TOPICALS Section 2 [HISTORY & CULTURE OF PAKISTAN BY IMRAN ALI GULZAR]

History & Culture of Pakistan

Section 2

Chapter 6
How far did the Pakistan Movement develop during
the early 20th century?

Timeline

1877 | Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India

1883 | First conference of the Indian National Congress
1905 | Partition of Bengal
1906 | Simla Deputation Formation of Muslim League
1908 | Press Act passed
1909 | Morley Minto Reforms passed
1911 | George V announces reversal of Partition of Bengal
1912 | Outbreak of Balkan Wars
1914 | Outbreak of First World War
1915 | Congress and League meet in Bombay
1916 | Lucknow Pact
1919 | Montagu Chelmsford Reforms
1919 | Rowlatt Act
1919 | Amritsar Massacre
1922 | Non Cooperation Movement
1923 | Hindu Mahasabha founded
1923 | Sawaraj Part wins seats in elections
1927 | The Delhi Proposals

Focus points:
• What were the aims and origins of the Muslim League?
• How successful was British rule and attempts at constitutional reform during the years 1909–19?

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• How and why did relationships between Muslims and Hindus change between 1916 and 1927?

Specified content:

The main features :

• the Partition of Bengal controversy, 1905–11
• the Simla Deputation, 1906
• reasons for the establishment of the Muslim
League – its creation in 1906 and its aims
• co-operation of the Muslim League with
Congress and reasons for its breakdown
• the Morley–Minto reforms, 1909
• the impact of the First World War on the subcontinent
• Congress and the Lucknow Pact, 1916
• the Rowlatt Act, 1918, and the Amritsar
Massacre, 1919
• the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (The
Government of India Act), 1919
• the Non-Cooperation Movement
• the growth of Communalism
• growing divisions in the Congress Party
• the Delhi Proposals, 1927.

IN A NUTSHELL
 It was the struggle period of the Muslims of the Sub-continent to protect
and advance their rights which was practically started from 1905 and
lasted at 1947 with the creation of Pakistan.
 A new friendship was blossomed between the Muslim and the British
communities particularly with the partition of Bengal but it was against the
interest of the Hindues.
 Another favour given to the Muslims in the form of Separate Electorate
which had a landmark importance in the history of the development of the
Pakistan Movement as lt was a political journey from the separate
Electorate to the demand of Pakistan in 1940 and the then creation of
Pakistan in 1947.
 the establishment of a separate political party of the Muslims which was a
platform or an instrument by which the Muslims gained independence in
1947.

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 The British promised with the Muslims that they would not reverse the
partition of Bengal at any event or at any cost but they betrayed the
Muslims as they were not taken into confidence while making this decision.
 In this way the honeymoon period of the Muslims with the British was
ended tragically in 1911 and the leadership of the Muslim League changed
its Manifesto and sided with the Congress in the same demand of the
dominion status of India, therefore, Hindu Muslim unity was engineered
through the Lucknow Pact in 1916.
 This relation also remained short lived due communal differences and
mistrust between the Hindu and the Muslims after the Khilafat Movement.
 So in this chapter we need to analyse the position of the three
stakeholders, named the Congress, Muslim League and the British.
 We will understand their nature of relationship with the view of one man’s
gain is another man’s loss.
 We will also learn about the Pakistan Movement, Right of Separate
Electorate, Viceroy, and secretary to India, Imperial legislative Council,
Central Legislative Council, Provincial legislative council and Viceroy’s
Executive Council and Diarchy system.

Key Concepts
 What was the Pakistan Movement?
Pakistan Movement sought to establish a new nation-state that protected the
religious identity and political interests of Muslims in Indian subcontinent.

 What was meant by the Right of Separate Electorates?

Separate Electorates are that type of elections in which minorities select their
own representatives separately, as opposed to Joint Electorates where people
are selected collectively. When minorities fear that they would not get
representation in state affairs and government then they demand separate
electorates. Same was the case with the Indian Muslims. They were very large in
number, but in case of combined elections they would not get due
representation.

 What was the Imperial legislative Council?

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The Imperial Legislative Council was a legislature (law making body) for British
India from 1861 to 1947. It succeeded the Council of the Governor-General of
India. Today, parliament is a law making body.

 What was the Legislative Council?

The Legislative Council has three main functions: to represent the people, to
legislate and to scrutinise the executive government as a 'House of review'.

 Who was Viceroy?

A viceroy is an official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national
state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory.
The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the
French word roy, meaning "king".

 What was the Viceroy’s Executive Council?

The Viceroy's Executive Council was the cabinet of the government of British
India headed by the Viceroy of India.

 What was meant by the Secretary of State for India during the British
rule?
Secretary of State for India was the British Cabinet minister and the political head
of the India Office responsible for the governance of the British Indian Empire.

 What was the diarchy system?

Diarchy means a government by two authorities. In India it was started in the
government of India act 1919 on provincial level. The reserved subjects such as
defence, judiciary, power resources and publication were most important and
were controlled by Provincial Governors and their Executive councils and the
transferred subjects were less important such as forests and public works were
controlled by Indian Ministers. Diarchy was dropped at provincial level and
brought at central level in Govt. of India act 1935.

 Why was the Bengal partitioned in 1905?

The reason behind the partition that was officially announced was that the
Bengal province was too large to be administered by a single governor and so it
would be partitioned on administrative purpose. The provincial state of Bengal

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had an area of 189,000 square miles and a population of nearly 78.5 million. It
comprised to West Bengal with a Hindu majority and East Bengal and Assam with
a Muslim majority. It included the Hindi-speaking regions of Bihar, the Odia-
speaking regions of Orrisa as well as the Assamese-speaking region of Assam,
making it a huge administrative entity. Another reason behind the partition was
political as the capital, Calcutta, was also the capital of the entire British India
and becoming the centre of Hindu Nationalist Movement With the growing
efforts of the Indian freedom fighters to secure the independence of India, Lord
Curzon decided to address both these problems by partitioning Bengal into two
entities, which would result in a Muslim-majority in the eastern half, and a Hindu-
majority in the western half. This he hoped would reduce the administrative
pressures and divide the population on religious grounds, quelling the Indian
Independence Movement. Deplorable economic condition of the East Bengal
and perceived dominance of the Hindu businessmen and landlords in the West
Bengal over the governance of Bengal also became the major reason of the
partition of Bengal. Most of the factories and mills in Bengal were established in
and around Calcutta, when Calcutta was making progress, it was believed that
the whole Bengal was making progress while many sources of raw materials for
these factories were in East Bengal. Furthermore, most of the educational
institutions of the Province were in Calcutta, including the lone university in
Bengal at the time.

 What was the reaction of the Hindus over the partition of

Bengal?
Hindus kicked a storm of opposition and they launched the Swadeshi Movement
to pressurize the British to annul the partition of Bengal. The Hindu agitation was
reached on its climax on October 16, 1905, the day when the new province was
officially created. The Hindus of Calcutta celebrated this day as Black Day by
wearing black dresses and smearing their foreheads with ash. They declared that
partition was an insult to the goddess Kali Mata and it served a deadly blow to
the Bengali nationalism. The Hindus accused Lord Curzon and his government
and declared him as the upholder of the devilish official policy of divide and rule.
When zealous Hindu volunteers forced the Muslim shopkeepers to observe a
strike, bloodshed was unavoidable. This political agitation appealed to Hindu
“religious antipathy against the Muslims”. It was intolerable to the Hindus that
in a new province the Muslims would be in a clear majority and they would be

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strangers in their own land. They launched a campaign of vilification through

media against the Muslims and the British.

 What was the Swadeshi Movement?

The Hindus had started Swadeshi movement on August 7, 1905 to increase
pressure on the British to cancel the partition of Bengal. It called upon all and
sundry to start using only those things which were locally made. Foreign cloth was
readily put to torch and students refused to take their examination on the
imported papers. It had two purposes to serve. On the one hand, it was aimed at
patronising the Hindu industry and, on the other, to boycott the British goods to
give them economic cuts. Gradually, the movement was led to assume an anti-
Muslims posture and became violent enough that Muslim workers were assaulted
even an assassination attempt was made on Lord Minto.
 What was the Swadeshi Movement?
• A boycott of British goods by Hindus against the partition of Bengal.
• British cloth was thrown onto bonfires
• The Hindu community wore locally produced clothes
• There were a series of strikes by Indian workers, e.g. in Calcutta

 What was the reaction of the British Government to the

Swadeshi and Boycott Movement?
The British Government reacted sharply:
(i) During 1905 to 1909, thousands of people were arrested and sent to jail.
(ii) The Government grants to Schools and Colleges, participating in the Swadeshi
Movement, were discontinued.
(iii) The British invoked the Regulation of 1818, to suppress the movement and
arrested and deported several leaders.
 Why did the Hindus oppose the partition of Bengal?
In 1903, when the Hindus came to know about the proposed partition of Bengal,
they severely criticised it. Calcutta became the centre of this protest as the Hindu
lawyers apprehended that establishment of Dacca High Court would not only
adversely affect their legal practice but also damage their political interests
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Similarly, Calcutta- based Hindu newspapers opposed the partition from tooth to
nail. They were in the forefront of this agitation because they feared that the
establishment of the Muslim press in Dacca would badly affect their circulation
and business interests.
The other Hindu group opposed to plan was the powerful class of absentee
landlords, who had their agricultural land in East Bengal but lived in Calcutta. For
them, the partition of Bengal was a death- knell for their political and feudalistic
supremacy.
The Hindus opposed the partition of Bengal as they accused Lord Curzon and his
Government that they had nothing to do with administration but to divide the
Bengali Nationalist Movement.

 What was the reaction of the Muslims over the partition

of Bengal?
The Bengali Muslims could reclaim their usurped rights, so naturally they
welcomed the partition of Bengal wholeheartedly. A Muslim leader Nawab Salim
ullah Khan said, “The partition of Bengal had aroused us from inaction and
directed our attention to activities and struggle.” A big gathering in Dacca offered
thanks to God for the partition and strongly condemned the Hindu agitation.
Many Muslims gatherings expressed their gratification to the secretary of state
to India who had declared the partition to be a “settled fact”.

 Why was the partition of Bengal important to the

Muslims?
Educational Benefits: Before the partition of Bengal, East Bengal was extremely
backward in education, it had a few schools, three colleges, not a single science
college and university. The partition of Bengal had provided an opportunity to the
Muslims to make progress in every field of education. Besides, opening new
primary and high schools, the existing schools were provided with better facilities.
Within the period of six years after the partition colleges had been opened in all
the five divisions of the province.
Social and Economic Benefits: Dacca, the largest city of East Bengal was situated
at a distance of only 264 miles from Calcutta. But it took 24 hours to cover this
distance mainly due to a slow railway network. After the partition, attention was
paid to the improvement in the field of communication and transportation, more
than two hundred miles of railway track was laid down. This not only helped in

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the improvement of transportation facilities but also gave necessary boost to

commerce and trade. After the partition, the Chittagong port was modernised
and now foreign ships could enter it to load and unload cargoes which increased
the trade activities. In short, the partition of Bengal ushered in a new era of
progress and prosperity.
Political Benefits: The Muslims could be spared much oppression which they had
hitherto had to endure from the Hindus. They could feel that their rights were
readily accepted and their importance had increased manifold as compared to
earlier times. Above all, they gained political and administrative experience to run
the affairs of a province.

