MICROWAVE

COMMUNICATION

BASICS
THE THEORY, PRACTICES AND

TECHNOLOGIES THAT LINK THE

WIRELESS WORLD

Photo: Robert Agua, Telikom

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Microwave basics and

all about antennas

Chapter 3 Microwave communication

and path design

Chapter 4 The importance of patterns

and regulatory compliance

Chapter 5 Environmental considerations

Chapter 6 Mechanical and structural factors

Chapter 7 Antenna selection and

maximizing ROI

Chapter 8 Connectivity

Chapter 9 Waveguide pressurization

Chapter 10 Installation and path

alignment Chapter 11 Millimeter

microwaves Chapter 12 References

www.commscope.com 2
COUNT ON COMMSCOPE TO HELP
YOU OVERCOME TODAY’S MOST
PRESSING NETWORK CHALLENGES
Authored by CommScope experts, this book
explains how the fundamentals of
microwave communications impact the
capacity and reliability of your wireless
network.

A modern wireless network depends on multiple

systems, meshing together, to provide the customer
with a positive experience—one that’s transparent,
fast and most of all, dependable. Microwave
communications, used for backhaul applications that
move site traffic on and off of the core network, can
make or break that positive customer experience.

This book offers an accessible yet meaningful look

into the components, systems and practices that go
into an efficient, reliable microwave communications
network. “As an industry leader, CommScope is
sharing what we’ve learned to help you overcome
every network challenge—even if it’s just simple
curiosity about the science of microwave Morgan Kurk,
communications,” said Morgan Kurk, chief chief technology officer

technology officer.
 www.commscope.com 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER

1 Introduction:
Microwave networks and
the insight that builds them

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CHAPTER

1
Introduction: Microwave networks and the insight that builds them

Microwave backhaul
The use of microwave
communications to
JOIN US AS WE TAKE THE NEXT LEAP aggregate and
transmit cellular voice
FORWARD IN EFFICIENCY AND COST and data to and from
the main network.
This book is released at an exciting time in the field,
as new advances are pushing back the boundaries
of performance, efficiency and cost in microwave
communication networks.

CommScope has been at the forefront in development of

new microwave antenna designs that feature low side
lobes that vastly improve interference resistance, which in
turn boosts capacity and quality of service—all while
reducing total cost of ownership for the operator.
You’ll learn more about side lobes in Chapter 4 and
elsewhere in this book—and you can always rely on your
partners at CommScope for innovative thinking and
industry leadership.

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om
CHAPTER
r
a

1
Introduction: Microwave networks and the insight that builds them d
i
o

a
s
WHAT ARE MICROWAVES AND t
HOW ARE THEY USED? r
o
Within the broader spectrum of radio n
frequency (RF) communications, point-to- o
point communications are usually carried m
out using microwave frequencies between y
1 GHz and 100 GHz along line-of-sight (LOS) .
paths called links.

These frequencies and their propagation characteristics

allow the transmission of vast amounts of data
between remote communication sites without the
need to lay cables between them.
The characteristics of the antennas used in point-to-
point communication allow the same frequencies to
be used throughout a system—that is, the system can
employ high frequency reuse. Careful link planning and
management make this possible without interference
becoming a problem.
These advantages give microwaves a special place in
the world of RF engineering, where they are used in
point-to-point wireless communications networks,
satellite communications, radar systems and even

TABLE OF CONTENTS www.commscope.com 6

Line of sight (LOS)
A clear path—free of any obstructions—between points of microwave signal
transmission and reception.

Link
The connection of two fixed microwave sites via a line-of-sight (LOS) path.
Also referred to as a “hop.”

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Introduction: Microwave networks and the insight that builds them

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MICROWAVES

Brief history
The first practical application of microwaves in a
communication system took place more than 80
1930s
years ago. In the 1930s, an experimental microwave Early microwave transmission
transmission system was used to connect the United system was used to connect the
United Kingdom with France
Kingdom with France—bridging the English Channel
without cables. In the 1950s, AT&T built a 10-
1930s
Emergence of television
channel broadcasting

microwave radio relay system in the United States that

was capable of carrying 5,400 long-distance calls per
channel, supporting a total of 54,000 simultaneous 1950s
AT&T built a 10-channel
callers. The emergence of television provided another microwave radio relay system
opportunity, as network broadcasting was relayed to in the US.

local affiliates across the country. 1980s

Analog RF systems began
In the 1980s, analog RF systems began giving way giving way to more efficient,
to more efficient, higher-capacity digital systems higher-capacity digital systems

to accommodate rising traffic demand. Even 1980s

then, microwave networks typically provided Development of the
cellular telephone
long-haul communications—but all that was to
change with the development of another
ubiquitous consumer RF technology: the cellular
telephone.

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CHAPTER

1
Introduction: Microwave networks and the insight that builds them

Microwave backhaul
The use of microwave
communications to
aggregate and
transmit

THE CELLULAR REVOLUTION well as voice and creating a consumer experience cellular voice and
that has led to nearly universal expectations of data to and from the
The worldwide proliferation of cellular networks constant, reliable connectivity all over the world. As main network.
introduced a critical demand for new microwave new network technologies and standards emerged,
backhaul infrastructure; after all, a cell site could point- to-point microwave communication has
only generate revenue if it could move its traffic to remained the backbone of the entire model,
and from the rest of the network. Connecting connecting millions of users to their networks in a
individual sites to the main network called for a seamless tapestry covering the planet.
reliable, affordable and powerful means of
transmitting large amounts of aggregated data over
the span of a few kilometers—and its infrastructure
would have to be quickly deployed to keep up with
rising demand.
The telecommunications industry adopted a
small, single-channel microwave radio system
mounted directly onto the back of a smaller
antenna. This
solution provided the capacity the industry needed,

but without the complex installation required by

traditional long-haul microwave systems.
Since those early days, the wireless industry has
continued to grow exponentially—moving data as

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CHAPTER

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Introduction: Microwave networks and the insight that builds them

TRUST A PROVEN PARTNER TO We provide innovative solutions and

PUT IT ALL TOGETHER practical guidance for:
•
Link planning
Beyond the basic theory and simplest applications, •
Antennas
building microwave communication infrastructure
•
Elliptical waveguide and connectivity solutions
into wireless networks is a complicated task requiring
broad expertise across a number of technologies
•
Pressurization
and disciplines. •
Environmental considerations
•
Installation and alignment
CommScope has been involved in microwave
networks since the early 1950s. Our microwave
antenna solutions connect the world’s networks,
much as the early railways connected cities and
nations. Throughout the development of microwave
communication, our innovative approach to
product design and manufacturing—together
with our unwavering commitment to quality—
has made CommScope a leader in the
communications revolution.

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Introduction: Microwave networks and the insight that builds them

Key
performance
indicators (KPI)
Critical measurements
of network function

THE BUSINESS CASE FOR Since taking a link down for maintenance is costly related to reliability
and disruptive, it’s even more important to put and performance.
TECHNICAL EXPERTISE
one’s best thinking and strategy into the initial link
Network operators continually monitor key design and selection of components. That
performance indicators (KPIs) within their networks forethought can prevent network downtime and,
to identify performance problems and ensure ultimately, lost
customer satisfaction. These indicators include quality customers. It all begins with a thorough
of service (QoS), link failures, lost traffic, understanding of the site’s specific requirements and
and other criteria. the components available to help meet those
requirements.
To keep up with constantly growing traffic, engineers,
designers and technicians are constantly required
to optimize network performance. While there are
sophisticated tools available to help stay ahead of
growing demand, true network optimization requires
a solid physical foundation of components and
solutions across the network. After all, even the best
network design cannot deliver performance if the
physical infrastructure performs below expectations.
This can lead to both operational and business
challenges as customers notice poor network
performance—and look to competitors for something
better.

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1 Introduction: Microwave networks and the insight that builds them

The scope of this book

While we will cover
many aspects of
microwave
communication
BEGIN THE JOURNEY WITH US
networks, we will not
With the understanding that foresight in planning address microwave radio
and component selection is vital to the long-term technology itself, which
is a complex, technical
performance and profitability of a microwave
subject worthy of its
network, let’s explore how the many parts of such a
own book.
network come together.

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2 Microwave basics and

all about antennas

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CHAPTER

2 Microwave basics and all about antennas

Hertz (Hz)
MEASURING THE WAVE
A measurement of a
signal’s electromagnetic
In theory, electromagnetic (EM) waves
frequency, expressed as the
may exist with frequencies from zero to infinity.
number of cycles per
second.
However—in practice—the generation, transmission, detection
and processing of EM waves requires frequencies within a
kHz: kilohertz
certain range called the EM spectrum. Microwave (MW) is a
(x1,000)
part of this spectrum, comprising the bands between 1 GHz
and 300 GHz. MHz: Megahertz
(x1,000,000)
Sending and receiving information via microwaves is
collectively called microwave transmission, and it could be GHz: Gigahertz
composed of voice, data, television, telephony or radio signals. (x1,000,000,000)
Microwaves are also emitted by natural objects, as well as
THz: Terahertz
from space.
(x1,000,000,000,000)
Because microwaves cover a substantial part of the EM
spectrum, they can be used in many different applications.
Some of these bands and their uses are shown in Table
2.1, which illustrates the whole of the EM spectrum.

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Microwave basics and all about antennas

Antennas must be
engineered to suit the key
parameters of EM waves:
Frequency: The rate of the
wave’s oscillation,
measured in Hertz (Hz).
Frequency Wavelength Application
50–60 Hz 6000–5000 km AC electricity transmission Amplitude: The strength
3–30 kHz 100–10 km Sub-marine communication or power level of the
30–300 kHz 10–1 km Long-wave radio broadcast wave.
180–1600 kHz 1.7 km–188 m AM radio broadcast
1.8–30 MHz 167–10 m Shortwave radio Phase: The particular point
88–108 MHz 3.4–2.7 m FM broadcast in the cycle of a waveform,
300–3000 MHz 1–0.1 m UHF point to point measured in degrees.
800–2200 MHz 0.375–0.136 m Mobile base station
Polarization: The orientation
1–60 GHz 0.3–0.005 m Microwave links
60–300 GHz 0.005–0.001 m Millimeter-wave links
of the electric field driving
352, 230, 193 THz 1550, 1300, 850 nm Fiber-optic links the wave.
420–750 THz 714–400 nm Visible light

Table 2.1: Applications within the electromagnetic spectrum, arranged by frequency

Antennas are devices that radiate or receive EM waves of certain frequencies.

The antenna is a transition structure between a guided structure (that is, a cable
or waveguide) and the open air. An antenna designed to radiate and receive
microwave frequencies, therefore, is called a microwave antenna. We will discuss
these in more detail later in the chapter.

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MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
Microwaves can propagate through a guided medium,
such as a transmission line, which could be cable
or waveguide. They can also propagate through an
unguided medium as plane waves in free space and
through the atmosphere.
In all networks, selecting a physical medium is
generally a matter of budget, capacity needs,
availability, reliability and how quickly the solution can
be deployed. Common options include twisted-pair Figure 2.1: Coaxial cable examples Figure 2.2: Example of
hybrid fiber optic cable
copper cable, coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable.
In some instances, however, conflicting requirements
defeat all these options; for instance, capacity
requirements may demand a fiber-optic backhaul link,
but the budget may not allow for the time and cost
needed to install it. MW transmission holds a unique
position as a solution where cost, capacity, flexibility
and timing all intersect.

Figure 2.3: Example of fiber optic cable installation

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Microwave basics and all about antennas

Figure 2.4: Examples of

waveguide

Attenuation in waveguide can

be caused by dielectric loss,
WAVEGUIDE
if the waveguide is full of
Microwave energy travels through guided media in dielectric, or by conductor
different modes. A microwave waveguide with a single loss due to the metal
conductor is a high pass filter; these structures have a structure’s finite conductivity.
cutoff frequency. The various modes of
operation available depend on
Single-conductor options include:
the desired frequency, as well
•
Rectangular waveguide
as the size and shape of the
•
Circular waveguide waveguide itself.
•
Elliptical waveguide
The maximum attenuation
•
Ridged waveguide values—measured in decibels
•
Corrugated waveguide per meter (dB/m)—are
published by the International
Eletrotechnical Commission
based in Switzerland (IEC).
Waveguide attenuation is
published by manufacturer.
For example, an EWP52
elliptical waveguide
(attenuation: 3.93 dB/100 m
(1.2 dB/100 ft) @ 6.175 GHz
will attenuate 2.4 dB over a
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61 m (200 ft) length. Microwave waveguides are maintained
under dry air or dry nitrogen pressure to avoid moisture
condensation that would impede their performance.
We will explore waveguide in greater detail in Chapter 8.
Waveguide
A metallic-sheathed physical transmission medium;
unlike a cable, waves propagate along it without an
inner conductor.

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Microwave basics and all about

GOING TO THE AIR In all cases, a microwave transmission’s highly-focused

line of sight (LOS) beam path allows the reuse of the
Microwaves display some interesting propagation
same frequencies systemwide without concern that
characteristics that make them ideal for radio
adjacent links will interfere with each other.
transmission. Point-to-point radio links are often the
most cost-effective method of transporting large
volumes of data in a location without existing copper
or fiber-optic infrastructure. Low in cost and easily
installed, network operators don’t have to rely on
third- party vendors to deploy expensive cables.
Highly directional antennas such as parabolic dishes
facilitate point-to-point radio links. Lower frequencies
(≤11 GHz) can propagate over long distances with
larger long-haul antennas, enabling connections to the
core network from remote locations. Higher
frequencies above 11 GHz propagate over lesser
distances via smaller short-haul antennas, providing
connectivity better suited to urban environments
where fiber-optic “point of presence” is closer and
more accessible.

Figure 2.5: Example of a traditional

parabolic microwave antenna

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Modulation
antennas
The practice of encoding
large amounts of data
onto a carrier signal to
A channel’s capacity is directly proportional to allow transmission.
the width of the channel and the type of signal
AGGREGATING THE SIGNAL modulation scheme used. Microwave backhaul
generally uses a frequency-division duplex (FDD)
The wireless network’s traffic is extracted from the system, whereby each hop is allocated a frequency
mobile telephone frequency band carrier and channel pair known as a go/return pair. This facilitates
coded, aggregated and compressed into a relatively simultaneous transmission in both directions across
small radio channel. This is aided by a technique the link (See Figure 2.6). Today, FDD is the dominant
called modulation. mode of operation.

The radio channel is up-converted to the correct

microwave frequency and transmitted across a link
to a receiver station, which then down-converts
and demodulates the signal to extract its
aggregated information so it can be sent along to
its final destination.

Figure 2.6: Frequency-division duplex (FDD) system using separate go/return frequencies (f1 and f2)
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2 Microwave basics and all about antennas

Time-division duplex (TDD) is another way of

achieving two-way communication, whereby
only one channel achieves two-way
communication by synchronized selection of
which direction the transmission is moving at
any given moment (See
Figure 2.7). Although this is a more efficient mode
of operation in regard to spectrum use, careful
timing control is required—limiting its application in
microwave backhaul. Figure 2.7: Time-division duplex (TDD) system
using one go/return frequency in synchronicity
Of course, because all microwave links require
clear LOS, antennas must be installed high up.
For the longest links, even the curvature of the
Earth’s surface presents a design challenge in
maintaining clear LOS.

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2 Microwave basics and all about antennas

ALL ABOUT ANTENNAS •

Half-power beamwidth
It is the nominal total width of the main beam at the
In technical terms, an antenna is a transducer between -3 dB points, expressing the focus of the strongest part
guided and unguided media. That means it transforms of the beam.
electromagnetic energy between free space and a guide
medium such as a cable or waveguide. Antennas can •
Gain
radiate and receive electromagnetic energy.
A measurement combining an antenna’s directivity
An antenna’s performance can be measured many and electrical efficiency. Gain is primarily a function of
different ways, with varying degrees of relevance to any antenna size. The gain of CommScope MW
particular application. These are the most important antennas is determined by gain by comparison. It is
stated in dBi
parameters:
(decibels over an isotropic radiator) at three frequencies:
•
Frequency of operation bottom, middle and top of band.
Refers to the operating frequency band—all antenna
specifications are guaranteed within the frequency •
Return loss or voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
of operations. These frequency bands and channel
The VSWR maximum is the guaranteed peak VSWR
arrangements are defined by ITU-R recommendations
within the operating band. It determines how
and/or ECC (or CEPT/ERC).
effectively the power transfer between radio and
antenna will be within the operating band.
•
Radiation pattern
Radiation pattern determines an antenna’s ability to
discriminate against unwanted signals under conditions
of radio congestion from +180 degrees to -180 degrees
of its axis. Radiation patterns are dependent on
antenna series, size and frequency. This includes
co-polar and cross-polar radiation patterns.

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2 Microwave basics and all about antennas

ALL ABOUT ANTENNAS CONTINUED

•
Polarization
The orientation of electric field driving the signal—either vertical or horizontal.
Most CommScope antennas are available in both single- and dual-polarized
versions. All can be used horizontally or vertically polarized, and most have
polarization adjustment capabilities.

•
Cross-polar discrimination (XPD)
Expressed in dB, XPD is the difference between the peak of the co-polarized
main beam and the maximum cross-polarized signal over an angle twice the 3 dB
beamwidth of the co-polarized main beam—signifying how much of the signal’s
energy is transmitted in the correct polarization.

