, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon) and FAO, UNDP,
and Knowledge Services) project (USD 4.6 million) the World Bank and a coalition of donors, including
France, Germany, Norway, South Korea and the
34 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

FIGURE 5: 100 FLR or FLR-related country projects by subregion or multicountry (regional)

100 projects by subregion

8%

24%

29%

23%

9%
7%

CAF: EAF: NAF: REG: SAF: WAF:

Central Eastern Northern Regional (or involving countries Southern Western
Africa Africa Africa from at least two subregions Africa Africa

United Kingdom. The emphasis is on driving national adaptation, in others on climate mitigation. In all cases,
reforms that contribute to reducing emissions from consistent with FLR, this was not the only objective,
deforestation and forest degradation and contribute to and the ultimate aim was to reduce vulnerabilities
sustainable development. One aspect of the initiative of rural people and to improve their resilience. Food
is a forest fund that reached capitalisation of close to security was a central component of many projects. In
500 million, as per its objective (set out in 2015). many instances, job creation and the development of
alternative income generating activities was one of the
Most of the projects reviewed across all subregions objectives. The majority of projects are recent, having
had a strong climate change dimension. This may started since the launch of AFR100. Consequently,
reflect the significant availability of funding for climate there are few results and impacts reported.
actions. In some cases the focus was on climate
 Chapter 4 Key Success Factors 35

“We need to celebrate what is on the ground,

the change-makers, not webinars!”
— (Interviewee 13).

©FAO/Luis Tato

CHAPTER 4
Key Success Factors
36 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

This section relies heavily on interviews, although relationships, something that is often difficult to
it was complemented with background research. It achieve with short-term donor funding.
highlights some of the most important success factors
identified for FLR implementation in Africa (Figure 6). Local authorities, both formal and informal, are also
important in creating the local governance context
for FLR implementation. Traditional leaders may play
Engagement of key stakeholders an important role in mobilizing their communities.
on the ground Equally, local-level associations of different types
provide a way of organizing communities. For example,
First and foremost, stakeholders living in the landscape
in Madagascar, local community organizations are
should be actively engaged. Primary stakeholders in
paramount to securing co-management arrangements
FLR are rural communities living closest to the land and
for forests. Djenontin et al., (2020) highlight that the
relying on forests and trees, as well as the ecosystem
international FLR agenda (and ensuing Africa-wide
goods and services that they provide for their
movement through AFR100) may have also contributed
livelihoods. In a continent that remains primarily rural,
to re-invigorating older local-level initiatives. Indeed,
and where subsistence agriculture and energy needs
FLR is inherently contextual and while global principles
both depend on trees, FLR plays a fundamental role in
(Besseau et al., 2018) are valuable, local level variations
meeting local stakeholders’ needs. Consequently, the
can be significant.
real and effective engagement of local stakeholders
constitutes a major success factor for FLR. For
example, under the AAD programme (Case Study 5) Local ownership
and further through the forestry partnership between
Turkey and FAO, the project BRIDGES established “Restoration will happen at the
networks of village-level technicians as well as the
COGES (community management committees with
local level, no matter what high-
municipalities) to work with, engage and support local level statements are made.”
communities for sustainable restoration activities —(Interviewee 13)
in Burkina Faso, Eritrea, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Mali,
Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Sudan.
Beyond engagement, true local ownership of an (often)
In many instances, the role of women is also externally-driven agenda such as FLR, is frequently
particularly important as they are often the ones challenging. Yet, it is essential to ensure that FLR
collecting products from the forest (including wood actions can continue into the future, beyond short-
fuel), or farming, and as such, they are on the frontline, term funding and donor attention. Local ownership
facing the impacts of degraded forests and landscapes. should start at the planning stage, and run through to
Building relationships and trust is central to engaging implementation and monitoring.
with communities. This requires close and long-term

CASE STUDY 6:

Targeting local entrepreneurs

The Land Accelerator Programme was set up by WRI with funding from the Ikea Foundation, the German
Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the DOEN Foundation.

Through this programme, young entrepreneurs are trained during a week-long ‘boot camp’ in skills
necessary to market and sell their products. Participants are all involved in land-based businesses, such
as honey production. The programme empowers rural entrepreneurs in landscapes where restoration
is a priority, to pitch their businesses to impact investors and sell their products more effectively. So
far, alumni of the programme report that they have created 2 700 jobs, worked with 120 500 farmers,
restored 101 200 ha, and grown 3.1 million trees.

Source: Land Accelerator Programme (https://thelandaccelerator.com/).

 Chapter 4 Key Success Factors 37

©FAO/Christena Dowsett
Tree nursery in Siaya, Kenya

Complex processes that are developed at other scales In contrast to local-level engagement, high-level
often fail because they are not locally adapted or political support for FLR provides the political
relevant. Thus, ensuring local ownership serves to not foundation for any FLR action to take place. Regional
only ground a process such as FLR into the local reality processes such as the AFR100 have played a significant
and context, but also to provide the necessary local role in garnering that high-level awareness and
perspective to ensure that it can then be acceptable support. This can then translate into national-level
to local stakeholders and integrated into their land support. For example, in Kenya, there is high-level
management practices. A local dialogue helps to commitment to forest restoration as seen in the
come up with solutions that are appropriate in a given 2010 Constitution which advocates for a minimum
context. For example, in Madagascar’s Fandriana- 10 percent forest cover (up from the current 6
Marolambo landscape, provincial and regional chiefs percent). Without this support, the mobilisation of
were involved in the FLR project, helping to build resources, enabling policies and facilitation of field-
the sense of local ownership and as a result leading based activities are severely hampered. The massive
to it being inserted within community and regional commitments made by African governments under
development plans (Mansourian et al., 2018). the AFR100, the Bonn Challenge, the GGW and other
schemes represent a significant step in that direction,
Ultimately, communities need to believe that a change creating momentum for action on the ground.
in practices is in their best interest, otherwise they
will not apply different techniques or approaches.
The Ethiopian community leader and Equator Prize Champions
winner, Abreha Weatsbha, emphasizes the central At all level – from the local to the international –
role of mindset change as a precursor to successful champions of FLR and FLR-related projects have
restoration. served to facilitate adoption of new approaches. At
the local level, champions may be traditional leaders,
faith leaders, government or NGO facilitators or just
High-level government support influential individuals who can make a difference
“Countries that seem to be in integrating new practices in their communities.
At a higher level, champions serve to rally political
doing better are those that can and financial support. In Rwanda for example, the
connect high-level with on-the- government was one of the first to embrace the Bonn
Challenge and lead the way for large-scale adoption of
ground action.” FLR in Africa.
— (Interviewee 1)
38 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Access to finance all levels of administration. When successful, this