 How did the Muslims and the Hindus react to the

partition of Bengal?
Muslims:
1. Very happy, got a chance to prosper educationally, social, economically and
politically
2. Many schools and colleges were opened to improve their educational standards.
3. Improvement in transportation and communication got chance of the civic
facilities, trade activities were increased and they got employment in
government departments rather than to be restricted to low jobs.
4. Chittagong port was functional, trade activities were increased.
5. Got chance to become a political entity, got chance to improve administrative
skills and could avoid the Hindu oppressions.
Hindus:
1. Unhappy, against the prosperity of the Muslims.
2. Their monopoly in trade broken down
3. Started boycott and launched the Swadeshi Movement.
4. Assassination attempts were made to kill Lord Minto.
5. Day of Mourning for them
6. Worsening law and order situation; violence and demonstrations by many
extremist groups ,derailing of trains
7. Glorification of violence, fanning hatred feelings against the Muslims and British
and vengeance through newspapers led to imposition of Vernacular Press Act
1878.

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Explain how the British reacted over the Hindu –led protests
against the Partition of Bengal between 1906 and 1908.
The British adopted different approaches to deal with the storm of opposition. At
first, Strict and prompt restrictions were placed on certain Hindu Calcutta based
newspapers that took a hard-line against the government and started a campaign
of vilification especially the Bengali and Amrita Bazar Patrika.Many other
newspapers and journalists were prosecuted and imprisoned. The Press Act of
1908 placed further restrictions on newspapers and gave the government greater
control over the hardliners. Secondly, those who were on the forefronts in
organising the Hindu- led demonstrations were arrested and put behind the bars
like Tilak of Poona was sentenced to 6 year imprisonment. Others were deported
or left the country of their own accord rather than face imprisonment. Another
approach intended to win the support of the more moderate Hindus by making
reforms. Lord Minto the viceroy worked with John Morley, the secretary of state
for India, on reforms that became the Morley – Minto reforms in 1919.

Why was the partition of Bengal reversed in 1911?

On 12th December 1911, the new viceroy Lord Hardings announced to cancel the
partition of Bengal at Dehli Darbar.
[Protests and Violence] The partition of Bengal created a Muslim-majority
province, the East Bengal. The elite Hindus of West Bengal, who were collecting
taxes from Muslim peasants in east Bengal, would now lose their influence in the
new province. They, therefore, rejected the decision and launched a series of
violent protests and demonstrations against the partition. The tide of anger
rapidly spread to other parts of India. The reaction was so strong that it gave birth
to the development of extremism. A number of small extremist groups came into
existence that launched attacks on the British officials. They succeeded in killing a
few ones. Lord Minto, the future viceroy, escaped an assassination attempt.
Many extremists were imprisoned for long time, but the situation was alarming to
the British. Finally, they had to bow down before the Hindu agitation and thus
revoked the Bengal partition.
[Economic Reasons] The British reversed the partition of Bengal due to economic
reasons also. The Hindus of West Bengal started Swadeshi Movement, which also
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spread to other parts of India. It was a massive campaign for boycotting the
British goods and using home-made products. The Hindus responded to the
movement enthusiastically. The use of local products became a matter of pride.
Foreign clothes were thrown on bonfires. By 1908, imports from Britain had fallen
off significantly and sales of British goods in Indian markets dropped drastically.
So the British had to reverse the decision.
[British Measures Failed] The British took several measures to bring the situation
under control but political unrest kept on growing. Restrictions were imposed on
newspapers and public gatherings. Editors were imprisoned. The prisons were
filled with revolutionary activists. Tilak was also arrested in June 1908 and put
behind the bars for 6 years. Apart from repressive measures, the British turned to
reconciliation also by introducing Morley-Minto reforms in 1909 to win support
of the Hindus, but the reforms also could not pacify them. The situation was
becoming difficult for peaceful administration and ultimately the British had to
move towards annulment of the partition.

Muslim Reaction over the Annulment of the partition of

Bengal

The united Bengal was placed under a Governor and Assam was placed under a
Chief Commissioner. This decision was shattering blow to Muslims. It left them
sullen and disillusioned. Their anger and indignation had widespread
repercussions. The Muslims leaders and intelligentsia condemned the decision as
betrayal of worst kind.

Impact of the reversal of the partition of Bengal on the

Pakistan Movement
The Muslims started to rely upon their own efforts to protect and advance the
rights of the Muslims instead of falling back upon the British who lost their
credibility and taught the Muslims “the more noise and the more rights they
could protect.” Therefore, the Muslim politics had now turned the corner and
changed from passive acquiescence to active and vigorous participation in the
national affairs.

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Q: ‘The reasons for partitioning Bengal in 1905 were more important than those
that caused its reversal in 1911.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14]

Ans. (explains both the reasons and also produces judgement)

1. Introduction : The reasons for the partitioning of Bengal in 1905 were,
indeed, more important than those of its reversal in 1911.The Bengal was
partitioned due to the following grounds :
2. Partition with the Muslim reactions briefly.
3. Reversal with Hindu and Muslim reactions briefly.
4. Judgement: From the above discussion we can rightly say that the reasons
of the partition of Bengal were more important and need of hour. It brought
numerous benefits for the Muslims in the Eastern Wing. Above all, the
opposition died down gradually and by this British could maintain their
credibility as well.

Note: If there is a question about impact on the Pakistan Movement then it is

better write the impact of the reversal on the Pakistan Movement that is written
above.

Background of the Simla Deputation

On 20th July 1906 John Morley the Secretary of State for Indian affairs, speaking on the Indian budget in the British
parliament, announced that the Government wanted to increase the number of seats for the legislative councils
and also their powers. John Morley announcement created an anxiety among the Muslims of the sub-continent.
The proposed reforms, if implemented, as was demanded by the Congress, would have suppressed the Muslims
more under the Hindu Majority. Muslim leaders were of the view that neither elections nor nominations are
fulfilled the requirements of the Indian Muslims, and that they needed a certain number of seats in both the
central and provincial councils. Their seats should be filled up by votes of their own community.

Describe the Simla Deputation

A delegation consisting of 35 leaders of Muslim community met to the viceroy,
Lord Minto under the leadership of Sir Aga Khan, in Simla on 1st October 1906.
The deputation presented the Charter of Demand to the viceroy, which was
consisting of the demands that rights of separate electorates should be given to
the Muslims; Muslims should be given three more seats in central legislature;
quota should be given to the Muslims in civil services; Muslims should be given
representation in universities senates and syndicates; an aid should be given to
the Muslims for the establishment of a Muslin university.
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Lord Minto, the Viceroy, accepted the right of separate electorate of the Muslims
and assured the Muslim delegation that as long as he was associated with the
administrative affairs of the country; their national rights would be preserved.

Why was the Simla Deputation an important turning point for

the Muslims?
The Simla Deputation was successful because the Muslims were strongly urged to
protect their separate identity. It was the first systematic attempt on the part of
the Muslims to secure and advance their rights. It marks a turning point for
Muslims because the viceroy, Lord Minto, accepted their demand for separate
electorate due to which they came in a position to select their own candidates in
the future Legislative Councils. It was the foundation of all future constitutional
amendments for India. The inevitable consequence of deputation was the
partition of Indian and the emergence of Pakistan. The success of Simla
Deputation encouraged the Muslims to establish a political organization of their
own, the Muslim League. Now they could encounter the growing influence of
Congress.

Causes of the formation of the Muslim League - 30th

December 1906
1. Indifferent Attitude of the Congress towards Muslims: All India National
Congress was a pre-dominantly Hindu body. It was established in 1885 to protect
the rights of every Indian irrespective of their culture, caste, creed and religion
but it protected the rights of Hindus only and had nothing to do with the interest
of the Muslims. Partition of Bengal in 1905 which was in favour of the Muslims
severely criticised by the Hindus and launched the Swadeshi Movement which
was a manifestation of a religious revivalism of the Hindus, Muslims were
assaulted, they were pressed hard to declare strikes and campaign of vilification
was started against the them. But the Congress sided with the Hindus only.
Therefore, by, 1906, Muslim leaders were convinced that they must have their
own party which could speak for the community on all important occasions to
protect and advance their rights.
2. Educational and Economic Backwardness: Muslims had lagged far behind from
the Hindus in education and economic progress. Educational and economic

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conditions could only be up graded by establishing a separate Muslims

organization that could represent the wishes of the Muslims.
3. Urdu-Hindi Controversy: The Urdu-Hindu controversy began with the demand
of Hindus to replace Urdu by Hindi as official language in Deva Nagari Script. Sir
Anthony MacDonald, the then Governor of UP ousted Urdu from public offices.
Congress clearly sided with Hindi and supported the movement against Urdu and
there was no other political party to support Urdu. Thus, the need of formation of
a Muslim political party was felt severely.
4. The Evolution of Minto Marley Reforms: The turning point came in the
summer of 1906 during John Morley’s budget speech, in which he hinted of
constitutional reforms. At that time Muslims did not have a political platform to
demand their share. It was reasserted that they wanted a separate political
platform.
5. The Success of Simla Deputation: Minto offered fullest sympathy to the
Muslim demands. The success of Deputation compelled the Muslims to have a
separate political association of their own counter the influence and propaganda
of the Congress.
6. To Save Muslim Entity: The belief uttered by sir Syed Ahmed Khan that the
Muslims were somehow a separate entity. The Muslims did not believe that
Hindus and Muslims formed one nation. They were different by religion, history,
languages and civilization. It became essential for Muslims to establish a political
party of their own.

Explain why the Muslim community felt it necessary to form

their own political party in 1906.
(Five marks for one explanation, six marks for two explanations, seven
marks for three explanations)
e.g.
 They felt that Muslim rights would not be advanced if they continued to
rely on the Indian National Congress (Congress) which was seen as an
organisation that promoted views of the Hindu community.
 Congress was demanding that India should be treated as a cultural whole
and Hindi should be declared the official language.
 Congress opposed the Partition of Bengal and the Muslim community
realised that Hindus would achieve its reversal, so wanted their own
political party to safeguard their interests as Congress was not doing this.

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 The growth of Hindu nationalist groups demanding that Muslims be forcibly

converted to Hinduism.
 The Simla Agreement showed that Muslims were a separate community
and needed their own political party.

Minto –Morley Reforms 1909

Background / Why were the Minto –Morley Reforms

introduced in 1909?

By 1909, there was seen a great deal of political consciousness amongst the Indians. Similarly, political parties like
Indian National Congress and All Indian Muslim League had emerged. By then, the British were much influenced
and affected by these political parties. As previous reforms and acts did not meet the political aspirations of all the
Indians, the British realized that in order to introduce new reforms to address the grievances of the Indians they
needed to cater to these two political parties. Besides this, there were also other factors which led to the
formation of Minto-Morley Reforms. Moreover, the Liberal Party came to power in Britain in 1906, and that
changed the political atmosphere. The Liberal Party did not want to pursue the autocratic policies of the
Conservative Party. Such political changes in Britain and as well as in India, which altered the public opinion in both
countries

Main Provisions of the Minto-Morley Reforms / Indian Councils

Act, 1909
These reforms were jointly drafted by Lord Minto (Viceroy to India) and John
Morley (Secretary of state) .These was approved by the British parliament.
Indian representation was increased in all the Councils

1. The number of the Imperial Legislative Council (Governor General’s

Executive Council) was increased to 60 members with more non-official,
out of the total members, 23 were non –official ( not holding any
govt.office) while the others were official members. So, on the whole
majority of the official members was retained.
2. The powers of the members of the Imperial Legislative Council were
broadened. Now they were entitled to discuss budget and move resolutions
regarding tax amendments but the council president was authorised to
disallow the debate over any part of resolution also certain other
restrictions were imposed on their powers. Interest on loans, religious

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grants and debate over railways were declared beyond the jurisdiction of
the council.
3. Provincial councils were also expanded, in the big provinces which included
Bombay, Madras, UP and Bengal maximum number of the members was
fixed at fifty, in smaller province like Punjab was fixed at thirty.
4. The Muslims were given the right of separate electorate.
5. For the first time an Indian, S.P. Sinha was included in the Viceroy’s
Executive Council, after his resignation Syed Imam Ali was appointed.