•
Inter-port isolation (IPI)
The isolation, or electromagnetic separation, between input ports of a dual-
polarized antennas. The IPI of a CommScope antenna is typically 35 dB minimum
unless otherwise specified.

•
Front to back ratio (F/B)
Expressed in dB, this ratio denotes how much radiation is emitted
behind the main beam, at 180 degrees ± 40 degrees, across the
band.

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2 Microwave basics and all about antennas

MICROWAVE ANTENNAS The radiation characteristics of an aperture

antenna depend upon the energy distribution
Aperture antennas are used mostly at microwave
over the aperture.
frequencies. The defining feature of this design is a
large physical area, or aperture. Reflector antennas are There are two ways to measure this:
used mostly at microwave and millimeter wave
(MMV) frequencies; however, other antennas typically Amplitude distribution
used at MW and MMW frequencies include:
•
Uniform distribution: More efficiency but higher
side lobes
•
Tapered distribution: Less efficiency but wider
and lower side lobes

Phase distribution

Array antenna Horn antenna

•
Planar distribution: Focused at infinity,
like a camera
•
Spherical distribution: Focused at a finite point
•
Other distribution: Create symmetry in radiation
characteristics

Lens antenna

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2 Microwave basics and all about antennas

MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES Frequency band Frequencies, GHz Typical maximum Typical minimum
link length, km link length, km
AND REGULATIONS
0.9 (unlicensed) 0.902–0.928 100 -
2.4 (unlicensed) 2.4–2.5 100 -
The frequency bands available for microwave
4 3.6–4.2 70 24
backhaul are defined by the International
5 4.4–5.0 60 16
Telecommunications Union (ITU-R Radio Regulations 5 (unlicensed) 5.3, 5.4 and 5.8 50 -
2008) with a global region dependency. Table 2.2 L6 5.925–6.425 50 16
summarizes the global bands (subject to regional U6 6.425–7.125 50 16
variations), together with typical maximum link L7 7.1–7.75 50 10
lengths. U8 7.75–8.5 50 10
10 10–10.7 20 10
11 10.7–11.7 20 10
13 12.7–13.25 20 6
15 14.4–15.35 20 6
18 17.7–19.7 20 2
23 21.2–23.6 20 2
26 24.25–26.5 20 2
28 27.5–29.5 15 2
32 31.0–33.4 10 1.5
38 37.0–40.0 10 1
42 40.5–43.5 10 1
60 (unlicensed) 57.0–66.0 1 -
80 71–76/81–86 5 -

Table 2.2: Typical hop length for different frequency bands, defined by
ITU-R Radio Regulations

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Microwave basics and all about antennas

Microwave backhaul
systems require availability
reliability between 99.99
percent and 99.999 percent
of the time.

In addition to these regulations, a link’s design is also

determined by availability targets, local geography, Unlicensed microwave bands
climate, and cost of deployment—including tower leasing Frequencies not subject to
and channel bandwidth. It will also depend on the local regulatory oversight and
frequency coordinator, who will have a responsibility hence more susceptible
to maximize spectrum efficiency while preventing to interference problems.
interference between adjacent link paths. Indeed, cellular voice and
minimum link lengths are often specified by regulators data to and from the
precisely to ensure that the most appropriate frequency main network.
band is selected.
You will note that Table 2.4 also references “unlicensed”
frequency bands. While most microwave bands are
subject to local licensing regimes in order to promote
frequency coordination, unlicensed bands have no
such requirements—and responsibility for controlling
interference is left to the link provider. In unlicensed
bands, “spread spectrum” is one way to encode data and
avoid interference.
Lastly, the 60 GHz and 80 GHz bands—the previously
mentioned MMW bands—are also included in Table 2.2.
These possess unique propagation characteristics and will
be discussed in Chapter 11.

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MICROWAVE PROPAGATION
THROUGH ATMOSPHERE
By its nature, microwave transmission is exposed to
environmental and weather variables. Depending
on its location, an antenna may be subjected to
rain, hail, snow, fog, temperature extremes and
dangerously high winds—not to mention exposure to
lightning strikes.
Poor environmental conditions can disrupt
microwave links, as signal reflection or refraction
can greatly reduce the power levels of received
signals. This is true particularly of higher-frequency
transmissions, which are more susceptible to
weather effects. In addition, adjacent-link
interference can be a problem if there is not
sufficient LOS clearance.

Figure 2.9 Atmospheric attenuation relative to frequency

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Fade
Loss in signal strength
across a link caused by
atmospheric disturbances
With this information in hand, the link designers like rain or snow that can
can then anticipate these losses and build in a scatter microwave
MAKING A LONG HOP WITH signals.
performance safety margin that guarantees the link
A LOW FREQUENCY will operate within specification even in rainy weather.
This margin usually takes the shape of additional
The lower-frequency microwave bands offer the
power budget, allowing the signal to maintain fidelity
greatest possible distance—theoretically allowing for
over the link—a system
links in excess of 50 km (31 miles). The actual, practical
known as adaptive transmit power control (ATPC).
link length is determined by the traffic fidelity that can
ATPC dynamically adjusts power levels to compensate
be achieved, even in the worst of weather conditions.
for any link impediments.
For example, consider something as simple and
frequent as rainfall. Even a little rain adds losses to
the signal path, creating an effect known as “fade”—
reduced signal strength across the link’s channel.
The exact amount of fade can be computed using
established “rain outage models” that accurately
predict how much attenuation, or signal loss, can be
expected for a certain rate of rainfall.

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HIGHER FREQUENCIES, Adaptive modulation also helps counteract atmospheric

HIGHER ATTENUATION attenuation. As mentioned earlier, modulation
compresses the data stream over the link. Adaptive
For frequencies above 11 GHz, rain and other weather modulation, as its name suggests, allows the signal to
phenomena are an even bigger problem. For these bands, become more or less modulated to adapt to changing
increasing signal power is not enough by itself, and conditions—reducing modulation to improve fidelity in
changes in the link’s length may be required. Scattering of poor conditions, and increasing it to maximize capacity in
the clear conditions.
signal caused by rain or (to a lesser extent) snow can be
A more strategic solution is to employ a multi-hop
counteracted by using ATPC and limiting the link’s length,
topology—or arrangements of links in the network. Mesh
but another method is the use of signal polarization, the
and ring topologies provide alternative paths that help
orientation of the signal’s wave relative to the ground.
maintain optimal connectivity; a storm affecting one link
Polarization can be either vertical or horizontal; horizontally can be bypassed by routing through another (Figure
polarized signals are more susceptible to 2.10).
rain due to the shape of the falling raindrops—making
vertical polarization the better choice for link planning.
However, raindrops can also cause polarization rotation
as they fall, skewing a signal’s polarization out of
alignment and potentially causing interference with
other polarized signals in the channel. This problem
can be mitigated with cross-polar interference cancellers
(XPICs), which sample signals in both polarizations to
create a canceling routine for any interference.

Figure 2.10: Typical network topology providing redundant paths that mitigate

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2 Microwave basics and all about antennas

localized impediments

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OTHER ATMOSPHERIC
CHALLENGES
Fog generally causes negligible loss in microwave links,
but the attenuation does become more pronounced as
we proceed into higher frequencies. In the millimeter
bands above 60 GHz, fog does start to become a
factor worth consideration.
Likewise, air temperature has little impact on
microwave links. However, it does introduce an
indirect threat in the form of condensation if any
water vapor is present in transmission lines.
Sudden temperature drops can cause liquid water
to form in waveguides, introducing the same
effects as rain in a link. To counteract this
possibility, waveguides are often pressurized with
dry air or nitrogen to keep moisture out.

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Radome
A protective plastic or
fabric cover fitted to the
front of a microwave
antenna. Some feature
hydrophobic designs that
THE HARDWARE FACTOR repel water, snow and
ice, and can reduce the
The climate takes a toll on signal strength and
antenna’s wind load.
fidelity, but it also takes a toll on the physical
microwave infrastructure and its mechanical
integrity. Snow and ice can easily build up on
exposed antenna structures, increasing the weight
on the mounts. Therefore, the total weight of
antennas and equipment must also account for
likely accumulations of snow and ice.
Antennas can be fitted with protective covers,
or radomes, that prevent the buildup of snow
and ice in front of the antenna while also
reducing its wind load. Radomes are
particularly useful
for large, long-haul microwave antennas that are
already heavy and prone to high wind loads. Ice
shields can also be applied, preventing antenna
damage from ice falling from above.

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Chapter 2 summary
•
Return on Investment
(ROI) is realized in a
balance between
MICROWAVE BASICS AND cost and
ALL ABOUT ANTENNAS performance
•
Smart antenna decisions
Decades after the first microwave communications
take a deep
across the English Channel, hundreds of channels of
understanding of the
focused microwave beams now carry words, videos,
link’s needs
music and more.
•
A wide choice of
There seems to be no end in sight to wireless
antennas exists to suit
demand, so microwave backhaul is under constant
specific applications,
pressure to expand capacity, improve reliability, and
needs and conditions
drive down capital and operating costs—and keep
our world more connected than ever. •
Up to 70 percent of
antenna Total Cost of
Ownership (TCO) comes
after the initial
investment
•
Class 4 antennas represent
a major advance in
capacity and efficiency
over Class 3 antennas—
potentially, greatly
reducing TCO, See
Chapter 4 for detailed
explanations of Class 3

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 and Class 4 antennas

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and path design

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3 Microwave communication and path design

Attenuation
The gradual loss of
intensity in propagating
waves due to
MAPPING THE CONNECTIONS disruption or loss in its
medium.
As we explored in Chapter 2, microwave communications are
accomplished by LOS links between two microwave antennas
— generally operating within the 1 GHz to 100 GHz range of
the EM spectrum.

The length of these links can vary greatly depending on the size of the antennas,
their heights and the frequency they use; in practice, links tend to range between 1
km (about 0.6 miles) and 100 km (about 60 miles) in length.
Because any obstacle in the link’s path can attenuate or completely block the signal,
the length of a link is also determined by the presence of any such obstacles, such
as buildings, trees, mountains or other tall objects.
However, the narrowly focused energy beam in LOS links used in microwave
communications also has an upside: the ability to reuse the same frequency more
often through the system—if the path design and network layout play to this
strength. This chapter will explore various aspects of microwave path and network
design and how a strategic approach to the selection of components, frequency
planning and licensing can help deliver an efficient, reliable and cost-effective
microwave backhaul network.

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THE FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS

The basic building blocks of a microwave communication system are
shown in Figure 3.1. They include a microwave radio transmitter connected
to a directional antenna via a transmission line. The directional antenna’s
outbound signal is aligned to a distant receiving antenna, which is
connected to a radio receiver. We discuss the fine points of antenna
alignment in Chapter 10.

Transmitting End Receiving End

Antenna (Tx): Signal Antenna (Rx):

transmits and receives signal from Tx antenna,
amplifies the amplifying it again
signal

Transmission Line (Tx): Transmission Line (Rx):

brings signal from radio brings signal from anten-
to antenna na to radio

Radio (Tx): Radio (Rx):

generates the signal receives signal

Figure 3.1: The basic components that allow LOS microwave communications

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Let’s look more closely at the three building blocks variable conditions, since it can dynamically adjust modulation in
of this link: the radios, the transmission lines and response to changing weather or other limiting factors.
the antennas. You can learn more about adaptive modulation in Chapter 7.

The radio
Each end of the link has its own radio unit, typically
There are three basic radio configurations used in
with both transmission (TX) and receiving (RX) microwave communications systems:
capabilities.
A typical microwave radio uses about 1 watt of
power or less (30 dBm). A radio’s throughput usually
ranges between 100 and 300 Mbps within a 50 MHz ALL INDOOR ALL OUTDOOR SPLIT-MOUNT
bandwidth, depending on the kind of modulation used. All active components All electronics are Electronics are split into
are located inside a mounted outside, an outdoor unit (ODU)
Throughput can be increased either by adding more
building or shelter, eliminating the need and indoor unit (IDU),
data channels used or by increasing the modulation
allowing easy and cost for indoor space. eliminating transmission
scheme employed. Modulation schemes can range from
maintenance and However, because they are line losses with easy
low- order QPSK to higher-order 2048 QAM or more. upgrades—without located on the tower, maintenance of the IDU.
However, increased modulation reduces overall system requiring tower climbs, they can be difficult to However, it also
gain, which has the practical effect of increasing for instance. Being access for maintenance or combines the
susceptibility to interference and lowering overall farther from the upgrades, requiring tower disadvantages of the
reliability of the link in less-than-ideal conditions. antenna may introduce climbs. In some cases, other two configurations
Adaptive modulation is gaining popularity as a means to higher transmission line rooftop access mitigates by requiring indoor
find losses this challenge. storage and tower
than other configurations, climbs for the ODU.
the best balance between reliability and throughput in
however.

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Transmission lines
These are the physical media connecting the radio and directional antenna,
and may be coaxial cable or waveguide as explored in Chapter 2. Because of
the amount of signal loss they can introduce, the choice of transmission line
type is determined largely by the frequencies in use.

COAXIAL CABLE WAVEGUIDE

is suitable in applications using is suitable for higher frequencies.
Example of coaxial cable
frequencies up to—or just Elliptical waveguide features
above—2 GHz. Above this an elliptical cross section and
range, most lengths become too can support frequencies up to
lossy to be of practical use. around 40 GHz, however it is
rarely used in applications
above 13 GHz.

Frequently, a split-mount radio with an ODU is mounted directly to the

antenna with a special interface plate eliminating the need for
transmission line all together.

Example of waveguide cable

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Better quality, better ROI

Purchase price
represents only 30
percent of an antenna’s
TCO over its lifetime.

The antenna For instance, CommScope’s

A microwave system’s directional antenna is typically Ultra High Performance
series or ETSI Class
parabolic in shape, as this permits the greatest focus
4- compliant Sentinel®
of energy possible in a single beam. They are usually
antennas allow for
polarized, vertical or horizontal, based on the location
greater frequency reuse
of their feed connection.
in a given area, reducing
The size of the antenna’s dish is a key part of its spectrum costs and
design, function and role within the network. Bigger improving ROI.
antenna dishes yield greater power, but they are
more difficult to install and introduce limitations
regarding tower space, tower loading, leasing costs
and local zoning regulations.
Even though parabolic microwave antennas are
highly directional, some of the signal energy is still
lost to either side and behind the antenna. Higher-
quality antennas reduce this lost energy and mitigate
interference, making them a worthwhile investment
in spite of the incremental cost.
To learn more about selecting the right antenna,
see Chapter 7.

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PROPAGATION AND PATH LOSS •

Diffraction. Microwave rays follow multiple paths
as they arrive at the same end point (see Figure
As the signal propagates, even a tightly directional
3.2). Rays with odd half-wavelengths travel longer
LOS link’s beam experiences losses in transmission—
than the direct ray and enhance the direct signal,
known as path loss. This is due to several factors, while even half-wavelengths degrade the direct
including: signal. When drawn, these odd—and even multi-
half wavelength—signals form ellipsoids around
the direct ray. When the received ray is exactly one
•
Free space path loss (FSPL). This is the effect
half wavelength longer, the elliptical path it travels
of a signal spreading out as it propagates from
is called the first Fresnel Zone (F1). Designing the
the transmitting antenna. This is typically the
path such that the clearance is 0.6 F1 minimizes
greatest
the diffraction loss.
portion of path loss, accounting for 130 dB or more
of losses. Its effects are directly proportional to the
link’s distance and the signal’s frequency—as either
increases, so does path loss.

•
Atmospheric absorption. Both oxygen and
water vapor in the air attenuate microwave
signals—and the effect is more pronounced as the
link length increases. It also depends on
frequencies, with loss spikes at 22 GHz due to
oxygen absorption and again at 63 GHz due to
water vapor.

Figure 3.2: Diffraction. Odd and even multi-half wavelength signals

form ellipsoids around the direct ray

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Reflective and
refractive multipath
fading
The result of part of a
signal being reflected or
refracted in the
PATH RELIABILITY atmosphere, causing it to
travel a different path
Taking all the path loss factors into account allows
from the direct ray and
one to quantify path reliability—also known as path
arrive at the receiving point
availability. Simply put, a path fails to perform when slightly after the direct ray
data transmitted from one end is not successfully does.
received at the other. This can be caused by poor
propagation conditions (such as those given above),
by reflective or refractive multipath fading, or rain Demanding
attenuation. digital standards
Path availability is a measurement of the path’s ability In modern digital system,
to reliably transmit data over the course of a year, path reliability is measured
expressed as a percentage of time it is available. As in terms of bit error rate
we will learn in Chapter 7, the carrier-grade availability (BER).
is typically “five nines”—that is, 99.999 percent
The typical wireless carrier
availability.
defines unacceptable
Path performance can typically be improved by performance at one error
increasing overall system gain by increasing power, per million bits transmitted
reducing losses in transmission lines, or increasing the or 1x10-6 bit error rate.
size of the antenna itself.

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PATH RELIABILITY CONTINUED

Other factors that adversely affect path reliability
are longer link lengths, areas of flat terrain, hot
climates and frequent rainfalls. Rain has a particularly
detrimental effect on higher-frequency links.
This brings us back to the issue of frequency and
the role it plays in link performance and reliability.
As
in most areas of technology, there are tradeoffs to
consider with each option. Higher frequency bands
offer greater capacity but reduced reliability.
Frequencies above 10 GHz can be attenuated by
rain—particularly heavy rain—because the size of a
typical raindrop more closely approximates the size
of the signal’s wavelength, creating a formidable
attenuating obstacle.

