Anatomy and physiology(lecture) reviewer

1.1 Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy- is the study of the structure of the different parts of the body.

 Systematic Anatomy- Is the study by organ systems.

Ex. Cardiovascular system, Nervous system, Skeletal system, Muscular system, etc.
 Regional Anatomy- Is the study by different areas of the body.
 Surface Anatomy- Uses superficial structures to locate deeper structures of the body.
 Anatomical imaging- A non-invasive method for examining structures of the body.
Ex. X-ray and ct scan

1.2 Structural Functional organization of the human body

Physiology- is the study of the processes and functions of the different parts of the body.

The 6 levels of organization of the body:

 Chemical
 Cell
 Tissue
 Organ
 Organ System
 Organism

The 11 Organ systems of the body:

 Integumentary Sytem
 Skeletal System
 Muscular System
 Nervous System
 Endocrine System
 Cardiovascular System
 Lympathic System
 Respiratory Sytem
 Digestive System
 Urinary System
 Reproductive System

1.3 The characteristics of life

The 6 Characteristics of life:

 Organization
 Metabolism
 Responsiveness
 Growth
 Development
 Reproduction

1.4 Homeostasis

Homeostasis- is also called “equilibrium” which is for maintaining the balance in the body.
Homeostasis has 2 mechanisms namely:

 Negative Feedback- Decreasing the feedback.

 Positive Feedback- Increasing the feedback.
 1.5 Terminology

The abdominal quadrants & The abdominal regions

Body planes

 Sagittal Plane- Divides the body into left and right sections
 Frontal or Coronal Plane- Divides the body into front and back sections
 Transverse Plane- Divides the body into upper and lower segments
 Oblique Plane- Cuts the body diagonally or is any plane that isn’t horizontal or vertical
 I. HUMAN ANATOMICAL TERMS

II. CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS

Cell- Basic fundamentals of life or building blocks of life.

Similarities of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Both have:

 DNA

 Ribosomes

 Cytoplasm

 Cell membrane

Differences of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells:

Eukaryotic cells- Can be both Unicellular or multicellular. More complex than prokaryotic cells. Has membrane
bound organelles (Small organs).

 Cell wall

 Nucleus

 Mitochondria

 Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Golgi Apparatus

Prokaryotic cells- Can be bacteria or archaea and are unicellular. Has no membrane bound organelles.
Cell Structure and their functions

 Cell membrane- Also called a plasma membrane, its selectively permeable (Controls what goes in and out of
the cell). Doing so keeps everything balanced or also known as Homeostasis (Equilibrium).

 Cytoplasm- Jelly like material that surrounds all the internal cell structures that can be found in both eukaryotes
and prokaryotes.

 Cytoskeleton- Is a collection of fibers that will provide support for the cell ad its organelles. Plays a major role
in cell movement.

 Ribosomes- Are not membrane bound organelles and they make proteins. Can be found in both prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. They can be free in the cytoplasm but can also attach in the golgi apparatus.

 Nucleus- Holds the genetic material of the cell or the DNA. Can only be found in eukaryotes.

 Nucleolus- Found inside the nucleus which is where the ribosomes can be produced.

 Nuclear Membrane- also known as the nuclear envelope, they are made up of two lipid bilayer membranes
which encloses the genetic material.

 Chromosomes- Is a long DNA molecule that is all of the genetic material of an organism.

 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- Does a lot of processing of molecules for the cell such as protein folding, and is
highly involved in transporting those molecules around the cell.

 Rough ER- Has ribosomes attached to it and specifically tends to be involved with protein produce and
transport because ribosomes make protein.

 Smooth ER- no ribosomes attached to it but has many additional roles such as making some types of
lipids, and detoxification, which is why our liver cells have a lot of smooth ER.

 Golgi Apparatus- The ultimate packaging center, it can receive items from the transport vesicles, has enzymes
that can modify molecules it may receive and sorts them, and it can determine where to send those molecules
so they can be secreted out of the cell.