Importance of the Minto – Morley Reforms

 In the constitutional evolution of India, the Act of 1909 was a decided step
and opened the door for real politics.
 Indians were given greater say for the first time in the government affairs
by expanding the central and provincial legislative councils.
 They could move resolutions, discuss Bills elaborately, and approved Bills.
 The British wanted to train Indians in politics, allowed them to express
their opinions in budget and tax amendment, the council members could
raise questions regarding different government departments and could
give advice to the government but could not make or change any law. The
real power was still with the British.
 More non- official members in the Imperial council would gradually lead to
more elected members in the councils in future.
 The right of separate electorates was given the constitutional protection
which further cemented the mutual relations. It was a major step towards
national identity and protection of the Muslim community. Although, the
Indian National Congress opposed this measure.
 By these reforms the British wanted to appease the resentment of the
Hindus caused by the partition of Bengal in 1905.
 The League passed a resolution, which offered cooperation with the
government for the success of the Reforms, in the Delhi session in 1910.

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Why did the Indian National Congress oppose the Morley –

Minto Reforms?
Limited Powers: Morley-Minto reforms granted limited political role to Indians.
The number of members in the Imperial and Provincial Councils was increased,
but the actual power still remained in the hands of the British. The councils could
only give advice; decisions were in the hands of the British. Members of the
Councils could not discuss certain subjects like foreign affairs and government
relations with Princely States. They could not exercise any effective authority in
administration. Thus how such kind of reforms could satisfy Indian masses who
were having limited involvement in the governance of their own land.

Separate Electorate: Muslims were granted reserved seats in the Imperial and
Provincial Legislative Councils. Such concession was not given to any other
minority community. INC believed that it would increase the communal divide
and other factions would also demand for reserved seats. It was thus British
strategy of “divide and rule” that will ultimately destroy the Indian nationalism
and unity.
Franchise: The franchise was very narrow and it was not uniform. The number of
voters was very small because the property qualification was very high, and it was
discriminatory differing from place to place, and women were not given the right
to poll. Only loyal Indians from upper classes, who loved western education and
culture, could reach the Legislative Councils. Furthermore there were indirect
methods of election which were against the basic principles of democracy.
Landlords and chamber of commerce were given undue importance that would
elect members to Legislative Councils.

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India before the First World War 1914 -1918

The Impact of the First World War on the Indian Politics

What was the silk letter conspiracy?

The Silk Letter Movement refers to a movement organised by Deobandi leaders

between 1913 and 1920, aimed at freeing India from British rule by forming an
alliance with Ottoman Turkey, Imperial Germany, and Afghanistan. This plot was
uncovered by the Punjab CID with the capture of letters from Ubaidullah Sindhi,
one of the Deobandi leaders. The letters were written on silk cloth, hence the
name of the Movement.

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Chapter 7

How successful was the Khilafat Movement in

advancing the cause of the Pakistan Movement?

Background

 Hindu Muslim unity was attained after the Lucknow Pact of 1916.
 British promise to give constitutional concessions to satisfy the Indians
after the WWI
 British won the war but backed out from their promises.
 Instead they unleashed the oppressive policies and actions; Mont-Ford
Reforms were introduced in 1919 which really disappointed the Indians,
Rowlatt Act 1919 was introduced by keeping aside the Indian resentment,
Amritsar Massacre took place in 1919 which was real insult of the Indians.
 Congress launched the Non-Cooperation Movement 1919 as a protest on
British oppressive policies.
 The Muslims also felt threatened regarding the fate of Khalifa and the
integrity of Ottoman Empire.
 Ali Brothers; Maulana Shaukat Ali & Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, met
with Gandhi to start agitation against the British for Sawaraj and to
preserve the authority of the Caliph, which resulted in the formation of the
Khilafat Movement.

Timeline
1918 | End of the First World War
1919 | Treaty of Versailles
1919 | First Khilafat Conference
1919 | Second Khilafat Conference
1920 | Khilafat leaders meet Viceroy
1920 | Treaty of Sevres announced
1920 | Non-Cooperation policy
1920 | British adopt policy of oppression
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1920 | Hijrat of Afghanistan

1921 | Third Khilafat Conference
1922 | Policemen killed in Chauri-Chaura
1922 | Gandhi calls off non-cooperation
1922 | Sultan deposed by Kemal Ataturk

Question & Answers

 What was the Khilafat Movement?

Agitation on the part of Indian Muslims allied with the Indian nationalist
movement, 1919 – 24 . Its purpose was to remind the promises made by
the British in the World War I to seek the help of the muslims of the
subcontinent and to influence the British government to preserve the
spiritual and temporal authority of the Ottoman sultan as caliph of Islam,
and not to desecrate the Holy places of Muslims and to stop the allied
forces for dismembering the Ottoman Empire. Leaders and ulama viewed
the European attack on the caliph's authority as an attack on Islam and thus
a threat to the religious freedom of Muslims under British rule.

 Why did Gandhi support the Khilafat movement?

Gandhi supported Khilafat Movement to unite Hindus and Muslims for
freedom struggle (Sawaraj), and to tell the British that making promises and
then not fulfilling them is not acceptable, and both the communities will
stand together to oppose such behaviour. He wasn't looking at Khilafat
Movement from the 'Ottoman empire orchestrated the Armenian
Genocide' lens, and asked the Khilafat leaders to follow his ideals of non-
violence.

 What was the All India Khilafat Movement?

The All India Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi in November 1919, led
by Ali brothers who hoped to try and persuade the British to keep their
promises about maintaining the Turkish Empire. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
and Gandhi represented Congress. Gandhi hoped to unite Hindus and
Muslims in his non-violent campaign against the British. Maulana Azad
warned the conference the David Lloyd George intended to punish Turkey
for fighting against Britain in the War. The conference passed a Resolution

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agreeing to send a delegation to Britain, making sure they were aware of

the strength of Muslim support of the Khalifa.

 Why was Khilafat Movement launched in 1919?

 To remind British Promises
 Support of Congress
 Political Unity amongst Muslims
After the WW1 ended, the British betrayed Indian Muslims by treating
Turkey and the Caliph badly. The Caliph's control over the holy places was
revoked, and the Treaty of Sevres finalised the dismemberment of Turkish
empire, a delegation consisted of Ali Brothers Maulana Shaukat Ali &
Maulana Muhammad Ali and the senior member of Congress Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad was sent to Britain to remind their promises and to make sure
that the British were aware of the strength of the Muslim support for the
Khalifa. After the meeting with the British Prime Minister Loyd George the
delegation was really disappointed because the British mind-set was
exposed about the fate of Turkey and the Caliph. The support of the
Congress was also a major reason for the formation of the Khilafat
Movement. The Khilafat leaders needed a voice audible enough to be heard
and Gandhi extended his support because he saw the long-term dividends
in it. Gandhi supported Khilafat Movement to unite Hindus and Muslims for
freedom struggle and to tell the British that making promises and then not
fulfilling them is not acceptable. The movement also aimed to build political
unity amongst Muslims and use their influence to protect the Caliphate.

 What was the Non-Cooperation Movement?

The Non-cooperation movement was a protest movement led by M.K
Gandhi, a Hindu Leader. In it, British goods were boycotted, schools and
colleges were emptied, lawyers refused to appear in British courts and
there were disturbance in army units.

Main Events of the Khilafat Movement:

 Hijrat Movement
 Chauri-Chaura Incident
 Moplah Uprising

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 What was the Hijrat Movement?

In 1920, Abul Kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a call to Indian
Muslims to leave the British Raj as the land was now not safe for living and
asked them migrate to Afghanistan. This migration of about 20000 Muslims
to Afghanistan is known as the Hijrat Movement. They sold their property
and started their long trek with their few possessions. The journey was long
and tiring were told that Afghan Government would welcome them and
fertile fields would be made available for them. Though this migration was
poorly planned, it demonstrated the depth of feeling amongst Muslims and
showed that they were willing to leave their homes and possessions to
escape British Rule.

 What was the Chauri-Chaura Incident?

The non-cooperation movement was leading to violence and losing its
momentum. In Feb. 1922 at Chaura Chauri in a village near UP a trouble
erupted between the police and the demonstrating procession. The hostile
mob set fire to the police station where22policemen were burnt alive.
Gandhi was so upset that he immediately and unilaterally called of non-
cooperation movement doing great deal of damage to the entire Khilafat
Movement.

The Moplah or Malabar Rebellion was an armed uprising in 1921 against British authority in
the Malabar region of Southern India by Mappilas (son-in-law of Malayalam). The Moplah
Rebellion began as a reaction against a heavy-handed crackdown on the Khilafat Movement,
a campaign in defense of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British authorities in the Eranad and
Valluvanad taluks of Malabar. In the initial stages, the movement had the support of
Mohandas Gandhi, Moulana Abul Kalam Azad and other Indian nationalist leaders who made
tour to Kerala to gain support for swaraj and Khilafat.In the initial stage, a number of minor
clashes took place between Khilafat volunteers and the police, but the violence soon spread
across the region. In the later stages of the uprising, Mappilas prosecuted some of those
accused of helping the police to suppress their rebellion, most of them were Hindu landlords

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In August, 1921, the police issued rule 144 in the two Taluks of Eranad and Valluvanad,
because these two were strongholds of the Moplas. The police also tried to arrest on
20th August 1921, the Secretary of the Eranad Khilafat Committee. The Moplas resisted
this arrest with swords and spears. Led by the Police Superintendent of Eranad, a huge
police party and Gorkha Regiment forcibly entered the Tirurangadi Masjid. At once, the
protest movement spread like wild fire and took the character of a mass rebellion. The
Moplas captured police stations one after another, looted Government treasury and
burnt official documents in the courts and the Registry offices. Led by desperate rebel
leaders like Ali Musaliar, the Moplah rebellion took unprecedented form but it was duly
controlled by the British in which nearly 25 hundred Moplahs were killed.