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99.999% availability
(“5 nines” in carrier
jargon) amounts to

99.999 %
just five minutes
of downtime per year.
Building a better
ASSESSING AVAILABILITY availability
REQUIREMENTS model
Years of measured data
Regardless of the availability model used, the first
have informed the
factor to consider in path design is the reliability
development and
a link must provide for a particular need.
improvement of path
While five nines is the standard for most wireless reliability prediction models.
operators, some applications demand even
In the United States, the
greater availability: six nines, or 99.9999 percent
prevailing model is called
availability—allowing for a mere 30 seconds of
Vigants or Barnett-
downtime per year. These criteria are common
Vigants.
for public safety or utility applications.
Other parts of the
On the other hand, more forgiving applications
world generally use
such as email or web page downloads may
the model
only require 99.995 percent availability, with
developed by the
the leeway of accepting up to 53 minutes of International
downtime per year. Telecommunications Union
(ITU), referred to as ITU-R
P.530.

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Link design
tools: iQ.link®
XG
One of the tools
In this process, options will begin to eliminate available to link
themselves and alternatives must be constructed. designers to model
DESIGNING THE LINK prospective link paths is
Some sites will prove impractical, some bands
will prove unavailable, and some paths will prove iQ.link® XG from
At a high level, a microwave link design can be
Comsearch®, a
broken into several elements listed below. The too congested or obstructed to use. Eventually,
CommScope company.
process is somewhat iterative—especially the nominal the designer will arrive at the optimal solution
design phase—and may involve the evaluation of for the given demands of the project. It displays every detail of a
several different connectivity options. proposed link and how it
fits into the larger
1. Nominal (preliminary) design. This step
network, showing the
involves setting design guidelines and getting
effects of interference and
preliminary site candidate information to start. other factors that may
Maximum antenna heights for each site should affect link availability.
be noted, as this will be a controlling factor
for connectivity.
The next task is to lay out the network routing
and determine the capacity requirements for
the link. Once an initial routing is determined,
the designer must select the most suitable
frequency band based on path length and the
design guidelines. Then—using a link design
tool in conjunction with high-resolution terrain,
morphology and possibly even building data—the
designer can confirm clear LOS along the path.

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Too much
design
clearance? It’s
possible.
It may seem counterintuitive,
but too much path
clearance over obstacles is
not necessarily a good thing.
DESIGNING THE LINK CONTINUED
If you recall from the
2. Path survey. Once the link has been modeled in diffraction discussion earlier,
software, it’s time to perform a physical verification path clearance criteria is
of the proposed link path. This means visiting the typically 0.6 F1, so design
site and confirming the link’s endpoint engineers must be sure not
coordinates, ground elevation and site parameters to mount the antennas too
such as accessibility and the availability of electrical high on the structure due
power. to potential ground
reflection issues.
At this stage, the site is photographed in detail to
identify potential antenna space and to
document the candidate structure. The designer
creates
an initial path profile and then verifies critical
points along the proposed link path to confirm
the dimensions of any obstacles so the
antenna’s proposed height is confirmed to offer
clear LOS.

Photo credit: Robert Agua, Telikom

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Finding a place to fit in

design
The interference analysis
uses the technical
parameters of a proposed
link and compares them
to what already exists in
the operating
DESIGNING THE LINK CONTINUED environment.
Some of these
3. Final design. Using data from both the nominal
parameters include:
design and the path survey, all parameters are
applied to the engineering that will bring the
•
Coordinates
design to life. It is at this point that decisions •
Ground elevations
regarding radio equipment, antenna size, mounting •
Antenna centerlines
height, transmission lines and so forth are finalized. •
Radio transmit power
With these factors now included, the link design is
•
Transmission losses
checked again for reliability, clearance and capacity.
•
Receive losses
•
Antenna model
and pattern
information
•
Radio model and
filtering information
•
Frequency(ies)
•
Polarization

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FREQUENCY PLANNING AND

LICENSING
While the path design identifies the correct spectrum
band to use for the link, frequency planning and
licensing involve selecting the specific frequencies
within that band—as well as antenna polarizations—
and complete all regulatory licensing as needed.
This involves a detailed interference analysis that
proves the link will not interfere with existing
microwave paths. In the case of using unlicensed
bands—or area-wide licensed bands—an intra-system
interference analysis helps mitigate any interference
from other links within one’s own system.
You can learn more about unlicensed bands
in Chapter 2.
The idea of frequency reuse is a simple one:
microwave links may use the same frequencies so
long as they do not interfere with each other. In
practice, however, the density of these links requires Figure 3.3: Microwave link paths in the United States. These all share the same 6.1
a careful and thorough analysis of the microwave GHz frequency—primarily on just eight different channel pairs that are horizontally or
vertically polarized.
landscape, as you can see in Figure 3.3.

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Filing the paperwork

— FAST
In the United States,
frequency licensing
requires electronic
submission of the
PRIOR COORDINATION FCC’s six-page Form
NOTICE (PCN) 601.
Some companies offer
In the United States and Canada, new links require automated batch filing
notification of any incumbent entities with operating based off PCN data,
(or soon to be operating) paths within a 125 miles such as Comsearch’s
(200 km) radius if they use frequencies in the same ULS Express service.
band as the proposed link. This process typically
allows them 30 days to review the plan and raise iQ.link XG can also
any concerns and have them addressed prior to the complete licensing
new link’s deployment. paperwork for licensing
in other countries.
LICENSING
In the United States, microwave spectrum is
licensed and leased by the FCC on a 10-year basis.
In other countries, microwave spectrum may be
auctioned or assigned to commercial or private
enterprises.

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Chapter 3 summary

• Microwave links must

be carefully planned
to account for
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION climate, terrain,
AND PATH DESIGN frequency and
capacity needs
When it comes to building an effective, efficient,
• Path loss is the loss of
reliable and cost-effective microwave network, the
signal strength across
most advanced solutions and latest technology
the link due to
won’t get you very far without solid planning and various factors
an informed strategy.
• Path reliability is a
From the theoretical outline to personally visiting the
measure of uptime per
path, link planning requires an insightful
year—generally 99.999
combination of skills to translate specifications on
percent or even higher
the page
into performance in the field—and there’s just no • Four link planning
substitute for a good link planning tool to help keep steps: nominal design,
all the loose ends together. path survey, final
design, frequency
planning and licensing

• A link planning tool like

Comsearch’s iQ.link®
XG is vital to avoid
pitfalls such as
interference

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• Coordination with other link owners is a
necessity

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4 The importance of patterns

and regulatory compliance

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The importance of patterns and regulatory compliance

Radiation
pattern envelope
(RPE)
The guaranteed electrical
RADIATION PATTERN ENVELOPES characteristics of the
antenna. It is a line drawn
The way an antenna radiates signal energy in over the peaks of the
different directions is called its radiation pattern. The main lobe, side lobes and
mask around the radiation pattern is called radiation back lobes in horizontal
pattern envelope (RPE). and vertical polarization. It
covers both co-and cross
These patterns take the shape of lobes—elongated areas of polarization performance.
higher radiation—indicating what directions and distances a
signal can most effectively propagate. RPE is a simpler way of
showing radiation characteristics of the antenna. Side lobes

A directional antenna like a microwave backhaul antenna will Unwanted peaks in signal
display an RPE featuring a main lobe, ideally aligned directly radiation off-axis to the
down the link’s path; side lobes, smaller areas adjacent to the main main beam of the antenna.
lobe; and back lobes, describing signal energy lost to the rear of They are always lower than
the main beam. Lower side
the antenna.
lobes are indicative of
Antenna manufacturers publish RPE information for the products better interference
they sell because the precise characteristics of an antenna’s discrimination.
radiation pattern are critical to the network planning process, Side lobes which breach
particularly regarding matters of spectrum management and the antenna RPE, i.e. a
regulatory compliance. poorly performing
antenna, provide an
avenue for unwanted
interference to enter the

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system.

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Co-Polarized
The orientation of a
signal indicating it is
within its intended
WHAT GOES INTO A VHLP2-80 HH polarization.
PUBLISHED RPE Contrast with cross-
polarized signals, which
A complete RPE comprises 12 measurements over are transmitted outside
the full, 360-degree azimuth, or horizontal plane, their intended
of the antenna under dry, still conditions. These polarization.
measurements include horizontal and vertical
polarizations for three frequencies representing the
bottom, middle and top of the antenna’s band.

Amplitude (dB)
The signals are also checked for parallel-polarized
and cross-polarized responses. For more information
on polarization and frequency bands, please refer to
Chapter 2.
Turning these data points into a graphical
representation of the RPE is accomplished by
superimposing the left- and right-side patterns for
all three test frequencies, then drawing an
envelope of simple, straight lines to encompass
each peak. Azimuth Angle (Degrees)

Figure 4.1 Typical antenna characterization showing

test measurements against RPE and regulatory masks.

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WMiocrrsotw-caavsee
sbcaecnkahraiousl

WHAT GOES INTO A The boresight on such an antenna can be used to ITnhaecutusealopfrmacit
PUBLISHED RPE CONTINUED maximize interference discrimination during installation circoew, ave
and alignment. caonmanmtuennnicaatsi
Parallel-polarized and cross-polarized measurements hoonus ltdo
See Chapter 10 for more on the installation and
are also included for both vertical and horizontal aogugtpreegrfaotremani
alignment of microwave antennas.
polarizations, yielding four curves describing tds RtrPaEnvsmaluite
performance. They are: c a et
• HH—the response of a horizontally polarized lalunlayrgvivoeicneaann
port to a horizontally polarized signal gdledaantad
ftroeqanudenfcroy.mRPt
• HV—the response of a horizontally polarized
port to a vertically polarized signal hEes rmeparinesent
tnheetw“owrok.rst
• VV—the response of a vertically polarized port
peaks”
to a vertically polarized signal
of radiation, making
• VH—the response of a vertically polarized port
them a conservative
to a horizontally polarized signal
measuring stick for
High-performance antennas feature asymmetrical actual performance.
patterns with lower side lobes on one or the other
side of the main lobe. These antennas require full
360-degree RPEs because the superior side of
dB Down fom main

their patterns can vary—being either on the left

side
or the right.
lobe

Envelope for a Envelope for a

horizontally polarized vertically polarized
antenna (HH, HV) antenna (VV, VH)

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 Figure 4.2 A typical radiation pattern envelope (RPE)
document

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CARRIER POWER, NOISE However, the contemporary reality of wireless

AND INTERFERENCE communications has introduced a new variable—
Photo credit: Bell Labs
interference caused by operators adding more
For point-to-point communications to function links to their networks. So, if we add the new
reliably and efficiently, the energy directed from one variable (I) for interference and combine it with Shannon’s Law
antenna must arrive precisely at the receiving antenna. signal noise, we see that the equation now American mathematician
The amount of received energy is called the received reads: Claude Shannon (1946-
signal level (RSL) or carrier power (C). Transmitted 2001) instructed that
energy that is not received is called interference (I). Capacity = B x Log2 (1 + C/(N + I) ) channel throughput is
limited by its carrier-to-
Shannon’s Law describes the relationship between
interference ratio (C/I); that
capacity and signal noise in this formula: This is why C/I ratios are so critical to link
is, controlling interference
planning and design as a function of the business
is the primary factor in
Capacity = B x Log2 (1 + C/N) itself. Since a higher C/I ratio indicates an efficient
evaluating data throughput.
and reliable link, the goal of the planner is to
Where: maximize its value—so that, in real-world
operation, it yields greater capacity and, hence,
B = Channel bandwidth greater revenue. Failure to deploy such a network
C = Carrier power, or not only reduces capacity, but also may result in
higher levels of customer churn as subscribers
RSL N = Signal noise
experience poor service or reliability.

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Total cost of
ownership (TCO)
In this instance, a
holistic calculation of all
THE COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS costs involved in an
antenna deployment,
As in any business decision, capital expenditures are including purchase
only one part of the financial decision. Considering price, energy use,
the total cost of ownership (TCO) of a microwave maintenance costs and
system over its anticipated lifetime, the initial purchase time expenditure,
represents less than a third of all costs associated among other factors.
with operating it.
One way to improve the broader cost picture is to
explore the use of smaller but higher-quality and
better-performing microwave antennas. While this
may involve an incremental upfront cost, there are
several operational advantages that can quickly erase
the
price differential and actually pay dividends over the
longer term—cost centers such as more affordable
shipping, easier installation, reduced power use
and greater capacity.

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IMPROVING THE C/I RATIO possible, but overall cost factors prevent this from
being a reliable large-scale solution.
To arrive at a better C/I ratio, it’s intuitive that one
Use an antenna with smaller side lobes. Since
must increase C or reduce I. There are several ways the RPE of an antenna determines its resistance to
to accomplish each. interference, the lower the side lobes, the less likely
it is for interference to find its way into the signal.
• To increase C, one can:
Boost transmission power. This is the most From a TCO perspective, using an antenna with
obvious way to increase carrier signal, but it comes smaller side lobes is almost universally the best
with added energy costs and is limited by option when it comes to improving C/I ratio
regulatory and interference constraints. (Figure 4.3).
Increase gain with a bigger antenna. Bigger
antennas mean more capacity, but they are
expensive to ship, install and maintain—plus, Wanted
Increase
tower space and loading allowances may not C
allow them at all in some places. C/I

• To decrease I, one can: Side lobe

I
Use a different frequency. This can help avoid Victim Unwanted
specific interference problems, but spectrum is
extremely limited and this is not always a viable
option. Interferer
Use a different link path. Realigning an
antenna to route signal around a problem is Figure 4.3: An illustration of lower side lobes
improving interference discrimination in a link.
sometimes

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IMPROVING THE C/I RATIO CONTINUED

The lower side lobes of well-engineered antennas yield significant benefits with
regard to capacity and corresponding advantages to the business side of the
equation.
Low side lobes typically allow for:

• Efficient use of higher modulation schemes, increasing link capacity

• Smaller antenna sizes that reduce shipping, installation and tower lease costs
• Simplified coordination and planning
• Reduced site visits for maintenance
• Greater spectrum reuse, conserving expensive and
limited spectrum resources

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE In all cases, however, the conclusion is the same: higher-quality
antennas with lower side lobes and tighter RPE characteristics yield
Tighter control of an antenna’s RPE means less likelihood
better performance, better TCO, and better regulatory compliance.
of causing or receiving interference. Since the RF spectrum
is regulated, there are specific classifications for antennas
displaying different RPEs.
Bodies such as the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) in the European Union and the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States Amp
(dB)
publish standards that all antennas must meet in order to
comply
Azimuth
with regulatory requirements. For example, ETSI classifies four (degs)

different microwave antenna standards, called Class 1, Class

2, Class 3 and Class 4, in order of ascending stringency of
permissible RPE.
We will explore ETSI Class 3 and Class 4 distinctions in greater
detail later on in Chapter 7.
In the United States, the FCC maintains its own RPE
standards for directional antennas, called Category A and the Figure 4.4: An overlay of three ETSI Class standards, showing the
less- stringent Category B. Other countries and regions have allowed side lobes of each. Class 1 is no longer used.

similar regulations.

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Chapter 4 summary

• A microwave antenna
RPE is the envelope
drawn over all the peaks
THE IMPORTANCE OF of the measured
PATTERNS AND REGULATORY radiation pattern to
provide a guaranteed
COMPLIANCE
level of antenna
The RPE of a microwave antenna is the key to performance
understanding how it will operate in the real world • Any energy exceeding the
under working conditions. The size of the RPE’s RPE can cause
side lobes can be an accurate predictor of how interference
much
• Shannon’s Law dictates
of an issue interference will be—and what the
that capacity is limited
corresponding capacity reduction will mean to
by noise within the
the network and to the business itself. Want to learn more about microwave antenna system
sidelobes? Watch the video.
A compliant, high-performance antenna with low
• Boosting capacity
side lobes offers significant advantages on both
means increasing power
technological and financial levels. Because it reduces
or reducing interference
interference, it keeps network capacity optimized;
and, because it also reduces TCO, it keeps an • Regulatory bodies specify
operator’s balance sheet optimized. different RPE requirements
for different applications

• High-performance
antennas yield significant
capacity, reliability and
TCO advantages

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5 Environmental considerations

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5
Environmental considerations

TAKING ON NATURE
One of the biggest advantages of microwave
point-to-point communications links is their
high degree of reliability.

Operators expect near-flawless performance, up to 99.999 percent

availability. But because these links are necessarily located outdoors—
often in remote, difficult-to-access locations where other connectivity is
too expensive or impossible to use—they are subject to enormous loads
from the weather and the environment in general.
Even in more developed industrial areas, there exist unique environmental
concerns that can affect antenna performance and reliability. In these
areas, securing a microwave antenna site can mean long, detailed
negotiation with land owners and regulatory authorities.
In this chapter, we will explore the key environmental factors that must
be addressed in the design of microwave antennas if they are to fulfill
their role as a reliable point-to-point means of communication.

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Environmental considerations

Wind load

The amount of force

experienced by an exposed
structure due to winds common
WIND LOADS to its location.
It is directly related to wind
It is tempting to assume that the gentle breezes speed, which can be affected
one may feel at ground level are all that must be by the height and terrain of
accommodated in antenna design, but the reality is that location.