 Mitochondria- Power house of the cell, they make ATP energy in a process called cellular respiration. It runs
on glucose (sugar), and needs oxygen to efficiently make ATP energy.

 Chloroplast- Can be seen in plant cells, they make glucose by using light energy in a process known as
photosynthesis.

 Vacuoles- Has many different functions but most of them act as storage of materials.

 Cell wall- Can be seen in plant cells, a layer that provides additional protection and shape maintenance that
animal cells do not.

 Lysosome- A membrane bound organelle found in many animal cells. They are spherical vesicles that contain
hydrolytic enzymes that can break downmany kinds of biomolecules.

 Centrosome- Is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center of the animal cell, it is also
the regulator of cell cycle progression and provide structure for the cell.

 Peroxisome- Is a membrane bound oxidatuve organelle, which is a type of microbody that can be found in the
cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells.

The Cell Cycle

1. Gap 1 or the G1 Phase- Cell growth and this growth is when the cell structures are functioning.

2. Synthesis or the S Phase- DNA replication phase, nucleus growth, and where DNA turns to chromosomes.

3. Gap 2 or the G2 Phase- Preparation for cell division (Mphase).

4. Mphase- This phase is when the cell division will occur and is the last cycle of the cell.

 Mitosis- Nucleus division and has 4 phases.

 Prophase- The first but also the longest phase of mitosis. Nucleus & nuclear membrane disappears
in this stage and chromatin turns to chromosomes.
  Metaphase- Phase that separates duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell
into 2 identical daughter cells.

 Anaphase- Chromosomes break at centromeres, and sister chromatids move to the opposite ends of
the cell.

 Telophase- Is the final stage of mitosis, in which membranes form around the two groups of
chromosomes, each at the opposite ends of the cell, to produce the 2 nuclei of the daughter cells.

 Cytokinesis- Cytoplasm division which divides the cytoplasm into 2 daughter cells.

Interphase- G1, Synthesis, and G2

Cell division phase- Mphase

Somatic Cells- Any cells except sex cells (Gametes).

III. BASIC CHEMISTRY

Chemistry- The study of everything

 Matter- Anything that occupies space that has mass and volume.

 Mass- Amount of matter in an object.

 Weight- Results from the gravitational attraction between the earth and an object.

 Element- Simplest type of matter with chemical and physical properties.

 Atoms- Smallest particle of an element (elements with only 1 kind of atom).

 Molecules- 2 or more atoms chemically combined to form a structure.

 Compounds- 2 or more different types of atoms chemically combined.

IV. TISSUES & TYPES

3 CELLS = 1 TISSUE 3 TISSUES = 1 ORGAN

4 Types of tissues

1. Epithelial Tissues- Protects underlying structures, acts as a barrier, permits the passage of substance, secretes
substances, and absorbs substances. These are also the first layer of the organs and has no intercellular spaces.

 Squamous Epithelial Tissue

 Columnar Epithelial Tissue

 Glandular Epithelial Tissue

 Ciliated Epithelial Tissue

 Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue

 Stratified Squamous Epithelial Tissue

2. Nervous Tissues- Signals to conduct action potentials or electrical signals. Provides coordination to muscle
tissues.

 Brain

 Spinal Cord

 Nerves

3. Musculoskeletal Tissues- Specialized to shorten or to contract.

 Skeletal Muscle Tissue (Striated) - voluntary movement

 Smooth Muscle Tissue (Unstriated) - involuntary movement

 Cardiac Muscle Tissue

4. Connective Tissues- Encloses and separates organs and tissue, connects tissues to one another, helps to support
to move the body, store compounds, and protects against toxins and injury.

 Adipose

 Fibrous

 Areolar

 Bone

 Cartilage

 Fluid

3 Types of Tissue membranes

 Connective Tissue membrane

 Synovial Connective Tissue membrane- A thin barrier that lines the inside of some of your joints.

 Epithelial Tissue membrane

 Mucous Membrane- Lines the body’s canals and organs in the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive
system.

 Serous Membrane- Lines the trunk cavities that do not open to the outside of the body (Pleural &
Pericardial).