 The Khilafat Movement was founded mainly due to the deep seated fears
among the Muslims about the anti- Muslims British policies. Explain why you
might agree or disagree?
 Fear of Hindus amongst Muslims
 Policies of Britain and Russia
 Fear of fighting the fellow Muslims
 Treaty of Versailles and Severs
 Dismemberment of Turkey
 Position and Respect for Caliph

Some Muslims in India considered that the British policy towards Muslims
was to encourage in them the fear of Hindus so that the Muslims would
cooperate with the British. Although there were many Muslims in the
British Army Fighting against dirty there were large number of dissertations
by the soldiers soldiers and willing to fight fellow Muslims in Turkey. The
concern about the British policy towards Muslim was also shown in 1918,
When the president of Muslim League, Maulvi Fazl – Ul – Haq stated that
every instance of a collapse of the Muslim powers of the world is bound to
have adverse influence on the political importance of our community. Like
Maulana Azad, he called on Muslims to abandon their traditional hostility
towards Hindus.
Afghanistan and Persia both the Muslim countries had been the subject of
rivalry between Russia and Britain. The two powers had agreed on how
Afghanistan and Persia were to be run, but a little attention was paid to the
views of the native, Muslim population

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 Khilafat Movement failed because Gandhi withdrew his support. Do you

agree? Give reasons for your answers.
 Gandhi’s withdrawal
 Hijrat Movement
 Abolishment of Khilafat by Kemal Attaturk

The withdrawal of Gandhi was indeed was one of the major reasons which
led to the failure of the Khilafat Movement. Gandhi was the unanimous
leader of the Khilafat Movement, who paid visit to the whole of India to
Khilafat Movement popular, he also incorporated Non - Cooperation
Movement into the Khilafat Movement. Moreover, Hindus and Congress
who were skilful in pressure politics made this movement popular enough,
without their support it would be only a dream to launch such an organised
movement. Therefore support of such a valuable leader was a lifeblood for
the Khilafat Movement. However when Gandhi withdrew his support on
the grounds of Chaura – Chauri. It gave a severe set back to this movement.
After that this movement was died down as Hindus and Congress withheld
themselves and there was no central figure left who could lead this
movement effectively, it became easier for British to crack down against
the Muslims. Muslims also called in the question, the credibility of Gandhi.
As he was more adherent to Swaraj rather than the movement and he
should have calculated the reaction of the mob which remains always
violent, as it was stated by Mr. Jinnah, before the start of the this
movement. Therefore withdrawal of Gandhi’s support, when the
movement was on its climax led to the failure of movement. But this wasn’t
the whole truth, there were other contributed factors which shuddered the
movement to halt.
In 1920, Abul Kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a call to Indian
Muslims to leave the British Raj as the land was now not safe for living and
asked them migrate to Afghanistan. This migration of about 20000 Muslims
to Afghanistan is known as the Hijrat Movement. Though this migration was
poorly planned, it demonstrated the depth of feeling amongst Muslims and
showed that they were willing to leave their homes and possessions to
escape British Rule. The Hijrat Movement to Afghanistan failed. This was
because when the Muslims reached Afghanistan, the Afghan government
did not allow the Muslims to enter as they could not accommodate such a
huge number of people. People were forced to return. Secondly, the

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journey to Afghanistan was very long and difficult. Thirdly, many Muslim
leaders were against this decision and instead wanted Muslims to stay and
fight for their cause.

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Chapter 8
How Successful was the Pakistan Movement in the
years from 1927 – 1939?

Timeline
1927 | Simon Commission arrives in India
1927 | Congress votes for independence
1928 | Nehru Report
1929 | Fourteen Points agreed
1930 | Salt March begins
1930 | First Round Table Conference
1930 | Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad Address
1931 | Second Round Table Conference
1932 | Communal Award
1932 | Third Round Table Conference
1933 | Rehmat Ali writes ‘Now or Never’
1935 | Government of India Act
1937 | Congress wins election

Questions & Answers

 What was Simon Report?
Simon Report was published in May 1930 by the Simon Commission, which
came in 1927 to resolve the constitutional deadlock in India, it proposed
the abolishment of Diarchy System and the establishment of
representative government at provincial level. It also recommended a
federal type of government at the centre but majority of the powers to rest
with the provinces.

 Describe the Nehru Report.

As an answer to the challenge of the secretary to India, Lord Birkenhead
who stated that Indians were so divided that they could not make the

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unanimous constitution. Gandhi accepted the challenge and appointed a

committee under Motilal Nehru comprising of 27 member-in 1928. It stated
that there will be no state Religion, equal rights will be given to men and
women. It also called for a federal form of government to be setup and
majority of the powers to rest with federal / centre. The report targeted
the minorities especially the Muslims by going against the right of separate
electorates.

 What was the Salt March?

It was an act of non- violent protest against the British. The march was a
direct action campaign against the British Salt Laws. Before the Salt March,
Gandhi’s Non- Cooperation movement was already in action but when the
British imposed unfair taxes on salt, Gandhi made the salt as the protest
focus as it attracted masses especially the poor.

 Describe the Allahabad Address of Allama Iqbal.

The 25th annual session of the Muslim League, at Allahabad, was chaired by
Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal in 1930. In the address Iqbal demanded for a
“separate state for Muslims within the British-India or outside it” which
would be comprised of North-Western India and he also demanded Self-
government for the Muslims.

 What was Wardha Scheme?

Wardha Scheme was formulated my Dr Zakir Hussain who was appointed
by Gandhi. This scheme was adopted by the Congress during their rule from
1937-39. According to which, there would be no religious education for the
students. The students had to bow before the picture of Gandhi. There was
no place for a religious education and English in the curriculum. This
scheme aimed to promote Indian culture rather than the literacy; this was
not acceptable to the Muslim League as the religious education was of
most importance. Due to this scheme Muslims forbade their children to
attend the schools.

 What was the political crisis between the Congress and the All India
Muslim League from 1926 to 1931?
OR

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What was the nature of relationship between the Congress and the
Muslim League (1926 – 1931?)
The relations from 1926 till 1931 between the Congress and the Muslim
League were stranded, because Muslims Believed that Gandhi was
responsible for the failure of Khilafat Movement as he left the movement in
the lurch when the movement was on its peak. After the end of Khilafat
Movement extremist Hindus emerged and dominated the politics of
Congress, which worried the Muslim League and they feared that the
Congress was more concerned with Hindu matters then winning the rights
for whole Indians. The League’s suspicion was further increased when
Congress refused to accept Muslim demands of full Muslim autonomy and
the right of separate electorate. To make matters even worse the Hindu
groups launched “Shuddhi” and “Singhatan” movements and carried out
forcible conversion of Muslims, however Muslim League still showed some
flexible attitude and wanted working relationship with the Congress and it
presented Delhi Proposals. Jinnah stated that if these proposals were to be
accepted the Muslims would be ready to compromise their cherish demand
of separate electorate. Unfortunately these proposals were rejected the
Congress presented Nehru Report 1928 which showed the narrow minded
approach of Congress as it wanted Hindu dominance in India and it didn’t
address the concern of the Muslim League. Therefore Jinnah was forced by
the circumstances to give his Fourteen points as a reaction, to protect and
advance the rights of Muslims and minorities. On the other hand Congress
went for non-cooperation to pressurise the British and Muslim to make
Future constitution in the light of Nehru Report. Upon this the British
proposed round table conference to discuss the constitutional deadlock but
the Congress refused to attend the Conference.

 Describe the achievements of the First Round Table Conference.

Despite of Congress’ absence, the conference was quite successful. In the
conference the princes announced that they would join future Indian
Federation until their importance and rights were recognised. British also
agreed upon the demand of Muhammad Ali Jinnah which was
representation of government at provincial level.

 Describe the failure of the First Round table conference.

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Congress’ absence in the First Round Table Conference was a major

drawback to the conference. Since the Congress was the biggest and the
most influential organisation/party in the whole subcontinent. Also there
was no major representation of Hindus in the conference so no major
decision couldn’t be taken about the future constitution without the
consent of the Hindus.

 Describe the achievements of the Second Round Table Conference?

One of the biggest achievement of the Second Round Table Conference was
that the Congress’ Leader Gandhi agreed to attend the conference it was a
major achievement as that time there was so much fuss between the
leaders of the subcontinent. Apart from this another agreement was made
according to which Sindh and NWFP would be given provincial recognition
and governors would be assigned to each of the province.

 Describe the failure of the Second Round Table Conference.

The Second Round Table Conference wasn’t so successful as no agreement
could be made, there was only opposition from the Congress and they
weren’t ready to give any kind of concession to the Muslims and the other
minorities and they weren’t recognizing their problems.

 What was Gandhi-Irwin Pact?

Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, met with Gandhi to reach a compromise. On 5
March 1931 they agreed the following to pave the way for the Congress'
participation in the second Round Table Conference: Congress would
discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement, it would participate in the
second Round Table Conference, the Government would withdraw all
ordinances issued to curb the Congress, the Government would withdraw
all prosecutions relating to offences not involving violence and the
Government would release all persons undergoing sentences of
imprisonment for their activities in the Civil Disobedience Movement.

 What was Communal Award?

The Communal Award of 1932 was presented by the British Prime Minister
Sir Ramsay MacDonald to resolve the issues in India. This Award granted
the separate electorates to the minorities these minorities included the

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Muslims, Sikhs and the Scheduled Caste Hindus. The principle of weightage
was also maintained. Hindus were enraged by the Communal Award.

 What was the Effect of the new Government in England on the Third
Round table Conference?
The Labour Party lost elections in England. The New Government was less
keen to reach a compromise in India, also the new Prime Minister Ramsay
MacDonald considered himself a friend of Indians. Thus he wanted to
resolve the issues his own way, so the new government wasn’t much
interested in the Round Table Conferences, resulting in the failure of the
Third Round Table Conference.

 Describe the main features of the Government of India Act of 1935.

The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced federation in the India.
Two chamber Parliament was established. Diarchy system was abolished at
provincial level, but was introduced at the centre. Thus the provinces were
much more autonomous. The number of provinces was increased from 9
to 11 by including Sindh and Orissa. Governor-General was the head of the
Federation. The vote casting body in India was increased from 2%
(Montagu – ChelmsFord Reforms) to 25%.

 Describe the results of the election of 1937.

Results of the Elections of 1937 were of great disappointment for the All
India Muslim League as the League lost the elections by quite a margin and
was only able to secure 109 of the 482 seats that were reserved for
Muslims. On the other-hand Indian National Congress won utter majority in
the 5 provinces and it was allowed to form ministries in those particular
provinces as well as in the Central Provinces.

 What was the Day of Deliverance?

When the British asked Indians for their participation in the war against
Germany, Congress objected it and resigned from the offices. Muslims were
delighted by the fact the Congress’ tyranny has ended and at last they were
free from the clutches of the Hindu Leaders. So Jinnah called the day of
resignation of Congress as the Day of Deliverance on 22 December 1939.

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 Give your suggestions to resolve constitutional problems of the sub-

continent
Indian nationals had no say in central government and even at a local level;
their influence on policy and decision making was minimal. All three British,
Hindus, and Muslims had different objectives, and it was obvious that all
three cannot live together. The British had failed to fulfil their promises
after World War 1. They had the intention of splitting turkey, and the
Montague Chelmsford reforms, etc. did not satisfy them. British were in
war with Germany so they needed the support of Hindus in the war, and
were not ready to give Indians power to increase their say in how
government ran. They said they would increase their power after the war
but because of their past broken promises hey were not trusted. The
Hindus wanted immediate transfer of power without partition or division.
Muslims were now demanding a separate state, so the solution for this is:
 Muslim league should endorse the congress command for complete
independence
 League should also cooperate with congress in forming provincial interim
government.
 After the war end the entire Muslim majority population will decide
whether to form an independent state.
 In case of partition, essential common services like defence should be run
together.
 Above should be done only if England transferred powers to India.
 Another way was Desai Liaquat pact: congress and league should form
government. Together with equal nomination of equal no. of persons by
both.minority representation is 20 percent. And government formed will
work under government of india act of 1935. This pact was not fully
endorsed so it failed, but if it was endorsed fully their might of been
improvement.