Given the scale of the challenge, significant funding collaboration can extend well beyond FLR and promote
and accountability are required for FLR in Africa. Vast more integrative land use planning, and sustainable
sums have already been committed by numerous development. Tackling climate change under the
governments and multilateral agencies (notably Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy
recently, at the “One Planet Summit” in Paris in in Ethiopia, for example, has served as a focus to
January 2021). However, funding in and of itself is guide investments and bring together several sectors
insufficient for success as it needs to reach those (Mansourian, 2020).
working on FLR on the ground. Rural communities, In Africa, more than elsewhere, a large number
often living in harsh conditions, will continue to use the of development priorities tend to precede FLR in
environment beyond its capacity to repair if there is no government and donor agendas. Yet FLR is relevant
other alternative for them to make ends meet. As such, to numerous other agendas. Making explicit the
for FLR to succeed, alternative and sustainable income- links between FLR and other priorities of relevance
generating activities need to be in place, and access to to Africa and its people, such as food security and
funding (micro-credit, grants, jobs, etc.) for those living nutrition, increase productivity and production, energy,
in the landscapes, impacted by their degradation and water, disaster risk reduction, income, climate action,
working to restore them, is paramount (Case study 6). economy and trade, youth employment, gender
equality and empowerment is much more likely to
Promoting integration lead to the engagement of local stakeholders and
ensure action on the ground. In this respect, seeking to
Integration across sectors, and development priorities
promote product value chains that are compatible with
is necessary when seeking to restore landscapes.
FLR is an important component of a sustainable FLR
Typically, much of the efforts related to FLR in Africa
approach (Case study 7).
are occurring on farmland and improving integration
between the forest service and agricultural department
is essential. Many other sectors (e.g. energy, mining,
urban development) also have a take in the restoration
of landscapes. Effective FLR implementation requires
cross-sectoral collaboration, across ministries and

CASE STUDY 7:

Clean Development Mechanism – Humbo Project in Ethiopia

In Humbo, south-western Ethiopia, World Vision launched a climate change mitigation project under
the UNFCCC’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in 2008. It is a community-managed reforestation
initiative that contributes to poverty alleviation and benefits the community by increasing production
of timber and non-timber products including honey, medicine, fibre, fruit and wildlife ecotourism;
improving land management, resulting in improved groundwater, decreased erosion and flooding; and
providing community-based income streams.

The project’s objective is to establish biodiverse native forest and support income and employment-
generation activities through assisted natural regeneration. Implementation takes place through farmer-
managed natural regeneration (FMNR). Species endemic to the area such as Acacia spp., Aningeria
adolfifericii, Podocarpus facutus, Olea africana, Cordia africana, Croton macrostachytus, Erthrina spp.,
Ficus spp, Hagenia abyssinica, are used to restore the forest.

First of its kind in Ethiopia, the project generates carbon offset credits under the CDM and is also
certified under the Gold Standard since 2019.

Source: World Vision.

 Chapter 4 Key Success Factors 39

©FAO/Arete/Ismail Taxta
Farmer working on her plot in Beletweyne District, Somalia

Knowledge-sharing and lesson-learning valuable opportunity to exchange experiences and

Sharing experiences, lessons and successes provides learn from other practitioners. In particular, farmers
inspiration as well as models to replicate, scale up and listen to and learn from other farmers. Programmes
multiply FLR experiences. Building on experiences of that facilitate peer-to-peer learning generally expect
other stakeholders helps to accelerate actions rather to achieve higher rates of adoption of new practices.
than working in isolation and re-inventing tried and Co-learning, co-development and sharing in turn
tested methods. At the same time, local knowledge facilitate ownership that is critical for sustainability.
and context are fundamental and some internationally
designed tools or practices may need to be adapted to
Favourable policy environments
take this local reality into account. Thus, a merging of
A favourable policy environment provides the
local, indigenous and external knowledge may provide
foundations for long-term and sustainable FLR
the most realistic approach to FLR implementation.
implementation. Incentives need to be in place to
Effective communications and advocacy help to share promote FLR. That includes ensuring that the effort
this knowledge, lessons and successful approaches. of regenerating and/or planting, maintaining or
This includes communication for development tending trees, is rewarded. In most of Africa, farmers
targeting local communities and farmers. Documenting do not own the land and in most cases they do not
good cases and experiences is also important for this own the trees that they grow and tend. Changing
learning process and to enable replication. South- these institutional aspects can lead to long-term
South exchanges, as have been promoted under the change in the way forests and trees are approached
AFR100 (with experts from Madagascar, for example, and managed. In many cases, local by-laws may be
going to Cameroon to visit FLR projects), provide a a first, and easier step to such fundamental changes.
International commitments, notably in the context
40 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

of climate change, provide opportunities to promote A collaborative approach to FLR is fundamental, given
supportive policies. For example, countries as diverse the scale of the challenge and the commitments.
as Ghana, Niger and Tanzania have acknowledged Small isolated initiatives do not benefit from other
the importance of security of tree tenure as a way of experiences and are not being able to demonstrate
incentivizing restoration and the maintenance of trees their successes to others. Partnerships are important
in the landscape. Such policies release the untapped both within the country and between neighbours
potential of the millions of small landholders and users and beyond. The GGW is a good example of such a
whose livelihoods and self-interest depend on the land partnership within and between countries facing
and who stand to benefit the most from restoration similar conditions and challenges. Networks that
can effectively connect different projects and project
stakeholders are a means of promoting replication
Partnerships and collaboration and upscaling. Partnerships promote sustainability, in
“The only way we reach scale is line with SDG 17. For example, the “Regreening Africa”
programme represents such a broad coalition of actors
through replication of things that to promote the restoration of landscapes across Africa.
work.”— (Interviewee 8)

FIGURE 6: Some key success factors for FLR in Africa

Government Knowledge
support Sharing and
lesson learning

Policy Access to Local

environment finance ownership Integration

Partnerships and Stakeholder

Champions collaboration engagement
 Chapter 5 Opportunities and challenges for FLR in Africa 41