 Cutaneous Tissue membrane

 Skin

V. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Integumentary System- Skin and structures associated with it such as Skin, nails, hair, and exocrine glands make up
the integumentary system.

Accessory structures of the integumentary system:

 Sweat Glands- Helps in temperature regulation

 Sweat pores- Secretes sebum oil so your skin doesn’t dry out.

 Sebaceous Glands- They produce oil, help the skin and hair, and are also waterproof. Help in lubricating all
the dead keratinocytes.

 Hair Follicle- Can be found in the dermis, they have cells in the hair bulb that are doing mitosis rapidly, and
when they do, the cells get pushed outward as the hair root grows. Hair shaft is the hair that the you can see in
the outer surface, it is made up of keratin and are non-living.

 Nails- The Cuticle is part of the epidermis, while the nail body is made up of dead keratinocytes, the nail root
has cells that are doing mitosis frequently and as those cells get pushed outward, they help the nail grow.

Burn classifications:

 1st degree burn- Is generally isolated in the epidermis.

 2nd degree burn- Affects the epidermis and part of the dermis.

 3rd degree burn- Affects the epidermis and all of the dermis. Nerves can be damaged, so it can be less painful
despite being more severe of a burn.

 4th degree burn- Goes beyond the layers to even affect bones and muscles. Nerves can be damaged, so it can be
less painful despite being more severe of a burn.
Skin- Largest organ in the body, is protected by keratin, critical in maintaining homeostasis because it helps
maintain internal body temperature and fluid balance. Protects your internal structure and organs from being
damaged. It also protects you from invasion of pathogens like bacteria or fungi and skin is also where Vitamin D is
produced. Skin also has sensory functions.

Layers of the skin:

 Epidermis- First layer of the skin, mostly made up of squamous cells, keratinocytes are produced at the bottom
layer of the epidermis. Keratin is a protein that helps cells be water resistant and tough.

 Stratum Corneum- The outer top layer of the epidermis, this layer consists of cornified cells (dead cells).

 Stratum Lucidum- Can be seen only in the thick skin areas like the bottom of the feet or palms, also
consists of cornified cells. They contain a type of protein that gives them their transparent appearance.

 Stratum Granulosum- In this layer, keratinocytes that have been pushed down the lower layer will
develop a flatter structure in this layer, they contain granules that have a variety of functions. The
keratinocytes here will eventually lose their organelles and become the cornified cells of the layer above.

 Stratum Spinosum- Has many layers of keratinocytes but there’s also a type of cell that will consume
worn out cells or bacteria and by doing so, it acts like a macrophage.

 Stratum Basale- Deepest layer of the epidermis, it consists of one layer of cells called basal cells, these
cells are the ones constantly doing mitosis and give rise to the keratinocytes in the layers above.

Melanocytes- The cell that makes a protein called melanin, melanin is a pigment that can result in an array of
different skill colors, and melanin protects skin from being damaged by Ultraviolet rays (UV). Melanin gets
transported to the keratinocytes in organelles called melanosomes.

Merkel Cells- Thought to have involvement with the nervous system as they work with nerves in helping us have
the sense of touch.

 Dermis- Where blood vessels can be seen, it is a type of connective tissue, which is a non epidermal type of
tissue that connects things together in the body. You can also find sweat glands, hair follicles, and nerves in
the dermis. If a cut makes it into the dermis, it can often scar.

Keloid- Result of excessive produce of collagen on a deep scar.

Dermis has fibers of two types of proteins: both these proteins are made by specialized cells in the layer called
fibroblasts.

 Collagen- Provides support

 Elastin- Gives elasticity

2 General layers of the dermis:

 Papillary layer- Which has connective tissues that is more loose.

 Reticular layer- Where connective tissue is more tightly packed.

 Hypodermis- Third layer and the most thickest of the skin layers, it connects the skin above to the bone and
muscle tissue. Contains adipose tissue (stored body fat) and has important functions such as insulation.