Past Paper Questions

 Was the First Round Table Conference of 1930 more successful than the
two that followed in 1931 and 1932? Explain your answer.
(Two explanations, one on success and one on less success, are worth 9 marks.
Additional explanations awarded up to 13 marks)
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e.g. Success 1st

Federal system for India approved as the Princes declared they would
join a future federation as long as their rights were recognised. 2nd
Congress attended which was a step forward, although this had been made
possible only through talks between Gandhi and the Viceroy Lord Irwin.
Less success 1st
Congress boycotted the talks and without them representing the majority
of Indians, progress could not be made. 2nd
Gandhi was seen as being stubborn, taking a hard line in the talks, and refusing to
recognise the problems of the minorities. He advanced the argument that he
spoke for all Indians with which Jinnah disagreed.
3rd
Congress was absent again as Gandhi and Nehru had been imprisoned
due to the renewal of the non-cooperation movement, so Congress boycotted the
talks.
Q3/(c)/2059/01/ May/June - 2018

Source Based Questions

Source A

Simon Commission 1927

The offer of the hand of friendship from Congress is more valuable than any concession
which the British Government is willing to make. This public meeting of the citizens of
Bombay firmly declares that the commission which has been announced is unacceptable
to the people of India as it denies the right of the people of India to participate on equal
terms in framing the future constitution of the country. It contains no Indian
representation. Indians throughout the country should have nothing to do with the
commission at any stage or in any form. We are not satisfied with the status of just
being petitioners to this commission.

From a speech made by Jinnah in Bombay in 1927, in reaction to the appointment of the Simon
Commission.

Source B

Round Table Conferences 1930 – 1932

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From a British political magazine during the period of the Round Table Conferences. John Bull is a
character used in political cartoons as a national symbol to represent Britain in general.
Answer the following questions

This question is about Pakistan Movement between 1927 and 1937.

Study the sources carefully and then answer the questions which follow.

a. According to Source A, why was there opposition to the Simon

Commission of 1927?
There were several reasons for the opposition to the Simon Commission of
1927 of which main causes were that there was no Indian representation in
the Commission as the Commission was going to decide the future
constitution of India, value friendship with Congress more than British
concession, not on equal terms with British in framing new constitution.
Also the Indians were not satisfied with being only petitioners.

b. What does Source B tell us about the negotiations during the Round Table
Conferences between 1930 and 1932?
The source tells us that the driver of the car is John Bull who represents
British interests at the negotiations. The car is travelling over bumpy
ground which represents the way that negotiations went during these years
– difficult negotiations. The Indian in the car who represents their
negotiators wants to take control from the British who are reluctant to give
up control. It suggests that the British feared that progress towards change
might happen too quickly, hence the reference to the brake on the car. The

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source explains why the political leaders in India were reluctant to attend
the Round Table Conferences because it shows that the decisions had
already been made by the British, in the way that John Bull wants to keep
control of the car.

c. Explain the importance of the Government of India Act of 1935 to the

future of the sub- continent.
The importance of the Government of India Act of 1935 can be illustrated
by the following; Some provincial autonomy was granted which meant that
every provincial government was allowed to devise and carry out their own
programmes and be responsible to their own legislature. This was the first
time that this had been allowed and was seen as an important step
forward. Ministers in the provinces could have control over all departments
except when governors chose to intervene in cases of public order or to
veto a bill. It provided additional rights for the local population to vote –
some 5 times the previous numbers at 35 million in total. Provisions for a
federal government were established for the first time, which meant that
princely states could decide to participate politically in affairs concerning
the sub-continent. However, key decisions relating to external relations and
defence were retained by the British, and opposed by the Indians.

d. How successful were the provincial elections held in India 1937? Explain
your answer.
Congress won utter majorities in 5 provinces and largest single party in 4
others. The Indian National Congress saw themselves as the sole party
representing Indians. Their majority and political strength led to formation
of cabinets in 8 provinces. On the other hand these were the first major
election fought and helped to unify the Muslim League, which led to
improvements in organisation and planning. Through the elections Muslim
League learnt that their support lay in areas where Muslims in minority
rather than in majority. The League members recognised the ‘image
problem’ as its leaders were seen as not in touch with ordinary Muslims.
There were also some setbacks to the elections which included that the
Congress alienated the Muslim League after the elections which led to
difficulties in future negotiations, also the attitude of Congress and Nehru
hardened Muslim views towards a separate nation. There was Relative
poor performance in the elections by Muslim League out of 489 Muslim

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seats, the Muslim League won 109. In the Punjab; out of 86 Muslim seats,
Muslim League won 1 and others taken by Punjab Unionist Party. Muslims
felt betrayed by the British who were seen as too concerned with getting
the new provincial governments running rather than being concerned with
Muslim rights. Congress used its new powers to further upset Muslims
during Congress Rule.

2059/01 October/November – 2016

Past Paper Questions

 Was the First Round Table Conference of 1930 more successful than the
two that followed in 1931 and 1932?
Explain your answer.
Two explanations, one on success and one on less success, are worth 9
marks. Additional explanations awarded up to 13 marks)
e.g. Success 1st
• Federal system for India approved as the Princes declared they would
join a future federation as long as their rights were recognised. 2nd
• Congress attended which was a step forward, although this had been
made possible only through talks between Gandhi and the Viceroy Lord
Irwin.
Less success 1st
• Congress boycotted the talks and without them representing the majority
of Indians, progress could not be made. 2nd

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• Gandhi was seen as being stubborn, taking a hard line in the talks, and
refusing to recognise the problems of the minorities. He advanced the
argument that he spoke for all Indians with which Jinnah disagreed.
3rd
• Congress was absent again as Gandhi and Nehru had been imprisoned
due to the renewal of the non-cooperation movement, so Congress
boycotted the talks.
Q4/(c)/2059/01/ May/June - 2018

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Chapter 9
How important were attempts to find a solution to
the problems facing the subcontinent in the years
1940 to 1947?

Questions & Answers

 What was the Lahore Resolution of 1940?
The resolution for the establishment of a separate homeland for the
Muslims of British India passed in the annual session of the All India Muslim
League held in Lahore on 22–24 March 1940 is a landmark document of
Pakistan's history.

What was the August Offer of 1940?

The August Offer was a proposal made by Viceroy Linlithgow in 1940 in order to win the
Indian support in the WW2.He promised the expansion of the Executive Council of the
Viceroy of India to include more Indians, the establishment of an advisory war council,
giving full weight to minority opinion, no constitution for India without the agreement
of Muslims and the recognition of Indians' right to frame their own constitution. The
ML rejected the “August Offer” as it was against the spirit of Pakistan Resolution and the
Congress rejected it as it was in favour of the ML.

 What was the Cripps Mission of 1942?

The Cripps Mission was a failed attempt in late March 1942 by the British
government to secure full Indian cooperation and support for their efforts
in World War II. The mission was headed by a senior minister Sir Stafford
Cripps, Lord Privy Seal and leader of the House of Commons.

 What was the Quit – India Resolution?

The Quit India Movement, or the India August Movement, was a movement
launched at the Bombay session of the All-India Congress Committee by
Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an
end to British Rule of India.

 Describe Gandhi – Jinnah Talks.

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Although other Congress leaders were still in prison (due to their violent
atrocities across the whole India during their so called Quit India
Resolution) Gandhi was released on 5 May 1944. After his release Gandhi
proposed talks with Jinnah on his two-nation theory and negotiating on
issue of partition. The CR formula acted as the basis for the negotiations.
Gandhi and Jinnah met in September 1944 to ease the deadlock. Gandhi
offered the CR formula as his proposal to Jinnah. Nevertheless, Gandhi-
Jinnah talks failed after two weeks of negotiations.

Who was Lord Wavell?

Field Marshal Lord Archibald Wavell was commander-in-chief of British India's forces
prior to his appointment as Britain’s viceroy of India by Churchill. He remained 23rd
Viceroy of India from 1 October 1943 to to 21 February 1947. The most important
events during his tenure were Great Famine of Bengal (1943), Rajagopalachari Formula
(1944), Simla conference (1945); Conclusion of WW-II with surrender of Japan; Cabinet
Mission (1946), Direct Action Day (1946), Interim Government under Nehru. By
December 5, 1946, Wavell had become increasingly frustrated at his inability to
reconcile the League with the Congress. In January 1947, Wavell concluded that he had
failed and asked Prime Minister Attlee for a one or two month-leave of absence and he
was obliged.

Mr.Jinnah with Lord Wavell and Mr.Tara Singh

 What was the Wavell Plan?

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In May 1945, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, went to London and
discussed his ideas about the future of India with the British administration.
The talks resulted in the formulation of a plan of action that was made
public in June 1945. The plan is known as Wavell Plan. The Plan suggested
reconstitution of the Viceroy’s Executive Council in which the Viceroy was
to select persons nominated by the political parties. Different communities
were also to get their due share in the Council and parity was reserved for
Cast-Hindus and Muslims.

 What was the Simla Conference of 1945?

The Simla Conference 1945 was a meeting between the Viceroy and the
major political leaders of British India at Simla, India. Convened to agree on
and approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, and there it
reached a potential agreement for the self-rule of India that provided
separate representation for Muslims and reduced majority powers for both
communities in their majority regions.

 What was the Cabinet Mission Plan?

The United Kingdom Cabinet Mission of 1946 was the last effort to resolve
the complex Indian problem. It was consisted of Pethick Lawrence, Sir
Stafford Cripps and A.V Alexander came to India with the purpose to
discuss the transfer of power from the British government to the Indian
leadership and preserving India's unity and granting it independence. This
plan was rejected both by the Congress and the Muslim League.

 What was the Direct Action Day of 1946?

Direct Action Day (16 August 1946), also known as the 1946 Calcutta
Killings, was a day of widespread communal rioting between Muslims and
Hindus in the city of Calcutta (now known as Kolkata) in the Bengal
province of British India. The day also marked the start of what is known as
The Week of the Long Knives. Muhammad Ali Jinnah's call for ‘Direct
Action’ was a show of strength by the League and the Muslims for a
separate state carved on religious lines after the failure of the Cabinet
Mission plan. The action inflamed communal passions resulting in the worst
communal riots that British India had ever seen. From Calcutta, the riots
immediately engulfed the surrounding regions of United Provinces, Bihar,
Punjab, and the NWFP.

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Who was Lord Mountbatten?

He was the last viceroy of India in 1947, also the first Governor General of
India. He made speedy arrangements to avoid civil war in India after
meeting the political leaders. He gave the 3rd June Plan to partition India.

What was the 3rd June Plan?

The June 3 plan was also known as the Mountbatten Plan. By May 1947,
Mountbatten had formulated a scheme which was eventually made public
on 3 June, 1947 formed the basis of the transfer of power. The plan
envisaged that the Muslim-majority area be given independence and that
the British should transfer power to the two states of India and Pakistan

 What was the Radcliffe Award?

Radcliffe Award, under which the dividing line between the West (Pakistan)
Punjab and the East (Indian) Punjab was drawn, is so called after the name
of the Chairman of the Punjab Boundary Commission, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, an
eminent British jurist especially invited to fix the boundaries between the
newly created States, India and Pakistan. The Commission was also charged
with the delimiting of the boundaries of the provinces of Bengal and
Punjab.

 What was the Indian Independence Act of 1947?

The Indian Independence Act 1947 is an Act of the Parliament of the United
Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent
dominions of India and Pakistan. The Act received the royal assent on 18
July 1947, and thus Pakistan and India came into being at midnight on 14-
15 August 1947.

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What was the Atlantic Charter?

Atlantic Charter was discussed in a meeting between the British Prime Minister Churchill and
American President Roosevelt in the Atlantic Ocean, Bay of Placentia. Both the bigwigs of the
world agreed to a nation’s right to choose its own government, free speech for all the peoples
and fairer economic system. It was a joint declaration which set out a vision for peaceful post-
war world. It was first announced on August 14, 1941, a group of 26 Allied nations eventually
pledged their support by January 1942. The Labour Party won elections in 1945 in Britain and
supported Indian freedom on the basis of Atlantic Charter. It was considered the first step
towards the creation of the UNO.
Describe the Party System in England.
The UK political system is a multi-party system. Since the 1920s, the two
dominant parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before
the Labour Party rose in British politics, the Liberal Party was the other major
political party, along with the Conservatives.