©Benedicte Kurzen/NOOR for FAO

CHAPTER 5
Opportunities and challenges for FLR
in Africa
42 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Forest and landscape restoration can present an actually invested on the ground. Where such funding
opportunity for Africa in the long term. We explore here reaches the local level, it can make a significant
some of the main opportunities as well as some of the difference. Furthermore, given the many connections
ongoing challenges for FLR implementation. between FLR and other priorities, this funding could
support related and supportive efforts, thus achieving
a much larger impact.
5.1. Opportunities In addition to public sector funding, numerous new
options are being explored and developed to promoted
Multiple dimensions innovative long-term funding (Löfquist and Ghazoul,
In a complex socio-economic context, short-term 2019). These are particularly important because of
development needs are inevitably prioritised, yet the long-term nature of FLR. At the same time, private
these are intricately linked to land degradation sector funding for FLR remains low, despite there being
and climate-change impacts. FLR provides a much interest and funding going to diverse “tree-
comprehensive proposition that can be part of the planting” initiatives (Mansourian and Vallauri, 2020).
broader development package. One of the central A recent study found that just over 2 percent of funds
characteristics of FLR – that it seeks multiple objectives from public banks invested in climate finance are spent
– is one of its strengths in the African context. Indeed, on small-scale farming communities in developing
FLR can address fundamental needs such as food countries (Win, 2020).Using existing funds to leverage
security while also achieve other benefits such as long-term and innovative funding presents a unique
climate change mitigation and/or adaptation and opportunity for Africa in the next years.
biodiversity conservation. The role of forests in
increasing resilience and mitigating risk to climate
change is now well established. While many nationally
COVID-19 recovery plans
determined contributions include afforestation The Global Environment Facility, in its strategic
and/or reforestation, adjusting the ways these are document for the next round of funding (2022–2026),
implemented to better align with FLR is a tremendous notes that “the only lasting solution to COVID-19 and
opportunity to meet multiple objectives beyond other such diseases is to promote transformational
carbon sequestration. change to the human systems, be they energy, cities,
food, and production/consumption, so that a balance
FLR has been shown to provide direct contributions between natural systems and human systems be
to most of the sustainable development goals. As a restored within the planet’s safe operating space.“ (GEF,
multifaceted approach seeking many objectives, it 2021). Recovery plans post-COVID-19 are currently
is a practical way of not only restoring land but also being developed. These represent an opportunity
meeting other objectives such as those under the UN to reconsider what to prioritise for investment and
conventions, food security or health-related objectives the broader development and economic models
(notably in the framework of the current COVID-19 applied. UNEP has been calling for a “green recovery”
crisis). that emphasises solutions compatible with FLR.
FAO, WHO and others are promoting a “One Health”
A core Africa-wide priority is the Agenda 2063, approach that seeks to address health and well-being
“The Africa we Want”, a sustainable development through an integrated, collaborative, multisectoral,
plan for the continent, which includes a goal on and transdisciplinary approach that recognizes the
“environmentally sustainable development” (Goal 7). interconnections between people, animals, plants
The framework document refers to restoration and and their shared environment. We are likely to see
aspires to reach by 2063 similar forest levels as in 1963 major shifts in aid and development approaches in the
(African Union, 2015) and there is a clear role for FLR coming years as a result. FLR’s holistic perspective can
to contribute to Agenda 2063. The AU SFM Framework be an important contribution to such plans.
(2020–2030) has identified among others five priority
objectives to reduce deforestation, forest and land
degradation, and restore forests and landscapes to Economic growth
enhance resilience and sustainable livelihoods (AUC, Economic growth can be both an opportunity and
2019). a challenge. Africa’s economic growth for 2020 is
anticipated to have been close to 4 percent (AfDB
website). In 2019, the world’s 10 fastest growing
Funding economies included six African countries: Rwanda at
FLR has attracted significant funding, even if estimated 8.7 percent, Ethiopia at 7.4 percent, Côte d’Ivoire at 7.4
needs continue to outstrip committed funds and funds percent, Ghana at 7.1 percent, Tanzania at 6.8 percent
 Chapter 5 Opportunities and challenges for FLR in Africa 43

©FAO/Giulio Napolitano
Tractors at work to prepare the land for plantation. Djibo, Burkina Faso

and Benin at 6.7 percent (AfDB, 2020). Such high rates versions of the Framework. The GEF, which is a major
contrast with much of Europe and North America. donor for biodiversity under the CBD framework, is
While there are changes because of COVID-19, potential also likely to prioritise restoration in its new strategy
for economic growth remains in what is a very young (GEF, 2021).
and rapidly developing continent.
The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration can provide
The eight subregional development commissions6 visibility to FLR initiatives, helping to expand their
represent key mechanisms which could integrate FLR reach and multiplication. Although extending to
within their priorities so as to effectively mainstream all ecosystems, this 10-year focus on restoration
FLR in development plans and diverse sectoral plans. represents a unique opportunity to truly scale up FLR
For example, in 2012 ECOWAS ministers adopted implementation in Africa and beyond.
the “Forest Convergence Plan” for West Africa, which
recognised the negative impacts of forest loss and
degradation on human health, food security and the
economy. Its objectives include rehabilitation of fragile
5.2. Challenges for FLR
and degraded ecosystems. These commissions could in Africa
help to mainstream FLR as they drive such an agenda
forward. Despite the political momentum on FLR in Africa,
deforestation and degradation continue. While there
UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration are many advances, a range of technical, social, policy,
economic, financial and environmental challenges
and Post-2020 Global Biodiversity remain if FLR is to be truly scaled up and achieve
Framework intended environment, social and economic impacts.
The post-2020 biodiversity framework provides an It needs to be noted that many of these challenges are
opportunity to better integrate restoration centrally not unique to Africa.
in relation to addressing the biodiversity extinction
crisis. Already, restoration is a key element in the draft