Wind speed (m/s) at antenna height

more complicated.
Wind presents the single biggest and most constant
stress on a microwave antenna installation. Because Calculating wind
speeds at a given
altitude
microwave antennas connect by LOS, they V = V (H/10)T
are
generally located high above the ground in H 10

locations
exposed to high winds. In addition, their size H= Height of the antenna
Antenna height (m)
and
position on towers make them particularly vulnerable V
10 = Mean wind speed 10 m

to the effects of wind—which has structural located at ground level. Winds blow much Figure 5.1: Height and terrain effects on
implications not only for the antenna itself, but also faster 50-100 meters (164-328 feet) up in windspeed. Wind speeds, and therefore
windloads increase dramatically at
the tower to which it is mounted. the air (Figure 5.1). greater heights.
When designing a structure to withstand the wind,
it’s critical to keep in mind that the antenna is not

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 above ground level

T= Terrain factor (normally

0.17 but can vary between 0.1 and 0.4)

VH = Mean wind speed at height H

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Anticipating wind loads

at any given location
requires a great deal of
site-specific
CommScope, for instance, offers a full line of investigation from
VARIABLE WINDS
microwave antennas and mounts rated to withstand multiple sources,
winds at most including:
Note that these calculations deal with mean wind
speeds—that is, normal, sustained winds. Of course, conventional site locations, as well as a special line of •
International climate
wind speed is never a constant. Gusts can briefly antennas designed to survive even the most bodies
increase those winds up to 50 percent above their extreme of environments. •
National meteorological
mean speeds. Topography and terrain play a
We will explore some of these extreme agencies
significant role here. Mountain passes, cliff tops or
environments later in this chapter.
even the spaces between tall buildings can create •
Local weather stations
gust-prone environments that funnel high winds into •
Experience of
specific locations. This means that a thorough
local residents in
understanding of the precise location where the site
the community
is to be built is required to determine the actual wind
load of a site.
Since the microwave antennas represents only a small
proportion of the capital cost of the entire system, it’s
an accepted practice to let a conservative estimate of
the wind load requirements guide antenna selection.
Any modest incremental cost for a higher-rated
antenna is dwarfed by the potential costs involved in
replacing an inadequate one.

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WIND VIBRATION
Even light winds can have disastrous consequences
Direct force is not the only threat winds pose In 1940, the Tacoma Narrows bridge in Washington State
to microwave antennas. There also exists the collapsed four months after it was completed. Light winds
phenomenon of wind-induced vibration, which can be blowing across it at a specific frequency caused the
problematic even in light breezes.
structure to resonate—twisting and buckling the bridge until
Wind has a natural frequency of about 8 Hz. If an the gyrations grew strong enough to tear it apart.
antenna or any equipment mounted to it has a
similar natural frequency, then the wind can induce
vibration—much like strumming a guitar string
(Figure 5.2). Over time, this vibration can compromise
the mechanical integrity of the installation through
structural fatigue, shortening the operational life
of the antenna.

Figure 5.2: The effect of wind-induced resonance on an ill-designed structure.

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CORROSION HAZARDS
In addition to wind, there are environmental
chemical factors that can shorten the operational
life of
an exposed microwave antenna or its associated
equipment. For instance, in coastal areas, airborne
salt can cause corrosion. In developed urban
areas, pollution from vehicle exhaust can have a
similar effect. In industrial areas, there can be high
concentrations of other corrosive chemicals vented
by nearby factories, refineries or other sources. Often,
more than one of these factors may be present
(Figure 5.3).
To counter these effects, good microwave antenna
design demands careful thought given to the
materials—and the combinations of materials—used
in their construction. An antenna should be
expected to reach the end of its operational life
without experiencing a failure of structural integrity,
so—in corrosive environments like those described
above—
solutions should be considered that offer additional
protection in the form of special coatings or Figure 5.3: Natural and man-made corrosion hazards.
different grades of materials.

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Environmental considerations

however, great care must be taken

in application
to avoid degrading the
electrical performance of the
antenna.
TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY ICE BUILDUP AND RADOMES
While temperature and humidity generally have very As the temperature drops, the risk of ice buildup
little effect on microwave operation, a challenge rises.
does exist in the installation of elliptical waveguide Open and exposed, microwave antennas are prone
transmission line. To maintain efficient operation, to ice—particularly in areas where humidity levels
the air inside the waveguide must be kept dry are high. While antennas and their mounts are
during installation and operation; otherwise, designed to bear the weight of this ice, a problem
condensation emerges when the ice obstructs the antenna’s LOS
can occur as temperatures drop. In addition, path.
installing waveguide in extremely low temperatures Good practice in antenna selection can go a long
makes it more likely that damage will occur to its way toward preventing problems. Radomes are one
outer jacket. such measure. Flexible fabric radomes—used in
We discuss the installation and pressurization issues larger high-performance antennas—are inherently
associated with elliptical waveguide in Chapters self- shedding, meaning they deter water from
8 and 9. sticking to their surface and attenuating the signal.
Rigid planar radomes from reputable manufacturers
are made
of materials designed to avoid ice accretion on
smaller antennas.
In exceptional circumstances, proprietary hydrophobic
coatings can be applied to a radome in the field;

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Radome

A protective plastic or fabric cover fitted to the

front of a microwave antenna.

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5 Environmental considerations

LOOK OUT BELOW

Another threat posed by ice buildup is accumulation
above the microwave antenna, as shown in Figure
5.4. In most cases, the microwave antenna shares its
site with many other components and antennas.
When these other components are mounted above
the antenna, changing temperatures can cause ice
buildup to fall and inflict significant damage on the
microwave antenna—perhaps even destroying it
altogether.
Ice shields are available to counteract this threat. While
their inclusion in a design does add a modest cost,
that cost is likely far less than would be the expense
of an emergency antenna replacement and the cost
of lost traffic while the site is compromised.

Figure 5.4: Ice buildup can mean falling ice and damaged antennas.

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SOLAR RADIATION
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun damages more
than sunbathers’ backs. Over time, it also causes
many plastics to become brittle and can even cause
them to fail. Since microwave antennas are open
and exposed to sunlight, any critical component
made of non-UV-resistant plastic will experience
this
degradation. Reputable antenna manufacturers
specify UV-resistant materials in their products and
verify their performance through rigorous testing.

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5 Environmental considerations

RAIN, HAIL AND SNOW Wet snow that falls at temperatures just above
freezing can stick and accumulate on radomes and
As explained in Chapter 2, the presence of water
other structures, but a quality radome material and
anywhere in the microwave path will attenuate, or
conscientious design practices can mitigate this
weaken, the signal and reduce performance. This is
possibility. Likewise, ice shields are a must for instances
true whether the water exists as condensation in the
where the snow freezes into ice on the structure,
waveguide or as rain in the link path.
creating the likelihood of falling ice.
Since no location is fully immune to the effects of
rain, good link design accounts for its effects. The
radome also plays a role, as a good design will
ensure that accumulated rain sheds quickly without
being absorbed. This capability is a matter of the
materials used in the radome’s construction.
Likewise, quality manufacturing and installation
processes deliver a waveguide that sheds excess
moisture that could also attenuate the signal
(Figure 5.5).
While small hail pellets have no significant effect
on microwave antennas, larger hailstones can
cause
damage. Ice shields offer some protection, but
radomes should also be able to withstand any
Figure 5.5: Waveguide must be kept dry internally to operate efficiently.
likely hail exposure.

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Chapter 5 summary
•
Wind load is determined
by height, topography
and climate
WIND LOAD AND ENVIRONMENT •
Wind-induced vibration
It’s a wild, unpredictable world out there. When can be as great a threat
something as sophisticated as a microwave antenna as high-speed gusts
must operate flawlessly for years in the great outdoors, •
Corrosion from sea air,
it takes a deep understanding of the specific location— pollution or industrial
and a good imagination for the worst-case scenarios. processes can shorten
Insightful design, reputable manufacturers and quality an antenna’s operational
construction all go a long way toward ensuring that life
a microwave antenna continues to deliver up to •
Radomes repel water,
99.999 percent availability—because anything less snow and ice to keep
just isn’t acceptable. the link path clear
•
Ice shields protect
antennas from ice
falling from other
components
•
Water anywhere in
the microwave path
will attenuate the
signal

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6 Mechanical and
structural factors

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Mechanical and structural

BEARING THE LOADS

Now that we have explored the kind of
environmental and weather-related loads
microwave antennas and their structures
must endure, let’s examine how these forces
affect the way a microwave link operates—
and dig a bit deeper into how these loads
can be mitigated.

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Operational wind load

The maximum wind speed
at which an antenna will
continue to maintain the
majority of the beam
OPERATIONAL WIND LOAD 3dB Beamwidth energy on the antenna at
the other end of the link.
Why would wind cause some of the signal to miss
0
the target? Consider a ship crossing a great expanse
of ocean. If it proceeds even a single degree off -3dB Angular movement
The shifting or twisting
course, it will miss its destination port by a large
of a microwave antenna
margin. Likewise, in a microwave link, the targets are
as a result of
very small relative to the distance between them.
environmental
Operational wind load is the amount of wind an
conditions, which can
antenna can experience without its beam going
result in lower signal
“off course” like the errant ship in our strength or even total link
example. failure.
The maximum value for allowed angular movement
is normally calculated as 0.3 x the “3 dB beamwidth
of the antenna” (Figure 6.1). This means a low-
frequency small antenna will have a higher Figure 6.1: A graph representing 3 dB beamwidth,
the strongest part of the signal used to measure
angular movement allowance than a larger
angular movement.
antenna, or one operating at a higher
frequency.
Typically, the exact angular deflection at the
operational wind load is not specified, but the
wind speed at which the 0.3 x 3 dB beamwidth
is.

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Survival wind load

The maximum wind
SURVIVAL WIND LOAD speed a microwave
antenna
As its name implies, survival wind load is the maximum
can experience without
wind speed the antenna can withstand before
= o! permanent damage.
experiencing mechanical failure, such as permanent
No rotation around pole
damage or yielding of parts. At these speeds, the
antenna may start to slip around the pole and some o q
realignment may be required to restore the link to full
operation (Figure 6.2 and 6.3).

The addition of side struts can provide greater stability  = Max Operational deflection = 0.3 x 3dB Bandwidth
at wind speeds up to the survival rating, but this Rated operational windspeed
should be verified and recommended by the antenna
supplier. In any case, environments with high-speed Figure 6.2: Allowable antenna deflection at operational
winds demand extra consideration and planning in the wind speed
construction of microwave links.
The choice of antenna is crucial; it must be rated Some rotation,
above the highest likely wind speed, including but can be re-aligned
considerations for the antenna’s mounting height and
gusts that WIND

can briefly increase mean wind speeds by 50 percent.

Between rated operational and rated survival wind speed
Refer to Chapter 5 for more information. Reputable
manufacturers often market “extreme” antennas for
the most demanding and windiest environments. Figure 6.3: Operational windspeed up to survival

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Best practices for a

solid structural
foundation
•
Use large-diameter pipe
STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS up to 120 mm (4.7 in)
for greater rigidity
As with any structure, the best results proceed from •
Shortest possible
solid foundations. In the case of a microwave antenna,
pole lengths to
that foundation is the tower or mounting pole that
improve antenna
supports it. These, too, must be tested and rated to access
withstand wind loads and minimize twist and sway.
•
Rigid supports at both
For example, a 60 cm (2 ft) microwave antenna
ends of the mounting
mounted to a long, thin-walled, small-diameter pipe
pole, attached to
attached
tower leg, wall or
at only one end would create enough movement to similar
lose antenna alignment, even without the addition of
wind. While this may be barely adequate for, say, a
•
Don’t attach poles
low-frequency antenna with large beamwidth, it would to tower cross
braces
certainly result in total link failure for an antenna of
higher frequency. •
Ensure interface
See Figure 6.4 and Figure 6.5—as well as the best steelwork design doesn’t
practices in the sidebar—for proper mounting put excess stress on the
tips. tower structure

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STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS CONTINUED

Not supported Shorter poles Mounting pole attached to tower leg

at end
Large diameter
suported at both ends

Long pole

Small
diameter

Side strut
incorrectly Free mount on tower
installed to allows structural
cross brace support of strut

Figure 6.4: Cantilever (one support end) pole installation introduces Figure 6.5: Tower mounting pole must be attached to the tower leg,
sway, and is not recommended. not a cross brace.

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STRUTS Strut
requirement and drilling new attachment points A stiffening arm
In larger installations, the antenna will require the on the tower should only be done with the installed with a large
installation of one or more side struts. For the side permission of the tower owner. Tower face antenna
strut to function effectively and be a benefit to the mounts are a better solution. to improve its
antenna stability, simple guidelines should be •
Include the strut requirement in stability, accuracy
followed. Poorly or improperly installed struts may your installation plan. and wind
allow antennas to move under wind load and shorten survivability.
their operational life through mechanical fatigue.

•
The angle at which the strut is installed should
be within guidelines specified by the
manufacturer. Failure to do so can result in Max strut install angle strut
is effective
flexing or bending of the strut. Ideally, the strut
will be most effective if
mounted perpendicular to the antenna (Figure Incorrect install, strut
6.6). will deflect
and be nonsupportive
•
The side strut must be attached according to
the manufacturer’s guidelines. Improvising the
attachment to the tower or antenna will
Figure 6.6: To provide adequate support, a strut must be angled
significantly reduce the strut’s effectiveness and within manufacturer guidelines.
may invalidate its warranty.
•
The side strut should be attached to an
approved structural support designed to have
such an attachment made. Cross braces do not
meet this

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Fatigue
Mechanical wear
inflicted on plastics
or metals by
repeated variations in
VIBRATION AND FATIGUE
stress
or load.
As explored in Chapter 5, wind-induced vibration is
a serious design consideration because it can lead
to fatigue and, eventually, link failure as alignment
suffers. The solution is to choose antennas, mounts
and struts from a manufacturer that performs
extensive vibration and shock testing and rates
their products accordingly.
The mounting pipe plays a particularly important role
in reducing the effects of vibration. Since vibration is
generally caused across the tower, the pipe’s design
will dictate how great an effect that vibration will have
on the antenna.

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Galvanic corrosion
An electrochemical
process in which one
metal corrodes more
readily when in
MATERIALS AND
contact with a
GALVANIC CORROSION different kind
of metal.
Several different kinds of chemical and environmental
corrosion are covered in Chapter 5. However, there
is another kind of corrosion that can compromise a
microwave antenna installation, and that is the choice
of materials combined in the manufacture of various
components—the question of galvanic corrosion.
Aluminum has a natural resistance to corrosion due
to the build-up of its own oxide layer, which protects
the material. However, even with aluminum, care
must be taken in material selection. Certain grades use
alloying elements to enhance strength but can also
degrade the corrosion resistance of the material.
Aluminum components may be supplied with no
coating, or painted for aesthetic reasons.

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MATERIALS AND
GALVANIC CORROSION
CONTINUED

All materials used in the design of these components

must be certified compatible by their manufacturer, as
well as suitable to the specific application. For instance,
stainless steel and aluminum are both commonly
found in the wireless industry, but they are not an
ideal combination in terms of galvanic corrosion
(Figure 6.7).
Where these materials are used, the specific grades
must be thoroughly tested in combination to validate
their suitability for use over the life of the antenna.
Waveguide flanges are an area where different Figure 6.7: The effects of galvanic corrosion as a result
materials regularly come into contact with each other. of incompatible metals in contact.
Most waveguide flanges on the antennas are
manufactured from brass, aluminum or nickel-plated
brass, while the flanges on connectors are typically
brass and are likely made by a different manufacturer.
It’s critical to know that these two materials are
compatible and display suitable galvanic corrosion
resistance.
Sourcing both flanges from a single manufacturer that
has tested their compatibility is a great way to avoid
the effects of galvanic corrosion.

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Chapter 6 summary

• Operation and
survival wind loads
determine antenna
MECHANICAL AND suitability
STRUCTURAL FACTORS • Allowable movement is
determined by how
For every challenge, there is a solution. That is particularly
much signal reaches its
true in regard to countering the forces and stresses
target
placed on a microwave antenna installation. With the
right components, practices and materials, a site can • Structural design is
deliver years of service in the environment for which fundamental to
it is designed. link integrity

The right answer is part engineering, part chemistry • Choose manufacturers,

and part inspiration. Solid link design built on a strong antennas and materials
foundation can help ensure the signal stays strong. carefully to avoid
problems

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7 Antenna Selection
and maximizing ROI

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GETTING THE MOST FROM

YOUR INVESTMENT
What should be clear by now is that one’s
choice of microwave antenna has an enormous
impact on how well—and how long—it
performs in a real-world deployment.

While only a small part of the overall investment,

antennas cover a range of costs that bear directly
on their quality and reliability.
In this chapter, we will apply what we’ve learned so
far to the process of selecting a microwave
antenna that reduces TCO and maximizes
performance and reliability—in other words,
selecting an antenna that optimizes ROI.