Lahore / Pakistan Resolution -1940

The Lahore Resolution of 1940 was the result of Congress stubbornness, re-
emergence of Muslim Nationalism and the leadership of Jinnah. Discuss

The Lahore Resolution was laid the foundations for the struggle towards a
sovereign country; history had taken so many ebbs and flows to reach this point.
At its annual session, at Lahore, the Muslim League for the first time adopted the
idea of partition as its final goal. Jinnah‘s presidential address to the session is

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landmark in the history of Muslim nationhood in India. He impressed upon the

British mind on two grounds
1. that the western style of democracy ; majority is authority, was not suitable
to Indian problem
2. that the party government was not possible in India i.e., government of the
Congress.

Mr. Jinnah advocated the case of Pakistan for separate state. He gave following
arguments
 If the Hindus were to be freed and Muslims were to be their slaves, it was
hardly a freedom for which the Muslims could be asked to fight. The
Muslims were a nation by any definition.
 The problem of India could never be solved if it was treated merely a
communal question. It was an international issue and must be dealt with as
such.
 Geographically contagious are demarcated into units, which had the areas
in which Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North Western and
Eastern zones of India.
 These zones should be grouped to constitute “independent states” in which
the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.

Critical Analysis
The Lahore or Pakistan resolution was answer to Congress’s ambition that to
exploit the weaknesses of the British during the world war 2 and force them to
leave India and handover the power to Congress only. Hindu –Muslim conflict
brought India to the verge of division. It was the failure of the leadership that they
could not keep India united. From now onwards the Muslim league policy was
clear and unmistakable that India must be split and there was no alternative. The
Muslims made resolution that they would not be satisfied less than Pakistan. The
way forward was clear and open to Pakistan.

Cripps Mission –1942

Background
The Muslim League had made its position clear through Pakistan Resolution that
it would not be satisfied less than separate state but the Congress was opposing

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any idea of the division of India from tooth to nail as the united India was the
political base of the congress. Moreover, the congress was pressing hard the
British to leave India to hand over power to the congress. However, the British
had still believed that their rule should not be over and they needed immediate
support from the Indians. For this purpose British sent Sir Stafford Cripps, a
member of the cabinet, in March 1942 to seek a compromise which would win
the Indian support for the British war effort.
Cripps Proposals
 After the war ,an Indian union would be set up with Dominion status
 Individual provinces, if they wish, can come out of the union and talk about
their independent status.
 After the war , a constituent assembly would be set up to make a new
constitution according to which the Indian affairs would be governed
 Elections for the constituent assembly would be held immediately after the
war.
 Why were the Cripps proposals rejected by the congress & ML?
1. The non-accession clause i.e., individual provinces could opt out of the
Union and negotiate their own independence, was a severe blow to the
Indian unity which was not acceptable to the Congress as it was going in
some way to meet Pakistan.
2. ML was not satisfied as there was no direct reference of Pakistan,
furthermore, non-accession clause by which certain provinces could, if they
wished, refuse to join proposed Indian Union. This was not enough, for it
did not ensure the creation of Pakistan as envisioned by the ML.
3. The Muslims were not prepared to live in Indian Union as minority
4. There was a proposal to set up only one Constitution body with a view to
create One Indian Union. The League believed in Pakistan and therefore in
the establishment of two separate constitution making bodies.
5. The proposals remained failing in drawing complete picture of as to what
would happen in case of disagreement between the British and the Indian
union.

The Cripps Mission was a step forward to resolve the complex constitutional
problems of India. British wanted full scale cooperation from the Indian

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politicians during the war by promising that India’s independence would be

considered after war. Keeping in view the weak condition of the British
Congress wanted more and more concessions from the British. The ML
believed that in a single future Constitution making body they would be at the
mercy of the majority and the dream of Pakistan could not be materialized.

 Why was the Quit India Movement launched by the Congress in 1942?

It was a fear of the Congress that if independence was postponed to the post war
period, the divided India would be an absolute reality which was against the
political designs of the Congress. Therefore, having seen the International climate
against the British tide during the World War 2, Congress thought I the best to
steal the opportunity by forcing the British to leave India by violence and uprising.

Congress leaders, after the failure of the Cripps Mission, were aiming at the
Japanese support and Indian national army which was formed to liberate India
from the clutches of the British. So, the Congress leadership generally believed
that this could happen only if there were worsening law and order situation in
India. The conduct of the Congress was supposed to synchronize with Japan’s
entry into India.
The Quit India Campaign was directed not only pressurizing the British
Government to hand over power to the Congress but also at forcing the Muslims
to submit and surrender to the Congress.

Gandhi – Jinnah Talks 1944

Background
After the Pakistan Resolution the Muslim League started to gain popularity and
immediately it enhanced its mass contact movement and within a short period of
time it emerged as an important political party destined to play a key role in the
coming years. Congress ministries proved to be a blessing for the disunited
Muslims and the Congress follies became the reason for the enhancement of the
power of ML. Neither Congress nor the British could ignore Muslim League in
resolving the Indian issue. Congress misadventure of the Quit India Campaign
could not achieve its objectives to oust the British from the soil of the sub-
continent through uprising and violence. Therefore, for future course Congress
was looking towards ML for a joint strategy to get rid of the British but there was
a disagreement between them. Congress wanted the undivided India and transfer
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of Power from the British whereas a considerable number of Muslims never

wanted to live in the Hindu dominated country as a minority and struggled for a
separate state. Raj Gopal Achariya, an influential Congress came to the conclusion
that some sort of partition was unavoidable to decide the future of India.
Therefore, he prepared a formula which could serve as a basis for a settlement
between the Congress and the League.
The main features of the formula were as under
1. Congress and Muslim League would work together for the Constitution of
free India, independence and for the formation of a provisional interim
government, for the transitional period.
2. After the termination of the war, a commission shall be appointed for
demarcating and plebiscite in the adjoining districts in North Western and
East of India in which Muslim were in majority. It will be open to all the
parties to advocate their point of view before the plebiscite is held.
3. In case of separation mutual agreements shall be entered for safeguarding
the infra-structure like defense, commerce and communication etc.
4. These terms will be binding only in case of complete transfer of power by
the British.

In this back drop on 17 July Gandhi wrote to Jinnah suggesting a meeting to which
Jinnah immediately agreed. The meeting took place in Bombay in September
1944. However, several rounds of talks could not make any progress regarding the
future of India.

Reasons of the failure of Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944

1. Mr. Jinnah raised an objection that Gandhi was meeting with Mr. Jinnah in the individual
capacity not as the representative of the Congress, nor did he get any authority to sign
an agreement, on then the other hand, Mr. Jinnah was negotiating as the president of
the ML and he had a mandate. That was a clever move on the part of Gandhi, had there
been an agreement. Gandhi could have given up the responsibility on the pretext that
Congress was unwilling to accept the agreement after knowing the intentions of Mr.
Jinnah about the future of India.
2. Mr. Jinnah opposed that Achariya formula, on the basis of which Gandhi wanted to
continue his discussion, did not fully acknowledge the basic demands of the Pakistan
Resolution that the Muslims were a separate nation.

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3. Gandhi wanted the settlement on the terms that the British withdrawal to take place
first and the question of the division of India would be decided afterwards, while
Jinnah insisted on a partition before the British authority ended.
4. Most importantly the only guarantee, for Gandhi’s terms, was the goodwill of Hindus
which Muslims could not trust.

Wavell Plan 1945

Background
By early 1945, it was obvious that WW2 was coming to an end but every effort
from the Cripps Mission to Gandhi –Jinnah talks to resolve the complex
constitutional problems of India met with failure. In this backdrop, in March 1945,
Lord Wavell flew to London to consult the British government on its future policy
in India. It was now clear that British would leave India. What they were
desperately needed an agreement that what would happen to India after their
exit. Therefore, London talks resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of
action.
 The main features of the plan

1. Executive Council shall be set up to govern the country under the present
constitution until the new constitution is agreed on.
2. Viceroy will make nomination of the members of Executive Council made
by the Indian political parties.
3. These nominations shall be based on proportion, including equal
proportion of Muslims and cast- Hindus in the Executive Council and all
shall be Indians apart from the viceroy and a member controlling defense.
4. To discuss the proposals Wavell shall convene a conference in Simla in June
1945.

Simla Conference 1945

All the main parties attended the conference, including the congress, the ML, the
scheduled Castes, Sikhs and other groups. Mr. Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan and
Khwaja Nazimuddin led the ML delegation. Gandhi led Congress, but Congress
president was also included who Moulana Abul Kalam Azad, a Muslim religious
leader. This was a clever move of Gandhi. As he was a Muslim, this would make
the point that ML was not the representative of all the Muslims of India. When

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congress put forward the list of the nominations but Jinnah wrote the viceroy
making the suggestions:
1. All Muslim members should be chosen from the Muslim League and
2. Some effective safeguards should be provided regarding majority
hegemony.

Mr. Jinnah and viceroy had long discussion on these points but in the end he
regretted that he could not give him a guarantee that all Muslim councilors would
be chosen from the ML. There was another meeting between Jinnah and the
viceroy who promised to include four members of the Muslim League but the fifth
one would be a non-league Punjabi Muslim. Jinnah rejected this and asserted that
ML could not cooperate. The conference, no doubt, had made some grounds at
first as all the parties agreed with principal of the Executive Council. What caused
the failure of the conference, however, was lack of agreement about who was to
be on the council.
 Causes of the failure of the Simla Conference
1. Gandhi objected on the parity between the Muslims and the scheduled
cast-Hindus, as an unchangeable religious division would become official.
2. The congress would make it sure through its representative that the
suggested arrangements were of purely temporary nature.
3. On his reaction Jinnah stressed that in the proposed national government
congress would bank upon the support of the Sikhs and the scheduled
caste- Hindus and ultimately, would form a majority.
4. Mr. Jinnah pointed out that the League had won every by election, and on
that principle, League alone was entitled to nominate all Muslim members
 Critical Evaluation
This was an effort to solve the Constitutional deadlock over the representation,
Congress and Muslim League though wanted to settle down the communal issues,
at the same time, they had reservation regarding the future outcome of this
council. Cabinet Mission Plan, was perhaps the final effort to resolve the Indian
question, but the dirty political game by the shrewd and narrow minded Hindus
who were uncompromising enough to accommodate the minorities met to its sad
end. A deal could not be materialized and the Mission had to leave India in a state
of despair and on the brink of civil war.

Elections of 1945-46

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Background :

The 1945-46 elections were, by far, the most critical at all levels in the annals of the history of
Indian sub-continent. The first Simla Conference had broken down on 14th July 1945 on the
controversial issue of the representative culture of the All India Muslim League (AIML). Also,
once World War II was over the Labour government in Britain took control. The new
government gave some new instructions to the Viceroy of India. So, on 21st August 1945 the
Viceroy Lord Wavell announced that elections to the central and provincial legislatures would
be held in the coming winter. As for the first phase it was decided that election to the central
legislative assembly would be held to be followed by the election to the provincial assemblies

 Results of Elections

The Muslim League announced that it would fight the elections on the two clear-cut issues –
Pakistan is the national demand of the Muslims of India and the Muslim League is their sole
representative party of the Muslims whereas the Congress contested elections on the issue of ‘
undivided and independent India’ Soon after the announcement regarding the general election
the Muslim league started preparation to contest them. The League’s position in 1945 was
entirely different from what it had been at the time of the previous election held in1937.It was
now well established as a mass organization with branches in every provinces, districts, tehsils
and villages.
Elections for the Central Legislature were held in December 1945. Though the franchise was
limited, the turnover was extra ordinary. Leagues performance was even more impressive as it
managed to win all the 30 seats reserved for the Muslims in the Central Legislative Assembly.
The results of the provincial election held in early 1946 were not different and won 446 out of
495. Congress won most of the non-Muslim seats while Muslim League captured approximately
95 percent of the Muslim seats. On the other hand League celebrated January 11, 1946 as the
Day of victory and declared that the election results were enough to prove that Muslim League
under the leadership of Quaid-i-Azam was the sole representative of the Muslims of the region.