6 The Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) in the north, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in the west, the East African Community
(EAC) in the east, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) also in the east, the Southern African Development Community (SADC)
in the south, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) in the southeast, the Economic Community of Central African States
(ECCAS) in the centre, and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CENSAD) in the north.
44 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Property rights and tenure insecurity was to improve their understanding of FLR, including
Ill-defined or inequitable tenure and property rights are on the linkages between ecosystem services and
major challenges across large parts of Africa leading to livelihoods.
insecurity and conflict (RRI, 2015). This stems to a large Practical tools that can support FLR implementation
extent from the continent’s colonial legacy whereby are still few and far between. One area that has been
forests and lands were nationalised and formalised highlighted as particularly lagging behind is locally
in many countries irrespective of traditional and adapted monitoring. Without effective monitoring, it
customary ownership. In 2015, only about 2.75 percent is difficult to understand what works and what does
of land in sub-Saharan Africa was formally recognized not work and therefore, where to invest, what to
as belonging to indigenous communities and local adjust or what to expand. This shortcoming has been
peoples (with about 15 percent being either owned or highlighted, for example, at the level of the AFR100 in
designated for use by local peoples and indigenous terms of consolidating experiences and projects across
communities) (RRI, 2015). Without secure access to the Africa (UNIQUE, 2020).
forests and the benefits from trees and forests, local
communities have limited incentives to maintain or There are many advances in mapping and increased
restore these forests. Women are often excluded from enthusiasm over the potential for such remote
land use decisions, even if they have the most at stake. sensing tools to enable the aggregation of FLR
In the context of FLR, even if they are brought into FLR initiatives. However, in practice, on the ground and
schemes, depending on institutional arrangements, participatory mapping remains essential to confirm
they may not be guaranteed the rights to benefit spatial data (Guariguata and Evans, 2020). Practical
from the impacts of such schemes (Sijapati Basnett tools are needed for landscape-level actors to apply
et al., 2017). Some positive changes are being seen in participatory decision-making mechanisms, to define
countries like Madagascar and Niger with increased which species to plant where, to optimise agroforestry
recognition of rights for local communities, including practices, among others.
land tenure security (and tenure of trees) (Mansourian,
2020). In Niger, a recent government decree has Obtaining information and ensuring that data is
granted property rights to farmers for the trees on their captured contributes to the multiplication of initiatives.
farms, giving them more of an incentive to grow and Research on FLR in Africa also identified the paucity
tend trees. of printed and peer-reviewed material for the
continent. Similarly, it proved difficult to obtain written
information from project examples for this report.
Human and technical capacity Experiences, lessons and successes must be shared to
encourage and inspire replication and lesson-learning.
“Is monitoring the Achilles Further research on FLR implementation gaps is
heel of restoration?” needed, and the launch of the Society for Ecological
Restoration’s (SER) chapter for Africa in May 2021 is
— (Interviewee 13) timely as it will be in a position to set a new research
agenda for ecosystem restoration more generally for
In the framework of FLR in Africa, capacity relates Africa.
to human resources at several levels. If they are to
effectively engage in FLR, individuals at community
level require significant support to strengthen their Infrastructure
capacity in restoration techniques, in marketing their Lack of adequate infrastructure creates difficulties in
products and often in basic skills like book-keeping access in many parts of Africa. This is a challenge for
(see Case study 6). The forest service in many countries support and project staff to reach the landscape, or to
is overstretched, with a small number of officers be established in the vicinity of the intervention area,
covering huge areas. In addition, many of them may with the result that often staff remain in the capital
have received training in only a handful of tree species, cities and manage projects from a distance, failing
and primarily on commercial forestry, leaving many to establish a relationship of trust with local-level
gaps when it comes to knowledge about indigenous stakeholders. Poor infrastructure renders access to
species and the importance of trees (as well as other inputs, funding and assistance all the more difficult and
native shrubs and grasslands) on agricultural and costly. It is also a challenge for local farmers to send
grazing land. For example, in Ghana, FAO’s Forest the products from the landscape to potential markets.
and Farm Facility held a two-day national training While poorly planned infrastructure may go against FLR
workshop with IUCN on FLR targeting forest and farm efforts, well designed and integrated infrastructure that
producer organizations. The purpose of the training responds to local needs can contribute to the socio-
economic goals of FLR.
 Chapter 5 Opportunities and challenges for FLR in Africa 45

Complexity for restoring a hectare of forests vary significantly,

The diverse interpretations of FLR that coexist are especially if many of the enabling activities are taken
testimony to its complexity. For some, FLR is about into account. For example, Pistorius et al. (2017)
tree-planting only, while for others agricultural estimated the costs in Ethiopia at USD 87–1 445 per
systems are central to FLR. Although potentially hectare. In Madagascar, the costs were estimated at
embracing a multitude of activities, in practice these USD 680 per hectare (UNIQUE, 2016). Cost/benefit
diverse dimensions of FLR can add complexity to its analyses also highlight the value of restoring forest
implementation (Mansourian et al., forthcoming). landscapes. In Kenya for example, estimates placed
In reality, the multiple dimensions of FLR signify the cost of increasing tree cover to 10 percent at 48
that there are many ways to achieve the objectives billion Kenyan Shillings (KES) (USD 442 million) while
of FLR, and diverse activities can contribute to it as the cost of inaction was estimated at nearly four
outlined in the typology in chapter 2 (see Table 1 and times this cost, at KES 168 billion (USD 1.55 billion)
Figure. 2). Furthermore, there is no one size fits all, (Mansourian, 2020). However, not all approaches to
and understanding specific local socio-ecological restoration are expensive. In the case of FMNR, project
conditions is fundamental to adapting the FLR implementation costs can be as low as USD 40–50/
approach to the local context. hectare. Additionally, experiences in Malawi and Niger
have shown that once adopted by land users, the
practice can spread spontaneously without requiring
Genetic diversity and seed supply external inputs. IFAD estimates that the value of a
Two major challenges associated with restoration and farmer’s labour in practicing FMNR on their own land is
reforestation more generally through planting concern in the order of USD 14/hectare (Reij and Garrity, 2016).
on the one hand the supply of sufficient seeds of the
At the level of farmers, lack of credit may prove a
appropriate species (preferably native species) and on
significant obstacle to investing in land. In more
the other, the genetic diversity of this source material
challenging environments, particularly in the
(Nef et al., 2021). Poor understanding of the role of
drylands of West Africa, banks are often reluctant
genetics in restoration may lead to the wrong choice
to provide such loans to smallholders. This fuels an
of species, low genetic diversity and therefore poor
inability or reluctance to invest in long-term and
resilience in light of climate change (Sacande et al.,
sustainable solutions, in favour of short-term and often
2020).
unsustainable practices.

To date, much of the funding for FLR comes from

Financing bilateral or multilateral donors. Yet, these are limited
Estimates for implementing FLR globally are between to short-term funding which is not in line with the
USD 36 and USD 49 billion per year (FAO and Global long-term nature of FLR. In many cases the return
Mechanism to the UNCCD, 2015). In practice, the costs on investments may be apparent in 20 years, hence

CASE STUDY 8:

The Africa Sustainable Forestry Funds I and II

The Africa Sustainable Forestry Fund (ASFF) I is a USD 160 million fund launched in 2010 with eight
companies in Gabon, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania and Uganda and sponsored by the GEF. It covers
102 000 ha of sustainably managed plantation, 54 000 ha for biodiversity and conservation, and 568 000
ha of natural forest concession where only one tree is harvested per hectare every 25 years.

The second fund, ASFF II, launched in 2018, is for a 10-year term and aims to invest in (i) rehabilitation of
brownfield plantations in Africa to enhance productivity; (ii) downstream manufacturing of high-value
wood products; and (iii) biomass energy projects, using wood waste to replace fossil fuels and enhance
the overall portfolio value. The African Development Bank is investing up to USD 20 million in this
second fund.

Source: AfDB website.