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What about 1 GHz

to 3 GHz?
Microwave backhaul
applications once included
Other factors—such as the antenna type, size and the lowest end of the
SELECTION FACTORS
operation frequency—are defined as part of the microwave spectrum, but
detailed RF analysis and the planning of the link. A the frequencies between
There are several factors to consider when choosing
1 GHz and 3 GHz have
a microwave antenna and planning a link. They wide variety of antenna types are available to suit
been generally redeployed
range from technological considerations to financial virtually any requirements. They can range in size
for cellular applications.
ones— each playing a part in calculating the value from a few centimeters to more than four meters
one can expect in return for the investment. These in diameter; and they can support typical
factors include: operation frequency bands from 3 GHz to 90
GHz.
• The electromagnetic environment and degree
of radio congestion in the link area
• The link’s capacity requirements, and whether they
will need to be maximized
• Environmental conditions in the link area
• The nature of the available infrastructure for
antenna installation
• Physical access to the site for installation,
commissioning and maintenance
• Available installation budget and TCO
targets over the life of the antenna

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Propagation
These rules are limited by other practical considerations
ROI The way waves travel
in the link, such as the degree of antenna alignment
outward from a source.
possible in a real-world deployment and the narrow
In this case,
FREQUENCY AND PROPAGATION beamwidths involved with larger antennas.
propagation refers to
When selecting an antenna, the link planner the direction, shape and
The study of radio wave propagation through the
must know: strength of RF energy
atmosphere is a vast topic all by itself. Generally
How long the link must be. That is, how far apart waves.
speaking, the rules are that:
•

the two LOS endpoints are. This information can

•
Lower frequencies allow for longer links
be obtained from map data.
than higher frequencies Five nines:
•
The available frequency. This may be determined
•
Larger antennas transmit a signal farther that’s carrier
by local regulators, a third-party coordination
than smaller antennas at the same frequency grade
body, or based simply on which frequencies the Most wireless operators
operator owns. require five nines of
•
Performance requirements. This can be availability—that is,
measured as link throughput (in mbs) and link availability 99.999 percent
availability, expressed as a percentage of uptime. of the time. That equates
If the radio supports it, the link’s capacity and to just five minutes of
availability can be scaled dynamically—trading one unavailability per year.
for the other as needed.
With these parameters in hand, the planner can
determine the amount of gain required from the
antenna and, with reference to manufacturer literature,
its approximate diameter. This is where the process
begins, but there are several other important steps
before a final antenna choice can be made.

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RADIATION PATTERN You can refer to Chapter 4 for more information on RPEs.

ENVELOPES (RPES)
Every antenna deployed in a point-to-point microwave
network should have a published RPE, providing a
measurement of the antenna’s ability to discriminate
against unwanted signals—that is, interference. This
ability is measured over a plus/minus 180-degree
azimuth angle relative to the antenna’s boresight, or
aimed direction.
Historically the best performing antennas (such as
UHX antennas from CommScope) had assymmetrical
RPEs.
In these cases antennas had to be carefully installed
to ensure that the feed orientation matched the
path specification. Modern design tools have led to
the
development of even higher performing antennas
such as the Sentinel and USX antennas from
CommScope.
These have symmetrical patterns that are better
than the old assymmetrical ones. In all cases, quality
antennas from responsible manufacturers will declare
and demonstrate RPE compliance with regulatory
standards published by such bodies at the FCC
and ETSI.

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— Envelope for a horizontally polarized antenna

(HH, HV)
— Envelope for a vertically polarized antenna (W,
VH)

A
ZI
M

dB DOWN FROM THE MAIN LOBE

U
T
H
D
E
G
R
E
E
S
F
R
O
M
M
AI
N
L
O
B
E

Figure 7.1: Asymmetric

RPE for a CommScope
UHX8-59 antenna

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Two options to beat interference

In congested networks, it can be extremely difficult to establish a path free of
interference. In these cases, it’s time to consider the different classes of antennas
INTERFERENCE available: The present industry-standard ETSI Class 3 antennas, and newer Class 4
antennas such as CommScope’s Sentinel® solution.
Now that the link planner knows how much gain
is needed—and has used that to calculate the
approximate size of the antenna—it’s time to ETSI Class 3 antennas ETSI Class 4 antennas
consider how the antenna will fit into the larger In areas of limited congestion, high- Even in highly congested links, Class 4
network. The main consideration now is one of performing Class 3 or FCC Category antennas provide superior interference
avoiding interference with other links in the area. A antennas may be suitable, discrimination due to their much
When working within regulated frequencies, it is although local regulators may tighter RPEs. They are consequently
not permissible to install a link that creates impose higher standards. more compliant with national and
local regulations.
interference with existing users. Another challenge Even in highly congested links, it may
is avoiding any interference to the link from other be possible to achieve performance Class 4 antennas provide higher
users in the area. These are significant concerns, as goals with larger Class 3 antennas. immunity to interference with only a
potential interference sources will likely not even be modest increase in capital cost. The
However, as congestion increases in
visible from either end point of the proposed link. potential, in some circumstances to use
the future, a Class 3 solution that
a smaller antenna reduces assembly,
provides adequate performance
installation and tower lease costs as
today may not be adequate
well as tower loading—offsetting some
tomorrow—an important
or all of the cost difference.
consideration in calculating ROI over
the operational life of the antenna. Most importantly to TCO, Class 4
provides insurance against future
interference issues.

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THE CAPACITY QUESTION

The link’s available capacity is determined by the available RF spectrum and the
capacity of the radio itself. Intuitively, more spectrum means greater capacity, as
it allows more radio channels to operate over the same link. The capacity of
the radio is determined by the modulation scheme used, as described in
Chapter 2.
Higher modulation schemes result in greater capacity, but this comes with the
risk of an increase vulnerability to multipath fading and interference, which in
turn can reduce availability—an unacceptable cost. One way to mitigate this
problem is to employ an antenna with an RPE featuring lower side lobes.
You can see more about side lobes and their role in reducing interference in
Chapter 4.
Figure 7.2: Integrated dual polarized antenna
In addition, opting for a dual-polarized antenna can double capacity
simply by virtue of the fact that it can operate on both horizontal and
vertical polarizations. Even if a link does not require such capacity, a dual-
polarized antenna can be connected to just one polarization on the radio.
Sealing the other polarization with an RF load banks that extra capacity for
the future, where it can be deployed quickly and efficiently as needed.

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PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE

Turning to the financial and business aspects of link
planning, the long-term view of the growing use of
point-to-point microwave networks suggests that
proactive future-proofing should be part of the
strategy. In practical terms, this means choosing the
best possible antenna based on its performance
rather than simply on the basis of capital cost.
When assessing ROI in link planning, a key factor is
the duration of the antenna’s operational life. By
opting for a premium antenna, the small additional
capital investment is more than offset by a longer
life, fewer problems and less maintenance—reducing
TCO over that of a less expensive but inferior option.

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ANTENNA DURABILITY
AND SURVIVAL
As explored in Chapters 5 and 6, a keen understanding of the
antenna’s environment and climate is critical to its long-term
survival. To recap, these factors include:

•
Wind. This is the worst-case gusting wind speed, taking into
account the terrain and the antenna’s height. This is much
greater than the winds experienced at ground level.

> Operational wind speed is the maximum wind load

before most of the signal is lost, calculated as 0.3
multiplied by the 3 dB beamwidth of the antenna. Note
that this is
for the antenna only; the structure where it is mounted
will have its own deflection ratings, which must be
considered along with the antenna’s rating. Any deflection
at this wind speed is elastic, which means the antenna
should return to its original position.

> Survival wind speed is the maximum wind load

before physical damage and/or permanent misalignment
occurs.

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ANTENNA DURABILITY AND •

Corrosion. Whether due to sea air, industrial
SURVIVAL CONTINUED pollution or dissimilar metals used in their
construction or mounting, microwave antennas
•
Water. Because it severely attenuates microwave are expected to resist the effects of corrosion to
signals, the presence of water anywhere in the provide years of trouble-free performance.
microwave path is an important factor. Radomes •
UV exposure. Nonmetallic materials used in
covering the antenna surface repel water to
antennas must be tested and certified to be
mitigate its effects on the link. All microwave
resistant to the damaging effects of the
antenna feeder systems are sealed and installations
sun’s ultraviolet radiation.
with longer lengths of microwave transmission
line should be pressurized to avoid the ingress of
In all microwave antenna deployments, most
(and often all) of these factors must be
moisture.
considered and confirmed against manufacturer
•
Snow and ice buildup. While normally not a specifications.
problem in extremely cold environments, snow
and ice can accumulate when the temperatures
hover near the freezing point. This buildup can
interfere with the link’s efficiency. Accumulations
of snow and ice on other tower components above
the antenna can also fall, making ice shields an
important feature in temperate areas.

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ANTENNA TYPES without shields. Low profile antennas have

generally replaced shielded antennas of
Now that we have established the criteria of less than 1.3 m (4 ft) in diameter.
cost and performance that should inform the •
Ultra-high-performance antennas. Providing
link planner’s decision, let’s look at some of the high-gain, low-VSWR radiation patterns, these
basic antenna solutions made by CommScope for antennas minimize frequency congestion and
microwave links. simplify frequency coordination due to their
•
Unshielded parabolic antennas. These were highly- efficient beam-forming feed assembly.
historically used in areas of low radio congestion They are available in dual-polarized (UHX®) and
single- polarized (UHP®) configurations.
with little need for tightly engineered RPEs. These
are now rarely deployed and are being slowly •
High cross-polar discrimination antennas.
discontinued. These antennas feature very high cross-polar Figure 7.3: High performance
discrimination, making them a good choice antenna
•
Enhanced performance standard parabolic for co-channel transmission. CommScope’s
antennas (PAR). These unshielded antennas meet HSX antenna offers 40 dB of discrimination,
FCC Category A compliance for use in networks in tight RPE and low side lobes for high-
the United States. With increasing radio congestion capacity needs in congested areas.
and the cost effective availability of better
•
Ultra-high-performance high cross-polar
performing alternatives, the deployment of these
discrimination antennas. The latest designs
antennas is diminishing.
of antennas provide the best possible RPEs
•
High-performance antennas. These meet or combined with very high cross-polar
exceed ETSI Class 3 radiation pattern discrimination to maximise link availability
performance standards. They are available in and network density. Examples include
single- and dual- polarized versions. They are CommScope’s USX antenna range. Figure 7.4: Standard
typically provided with shields or shrouds, but parabolic antenna
recent advances in technology have made the
same RPE possible

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Antenna selection and maximizing ROI

CMlaicsrso4waanvteeb
nancakshbayutlhe
n u m be r s
T h e u s e of
microwave cEoTmSI
mCluanssic4ataionntes
ntonas
ANTENNA TYPES CONTINUED aregpgrreesgeantteaam
ndajtorranasdmvaitnce
•
ValuLine antennas. Meeting and exceeding ETSI cinelmluilcarrovwoaicvee
Class 3 standards, these small-diameter, high- atnedchdnaotlaogy:
performance antennas are used all over the world to and from the main
in short-haul backhaul applications. Available in •
40 percent better
spectrum network.
single- or dual-polarized configurations, they are reuse, yielding 40 percent
built in diameters up to 1.8 m (6 ft) and greater link density
frequencies up to 80 GHz.
•
Extremely low side lobes
•
Sentinel® antennas. Extremely low side lobe
Figure 7.5: Low side lobe Sentinel make them virtually
antennas meet ETSI Class 4 performance standards
antenna 0.6 m (1.9 ft) immune to interference
due to their superior RPE characteristics and high
immunity to interference. This allows high levels •
10 dB or more off-axis
of frequency reuse, amounting to 40 percent more interference discrimination
than a comparably-sized Class 3 antennas. They
improvement compared
also take advantage of advanced radio features
to Class 3 allows higher
like adaptive coding and modulation (ACM) that
modulation schemes—greatly
boosts capacity and availability. CommScope’s
Sentinel solution is a state-of-the-art Class 4 increasing capacity and
antenna; its small size makes it easy and lowering cost
inexpensive to ship and install. •
Higher initial cost offset
many times over by
improved performance and
reduced maintenance

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requirements over its operational life

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TCO AND THE BUSINESS Consider the most common points of cost and difficulty,
SIDE OF BACKHAUL and the solutions become obvious:

Because they comprise such a small part of the overall • Shipping. As a general rule, less-sophisticated,
network cost, microwave antennas are sometimes less-expensive antennas can be more costly to
treated as an afterthought. Nevertheless, a conscientious ship and more prone to damage while in transit.
antenna choice can deliver significant cost benefits, > Solution: More sophisticated, smaller antennas and
starting the day it is installed and lasting for many years split-reflector antennas that are less expensive to ship
over its life. and less likely to suffer damage in transit.
Lacking broader context, there appears to be a wide • Installation. Large, heavy antennas are simply
range of cost factors when pricing microwave antennas. more difficult to install, and sourcing materials
This is true only insofar as the capital investment is from multiple vendors can lead to installation errors
concerned, and this actually represents only a very small like
component of the TCO over the long term—as little incompatibility of components, improper torquing of
as 30 percent. hardware, poor steel interfacing and poor
installation of side struts.
> Solution: Source products from a quality vendor that
can supply a complete solution including all hardware
and accessories necessary to ensure proper installation.

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TCO AND THE BUSINESS SIDE • Future-proofing and spectrum investment.

OF BACKHAUL CONTINUED A purely price-driven antenna choice can severely limit
expansion options in the future and force the purchase
•
Downtime. Lost traffic due to underperforming of additional spectrum and equipment due to inferior
backhaul can quickly erase any initial savings realized in reuse in an outdated antenna.
the purchase price. Frequent site visits to remedy these
> Solution: Bearing the small incremental cost of a
problems also add to operational costs.
dual-polarized antenna over a single-polarized
> Solution: A high-performance antenna with superior option
performance and durability over its lifetime—and leaves headroom to double capacity when needed Also,
simpler installation—prevent the emergence of link choosing a Class 4 option yields 40 percent greater
quality problems and require much less maintenance.. spectrum reuse over a comparable Class 3 antenna,
which can delay or even eliminate the need
to purchase additional spectrum to power a
growing network.

When evaluated in the broader context of TCO,

the initial capital investment cost fades into relative
insignificance compared with the other costs involved
over the operational life of the antenna. It seems then
that—in microwave backhaul, at least—a penny
saved is not a penny earned after all.

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Chapter 7 summary

• ROI is realized in a
balance between cost
and performance
ANTENNA SELECTION
• Smart antenna
AND MAXIMIZING ROI decisions take a
deep
The technology of microwave backhaul must serve the larger
understanding of the
demands of an operator’s business. While there are many
link’s needs
steps involved in determining the right antenna for a given
application, the correct choice is not always the obvious (or • A wide choice of
least expensive) choice. antennas exists to
suit specific
Backhaul is a critical part of the wireless industry, and, like
applications, needs
every other dimension, ROI is the final, most dependable
and conditions
metric that measures the value of each dollar spent. When
you know your antenna options—as well as the other issues • Up to 70 percent of
that proceed from those options—you can increase that value antenna TCO
and avoid unpleasant surprises down the road. comes
after the initial investment

• Class 4 antennas
represent a major
advance in
capacity and
efficiency over
Class 3 antennas
— potentially,
greatly reducing
TCO

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8 Connectivity

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8
Connectivity

WAVEGUIDE BY THE NUMBERS

As we’ve discussed elsewhere in this book, waveguide
is a physical transmission medium used in microwave
communications systems.

In this chapter, we will explore some specifics underpinning the

use of waveguide in microwave systems.

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ELLIPTICAL WAVEGUIDE
For microwave systems operating between 1.7 GHz and 23.6 GHz, elliptical
waveguide is the recommended transmission line. Elliptical waveguide has an
elliptical cross section, ideal for minimizing VSWR and eliminating signal
distortion. It is optimized for the lowest loss in significant user bands. The
elliptical waveguide attenuation is significantly lower than standard rectangular
waveguide which provides efficient signal transfer and optimum system
performance.

WAVEGUIDE CONSTRUCTION
Elliptical waveguide is formed from corrugated high-conductivity copper and
has an elliptical cross section, which offers superior crush strength as well as
good flexibility and light weight. The outer jacket is made from rugged black
polyethylene material that adds weatherproofing and UV stabilization to
protect the waveguide.
Typically, waveguide’s operational temperature can be as low as -54°C (-65°F),
and it can be installed in temperatures as low as -40°C (-40°F). Additionally,
waveguide must be pressurized in order to prevent moisture from getting
inside and attenuating the signal. We will cover pressurization and dehydration
in Chapter 9.

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CONNECTORS AND CONNECTOR

ATTACHMENTS
Waveguide connectors are tapered through multistep
transitions that adjust their shape in stages from
elliptical to the rectangular shape of industry-standard
waveguide flanges.
Each connector has a pressure inlet to allow the
connection of pressurization equipment. Because they
are made of brass, these connectors are designed to
provide long service life and compatibility with the
metals used in the waveguide itself. Incompatible
metals can cause galvanic corrosion, which we
covered in Chapter 6.
Parts of the connector are molded silicone rubber
gaskets designed to conform to the shape of the
waveguide’s corrugations to keep the compression
sleeve of the connector in place. A split flare ring
on the corrugation allows the transition body of the
connector to be attached to the compression ring.

Figure 8.1 Waveguide connector examples

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Electrical grounding
Because of its construction
and location, waveguide
must be properly
Waveguide has a maximum bend radius limit; grounded for protection
HANDLING AND INSTALLATION
it’s important not to exceed that limit or the against lightning.
Because waveguide contains a hollow cavity, extreme inner
Grounding kits should be
care must be used in handling and installing it. For cavity can become compressed or crushed. installed at both the top
vertical runs—such as those up the side of a tower— Waveguide also requires pressurization as part of and bottom of the run, as
a pulley is recommended. Hoisting grips should also installation, which we will explore in detail in the well as at the entrance to
be used every 60 meters (200 feet) to support the next chapter. the equipment enclosure.
cable’s weight. Manufacturers specify how far apart
the prepositioned waveguide hangers should be.
During installation, the waveguide should be
supported on an axle to permit free rotation as it is
being hoisted—preferably paid out from the bottom
of the reel. At ground level, the waveguide run
between the equipment enclosure and the base of
the tower is supported by horizontal support
members called a waveguide bridge.
In most installations, the waveguide can be
connected directly to the antenna’s input flange, but,
if necessary, a flexible waveguide jumper can be used
to make connections that are too tight or hard to
reach.