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 Importance of the Elections of 1945-46 in the Creation of Pakistan

All said and done, it was the last variable made Pakistan possible. Indeed, the massive electoral
verdict in Pakistan’s favour during 1945-46 was the most important development between
1940 and 1947 between the adoption of the Lahore Resolution and the emergence of Pakistan.
By all standards, this verdict represented the most critical step in the establishment of Pakistan.
It was clear to the Congress that the Muslim League was the authoritative representative of an
overwhelming majority of the Muslims in India and the Muslim League could not be ignored
while deciding the fate of India.

 Critical Analysis:

For both the Congress and the League, the prime issue in the 1945-46 elections was the
creation of Pakistan as opposed to the idea of United India (Akhand Hindustan). Hence, the
elections represented a referendum of sorts, as suggested by Gandhi, to ascertain the declared
and established will of Muslims on the nationhood and separation issues. Once that will was
given in Pakistan’s favour, its emergence (in some form or another) could no longer be resisted
or delayed.

The Cabinet Mission Plan – 1946

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Cabinet Mission was composed of three Cabinet Ministers of England

1. Sir Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India.

2. Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade,
3. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty

The mission arrived on March 24, 1946.

The objective of this mission was to

 Devise a machinery to draw up the constitution of Independent India.

 Make arrangements for interim Government.
 Thus the mission was like a declaration of India’s independence.
The mission spent some 3 weeks to discuss with the leaders of various political parties, but
could not arrive at any agreed solution. So finally it announced its own recommendations on
May 16, 1946.

 The cabinet mission plan of 1946 proposed that there shall be a Union of India which was to be
empowered to deal with the defense, foreign affairs and communications.
 The cabinet mission recommended an undivided India and turned down the Muslim league’s
demand for a separate Pakistan. The Cabinet mission restricted the Communal representation
 It provided that all the members of the Interim cabinet would be Indians and there would be
minimum interference by the Viceroy.
 It also provided for formation of the constituent assembly on democratic principle of
population.
 It recognized Indian Right to cede from the Commonwealth.
 The Union Government and its legislature were to have limited powers, dealing with Finance,
Foreign Affairs and Communications. The union would have powers necessary to raise the
finances to manage the subjects. Thus, the Cabinet Mission plan proposed a weak Centre. We
can realize what would have been of the country if this plan was approved and implemented.
 All subjects other than the Union Subjects and all the residuary powers would be vested in the
provinces.
 The Princely states would retain all subjects and all residuary powers.
 A Constituent Assembly will be formed of the representatives of the Provincial Assemblies and
the Princely states. Each province had to be allotted a total number of seats in proportion to
the its population. The Constituent assembly had to comprise 293 Members from the British
Provinces and 93 members from the Princely states.
 The representation of the Provincial legislatures was to be grouped into 3 sections.
o Section A: Madras, UP, Central provinces, Bombay, Bihar & Orissa
o Section B: Punjab, Sindh, NWFP, Baluchistan

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o Section C: Assam and Bengal.

Thus, we see that though the Cabinet Mission plan rejected the idea of separate Pakistan, yet it
grouped the provinces in such a way that it gave weightage to the idea of Pakistan, because the
Section B would get almost complete autonomy.

Why was the Cabinet Mission Plan rejected both by the Congress and the
Muslim League?
The Cabinet Mission Plan was failed on the basic question whether India was to remain united
or to be split up to satisfy the Muslim League's demand for Pakistan. The following points will
illustrate the answer.
Cabinet Mission plan rejected the idea of separate Pakistan which was the fundamental
demand of the Muslim League so it rejected the plan. The Congress also disapproved the Plan
as it grouped the provinces in such a way that it gave weightage to the idea of Pakistan because
the Section B would get almost complete autonomy and this was against the will of the
Congress. However, the Congress accepted the proposals related to the Constituent assembly.
But since, the Muslim league had been given disproportionate representation; it rejected the
idea of the Interim Government. Congress also rejected the idea of a weak centre and division
of India in small states. Congress was against decentralization and the idea was to have a strong
centre. The Muslim league also first approved the plan but when Congress declared that it
could change the scheme of the grouping of the provinces, that “provinces must be free to join
any group or none.” through its majority in the Constituent Assembly, they rejected the plan.
Jinnah reiterated the demand for Pakistan as the only course left open to the Muslim League.
Therefore, On July 29, it rejected the plan and called the Muslims to resort to “Direct Action”
to achieve the land of their dream “Pakistan”.

Direct Action Day/ The Great Calcutta Killings

‘We also have a pistol’: Consequences of Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s declaration of Direct Action
Day

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Mr.Jinnah and Gandhi were arguing with each other

By pushing this proposal, the British expected to not only preserve the idea of a united
India, as desired by the Congress and themselves but also to fulfill Jinnah’s demand of a
‘large’ Pakistan of provinces. However, Congress, on the other hand, arrived at a
conclusion that under the proposed Cabinet mission India would be too weak to achieve
the desired goals it had envisioned. In his 10 July 1946 speech, Nehru rejected the
concept of a compulsory grouping of provinces saying that “provinces must be free to
join any group or none.” Nehru’s declaration infuriated Jinnah to the point of no return.
He saw it as a provocation and treachery by Congress. On 19 July 1946, Jinnah,
addressing his supporters, said that the Muslim League had been attacked on two fronts
– the British front and the Hindu front. He further said that the “League had lost faith in
constitutions and constitutional methods.”
“Throughout the painful negotiations, the two parties with whom we bargained held a
pistol at us; one with power and machine guns behind it, and the other with non-
cooperation and the threat to launch mass civil disobedience. This situation must be
met. We also have a pistol,” declared Jinnah. His call for ‘Direct Action’ was a show of
strength by the League for a separate state carved on religious lines. The action
inflamed communal passions resulting in the worst communal riots that British India
had ever seen. From Calcutta, the riots immediately engulfed the surrounding regions of
Noakhali, United Provinces (modern UP), Bihar, Punjab, and the North-Western Frontier
Province.

The Interim Government of India

 It formed in 2 September 1946 and had the task of assisting the transition of British India to
independence.
 The All – India Muslim League refused to participate until 26 October 1946.

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 The Interim Government served until transfer of power to the dominion of India and the dominion of
Pakistan on 15 August 1947.
 The two self-governing countries came into existence at midnight on 14-15 August 1947.

Cabinet Mission Plan failed to achieve its goal of bringing an end to the
political deadlock in India. However, the plan of establishing Interim
Government, though reluctantly and with many differences, was accepted by
both Congress and Muslim League and was finally executed. The main issue
was that of the ratio of representation in the cabinet. Finally the British
decided that in a cabinet of fourteen members 6 will be from Congress, 5 from
Muslim League and three from other organizations.

On August 8, 1946 the Congress Working Committee agreed to accept the

invitation to its President, Maulana Azad, to form Government. Muslim
League, to begin with, refused to be a part of Congress led Interim
Government. Wavell asked Azad and Nehru that the Muslim Seats in the
Cabinet should be left vacant, however Congress leaders convinced him that in
order to make the cabinet representative, those seats should be filled by
Congress nominated Nationalist Muslims. In the final announcement of August
24, along with six Congress Hindus members (Nehru, Patel, Dr. Prasad, Sarat
Changdra Bose, Rafjagopalachari and Jagjivan Ram), one Sikh (Sardar Baldev
Sing), one Parsee (C.H. Bhabha) and one Indian Christian (Johan Matthai) three
Muslims (Asaf Ali, Sir Shafaat Ahmad Khan and Syed Ali Zaheer) were also
included as the members of the interim government. However, two Muslim
seats were left vacant.

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Wavell found it difficult for the Interim Government to function properly without
the participation of the Muslim League and tried his utmost to convince League
leadership to join the cabinet. Finally on October 26, five Muslim League
nominees (Liaquat Ali Khan, Sardar Abdul Rab Nishtar, Raja Ghazanfar Ali Khan,
Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar and Jugindarnath Mandal) joined the interim
government. To give way to the Muslim League members of the interim
government Sir Shafaat Ahmad Khan, Syed Ali Zaheer and Sarat Chandra Bose
resigned.
When League joined the government, a dispute started between Congress and
League on the issue of the allotment of portfolios. Muslim League wanted home
ministry but Congress and especially Sardar Patel was not ready to forgo that
important slot. Congress tried to kill two birds with one stone by offering Muslim
League the Finance Ministry. On one hand they wanted to silence League leaders
by giving them an important ministry and on the other hand they knew that none
of the League leader was expert in the technical field of finance and were sure
that they would prove to be a great failure in the field. The policy backfired on
Congress, as Liaquat took the challenge and handled the Ministry in a very
successful manner. He not only presented the famous poor man’s budget but also
made Congress Ministers dependent on financial sanctions to run their affairs.
Congress Ministers even could not employ a peon without the prior consent of
Liaquat. Azad, himself acknowledged that Congress had committed a blunder by
giving Finance Ministry to Muslim League.
A part from Finance Ministry, Muslim League members of Interim Government
were given the portfolios of Commerce, Communications, Law and Health. They
ran all these departments quite successfully.

The 3rd June Plan of 1947

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The British government finally decided to divide the country into two separates states after all
the efforts of keeping Hindus and Muslims together in a single state went in vain. Lord Ismay,
the Chief of Staff of Lord Mountbatten, was asked to frame the partition plan of India. Though
the plan was deliberately kept secret from the Indians yet Nehru grabbed the chance of seeing
the plan before it was put before the Indians. The British Government approved the Plan and
sent it to India in May 1947.
The plan announced on 3 June 1947 suggested these points:
• The British Government would divide India into two separate states.
• Dominion status would be given to the successor governments of the two states.
• A Boundary Commission would be appointed to demarcate the boundaries if any of the
communal group decides in favour of dividing the province of Punjab and Bengal.
• The Sindh Legislative Assembly would be authorised to opt out whether it desires to join
the current Constituent Assembly or the New Constituent Assembly.
• A Referendum would be conducted in the North West Frontier Province to know the
public opinion on the question of joining the new state of Pakistan. The Electoral College for
the Referendum would be the same as it was for in 1946.
• Baluchistan would be granted freedom of choice.
• A referendum would be conducted in Sylhet to take the decision whether it wants to
join East Bengal or stay as a part of Asam.
. The Muslim League, therefore, hailed the Plan.