46 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

it is important to manage expectations and base laws and a dearth of sustainable alternatives to the
motivations on realistic and attainable objectives. status quo. For example, while the majority of Africa’s
Increasingly, FLR proponents are turning to the private population, both urban and rural depend on charcoal
sector for longer-term and durable investments in this and fuelwood as a fuel source, in many countries, sale
process. This requires a mind shift from seeing FLR of these items is either illegal or requires a permit. At
as a project or development activity, to seeing it as a the same time, this high demand for biomass fuel is not
business proposition worthy of investment. In practice, treated as the opportunity that it is: an opportunity to
there is a fine line in a landscape between the actions implement sustainable production solutions at scale.
that can be considered financially viable and those that
do require development funding (e.g. Case study 8).
Climate change
Parts of Africa are among the most vulnerable areas
Illegal exploitation of natural resources to climate change on the planet. Droughts and floods
Illegal extraction remains a major cause of are particularly threatening to Western Africa, for
deforestation and forest degradation in Africa. example. In the drylands of Western Africa, conditions
Indeed, corruption in the forest sector globally is can be extremely harsh with high temperatures and
estimated to cost USD 29 billion annually, according little rainfall during many months. A survey carried
to the policing agency INTERPOL (INTERPOL, 2016). out in Burkina Faso to understand critical aspects
Allegations of illegal logging by investigative entities and constraints that could affect future restoration
such as Global Witness, continue to plague countries initiatives found that the main constraint (raised by 56
in the Congo Basin and Western Africa for example. percent of respondents) was limited access to water
Such illegal activities have repercussions at multiple (Vinceti et al., 2020). While FLR implementation can be
levels, including by impacting on forest dwelling and constrained by climate change, restoring landscapes
forest-dependent communities, the loss of revenue is also a significant part of the solution, contributing
for governments, the emission of greenhouse gases both to mitigating its effects and building resilience of
and ultimately the risk of a drop in investment in the landscapes and communities.
sector. This corruption is compounded by unworkable
 Chapter 6 Going forward: translating commitments into action for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 47

©FAO/Yasuyoshi Chiba

CHAPTER 6
Going forward: translating commitments
into action for the UN Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration
48 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

Forest and landscape restoration holds multiple techniques, permaculture practices, FMNR and the use
promises for Africa and its people. Overcoming existing of locally adapted and multipurpose useful biodiversity
constraints and building on opportunities and success in restoration, for example by planting or sowing
factors provides several pathways to accelerate FLR the seeds of a mix of native species (beyond trees,
implementation at scale. including shrubs and grasses), more have been highly
successful on the continent and yet are often dismissed
First and foremost, FLR in Africa must be responsive or overlooked.
to local needs. Rural communities face numerous
challenges and if FLR is to be relevant to them, its The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration offers
implementation must be adapted to the local context visibility to restoration and helps to elevate its
and respond to communities’ priorities, including importance and relevance so that implementation
food and energy security, resilience and adaptation to can be scaled up. To that effect, the partners in the
climate change, livelihoods or health. Decade have prioritised building a global movement,
generating political support and building technical
By its very definition, FLR seeks to meet multiple social, capacity.
economic and ecological objectives. This unique
value of FLR must not be lost in implementation. Significant funding is being directed towards FLR in
Furthermore, FLR can meet both short- and long-term Africa. In January 2021, at the One Planet Summit
needs. A high level of ambition should be maintained for Biodiversity co-organized by France, the United
when setting these multiple objectives, to reach the Nations and World Bank, over USD 14 billion were
widest number of stakeholders. While FLR has grown pledged to the GGW alone. This represents the entire
in popularity and perceived by many to be a solution 2019 GDP of a country like Madagascar or Mozambique
to a multitude of evils, it is also sometimes misused (World Bank, online database). Directed to the right
or misinterpreted. Greater care is needed to ensure stakeholders, such funding can make a huge and
that the FLR approach continues to uphold its key lasting impact. Mechanisms need to be put in place
principles. FLR should strive for the best possible to ensure that this may be possible. For example,
outcomes – social, economic and ecological in any options include setting up trust funds or micro-credit
given context. This may require a change in funding schemes. Such financing could also serve to leverage
structures as short-term donor funding can hamper additional and long-term private sector investment.
such ambition.
Integrating diverse priorities and sectors is a strength
Regional and subregional targeted strategies remain of the FLR approach. However, in practice, there are
fundamental to effectively move from theory to few examples of institutions following this integrative
action, from capital cities to local realities. While approach. This leaves a gap between the essence
global and national ambitions and movements have of landscape approaches such as FLR and their
gained momentum, these need to be translated into governance. The GGW agencies have been set up as
something that is locally relevant and practical if they a first step to overcome the typical narrow sectoral
are to be reached. approaches. However, in practice, a more systemic
change is needed to bring together different sectors
A multitude of initiatives in Africa are aligned – to to collaborate on FLR. Facilitators such as UN agencies
a greater or lesser extent – with FLR. Many of them and NGOs can help to accompany such deep changes.
are not called FLR, but have similar dimensions.
All interviewees agreed that while there is a lot of In 2018, in the Pan-African Action Agenda on Ecosystem
activities many are small scale, are not called FLR Restoration for building resilience, a number of
and there is little documented evidence for these research priorities were identified, most of which
initiatives. To reach the impact anticipated by the hold true today. For example, mapping degradation
large-scale political ambitions, these initiatives risk, establishing and/or strengthening national and
need to be more visible, better measured and scaled regional information systems on land and ecosystem
up, where feasible. Even approaches that have restoration or establishing a national monitoring and
achieved scale and are successfully employed to evaluation framework for national commitments. The
restore land are often unknown to policy-makers, and time is right to invest into expanding our knowledge
tree-planting tends to become the default approach of FLR and its multiple dimensions in the African
of choice instead of being just one of the many FLR context.
components and interventions. Practices such
as holistic grazing management, various forms of Monitoring needs to be systematic and data that
conservation agriculture, climate-smart agriculture, is collected should inform future actions. Without
agro-ecology, low technology water harvesting adequate monitoring, it is impossible to replicate good
 Chapter 6 Going forward: translating commitments into action for the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 49

practices, or correct errors. Participatory monitoring is on exploitation of natural resources, we have an

vital to ensure it is embedded in the local context and opportunity to seek to restore economic activity while
practices, and thus, can be sustainable in the long term. reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting
the recovery of the ecosystems on which our existence
Multistakeholder partnerships for FLR depends. Zero net emissions appears to be a central
implementation can be a useful mechanism for sharing preoccupation and the role of FLR in achieving this
experiences and resources, achieving economies of through carbon sequestration is evident. At the
scale, multiplying impact and much more. A number same time, there are numerous calls to ensure that
of programmes are beginning to take such approaches. forests are not simply used as a pretext for continued
Maintaining flexibility and agility in such partnerships emissions and that instead, approaches to restoring
should remain a central preoccupation, rather than forest landscapes must meet multiple objectives, as
setting up cumbersome or formal structures. outlined in the FLR principles.
The year 2020, with the global COVID-19 pandemic, Today, Africa is poised to enter the UN Decade on
brought the world to a standstill and with it a unique Ecosystem Restoration with significant experience and
set of global challenges, and opportunities. Although much confidence. The many stakeholders engaged in
at the time of writing, the world has still not come to FLR across the continent’s 58 countries and territories
grips with this pandemic, proposals or programmes can contribute much to the global restoration agenda,
to “Build Back Better” have been made by agencies as well as benefit from the spotlight being shone on
and institutions such as AUC, FAO, OECD, UNEP and restoration in the next ten years.
WRI. Whereas the traditional economic model focuses
50 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