Dehydrator with waveguide

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INSTALLATION PROBLEMS
AND SOLUTIONS
Flexible waveguides
Also called “flex twists,” these waveguides are
designed to isolate vibration and eliminate installation
difficulties caused by misalignment. They also provide
assistance in the process of positioning and aligning
the microwave antenna by adding enough “slack”
to allow sufficient adjustment. Flex twists are made
of helically-wound waveguide core supported by
protective neoprene jacketing.

Example of flexible waveguide

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INSTALLATION PROBLEMS
AND SOLUTIONS CONTINUED
Rectangular (rigid) waveguide
Built with a rectangular cross section, rigid waveguide
is most commonly used as a final assembly point in
the equipment rooms, connecting to the radios.
Rigid waveguide components:
•
Straight sections
These linear pieces are used to make
connections just a few inches in length.
•
E and H bends
These pieces allow the installer to make a
connection that is in the opposite plane.
•
Twists Figure 8.2 Examples of various waveguide components
These allow a straight section to
“twist” to a different plane.

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FLANGES
The other half of the connectivity picture is the flange—where the
waveguide meets the antenna. Depending on the specific application, there
are a number of different flanges available to suit the antenna and
waveguide.
CommScope, for example, offers an extensive line of flanges designed to work
with various antenna and waveguide specifications. Some of these styles are
shown below in Figure 8.3.

PBR flange PDR flange CPR G flange UG choke

cover
flange

Figure 8.3: Examples of different flange types

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FLANGES CONTINUED
Each flange configuration has different mating characteristics with other flanges, depending on various factors such as
whether the connection can be pressurized. In questionable cases, it is always best to check with the manufacturer to
confirm a particular mating scheme is possible or recommended.
As you can see in Figure 8.4 below, however, there are very many possible combinations—and impossible ones.

PDR PBR UDR UBR CPR G CPR F

UG Choke
Cover UG Cover 4Mates and can be
pressurized
PDR 4 X 4 X ? ? X X
X Does not mate or
PBR X 4 X 4 X X 4 4 cannot be
pressurized
UDR 4 X X X ? X X X
?
May possibly mate—Contact
UBR X 4 X X X X 4 X manufacturer for exact details
CPR G ? X ? X 4 4 X X

CPR F ? X X X 4 X X X

UG Choke
Cover X 4 X 4 X X 4 4
UG Cover X 4 X X X X 4 X

Figure 8.4: The different mating configurations between various flange

types

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Connectivity

OTHER COMPONENTS • Gaskets, which are present throughout the systems

wherever pressurization is required. Full or half
Apart from the waveguide and flanges, there are
gaskets are used in flange mating combinations,
other components that also play important roles in
where one flange is flat faced and the other has a
microwave systems. These include:
gasket groove.
•
Waveguide-to-coaxial cable transitions,
which are used to connect a rectangular
waveguide interface to a coaxial cable flange
interface.
•
Termination loads, which are used when one
or the other polarization ports of a polarized
antenna are not currently in use. They may be
made of ferrite material if used in terrestrial, long-
haul microwave antennas, or rubber absorber
material for small loads on short-haul antennas.
•
Pressure windows, which provide separation
Figure 8.5: Waveguide-to- Figure 8.6: Figure 8.7: Pressure window
between components that require pressurization coaxial cable transition Ferrite
from those that do not require it. These are termination load
typically installed at the equipment room end of
the feeder line, where they can be situated in a
more controlled environment.

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Microwave backhaul
Chapter 8 summary
The use of microwave
•
Elliptical waveguide
communications to
is suitable for
aggregate and
systems between 1.7
transmit cellular voice
CONNECTIVITY GHz and 23.6 GHz
and data to and from
Waveguide is specifically engineered for microwave the
• main network.
Waveguide must be kept
communications. Using it requires highly free from moisture
specialized parts, tools and skills for it to perform ingress during
transportation,
its best.
installation and operation
When properly installed, carefully hung and
securely connected to the antenna and radio,
•
Flanges connect
elliptical waveguide is an amazingly effective waveguide to
means of channeling microwaves to and from the antennas

open air. •
Installers must
observe
manufacturer
recommendations of
hanger interval and
bend radius
•
Not all flanges mate
with all other flanges

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9 Waveguide pressurization

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9 Waveguide pressurization

Pressurization
The practice of applying
positive pressure—in the
form of dry air or nitrogen
— to elliptical waveguide
KEEPING MOISTURE AT BAY from the outside—including unwanted moisture.
Without pressurization, the system tends to in order to prevent the
As explored in previous chapters, elliptical “breathe” as temperatures change, allowing moisture introduction of humidity
waveguide is a hollow, corrugated metal in as humidity in the air, which then condenses into or other outside
moisture that would
tube with an elliptical cross section used to water when temperatures drop.
impede its transmission
guide microwaves.
efficiency.
Unlike ordinary cables, waveguide has no interior
conductor—merely air or nitrogen as a dielectric. To
maintain the efficiency of waveguide as a transmission
medium, it must be kept free of moisture, since water
inside waveguide inflicts the same attenuating effects
as rainfall does when microwaves are transmitted
through atmosphere. Any moisture can attenuate a
signal and increase VSWR.
A recommended method of keeping waveguide clear
of moisture is pressurization, wherein the interior of
the waveguide is hooked into a dehydrator that
provides
a pumped source of dry air or nitrogen. Because this
creates positive pressure inside, nothing can infiltrate

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Waveguide pressurization

waveguide transmission lines

ASSESSING PRESSURIZATION CommScope part Volume liters/1000m

number (ft3/1000 ft)
NEEDS Elliptical waveguide
EW240 56 (0.6)
The choice of waveguide pressurization equipment
EW220 74 (0.8)
requires as much careful consideration of the specific
EW180 111 (1.2)
site as the choice of microwave antennas. Apart from
EW132 167 (1.8)
logistical factors such as the availability of reliable
power and maintenance access to the equipment, the EW127A 251 (2.7)

most important factor is the volume of dry air EW90 334 (3.6)

required by the waveguide. EW85 390 (4.2)

EW77 585 (6.3)
This is a simple matter of calculating the total volume
EW64 725 (7.8)
inside the waveguide using its length and cross
EW63 855 (9.2)
section area; a large microwave system may have
EW52 1045 (11.3)
hundreds
EW43 1690 (18.2)
of feet of waveguide comprising many cubic feet
EW37 1960 (21.1)
of volume. The system must be able to
EW34 2323 (25)
accommodate this volume plus an additional 1
EW28 3345 (36)
percent to account for leakage, and provide
EW20 5621 (60.5)
sufficient pressure during a 19°C (35°F)
EW17 6596 (71)
temperature drop over 60 minutes.

Figure 9.1: Typical volumes for

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HOW MUCH IS ENOUGH?
The positive pressure inside an elliptical waveguide
transmission line should
be below the maximum pressure rating of all the
components involved, including the waveguide
itself, the antenna feed and pressure window.

Most components are rated up to 70 kPa (10 PSI),

but pressure need not be this high to be effective.
Pressurization of only
3.5 to 35 kPa (0.5 to 5 PSI) is generally
recommended.

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PRESSURE POWER
Another consideration is the power source available
for the pressurization equipment. To prevent voltage
drops between the site’s main power and the
dehydrator, it is vital that the correct electrical wire
size be used on an appropriately-sized circuit breaker.

www.solaripedia.com

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THE PRESSURIZATION OPTIONS

Pressurization systems are available in two basic
types: static and dynamic. Determining which is
best for a given application depends on which best
aligns with the specific requirements.
1. Static systems
In a nonpressurized system, the use of a
breathing static desiccator in one option. As
breathing leads to increased pressure, air is
forced out through
the desiccator. Later, as breathing decreases the
pressure, new air enters through the desiccator, which Figure 9.2: Static dessicator example
absorbs moisture before it enters the waveguide.
The desiccator has a limited lifespan and must be
periodically replaced, but it is very effective and may
last many months in a small, tight system of 57 liters
(2 cubic feet) or less.
In a pressurized system, the waveguide is connected
to an external pump, pressurized and then
disconnected from the pump—much like inflating a
tyre. Since the microwave system is not hermetically
sealed, frequent recharging is required.

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THE PRESSURIZATION OPTIONS

2. Dynamic systems
A dynamic system remains connected to a pressurization pump that automatically provides additional dry
gas as needed to maintain a specified pressure level. This gas may be nitrogen—stored in a tank with a
regulator—or it may be one of several kinds of dehydrators.

Nitrogen tanks are ideal for small, tight systems Membrane dehydrators are designed for low to
where ac power is unavailable. They have no high system volumes and remote site locations.
moving parts and provide a low dew point to These systems use a membrane filtration system to
stave off moisture. The drawbacks of using nitrogen remove
are their relatively high cost and the frequency at moisture from the air. They operate continuously,
which they must be replaced in locations where using an integrated controller to monitor system
leaks bleed them quickly. pressure and adjust the air pumps appropriately.

Heat regeneration dehydrators are used for small-

to medium-sized systems where low pressure and low
power use are preferred. They operate continuously,
using an integrated controller to monitor system
pressure and adjust the air pumps appropriately.
These
perform their own regeneration of the desiccant, so
they require no periodic maintenance.

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SYSTEM EXPANSION
All these choices are predicated on knowing the
volume of air to be pressurized, but—as microwave
backhaul increases its prominence in the fast-growing
world of wireless communications—it’s a certainty
that the amount of waveguide will expand. Manifolds
are one way to keep up with this expansion.
As additional waveguide lines are added, a manifold
system allows multiple lines to be serviced by a
single dehydrator, and makes it a simple matter to
add pressure or flow gauges to the system.
Figure 9.3: System manifold example

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ALARMS Technology/ Output Capacity Output pressure range

Type of Regeneration l/min (ft3/min) kPa (lb/in2)
Because pressurization systems often Static Desiccator
operate in remote locations, it’s important SD-003UV 28 liters (1ft3 max system volume) n/a
to know when something goes wrong or Membrane Dehydrator
maintenance is required. Heat regeneration, 20 kPa (3psi), (14-40 kPa (2-
MT050C 1700 liters (60ft3)
6psi) adjustable)
automatic regeneration and some manual
regeneration dehydrator systems include MT500D 3400 liters (120ft3) 14 - 35 kPa (2-5psi)

basic alarm functions—alerting operators SAHARA2 2800-31150 liters (100ft -1100ft )

3 3
14 - 35 kPa (2-5psi)

to such problems as low pressure, excess Heat Regeneration

run time and power failure. Some include HR150 600 liters (21ft3) 3kPa (0.44psi)

humidity alarms and the ability to monitor HR300 1000 liters (35ft )
3
3kPa (0.44psi)

other alarm conditions.

Figure 9.4: A sample of different pressurization system specifications
Each product features its own
published specification regarding which
alarm function it supports (Figure 9.4).

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Waveguide pressurization

Chapter 9 summary
•
Elliptical waveguide must
be kept dry internally
•
Any moisture infiltration
can attenuate signal
and increase VSWR
WAVEGUIDE PRESSURIZATION
•
Pressurized, dehydrated
There’s an entire science underpinning the use of gas—air or nitrogen—
elliptical waveguide in microwave transmission systems. keeps moisture out
Ideal performance comes only with ideal conditions—
•
Dehydration can be
and that means a dry air dielectric inside the
achieved via nitrogen
waveguide at all times.
gas or the use of
Depending on the needs and budget, there are several desiccants
ways to accomplish this level of dehydration, but only
by examining the specifics of the individual deployment
will the best answer present itself.

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10 Installation and
path alignment

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10 Installation and path alignment

BRINGING THE PLAN TO LIFE—THE RIGHT WAY

The installation and commissioning of the microwave link is a
critical stage in the overall system process.

No matter how well the link has been planned—or how much care has been
taken in the selection of equipment—poor installation practices will jeopardize
the link’s reliability and deliver performance far below planned expectations.
Further complicating things, every installation is different. The location of the
site, the direction of the antenna, the presence of nearby equipment, and
other prevailing local conditions mean each installation presents unique
challenges requiring careful attention. There are no one-size-fits-all solutions or
processes for this challenge. While manufacturers provide detailed instructions
on how
to best assemble and install equipment, it’s the expertise, skill and care of the
installation crew that will ultimately determine if the link fulfills its performance
and reliability goals.

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OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS
Installation of microwave antennas involves working
at height—often in remote areas. The towers where
installations take place are often already-congested
areas full of equipment—much or all of which
must remain powered at dangerous voltages while
the installation occurs. This presents an extremely
hazardous working environment in which good safety
practices are essential.
To ensure the safety of the technicians on the tower
and people on the ground below—as well as protect
the equipment itself—installations must be performed
by crews properly trained and equipped to handle the
job. They must also be fully aware of all governing
legislation, regulation and zoning requirements, and
follow those rules closely.

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10 Installation and path alignment

PUTTING THE PIECES 2.The antenna will be able to be oriented to a

INTO PLACE rough compass heading.
The type and orientation of the tower structure
Prior to installing the antenna and waveguide, the itself play a large role in the way the technician will
technician must usually first determine the antenna eventually align the antenna. Not all towers allow
mount offset needed during the assembly process. for all orientations.
Although antenna centerlines and azimuths are
3.The antenna will be able to move freely from
provided by their manufacturers, in many cases further
side to side during alignment.
details such as actual tower pipe mount and antenna
There must be lateral clearance for fine-tuning the
strut “tie back” locations are not provided.
antenna’s direction during the installation.
Even for an experienced installer, this assessment can be
4.The correct offset is used in the installation
challenging—requiring consideration of several factors
of the antenna mount.
to ensure that:
Depending on the terrain on the tower, a right-
1.Available space exists on the structure at or left-offset mount may be preferable.
the specified height.
Typically, a tower structural analysis should be
performed when adding any new antenna systems.
This analysis should include tower drawings that
include all existing installations.

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10 Installation and path alignment

Mapping the
tower’s terrain
An antenna installation
can be a lot like navigating
PUTTING THE PIECES INTO PLACE CONTINUED a 3D puzzle, looking for a
solution that ensures:
5.There is a clear transmission line path to the antenna feed.
• A clear transmission
Towers can have many different kinds of obstructions and protuberances
line path from the
that can get in the way of both transmission lines and installing technicians. vertical cable ladder to
6.There is a suitable location for strut collars. the antenna feed
Struts have specifications relating to their installation angle tolerances. If the
• No tower legs, structural
mount offset changes, so must the locations of the collars connecting the
steel, or climbing or
mount to the strut. As a rule, less angle allows for easier antenna
cable ladders are in the
movement during installation.
way
7.Strut collars are mounted within manufacturer-specified tolerances.
• No turns or bends that
8.Strut ends can move freely past the collar during the alignment exceed the rated
process—without coming into contact with other objects. flexibility of the coaxial
Strut ends should be able to move 60 cm (2 ft) past the collar during alignment cable or waveguide
and not make contact with any other components already mounted on the
tower. • Allowance for
potential movement
during the alignment
process itself

• In the case of
waveguide, adequate
clearance and bending
space to allow the
correct orientation for its

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 polarization—either vertical or horizontal

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10 Installation and path alignment

BUILDING ON STRENGTH
To satisfy these demanding criteria, all supporting
steelwork should be mounted on the tower.
Pipe mounts should be vertically leveled (unless
specifically required to meet a different orientation)
because unleveled mounts have a significant
effect on the alignment process. And, as discussed
in Chapter 5, all steelwork must be rated to
support the wind load planned for each antenna.
CommScope offers a complete line of antenna
mounts and accessories suitable for virtually any
installation, in virtually any environment.

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10 Installation and path alignment

Return loss testing

Measuring the amount
of signal reflection along
an RF path such as cable
INSTALLATION, PART ONE: INSTALLATION, PART TWO: or waveguide. High
return loss means
ASSEMBLY AND LIFTING MAKING CONNECTIONS
reduced signal strength
The first challenge arises before we even get to the At this point, any transmission lines should be and indicates possible
damage to the RF media.
tower. Unpacking and assembling a microwave installed—being careful to avoid any kinking or
antenna is not always a straightforward process. Each damage by following the guidelines shown above.
antenna will come with manufacturer instructions Depending on its type, waveguide can sometimes
explaining how to assemble and lift it. This second be twisted on the tower or structure to allow
part is critical, as using a non-specified lifting point can easier attachment to the antenna feed or radio
result in extra handling and stresses that can damage port. If allowed, the waveguide will include
the antenna while still on the ground. specifications regarding allowable twist degrees
Once assembled, the antenna should be hoisted by per foot or meter of length.
skilled riggers on the tower and secured prior to Once these connections are made, VSWR/return
alignment. At this point, side struts should be loss testing should be performed, transmission line
installed if they are provided. See Chapter 6 for more supports should be installed, and all electrical
on the purpose, use and importance of side struts. grounding connections should be completed.