 How important were attempts to find a solution to the problems facing

the subcontinent in the years 1940 to 1947?
Many attempts were made to find a solution to the problems in the
subcontinent from 1940 to 1947 but all remained unsuccessful as the 3
main stakeholders, British,Congress, and Muslim League were not ready to
agree on almost everything and their relation remained hostile throughout

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out the time,especially the Congress and the British. Although,they agreed
on some basic demands yet they did not have a great step for solving the
problems.
The first attempt made was in March 1942, the Cripps Mission. The British
Government sent Stafford Cripps to India to see if a compromise could
resolve the problem, but it was just a proposal of help for the Indians for
the World War. Cripps proposed that after the war, Indian Union would be
set up with Dominion Status. Moreover, Constituent Assembly should
frame a new constitution and elections for the Constitutional Assembly
would be held immediately after the war. Well, this was simply disagreed
by both the Congress and the league. Jinnah pointed out that the proposals
did not talk about the establishment of Pakistan and Congress saw that
British was demanding immediate control on the Indian affairs. So, the
proposals were simply rejected.
The other effort was made in Gandhi-Jinnah talks and it is true that they
were simply a waste of time. Basically, when Gandhi came out of jail, he set
a meeting with Jinnah at his house in Bombay in 1944 to discuss about the
future of India. The talks failed as it was not satisfying for the Muslims to
accept all the demands of Gandhi. As he wanted full support of the league
for making the British get out of India which the League did not want as the
power would transfer to the Congress which could be troublesome for the
Muslims. Moreover, Gandhi wanted Central Government to manage the
affairs of defence and foreign policy whereas Jinnah wanted provincial
autonomy. Moreover, Gandhi established a feeling that he is representing
the whole nation whereas as Jinnah saw him just as a spokesman of the
Congress. So the talks broke up, although the Congress understood the
importance of the League, but the talks were too not successful.
Another attempt was made in the early 1945, Lord Wavell and the Simla
Conference. Lord Wavell flew to London to consult the British Government
about the problems which the Indians are facing and are leading to civil war
and disturbance in the country. They later proposed that Executive Council
should be set to govern the country under the present constitution until a
new constitution comes into being. Moreover, equal seats should be given
to Hindus and Muslims and be entirely India apart from the Viceroy and the
member controlling defence. So, in order to discuss the proposals with the
Indians, they set up a meeting in Simla and leaders from Congress,
League,Sikhs,etc attended the Conference. Although, all parties agreed on

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the principal of an executive Council but Jinnah did not accept the equal
number of representatives and also objected Congress suggestion that it
would nominate Muslims as well as Hindus. So, this conference even closed
and failed.
The last try by the British and before the independence was made in March
of 1946, The Cabinet Mission Plan. In this, a three man delegation was sent
to India to find a settlement for all and all the stakeholders met in New
Delhi. Without any doubt, we can say it was not that unsuccessful as the
Muslims and Hindus agreed on something in the mission. Muslim League
was prepared to nominate member in cabinet to oversee independence
and Congress agreed to approve the mission once the British left India, but
it did was not approved as they rejected the plan of creating Pakistan and
more.
Lastly, Attlee announced the 3rd June Plan which talked about separation
of the Muslims and Hindus which was also an important attempt which
resolved the problems for the Muslims.
So we see that many important attempts were made to resolve the
problems in sub-continent but most of them remained unsuccessful until
the last day when the British announced the 3rd June Plan.

 'It became very hard for the British to stay in the Sub-continent after the
WW2.’ Discuss
Outline:
External Factors
1. Atlantic charter 1941 between the American president Roosevelt and
the British premier Winston Churchill to grant right of self-
determination to every nation
2. formation of the UNO in 1945... process of decolonisation was
started
3. weak economic condition of the British after the war
4. Public opinion in Britain... public wanted their soldiers back
Internal Factors
1. Constant deadlock between the congress and the Muslim League no
more cooperation with the British.
2. significant political development during the World War 2 ... Cripps
Mission 1942... British ready to grant dominion status to the Indians.
o Wavell plan 1945

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o Cabinet Mission plan1946

o Communal violence

Past Paper Questions

 What was the Radcliffe Award?

Sir Cyril Radcliffe chaired the Radcliffe Award and gave his name to it
It established the new borders of India and Pakistan in 1947, particularly in
Bengal and the Punjab
He had four assistants, two nominated by the Muslim League and two by
Congress
The results were announced on 16 August 1947
Q4/(a)/2059/01/ May/June – 2018

 Were the Gandhi–Jinnah talks the most important factor during the 1940s
that led to the partition of the subcontinent in 1947? Give reasons for
your answer.
(Two explanations, one on the talks and one on another factor, are worth
9 marks. Additional explanations awarded up to 13 marks)
e.g.
Gandhi–Jinnah talks
It was an important meeting as Gandhi had been forced to negotiate with
the Muslim League on an equal footing for the first time regarding the
future of India.
Gandhi wanted to achieve independence first – partition discussions
could follow later – whereas Jinnah wanted to settle the issue of partition
first and before the British left. He knew that his bargaining position would
be much weaker if he went along with Gandhi’s plan.
Other factors
The Lahore Resolution, 1940 drafted by the 25-man All-India Muslim
League asked for greater Muslim autonomy within India; this was seen as a
demand for a separate Muslim state. From then on, the aims of the Muslim
League were clear: an independent nation state.
The results of the 1945–46 elections demonstrated that Congress had
control of the non-Muslim votes but that the League had gained control of
the Muslim vote. The Muslim League was now an equal player to Congress

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so the demand for Partition could no longer be ignored by Congress or the

British government.
In March 1946, members of the British Cabinet Mission arrived in India to
work out a plan for achieving independence for India as a federation which
the Muslim League accepted but Congress refused to accept the province
groupings and stated that they would not be bound by any British plan. The
British government decided to form an interim government headed by
Nehru joined by members of the Muslim League.
As the Muslim League were concerned that the British would leave India
without organising a settlement and that Congress would be left to
organise a new country, they organised a Direct Action Day in the summer
of 1946 with the aim of stopping the British government giving in to
Congress. The disruption worried the British, so gradually they shifted their
position on Partition.
Q4/(c)/2059/01/ May/June - 2018

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Chapter 10
How important were the contributions of Jinnah,
Allama Iqbal and Rehmat Ali to the success of the
Pakistan Movement in 1947?

Questions & Answers

 Was Pakistan possible with or without Mr Jinnah? Give reasons to explain
your answers.
Pakistan, indeed, wouldn’t have been possible without Mr .Jinnah’s
visionary, sincere and active leadership. He shifted his policy from the
united India to the division of India and started to advocate the case of
Pakistan smartly by delivering his presidential address in 1940. He
impressed upon the British mind on two grounds that the Western style of
democracy was not suitable for the Indian problem and the Congress
government would not be possible in India. He also made the Muslims
prepared for the final struggle by explaining the Two Nation theory in detail
and Pakistan Resolution was passed. Jinnah’s true political career started
when he joined Muslim League in 1913 and became eminent political figure
by the time of the Lucknow Pact 1916. When Simon Commission came to
India in 1927, in its reply Congress presented Nehru Report in 1928 to
which Jinnah suggested three amendments in the biased Nehru report, but
all of them were rejected by Congress. So, Jinnah uttered historical words,
“The Nehru committee has adopted a narrow-minded policy to ruin the
political future of Muslims. I regret to declare that the report was biased
and not deserved to be implemented”. So, failure of the first and the last
combined political struggle on the part of two sister communities in the
shape of Khilafat Movement and the Nehru Report detached the Muslims
from an illusion of Hindu Muslim unity. Jinnah presented his Fourteen
Points in 1929 which paved a channelized path for Muslims to make further
discussions upon. In fact these were the same demands being made by
Muslims from time to time but what had made them unique was the way a
renowned constitutionalist presented them articulately and
comprehensively, which had served as guiding principles for next decade

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until Muslims officially demanded a separate homeland in 1940’s Pakistan

Resolution.
The most critical phase of the Muslim struggle in sub-continent came
during 1937-1947 when Quaid e Azam proved himself the real founder of
Pakistan. It was Jinnah who re-organised the Muslim League in this critical
period when Congress ministries left no stone unturned to perpetrate
atrocities against Muslims. As he was fully aware of the fact that the morale
of the people was at its lowest ebb, he had decided to visit every nook and
corner of the country, his politically sagacious policy brought fruits as
Muslim league was fortunate to enlist two veteran politicians, Sir Skindar
Hayat and Moulvi Fazl-ul-Haq, on its side. Apart from this, emotive
speeches by Jinnah across the country and numerous interviews put
indelible marks on the minds of people who later overwhelmingly voted for
the League in the 1945-1946 elections. The ML won all 30 % seats for the
central legislative Assembly and 446 out 495 for provincial legislative
assemblies. It showed to the British and the Congress that they could not
ignore ML while deciding the fate and future of India. It was untiring efforts
of Mr.Jinnah who turned this dead party into a vibrant political party.
When the new government was installed in Britain which had sympathy
with the Congress and might have handed over the power of the undivided
India to Congress, Mr Jinnah intervened and made a call for Direct Action
Day to show the strength of Muslims with the idea of Pakistan, and it gave
clear message to British Administration to think on the lines of Pakistan
(separate state). British were forced by the circumstances to give out 3rd
June Plan. Within a year, Jinnah‘s resolution and discreetness transformed
the possibility of independent Muslim homeland into the great reality.
Thus, Mohammad Ali Jinnah’s role was crucial and critical in realising the
long cherished dream of Allama Mohammad Iqbal. The whole world has
acknowledged that had there been no Jinnah, there would have been no
Pakistan, and the nation rightfully pays homage to illustrious personage and
acknowledges him as Quiadi-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah — a great leader.
Stanley Wolpert, in his book “Era of Pakistan”, rightly said about Mr Jinnah;
Few individuals significantly alter the course of history. Fewer still modify
the map of the world. Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a
nation-state. MA Jinnah did all three”.

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 How successful was the government of Pakistan in solving its problems

from 1947 to 1948? Give reasons to explain your answer.
Pakistan was quite unsuccessful in solving the problems of partition during
a year’s time.
Jinnah became the first governor general of Pakistan in 1947 with Liaquat
Ali Khan as the first Prime Minister. He himself chaired cabinet meetings
and was the president of the constituent assembly. He toured all the areas
of Pakistan to get across the message that everyone of us should think, feel
and act as a Pakistani and we should be proud of being a Pakistani alone’.
Quaid e azam was opposed to religious intolerance as he was to
provincialism and racialism. Even after the movement of refugees, Pakistan
had millions of non-Muslims and India had millions of Muslims. The Quaid
called himself the protector general of religious minority. To help the newly
arrived refugees, he set up Quaid e Azam fund to rehabilitate them. The
people responded with donations in cash and kind. To emphasise the role
of Pakistan in the world community, the Quaid secured membership of the
country into the UN in September 1947. He made Karachi the capital of
Pakistan and he also established the state bank of Pakistan on 1st July
1948. He also reorganised the civil services to run the smooth
administration. He wanted the government officers to have the right
attitude to their work. In 1948, industrial policy statement was made to set
up industries in Pakistan.
Apart from successes, there were several failures as according to the
Radcliffe award Pakistan’s main river was in control of India, who stopped
the water supply in 1948. This problem was solved in 1960 when the canal
water dispute was discussed and the Indus basin treaty was signed
between Pakistan and India in 1960.
Due to migration, many millions of people were made homeless and were
in a bad state. Pakistan only received 200 million rupees at first instead of
750 million under the final settlement. Jinnah negotiated to get the rest of
the amount but it took months to solve the problem. The military assets
awarded to Pakistan were obsolete and out of order, the army reached in 6
to 9 months. Pakistan had to face the defence threats. There was also
shortage of properly qualified and experienced personals. India occupied
Kashmir and other princely states; the issue was placed in front of the UN
Security Council but is not yet resolved. However, Jinnah tried to solve the
problems but was not completely successful as he could not live long.

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