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 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021 55

ANNEX I: LIST OF PROJECTS

(MAJOR DONORS)
OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

The Restoration USD 1.3

1 CAF Cameroon 2019–2024 GEF
Initiative (TRI) million

Removing Barriers
to Biodiversity
Conservation,
Land Restoration
and Sustainable USD USD
2 CAF Cameroon 2018–2023 GEF
Forest Management 3 105 023 23 991 349
through Community–
based Landscape
Management –
COBALAM

Supporting Landscapes
Restoration and
Sustainable Use of
Local Plant Species
and Tree Products
USD USD
3 CAF Cameroon (Bambusa ssp, Irvingia 2018–2023 GEF
1 326 146 10 498 873
spp, etc) for Biodiversity
Conservation,
Sustainable Livelihoods
and Emissions
Reduction in Cameroon

Forest and Landscape

Restoration supporting
Central
Landscape and USD USD
4 CAF African 2018–2022 GEF
Livelihoods Resilience 5 961 638 16 526 638
Republic
in the Central African
Republic (CAR)

Rural, Pastoral and USD

USD
Transhumance 10.4 million –
5 CAF Chad 2011–2019 AfDB 11.44
Infrastructure 50% loan 50%
million
Project(RPTIP) grant

The Restoration
Initiative, DRC child
project: Improved
Management and USD USD
6 CAF DRC 2018–2025 GEF
Restoration of 3.6 million 16 131 530
Agro-sylvo-pastoral
Resources in the Pilot
Province of South-Kivu

Ibi Batéké Degraded

Biocarbon sale of carbon
7 CAF DRC Savannah Afforestation 2008–
Fund/CDM credits
Project
56 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

Landscape Restoration
for Ecosystem
Functionality and
Sao Tome USD USD
8 CAF Climate Change 2018–2023 GEF
and Principe 4 666 515 21 516 515
Mitigation in the
Republic of Sao Tome e
Principe

Burundi Landscape
USD USD
9 EAF Burundi Restoration and 2018–2023 World Bank
30 million 30 million
Resilience Project

Climate proofing food

production investments
USD USD
10 EAF Burundi in Imbo and Moso 2020–2024 GCF
9 994 500 31.7 million
basins in the Republic
of Burundi

Implementing NAPA
priority interventions to
USD USD
11 EAF Djibouti build resilience in the 2010–2017 GEF
2.07 million 4 550 000
most vulnerable coastal
zones in Djibouti

Supporting rural
community adaptation
USD USD
12 EAF Djibouti to climate change in 2014–2018 GEF
5 379 452 34 109 452
mountainous regions of
Djibouti

Restoring degraded
forest landscapes and
promoting community-
based, sustainable
and integrated natural USD USD
13 EAF Eritrea 2018–2023 GEF
resource management 8 260 607 23 500 000
in the Rora Habab
Plateau, Nakfa sub-
zoba, Northern Red Sea
Region of Eritrea

Resilient Landscapes USD USD 297.2

14 EAF Ethiopia 2018–2024 GCF
and Livelihoods Project 165 237 592 million

Forest Landscape
Restoration and GEF Small
USD
15 EAF Ethiopia Conservation 2019–2020 Grants USD 95 140
49 690
with Livelihood Programme
Enhancement

Responding to the
increasing risk of
drought: building
USD USD
16 EAF Ethiopia gender-responsive 2017–2022 GCF
45 million 50 million
resilience of the
most vulnerable
communities
 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021 57

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

2011: USD 60
million to the
CRGE Strategy.
2013: USD 10
Norway’s million for
International first phase of
Norway support to
17 EAF Ethiopia 2011– Climate REDD+
Ethiopia for REDD+
and Forest
2017: USD
Initiative
80 million to
implement
REDD+
Investment
Plan.

Humbo Ethiopia
Biocarbon sale of carbon
18 EAF Ethiopia Assisted Natural 2009–
Fund/CDM credits
Regeneration

European Union
Support to the
Sustainable Land EUR EUR
19 EAF Ethiopia 2016–2020 EU
Management 9.7 million 19 million
Programme (EU
Support to SLMP)

Sodo Community
sale of carbon
20 EAF Ethiopia Managed Reforestation 2006– CCBA
credits
Project

2013–to sale of carbon

21 EAF Kenya Mikoko Pamoja Plan Vivo
date credits

TWENDE: Towards
Ending Drought
Emergencies:
USD USD
22 EAF Kenya Ecosystem Based 2019–2024 GCF
23 152 082 34.5 million
Adaptation in Kenya’s
Arid and Semi-Arid
Rangelands

sale of carbon
23 EAF Kenya VANGA Blue Forest 2020– Plan Vivo
credits

Restoration of Arid
and Semi–arid lands
(ASAL) of Kenya
USD USD
24 EAF Kenya through Bio-enterprise 2018–2022 GEF
4 157 340 16 807 340
Development and other
Incentives under The
Restoration Initiative

Aberdare Range/ Mt.

sale of carbon
25 EAF Kenya Kenya Small Scale 2007– CDM
credits
Reforestation Initiative

Restoration of
Degraded Lands
sale of carbon
26 EAF Kenya through Reforestation 2011– CDM
credits
in MAU Forest Complex,
Kenya

Komaza Kenya: equity

27 EAF Kenya Smalholder forestry in 2020– LDN Fund financing of
Kenya €15–20 million
58 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

Livelihoods Funds–
ARCOS Network: A
partnership aiming
to build resilience
Livelihoods sale of carbon
28 EAF Rwanda to climate change 2020–
Funds credits
and sustainable
livelihoods in Rwanda’s
smallholder farmers’
agrosystems

Strengthening climate
resilience of rural UDS USD
29 EAF Rwanda 2018–2024 GCF
communities in 32 794 442 33.2 million
Northern Rwanda

Forest Landscape
USD USD
30 EAF Rwanda Restoration in the 2019–2024 GEF
6 213 538 32 906 904
Mayaga Region

Landscape Approach to
USD USD
31 EAF Rwanda Forest Restoration and 2015–2019 GEF
9 532 000 61 248 548
Conservation (LAFREC)

Improving Disaster Risk

Management and Food
EUR
32 EAF Somalia Security to Strengthen 2020–2023 BMZ
9 500 000
the Resilience in
Somaliland

Natural High Forest

Rehabilitation Project sale of carbon
33 EAF Uganda 1994– CCB
on Degraded Land of credits
Kibale National Park

Building Resilient
Communities, Wetlands
USD USD
34 EAF Uganda Ecosystems and 2017–2025 GCF
24.14 million 44.3 million
Associated Catchments
in Uganda

Kachung Forest Project:

sale of carbon
35 EAF Uganda Afforestation on 2006– CDM
credits
Degraded Lands

Uganda Nile Basin

Biocarbon sale of carbon
36 EAF Uganda Reforestation Project 2007–
Fund/CDM credits
No.1–5