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10 Installation and path alignment

Magnetic declination
The angular distance
between true and
magnetic north, calculated
INSTALLATION, PART THREE: error or approximations by the installing technician; from a specific location
even a tiny miscalculation can mean hours of wasted and time.
ALIGNMENT
time spent searching for precisely the correct bearing.
Alignment with a distant microwave antenna is the Microwave antennas can be aligned using either
next step. Depending on the size and frequency of a customer-supplied radio or independent path
the antenna being installed, the target antenna on alignment transceiver set. Microwave antennas must
the other end of the link may be anywhere from a be accurately positioned on true azimuth—that
few hundred meters to more than 60 km (37 miles) is, absolutely horizontal and level—before path
away. Although all links require a clear LOS path alignment. Most alignment difficulties are the result of
between end points, it’s not always feasible to visually incorrect azimuth position or inadequate leveling.
orient an antenna to a distant point.
In these cases, the technician uses a map, compass
and/or GPS data to align the antenna. It’s important
that the technician remembers to translate map
bearings (normally referenced to true north) to correct
for the compass bearing (referenced to magnetic
north) to account for the magnetic declination
appropriate for the site’s location.
Governmental bodies publish and update declination
constants for different countries and regions (Figure
10.1). The extremely high degree of accuracy required Figure 10.1: Global declination constant map

by a LOS microwave link means there is no room for

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10 Installation and path alignment

EXAMPLE:
A 0.6 m (2ft) 23 GHz
antenna has a 3 dB
beamwidth of 1.6
HEIGHT AND LOS degrees.

Allowing for a path

Although there are some exceptions, most microwave paths are between antennas sited at length of about 4 km (2.5
similar heights. To understand why, consider the examples shown in Figure 10.2 and Figure 10.3 miles), the actual
below. beamwidth at the
receiving antenna is
1/2 BUBBLE WIDTH
FEED HORN
FLANGE
around 112 m (370 ft)
BEAM and is, therefore, likely to
700m @ 6 GHz, 3.0m (10ft) ANTENNA
DIRECTION
OF
be greater than the
80m TOWER
RADIATION
1° height of the tower.
2°

If the antenna’s out of

LEVEL SURFACE
horizontal by even a
couple of degrees to
40km
start, the antennas will
miss by around 140 m
(460 ft) and not be able
to “see”
Figure 10.2: A level antenna, beam width at 40km Figure 10.3: If the basic level position is only half a
is bubble width off level, as shown above, the
each other.
typically many times the height of a 80m tower. antenna’s main beam will be shifted 2 degrees,
missing the adjacent tower by a 800m.

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10 Installation and path alignment

CALCULATING SIGNAL STRENGTH So, if the measured signal was near -52 dB, we can be
TO CONFIRM ALIGNMENT confident that the antennas are indeed aligned on main beam
and only exhibiting the loss we would expect. If, however,
Signal strength readings are usually measurable when at least the measured signal was only -80 dB, one antenna would be
the main beam of one antenna and its first side lobe of the aligned on the first side lobe rather
other antenna are aligned. The strongest signal occurs at the than the main beam. If both antennas were aligned on their
center of both main beams. first side lobes, then the receive signal would probably be too
Consider a typical 6 GHz system with the highest first lobe low to be measured.
signal of 20-25 dB less than the main beam signal. When both
antennas are aligned for maximum main 1st SIDE LOBE
MAIN BEAM
MAIN BEAM
CENTER OF MAIN BEAM
beam signal strength, net path loss will typically be
-50 to -65 dB (Figure 10.3).
To calculate the net path loss, we must apply a few simple
calculations. The loss at 6 GHz over a 30 km (18.6 mile) link
PEAK RADIATION LEVEL
is 138 dB. Typical antenna gain for a 3 m (10 ft) antenna at 6 SIDE VIEW
OUTER EDGE OF MAIN BEAM
3 TO 10 dB BELOW MAIN BEAM PEAK
GHz is 43 dB per antenna—or 86 dB for both antennas. So,
FIRST SIDE LOBE
to calculate the net path loss, we INNER EDGE OF 1st SIDE LOBE
30 dB OR MORE BELOW MAIN BEAM PEAK
simply find the difference between gain and loss, thus: CENTER OF 1st SIDE LOBE
20 TO 25 dB BELOW MAIN BEAM PEAK

-138 dB path loss + 86 dB antenna gain (both antennas) = OUTER EDGE OF 1st SIDE LOBE
30 dB OR MORE BELOW MAIN BEAM PEAK
HEAD-ON VIEW
-52 dB net path loss

Figure 10.4: The main beam and first side lobe of a microwave signal representing path loss.

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10 Installation and path alignment

First lobe false positives

While aligning a
microwave link, it’s
easy to mistake the
first lobe

TROUBLESHOOTING AND locate the main beam. This fine tuning means signal strength for
even partial turns in adjustment hardware can the main beam
FINE TUNING strength.
have a dramatic effect on signal strength.
D
Where no signal can be found, the usual culprit is Because of the shape
improperly installed pipe mounts or an antenna 6 7 of the signal, the
that strongest part of the
first lobe is
A C C
has not been properly leveled, is not on its azimuth, or is found, smaller adjustments should be 4 5
B B
has not been adjusted to account for local magnetic applied to
1 2 3
A A
declination. Both ends of the link must be checked for
these inconsistencies.
Once any errors have been corrected, the
technician should sweep one of the antennas D
HE
through its A
D
full azimuth range—that is, he should pivot it O
N
horizontally—until the signal is found. If no signal is VI
E
found, the technician should return it to its original W
C
TR
compass position and azimuth bearing and repeat AC
KI
the process with the other antenna on the far end NG
PA
of the link. B
TH
S
By doing this, the link can be re-established regardless
of which antenna is out of alignment. Once the signal 6 7

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 C actually stronger than the edges of
the main beam.
4 5

B
Figures 10.5 and 10.6 show the
relative strengths
2 of the three
typical1 tracking paths.
3

A
TYPICAL SIGNAL LEVELS

Figure 10.5: A head-on view of a radiation pattern,

showing different strengths at different heights.

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10 Installation and path alignment

TROUBLESHOOTING AND FINE Y

Z

TUNING CONTINUED
1 2
In Figure 10.5, line AA represents the tracking path W W
4 5
of a properly aligned antenna. This shows the signal X X
level as the antenna is moved from left to right. The 3

main beam is at point 2, and the first side lobes at

points
1 and 3. Y Z
HEAD ON VIEW
Line BB represents a tracking path with the antenna TRACKING PATHS

tilted down slightly. Here, the signal strength shows

up only in the first side lobe peaks—points 4 and 5—
1 2
as the antenna moves left to right.
Typically, this signal looks more like signal WW—
4
points 1 and 2 (Figure 10.6)—where the first side
3 5
lobe peaks are unequal due to antenna pattern
performance issues. This larger first lobe peak is
TYPICAL SIGNAL LEVELS
often mistaken for the main beam. The correct
method
of locating the main beam in this case is to set the
azimuth position midway between the first side Figure 10.6: Head-on view of a radiation pattern,
lobe peaks, and then adjust elevation to locate the showing different strengths at different azimuths.
main beam’s maximum signal.

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10 Installation and path alignment

Cross-polar
discrimination
(XPD)
The ability of an antenna to
POLARIZATION distinguish between signals
of differing polarization.
As discussed in Chapter 2, polarization is the
orientation of a signal’s energy in one of two
directions, either horizontally or vertically. In a
dual-polarized system, there are two outputs—
one designated horizontal (H) and one vertical
(V). These will be labeled on the antenna or
antenna feed. Once both antennas are correctly
aligned, the technician should then optimize the
cross- polarization performance.
The equipment used is identical to that used in initial
antenna alignment, except that the transmitter and
receiver are now connected to different polarizations.
The polarization is adjusted to ensure that signals
measured H-V (horizontal transmit-vertical receive) are
within 3 dB of the signal transmitted in the vertical
polarization but received horizontally.
Traditional dual polarized feed assembly

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10 Installation and path alignment

THE FINAL TOUCHES Finally, the technician must ensure that all necessary
commissioning documentation is completed and
Once the antennas are aligned, the technician must
the site is left secure and tidy—with all rubbish
check that struts are still within the allowed
and packaging materials properly removed.
angular tolerances and then use a properly
calibrated torque wrench to fully tighten all
adjusting hardware to
the torque values specified on the manufacturer’s
instructions.
Due to changes in antenna alignment and cross-
polarization adjustments that require their rotation,
waveguides may need to be reformed prior to
permanently attaching them to the feeds.
Transmission line connector attachment hardware
should slide relatively easily through the flanges, and
not bind due to interface misalignment.
Pressurize elliptical waveguide and antenna
feed systems as soon as possible, and purge per
manufacturer recommendations. To learn more about
waveguide dehydration and pressurization, refer to
Chapter 9. Typical completed microwave installation

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10 Installation and path alignment

MChiacrpotwera1v0e
sbuamckmhaauryl
The use of microwave
•
Performance
depends
communications to
on installation as
much aggregate and
transmit
as planning or choice
INSTALLATION AND PATH cellular voice and
data of solution
to and from the main
ALIGNMENT •netTwoowrekr.-top

Building a future-ready microwave backhaul strategy installations can be

difficult and dangerous
and choosing the optimal antennas are just the
—safety first
beginning. To realize optimal performance and positive
ROI, each link must be installed with skill, care and • Map and avoid
attention to detail. tower obstacles
No matter if the link is a few hundred meters or more before installation
than 20 miles, a quality installation using the right tools • Follow
and processes will ensure that the link will perform to manufacturer
expectations and continue to operate reliably for a long specifications for all
time to come. installed solutions

• Alignment requires careful

calculation accounting
for magnetic declination,
distance and height

• Dual-polarization
systems require
separate optimization

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CHAPTER

11 Millimeter
microwaves

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11 Millimeter microwaves

Millimeter
microwave
(mmWave)
Microwaves with
THE HIGHER END OF MICROWAVE exceptionally short
wavelengths of 1 to
As shown in Chapter 2, microwave bands 10 millimeters. They
cover a fairly large part of the accessible EM have correspondingly
spectrum—from 1 GHz to 300 GHz. high frequencies up
to 300 GHz and offer
Conventional microwave backhaul links employ mostly an efficient, high-
the lower end of this range—from 1 GHz up to 42 capacity option
GHz. But there’s a lot of spectrum above that, and for microwave
it’s becoming increasingly attractive as a means of links.
providing backhaul: millimeter microwaves, or mmWave.

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CHAPTER

11 Millimeter microwaves

MmmicrWowavaev
ebabnadcks huasue

dl
TinheLOusSesoysftm
emicrsobwyave
cthome
nmuumnibcaetrios:n
s to
a g gr e g ate and transmit
E -b a n d
TWO BANDS, BIG CAPACITY than lower frequencies, an
important feature for
There are two bands used in LOS link operators
applications: E-band and V-band. E-band covers struggling to keep up with
10 GHz of spectrum in two separate ranges—from skyrocketing user demand for
71 GHz to 76 GHz and 81 GHz to 86 GHz; V- data on 4G LTE networks.
band covers 7
GHz in one band from 57 GHz to 64 GHz.
However, V-band can be expanded to reach an
upper range of 66 GHz, increasing its spectrum to a
total of 9 GHz overall. E-band is more commonly
used in microwave backhaul for reasons that will be
discussed later.
The main advantage of mmWave bands over
commonly used lower-frequency microwave
bands is capacity. It is now considered the best
choice for point-to-point microwave links because
it offers more spectrum and more bandwidth

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cellular voice and data
•toAanndesftraobmlisthheedmteacinhnology

nefitwrstourks.ed in 2000

•
Comprises two 5 GHz bands: 71 GHz to 76
GHz and 81 GHz to 86 GHz

V-band
•
Comprises one 7 GHz band: 57 GHz to 64
GHz
•
Can be expanded to 66 GHz for a total of 9
GHz of spectrum

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CHAPTER

11 Millimeter microwaves

M4GicLrToEwave backhaul

ITnhteeruchseanogf
emabiclreotwearmves
dcoemnomtiunngicth
ateio“nfsoutorth
gagengreergataiotena
,”nd“lotrnagn-smit
REUSE IN CONGESTED AREAS their performance and capacity. A quality or better—guaranteeing that its RF
antenna will feature an RPE compliant to energy will stay contained to a single
lso critical in the design of any efficient LOS system ETSI Class 3 specifications beam along the link path, as show in
is narrow beam paths and the resulting high Figure 11.1.
frequency reuse, and it is here that mmWave VHLP
distinguishes itself. Particularly in crowded urban 2-80
environments where antennas are colocated with
other carriers’ equipment or servicing multiple links,
narrow beams minimize the risk of interference—a
major advantage in locations where fiber access is
impossible or impractical.
Like lower-frequency microwave antennas, mmWave
Amplitude (dB)

antennas support capacity enhancement options like

dual polarization with the efficient integrated radio
configurations. This lets operators move more data
without minimal additional infrastructure. This high-
capacity, high-reuse scheme gives mmWave systems
extremely attractive TCO helped by the characteristics
of the antenna.
Even with all these advantages, mmWave antennas
must be built to high quality standards to optimize
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 tceerlmlulaervovoluictieonan”dwdiraetl
Azimuth Angle (Degrees) aess
ntoetawnodrfkrso.m4GthLeTEmsauinpp
Figure 11.1: A diagram representing the RPE of a orts nuetwtoo3rk0.0 Mbit downlink
quality (i.e., > Class 3) mmWave antenna
speeds and radio latency of less than 5
milliseconds.

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CHAPTER

11 Millimeter microwaves

THE REGULATORY ADVANTAGE

Another feature contributing to its attractive TCO
profile is the fact that mmWave is relatively easy
and inexpensive to license. Most regulatory bodies
impose only a low, one-time fee or no licensing at all.
Considering the large costs of spectrum licensing in
sub 40 GHz frequency bands, this is a
significant advantage.
The downside to this is the question of availability.
Being only lightly licensed or not at all, the proliferation
of mmWave links raises the very real possibility of
interference. Again, the build quality of the antenna is
critical: a Class 3 or better RPE will minimize any role
interference has in a mmWave link because a tightly-
controlled radiation pattern not only directs RF energy
with more precision, it is also more discriminating in Example of a Class 3 antenna
which RF energy it will accept.

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CHAPTER

11 Millimeter microwaves

Gbps capacity
A link capable of
delivering the accurate
transmission of a billion
However, the inherently high capability for frequency bits of data
V-BAND, E-BAND AND
reuse—combined with its small footprint—means that per second
ATMOSPHERE
V-band antennas still have an important role to play
One limitation associated with V-band mmWave is in a backhaul network.
the fact that V-band frequencies are readily E-band, in contrast, does not have the same issue
absorbed by oxygen in the atmosphere, so link of oxygen absorption as V-band does, making it a
lengths are restricted to about one kilometer or less smart choice for links several kilometers long, and
(Figure 11.2). a likely candidate for upgrading existing
conventional microwave links, since mmWave
bands can deliver Gbps capacity.
Attenuation dB/km

Frequency, GHz

Figure 11.2: Attenuation due to atmospheric oxygen absorption of mmWaves

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CHAPTER

11 Millimeter microwaves

Small size. Big difference.

The smallest conventional
microwave antennas can
be pretty small—about

SMALLER ANTENNAS MEAN BIG 0.3 m (1 ft).

OPPORTUNITIES mmWave antennas, on

the other hand, offer
Although the higher frequencies deliver higher gains ultra-low profiles in sizes as
for a given antenna size, the atmospheric attenuation little as 12 cm (5 in)
limits the range of these antennas. This is not an across.
issue in dense urban networks, where links are
typically very short, allowing the deployment of very
small, inconspicuous antennas, that may even be
embedded in the radio itself.

Figure 11.4: Smaller mmWave antennas

can be integrated into radio enclosures

Figure 11.3: A 0.3 m CommScope ValuLine® antenna and a

smaller mmWave antenna

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CHAPTER

11 Millimeter microwaves

MChiacrpotwera1v1e
sbuamckmhaauryl
The use of microwave
•
mmWave frequencies
are communications to
higher than conventional
aggregate
microwaveandsystems
transmit

MILLIMETER MICROWAVE cellular voice and data

•to aEn-bdafnrodm: 7t1h–e7m6
(mmWave)
GainHz and net8w1o–r8k6. GHz
mmWave represents an incredible advance in point- • V-band: 57–64 GHz,
to-point microwave communications. Leveraging the expandable up to 66
versatility of LOS links, mmWave systems provide GHz
capacity and reliability comparable to fiber-optic
connections that are often difficult, expensive or even • Characterized by
antennas with narrow
impossible to link to a needed location.
beams and high spectrum
To realize the capacity, efficiency and TCO advantages reuse
of mmWave, however, it’s vitally important to choose
a quality antenna compliant with ETSI Class 3 or • Easier to license than
conventional
better, or interference can put the brakes on a much
microwave
faster, more powerful and reliable backhaul network.
• Build quality extremely
important: ETSI Class
3 or better

• V-band for short links

of 1 km or less; E-band
for longer links or
upgrades

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12 Reference information and

commonly used tables

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12 Reference information and commonly used tables

GLOSSARY are lined with RF-absorbing material, which soaks

up the unwanted radiation. As a consequence, they
Main parts of an antenna also improve the front-to-back performance of the
The key components of a microwave antenna—such antenna by reducing the sensitivity of the antenna
as that manufactured by CommScope—are as follows: in the region immediately behind it.
Parabolic reflector (paraboloid)—a circularly Radome—protective cover positioned over the
symmetric specially shaped metal (usually aluminum) aperture of the antenna to reduce windloading
disc. and protect the feed assembly from damage. The
material selection, shape and thickness are critical to
Feed system—also known as “launch unit”—the
avoid degrading the performance of the antenna.
feed allows the transfer of the signal from the
guided waveguide structure to the open air by Interface plate—for direct-mounted antennas.
efficiently illuminating the reflector.
Side strut—also known as a sway-bar—a length
Mount—the structural interface between the of structural steel tubing used to provide additional
antenna and the mounting pole on the rigidity to the antenna. Must be installed within
tower. It usually includes the azimuth and the specified envelope to work effectively.
elevation adjustment mechanisms.