VI. SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeletal System- Is made up of bones and supports the body while keeping the organs protected. A normal adult
person has 206 bones in their body, while a child has around 270 bones.

Number of bones by category

Bones- Make up the skeletal system. Contains collagen, many minerals such as calcium, and are living tissues.

Structure of Axial & Appendicular skeleton

Division of the skeletal system:

 Axial skeleton- Includes the bones in the head and trunk such as the skull, ears (Ossicles), Throat (Hyoid),
Vertebral Column, and rib cage.

 Appendicular Skeleton- Includes both arms and hands, shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, and both legs.

Number of bones by category

Classification of bones by shapes:

 Long bones (90 bones)- More cylindrical in shape, examples are Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Humerus, Radius, Ulna,
Metacarpals, Metatatsals, and Phalanges.

 Short bones (28 bones)- More cube like in shape, examples are carpals, and tarsals.

 Sesamoid bones (4 bones)- Have are just like sesame seeds, roundish and great at handling pressure, example
is patella.

 Flat bones (36 bones)- Aren’t necessarily flat, examples are Skull (Cranial) bones, and Shoulder blade
(Scapula) bone.

 Irregular bones (48 bones)- There isn’t a specific shape description you can use to define them, example is
vertebrae.

Cells involved in bones or cartilage:

 Osteoblasts- Cells that make bone and can mature into another type of cell which are Osteocytes.

 Osteocytes- These cells maintain bone structure and make up the majority of bone cells.

 Osteoclasts- These cells break down bone structure, they have a lot of lysosomes which help in breaking down
bones. Osteclasts are needed in the bone remodeling process (replaces old or damaged bones). Breaking down
bones also releases minerals that the body may require such as calcium.

 Chondroblasts- Cells that make the connective tissue cartilage and matures to Chondrocytes.

 Chondrocytes- Cells that make up the cartilage.

Calcium- Major minerals that bones store, and are very important for muscle contraction to occur.

Cartilage- Supports the bone, important to joints, and it is also a template for bone placement.

Osteoporosis- also known as porous bone, it is a loss of bone matrix, this loss of bone mass makes bones so porous
and weakened that they become deformed and prone to fracture.
 Skull Structure

Lateral view frontal view

Vertebral Column

Thoracic cage structure

 Upper & lower limb structure

Upper Limb Lower Limb

Sutures & Fontanels

Movement Terms

Abduction - Movement of a joint away from the midline of the body

Adduction- Movement towards the midline of the body.

Flexion- Decrease in the angle between two joints.

Extension- Increase in the angle between two joints.

Medial rotation(internal rotation)- Rotation towards the

axis of the body.

Lateral rotation (external rotation)- Rotation away from

the center of the body.

Supination- Facing upwards.

Pronation- Facing downwards.

Dorsiflexion- The upward flexion of the foot.

Plantar flexion- Foot movement in which toes and foot flex towards

the sole.

Inversion- Turning inward

Eversion- Turning outward

Elevation- Motion going upwards.

Depression- Motion going downwards.

Protraction- Movement in a portion of the body being moved forward

on a plane parallel to the ground.

Retraction- Movement where the protracted portion of the body is being

moved on a parallel plane or the original position.

Circumduction- The movement of a body region in a circular manner.

Active motion- Moving the joint through their own effort.

Passive motion- Motion is being done to them either by hand or a machine.

Resisted motion- Motion done in the opposite of the active motion or in the

resistant way of the body.

VII. MUSCULAR STRUCTURE

Isometric contraction- Force produced by the muscle is equal to its resistance.

Eccentric contraction- Muscle produces less force than the load place on it.

Concentric contraction- Muscle produces more force than the load placed on it.

Force production- Concentric < Isometric < Eccentric

Energy Expenditure- Eccentric < Isometric < Concentric

Isometric- Refers to the joint angle. Same joint angle.

Isotonic- Refers to the muscle tone or tension. Same muscle tension.

Isokinetic contraction- Use some kind of machine to keep the joint motion at a constant speed. Same movement.

Iso- Means same or equal.