Trees for Global sale of carbon

37 EAF Uganda 2003– Plan Vivo
Benefits (TGB) credits

Government 20-year
38 NAF Algeria national reforestation
plan in 2000

Rehabilitation and
integrated sustainable
USD USD
39 NAF Algeria development of 2019–2023 GEF
3 411 644 28 035 215
Algerian cork oak forest
production landscapes

The Middle Atlas Forest USD USD

40 NAF Morocco 2006–2016 GEF
Restoration project 965 345 997 945
 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021 59

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

Development of Argan
USD USD
41 NAF Morocco orchards in Degraded 2016–2022 GCF
39 292 600 49.2 million
Environment – DARED

EUR 45. 2
million (grant)
Sustainable Natural
and EUR
Resources and IFAD/GEF/ USD 86.65
42 NAF Sudan 2019–2024 11.3 million
Livelihoods Programme LDCF million
(loan) + GEF/
(SNRLP)
LDCF EUR 1.8
million

Integrated Carbon USD USD

43 NAF Sudan 2012–2016 GEF
Sequestration Project 3.65 million 14 809 000

Gums for Adaptation

USD 9.975 USD 9.975
44 NAF Sudan and Mitigation in Sudan 2020–2025 GCF
million million
(GAMS)

Building resilience
in the face of climate
change within
USD USD
45 NAF Sudan raditional rain fed 2020–2025 GCF
25 645 114 41.2 million
agricultural and
pastoral systems in
Sudan

Tunisia oases
ecosystems and USD USD
46 NAF Tunisia 2014–2019 GEF
livelihoods project 5 760 730 64 808 730
(TOELP)

Côte Global project on forest

d’Ivoire/ landscape restoration
EUR EUR 2
47 REG Madagascar/ and good governance 2020–2025 BMZ
26 540 582 26 540 582
Ethiopia/ in the forest sector
Togo (Forests4Future)

Strengthening of
Cote
ecological connectivity EUR EUR
48 REG d’Ivoire/ 2017–2022 BMZ/EU
of the Tai Grebo Sapo 6 969 636 8 600 000
Liberia
area

Benin/
Burkina
Soil Protection and
Faso/
Rehabilitation of EUR EUR
49 REG Ethiopia/ 2014–2025 BMZ
Degraded Soil for Food 178 231 596 178 231 596
Kenya/
Security (ProSoil)
Madagascar/
Tunisia

Cameroon/
Large scale Forest
Kenya/ EUR EUR
50 REG Landscape Restoration 2019–2025 BMU
Malawi/ 22 990 000 22 990 000
(FLR) in Africa
Rwanda

Kenya/
Benin/ Soil Protection,
Ethiopia/ Combating
EUR EUR
51 REG Madagascar/ Desertification, 2020–2023 BMZ/EU
10 200 000 44 954 688
Sustainable Land
Somalia/ Management
Tunisia
60 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

quasi–equity
investment of
USD 12 million
Ghana/Sierra
52 REG Miro Forestry 2020? LDN Fund supporting a
Leone
total financing
round of up to
USD 54 million

Ethiopia/
Ghana/
Kenya/
EUR EUR
53 REG Mali/Niger/ Regreening Africa 2017–2022 EU
20 500 000 24 440 000
Rwanda/
Senegal/
Somalia

IFAD: USD
9.6 million
loan (1 yr)
Smallholder Market–led USD 24.51
54 SAF Eswatini 2015–2021 IFAD/GEF and USD 0.5
Project (SMLP) million
million grant;
GEF: USD 7.21
million

Livelihoods
Livelihoods Vanilla Fund for
55 SAF Madagascar 2017–2027 EUR 2 million
Project Family
Farming

French
Government,
Fondation
Forest Landscape
Ensemble, EUR EUR
56 SAF Madagascar Restoration in 2004–2017
Good Planet 1 625 881 1 625 881
Fandriana-Marolambo
Foundation/
Air France,
SIDA , WWF

Biodiversity
Conservation,
Restoration and
USD USD
57 SAF Madagascar Integrated Sustainable 2020–2025 GEF
7 334 246 40 138 546
Development of Lower
Mangoky and South-
Mananara watersheds

sale of carbon
58 SAF Madagascar Tahiri Honko 2018– Plan Vivo
credits

Sustainable Landscapes
in Eastern Madagascar:
Improving the resiliency
of climate-vulnerable
smallholder farmer
families, reducing USD USD
59 SAF Madagascar 2017–2026 GCF
greenhouse gas 18.5 million 19.3 million
emissions from
deforestation and
leveraging private
sector climate
investments
 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021 61

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

sale of carbon
60 SAF Malawi Trees of Hope 2007– Plan Vivo
credits

Mainstreaming
biodiversity into the
USD USD
61 SAF Mauritius management of the 2018–2021 GEF
4.6 million 21 933 698
coastal zone in the
Republic of Mauritius

Climate-resilient food
security for women
and men smallholders USD USD
62 SAF Mozambique 2020–2025 GCF
in Mozambique 9.25 million 10 million
through integrated risk
management

Niassa Reforestation sale of carbon

63 SAF Mozambique 2007– CDM
Project credits

Building resilience of
communities living in
landscapes threatened
USD 8.9 USD 9.1
64 SAF Namibia under climate change 2019–2024 GCF
million million
through an ecosystems-
based adaptation
approach.

Namibia Integrated
Landscape Approach
for Enhancing
Livelihoods and USD USD
65 SAF Namibia 2019–2025 GEF
Environmental 10 823 744 85 136 588
Governance to
Eradicate Poverty
(NILALEG)

Empower to Adapt:
Creating Climate-
Change Resilient
Livelihoods through USD USD
66 SAF Namibia 2016–2022 GCF
Community-Based 10 million 10 million
Natural Resource
Management in
Namibia

Conservation,
restoration and
reconstitution of EUR EUR
67 SAF Réunion 2009–2014 EU LIFE
the semi–xerophilic 1 284 699 2 571 548
habitats of the “massif
de la Montagne”

Replanting and
enhancing community
participation in
rehabilitation of GEF small USD USD
68 SAF Seychelles 2011–2013
degraded forest lands: a grants 50 000 119 258
demonstration project
at Pt. Chevalier, Praslin,
Seychelles

Ecosystem Based
Adaptation USD USD
69 SAF Seychelles Adaptation to Climate 2014–2020
Fund 6 455 750 6 455 750
Change in Seychelles
62 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

Working for Ecosystems USD 147.6

(Sub-Tropical Government million (NRM
70 SAF South Africa 2004–
Thicket Restoration of S. Africa programme
Programme) overall)

Securing long term

benefits for the
Govt. of
communities and EUR EUR
71 SAF Tanzania 2004–2013 Finland &
forests of the East 1.95 million 1.95 million
WWF
Usambara Mountains –
Tanzania

sale of carbon
72 SAF Tanzania Emiti Nibwo Bulora 2008 Plan Vivo
credits

Supporting the
implementation of
integrated ecosystem
management
USD USD
73 SAF Tanzania approach for 2018–2023 GEF
11 205 872 75 679 373
landscape restoration
and biodiversity
conservation in
Tanzania

Enhancing Climate
Change Adaptation
Adaptation USD USD
74 SAF Tanzania for Agro-Pastoral 2020–2024
Fund 1 200 000 1 200 000
Communities in
Kongwa District

Strengthening climate
resilience of agricultural
USD USD 137.3
75 SAF Zambia livelihoods in Agro- 2018–2025 GCF
32 million million
Ecological Regions I and
II in Zambia

Building Climate
Resilience of Vulnerable USD USD 47.8
76 SAF Zimbabwe 2020–2027 GCF
Agricultural Livelihoods 26 574 567 million
in Southern Zimbabwe

Enhanced climate
resilience of rural
communities in
central and north
Benin through the USD USD
77 WAF Benin 2019 –2024 GCF
implementation of 9 million 10 million
ecosystem-based
adaptation (EbA) in
forest and agricultural
landscapes

Restoration,
conservation
and sustainable
EUR EUR
78 WAF Benin management of 2018–20222 FFEM
1 270 000 6 650 000
mangroves in Costa
Rica and Benin to tackle
climate change
 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021 63

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

Rehabilitation
and sustainable
management by AGED sale of carbon
79 WAF Burkina Faso 2014– Plan Vivo
of degraded pastures credits
in the Sahel region of
Burkina Faso

Rehabilitation of the sale of carbon

80 WAF Burkina Faso 2014– Plan Vivo
Sahel (REACH) credits

Projet de récupération
EUR EUR
81 WAF Burkina Faso des terres dégradées en 2017–2021 Lux Dev
5 000 000 5 331 730
milieu pastoral

Forest landscape
restoration (FLR) and
Burkina EUR EUR
82 WAF Sustainable Land 2017–2020 FFEM/AFD
Faso/Niger 1 800 000 6 487 559
Management (SLM) in
the Sahel region

Removal of Invasive
GEF Small
Plant Species and USD USD
83 WAF Cabo Verde 2015–2016 Grants
Forest Protection in 30 000 42 214
Programme
Monte Velha

Sustainability and
Scaling Up Approaches
for Transformational
Management,
Restoration and USD USD
84 WAF Cote d’Ivoire 2019– GEF
Conservation of Forests 2 831 050 18 479 374
Landscapes and
Biodiversity in Cote
d’Ivoire (SSATMARC–
FOLAB)

Promoting zero-
deforestation cocoa
USD USD
85 WAF Cote d’Ivoire production for reducing 2020–2025 GCF
10 million 11.8 million
emissions in Côte
d’Ivoire (PROMIRE)

Landscape Planning
and Restoration to
Improve Ecosystem
USD USD
86 WAF Gambia Services, and 2020–2025 GEF
5 644 685 25 733 269
Livelihoods, Expand
and Effectively Manage
Protected Areas

AfDB and USD 14

Climate million;
Private public
Investment backed by a
87 WAF Ghana partnership (PPP) in the 2016–2056
Fund’s Forest USD 10 million
Forest Sector
Investment concessional
Programme loan

Ghana Shea Landscape

USD USD
88 WAF Ghana Emission Reductions 2020–2027 GCF
30 100 000 54.5 million
Project
64 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

Forest Landscape
Restoration through EUR EUR
89 WAF Ghana 2019–2023 BMU
a Sustainable Wood 4 500 000 4 500 000
Energy Value Chain

Scaling up climate-
Guinea– Adaptation USD USD
90 WAF smart agriculture in 2020–2025
Bissau Fund 9 979 000 11 726 000
East Guinea Bissau

Cooperation on
reducing greenhouse
Norway’s
gas emissions from
International
deforestation and forest up to USD
91 WAF Liberia 2014– Climate
degradation (REDD+) 150 million
and Forest
and developing
Initiative
Liberia’s agriculture
sector

Zanbal Agroforestry sale of carbon

92 WAF Mali 2016– GoldStandard
Project credits

Promoting Sustainable
Agricultural Production
and Conservation
of Key Biodiversity
Species through
USD USD
93 WAF Niger Land Restoration 2020–2024 GEF
5 296 808 142 996 808
and Efficient Use of
Ecosystems in the Dallol
Bosso and Surrounding
Areas (PROSAP/
COKEBIOS)

Niger: Acacia Biocarbon sale of carbon

94 WAF Niger 2005–
Plantations Fund/CDM credits

Fostering Sustainability
and Resilience for Food
USD USD
95 WAF Nigeria Security in the Savanna 2017–2022 GEF
7 139 450 64 339 450
Zones of Northern
Nigeria

Livelihoods sale of carbon

96 WAF Senegal Mangrove Restoration 2011–
Funds/CDM credits

Building the climate

resilience of food
insecure smallholder USD USD
97 WAF Senegal 2017–2021 GCF
farmers through 9 983 521 9 983 521
integrated management
of climate risk (R4)

Increasing the resilience

of ecosystems and
communities through USD USD
98 WAF Senegal 2016–2020 GCF
the restoration of the 7 614 260 8.2 million
productive bases of
salinized lands
 Review of Forest and Landscape Restoration in Africa 2021 65

OVERALL
SUBREGION COUNTRY PROJECT NAME DURATION MAIN FUNDER
BUDGET

Amount
Name
funded

Large-scale Ecosystem-
based Adaptation
in the Gambia River
USD USD
99 WAF Gambia Basin: developing 2017–2022 GCF
20 546 756 25.5 million
a climate resilient,
natural resource based
economy

Gold sale of carbon

100 WAF Togo Project Togo 2011–
Standard credits
ANNEX II: INTERVIEWEES
Ellysar Baroudy – World Bank Seif Hamisi – WWF – Africa

Christophe Besacier – FAO /FLRM Cecile Ndjebet – African Women’s Network for
Community Management of Forests
Susan Chomba – ICRAF
Sam Kanyamibwa – ARCOS
Jonathan Davies – IUCN
Ousseynou Ndoye – AUDA–NEPAD
Sean DeWitt – WRI
Tony Rinaudo – World Vision
Mamadou Diakhite – AFR100 Secretariat/ AUDA–NEPAD
SLWM Program Moctar Sacande – FAO– Action Against Desertification/
GGW
Ernest Foly – Forest Research Institute of Ghana
Mignane Sarr – FAO Senegal
Victoria Gutierrez – CommonLand

Petra Lahann – GIZ

ISBN x978-92-5-134800-0

9 789251 348000
CB6111EN/1/08.21