Shields—the cylindrical extension between

the reflector and radome on high-
performance
antennas. They improve the radiation pattern of the
antenna by reducing the sensitivity of the antenna
at angles away from the antenna boresight. They

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12 Reference information and commonly used tables

GLOSSARY Wavelength
Wavelength is the physical distance between similar
Common terms
points in a radio wave, separated by one cycle.
Radio waves Frequency and wavelength are related by the following
Radio waves are a combination of electric and relationship:
magnetic fields that travel through the
wavelength (m) = 3 x 108 / frequency (Hz)
atmosphere.
These electromagnetic waves travel at the speed
of light (299,793,077 meters per second) and
carry
radiocommunications—they are often referred to as
‘carriers.’
Frequency
Frequency describes the number of cycles a radio
wave makes in one second of time.
One cycle per second is known as a Hertz.
Kilo-Hertz denotes 1,000 cycles per
second.
Mega-Hertz denotes 1,000,000 cycles per second.
Giga-Hertz denotes 1,000,000,000 cycles per second.

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12 Reference information and commonly used tables

GLOSSARY Gain = Directivity – Losses

Key MW antenna electrical parameters The formula for Gain is:

Directivity Ga (dBi) = 10 log10  [4 a / 2 ]
All antennas exhibit directive effects in that they are
more sensitive to some directions than others. You’ll
where Ga is the antenna gain,
be familiar with having to orientate your portable
radio telescopic antenna in a particular direction for
best reception—similarly, your television antenna on  is the antenna efficiency, typically
your house needs to point in a specific direction. This 0.55 corresponding to 55 percent
property of varying sensitivity with direction is called
directivity. a is the antenna aperture area = .
25 x  x dia2,
Directivity is referenced against a practically impossible
antenna to manufacture—namely an isotropic
 is the operating wavelength, and
radiator.
Gain  is 3.1415926
Gain is another term used to describe the directional
characteristics of an antenna and is very similar
to directivity. Gain includes the inherent losses of
the antenna system, and is therefore a much
more meaningful figure of merit.

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12 Reference information and commonly used tables

GLOSSARY Radiation pattern

Radiation patterns demonstrate the antenna’s gain
Key MW antenna electrical parameters
as a function of angle and provide an instant view
of
Polarization
the antenna’s directive properties. Think of a radiation
The term ‘polarization’ commonly refers to the electric
pattern as a picture of the antenna’s sensitivity as a
field component of the radio wave. In terrestrial
function of angle. Patterns are measured both in the
microwave antennas, the polarization of the radio
antenna’s co-polarized mode of operation and in the
waves will be either horizontal or vertical. That is, the
cross-polarized condition.
electric field will be either horizontally or vertically
orientated. Beamwidth
Microwave antennas are highly directive. However,
Co-polarization
The term “co-polarization” is used to describe beyond the main beam area, the directivity reduces
the condition over a microwave hop where the into a number of side beams that are much smaller
transmit and receive polarizations are the same, than the main beam and which repeat with generally
e.g., either vertical or horizontal. We refer to lesser magnitude as they get farther away from the
the transmit and receive antennas as being main beam.
co-polarized and is the wanted signal over a The half-power beamwidth in degrees is the angular
microwave hop. extent by which the power response has fallen to
one half the level of the maximum level within the
Cross-polarization
main beam. Typically referred to as the 3dB
This term is used to describe the condition over
beamwidth.
a microwave hop where the transmit and
receive
polarizations are orthogonal, or at right angles
to each other.

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12 Reference information and commonly used tables

GLOSSARY XPD, dB = -10 log10 (cross-polarized

received power/co-polarized receive power)
Key MW antenna electrical parameters
IPI (interport isolation)
XPD (cross-polar discrimination) IPI stands for interport isolation, and refers to dual-
Cross-polarization discrimination, in dB, is the polarized antennas, where there are two ports on the
difference between the peak of the co-polarized feed—one for horizontally polarized radio waves and
main beam and the maximum cross-polarized signal one for vertically polarized radio waves.
over an angle twice the 3dB beamwidth of the co-
IPI is stated in ‘dB’ and is the level of polarization
polarized main beam.
coupling or leakage between the two ports. Thus,
Cross-polar discrimination, or XPD, is the term used if a radio wave signal were to be injected into the
to describe the antenna’s ability to maintain radiated backport, for example, a very small proportion
or received polarization purity between horizontally would be detected at the front port, and vice versa.
and vertically polarized signals. The received signal is unwanted, and—if of too high
In transmit mode, it is the proportion of signal that a value—will cause errors in the radio system.
is transmitted in the orthogonal polarization to
Front to back
that required—while, in receive mode, it is the
The front to back ratio denotes the sensitivity of an
antenna’s ability to maintain the incident signal’s
antenna to radio waves in the region 180° ± 40° from
polarization characteristics.
the main beam direction. That is, the area of space
behind the antenna. It is defined in dB relative to the
peak of the main beam.

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GLOSSARY VSWR and return loss are related by the following

equations:
Key MW antenna electrical parameters
Return loss Pr = reflected power
The antenna return loss is a figure that indicates the
Pi = incident power
proportion of radio waves incident upon the antenna
that are rejected as a ratio against those that are r = magnitude of reflection coefficient
accepted. It is specified in ‘dB’ relative to a short
circuit (100 percent rejection). R = √(Pr/Pi)
VSWR
VSWR = (1+r)/(1-r)
VSWR is an alternative representation of return loss.
It stands for voltage standing wave ratio, and is a Return loss (dB) = -20 x log10(r)
reference to the actual voltages created within a
transmission line system when there are forward and
reflected radio waves propagating simultaneously.

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Ratio dB equivalent Mathematics

1/10,000,000 -70dB log 1/10,000,000 x10
1/1,000,000 -60dB log 1/1,000,000 x10
1/100,000 -50dB log 1/1000,000 x10
1/10,000 -40dB log 1/10,000 x10
1/1,000 -30dB log 1/1,000 x10
TABLES 1/500 -27dB log 1/500 x10
1/100 -20dB log 1/100 x10
The dB (POWER)
1/50 -17dB log 1/50 x10 Loss
1/10 -10dB log 1/10 x10
1/5 -7dB log 1/5 x10
1/4 -6dB log 1/4 x10
1/3 -4.75dB log 1/3 x10
1/2 -3dB log 1/2 x10
1/1.25 -1dB log 1/1.25 x10
1 0dB log 1/1 x10
2 3dB log 2 x10
3 4.75dB log 3 x10
4 6dB log 4 x10
5 7dB log 5 x10
10 10dB log 10 x10
50 17dB log 50 x10
100 20dB log 100 x10
500 27dB log 500 x10
Gain
1000 30dB log 1,000 x10
10000 40dB log 10,000 x10
100000 50dB log 100,000 x10
1000000 60dB log 1,000,000 x10
10000000 70dB log 10,000,000 x10

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VSWR RL(dB) VSWR RL(dB) VSWR RL(dB) VSWR

Microw ve RL(dB)
1.001 66.025 1.057 31.147 a backhaul
The use of microwave
1.002 60.009 1.058 31
1.029 36.895 communi
1.085 ations to
27.794
1.003 56.491 1.059 30.856
1.03 36.607 1.086 27.696
aggregatecand transmit
1.004 53.997 1.06 30.714
1.031 36.327 1.087 voice and
cellular 27.6
data
TABLES
1.005 50.484
1.032 36.055
1.061 30.575
1.088 27.505
1.006 50.484 1.062 30.438
to andm the main
1.033 35.792 1.089 27.411
1.007VSWR to return
49.149 1.063 30.303 fro
1.034 35.537 1.09 27.318
1.008loss conversion
47.993 1.035 35.29 1.064 30.171 1.091 27.266
1.009table 46.975 1.036 35.049 1.065 30.04 1.092 27.135
1.01 46.064 1.037 34.816 1.066 29.912 1.093 27.046
1.011 45.24 1.038 34.588 1.067 29.785 1.094 26.957
1.012 44.489 1.039 34.367 1.068 29.661 1.095 26.869
1.013 43.798 1.04 34.151 1.069 29.538 1.096 26.782
1.014 43.159 1.041 33.941 1.07 29.417 1.097 26.697
1.015 42.564 1.042 33.763 1.071 29.298 1.098 26.612
1.016 42.007 1.043 33.536 1.072 29.181 1.099 26.528
1.017 41.485 1.044 33.341 1.073 29.066 1.1 26.444
1.018 40.993 1.045 33.15 1.074 28.952 1.102 26.281
1.046 32.963 1.104 26.12
1.019 40.528 1.075 28.839
1.047 32.78 1.106 25.963
1.02 40.086 1.076 28.728
1.048 32.602 1.108 25.809
1.021 39.667 1.077 28.619
1.049 32.427 1.11 25.658
1.022 39.867 1.078 28.511
1.05 32.256 1.112 25.51
1.023 38.885 1.079 28.405
1.051 32.088 1.114 25.364
1.024 38.52 1.08 28.299
1.052 31.923 1.116 25.221
1.025 38.7 1.081 28.196
1.053 31.762 1.118 25.081
1.026 37.833 1.054 31.604 1.082 28.093 1.12 24.943
1.027 37.51 1.055 31.449 1.083 27.992 1.122 24.808
1.028 37.198 1.056 31.297 1.084 27.892 1.124 24.675

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VSWR RL(dB) VSWR RL(dB) VSWR RL(dB) VSWR

Microw ve RL(dB)
1.126 24.544 1.39 15.747 a backhaul
The use of microwave
1.128 24.415 1.4 15.563
1.182 21.576 communi ations to
1.13 24.289 1.41 15.385
1.184 21.489 aggregate and transmit
1.132 24.164 1.42 15.211
1.186 21.403 cellular voice and data
TABLES
1.134 24.042 1.188 21.318 1.43 15.043
1.136 23.921 1.44 14.879
to andm the main
1.19 21.234
1.138VSWR to return
23.803 1.45 14.719 fro
1.192 21.151
1.14loss conversion
23.686 1.194 21.069 1.46 14.564
1.142table continued
23.571 1.196 20.988 1.47 14.412
1.144 23.457 1.198 20.907 1.48 14.264
1.146 23.346 1.2 20.828 1.49 14.12
1.148 23.235 1.21 20.443 1.5 13.979
1.15 23.127 1.22 20.079 1.52 13.708
1.152 23.02 1.23 19.732 1.54 13.449
1.154 22.914 1.24 19.401 1.56 13.201
1.156 22.81 1.25 19.085 1.58 12.964
1.158 22.708 1.26 18.783 1.6 12.736
1.16 22.607 1.27 18.493 1.62 12.518
1.162 22.507 1.28 18.216 1.64 12.308
1.29 17.949
1.164 22.408 1.66 12.107
1.3 17.692
1.166 22.311 1.68 11.913
1.31 17.445
1.168 22.215 1.7 11.725
1.32 17.207
1.17 22.12 1.72 11.545
1.33 16.977
1.172 22.027 1.74 11.37
1.34 16.755
1.174 21.934 1.76 11.202
1.35 16.54
1.176 21.843 1.36 16.322 1.78 11.039
1.178 21.753 1.37 16.131 1.8 10.881
1.18 21.664 1.38 15.936 1.82 10.279

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TABLES Dia/freq 2 GHz 6 GHz 11 GHz 15 GHz 23 GHz 40 GHz

1' dia 33.5° 11.1° 5.6° 4.5° 2.8° 1.7°
Some typical
2' dia 17.2° 5.7° 3.4° 2.4° 1.6° 1.0°
beamwidths as a 4' dia 8.2° 2.8° 1.8° 1.2° 0.8° 0.4°
function of frequency 6' dia 5.5° 1.8° 1.0° 0.8° 0.5° 0.3°
and antenna diameter 8' dia 4.1° 1.4° 0.8° 0.6° 0.4° 0.2°
10' dia 3.3° 1.1° 0.7° 0.5° 0.3° 0.18°
12' dia 2.8° 0.9° 0.5° 0.4° 0.25° 0.15°
15' dia 2.2° 0.8° 0.4° 0.3° 0.2° 0.1°

Antennas with beamwidths below 0.5 are not practical for point-to-point links due to difficulties
in alignment and the extremely stiff mounting structures required.

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TABLES Frequency band Frequencies, GHz Typical maximum Typical minimum

link length, km link length, km
Distance between antenna 0.9 (unlicensed) 0.902–0.928 100 -
links (hops) 2.4 (unlicensed) 2.4–2.5 100 -
4 3.6–4.2 70 24
5 4.4–5.0 60 16
5 (unlicensed) 5.3, 5.4 and 5.8 50 -
L6 5.925–6.425 50 16
U6 6.425–7.125 50 16
L7 7.1–7.75 50 10
U8 7.75–8.5 50 10
10 10–10.7 20 10
11 10.7–11.7 20 10
13 12.7–13.25 20 6
15 14.4–15.35 20 6
18 17.7–19.7 20 2
23 21.2–23.6 20 2
26 24.25–26.5 20 2
28 27.5–29.5 15 2
32 31.0–33.4 10 1.5
The following table 38 37.0–40.0 10 1
summarizes the typical 42 40.5–43.5 10 1
single hop ranges that 60 (unlicensed) 57.0–66.0 1 -
80 71–76/81–86 5 -
can be achieved at
microwave frequencies.

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TABLES Frequency
EIA WR
PDR/UDR PBR/ UBR UG/ choke
CPR (G)/
standard IEC R British WG CPR(F)
range (GHz) (metric) (metric) (imperial)
output (imperial)
Waveguide flange hardware
3.30–4.90 WR229 R40 WG11A M6 NA 1/4 -20 1/4 -20
requirements by frequency band
3.94–5.99 WR187 R48 WG12 M6 NA 1/4 -20 1/4 -20
4.64–7.05 WR159 R58 WG15 M6 NA 1/4 -20 1/4 - 20
5.38–8.18 WR137 R70 WG14 M5 NA #10-32 #10-32
6.58–10.0 WR 112 R84 WG15 M5 M5 #8-32 #8-32
8.20–12.5 WR90 R100 WG16 M4 M4 #8-32 #8-32
9.84–15.0 WR75 R120 WG17 M4 M4 #6-32 NA
11.9–18.0 WR62 R140 WG18 M4 M4 #6-32 NA
14.5–22.0 WR51 R180 WG21 M4 M4 #6-32 NA
17.6–26.7 WR42 R220 WG20 M3 M3 #4-40 NA
21.7–33.0 WR34 R260 WG21 M3 M3 #4-40 NA
26.4–40.1 WR28 R320 WG22 M3 M3 #4-40 NA

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Flange Generic type Description Mating (to seal) Use Microwave

PBR IEC—metric Square flange Ideally will mate to the corresponding backhaul
Normally used at 7 GHz
with gasket UBR flange. Can mate with another The use
and above of microwave
(WR112)
PBR flange using the gasket supplied communications to
on both flanges aggregate and
transmit cellular voice
FLANGES UBR IEC—metric Square flange Must mate to the corresponding PBR Normally used at 7 GHz
without gasket flange and data
and above to and from
(WR112)
Flange selection the main
PDR IEC—metric Rectangular Ideally will mate to the corresponding Normally used at 7 GHz and
flange with gasket UDR flange. Can mate with another below (WR112); occasionally
PDR flange using the gasket supplied at higher frequencies
on both flanges.

UDR IEC—metric Rectangular Must mate to the corresponding PDR Normally used at 7 GHz and
flange without flange below (WR112); occasionally
gasket at higher frequencies

CPR G EIA—imperial Rectangular Mates with another CPR G flange Available at 11 GHz (WR90)
flange with gasket using the gasket supplied. Can also and lower frequencies
mate with the corresponding CPR F
flange using a half-thickness gasket
(ordered separately).

CPR F EIA—imperial Rectangular Must mate with CPR G flange using a

flange without half-thickness gasket supplied
gasket

UG choke EIA—imperial Square flange Ideally will mate with the correspond- Normally used at 13 GHz
cover with gasket ing UG cover flange. Can mate with (WR75) and above
another UG choke cover flange using
the gasket supplied on both flanges.

Square flange Must mate with corresponding UG Normally used at 13 GHz

UG cover EIA—imperial
without gasket choke cover flange. (WR75) and above

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FLANGES UG Choke
PDR PBR UDR UBR CPR G CPR F Cover UG Cover
Flange mating
table PDR 4 X 4 X ? ? X X

PBR X 4 X 4 X X 4 4
UDR 4 X X X ? X X X

UBR X 4 X X X X 4 X

CPR G ? X ? X 4 4 X X

CPR F ? X X X 4 X X X

UG Choke
Cover X 4 X 4 X X 4 4
UG Cover X 4 X X X X 4 X

4Mates and can be pressurized

X Does not mate or cannot be pressurized

? May possibly mate—Contact manufacturer for exact details

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PRESSURIZATION AND Commonly used conversion factors

WAVEGUIDE
U.S. customary units (imperial)
Total system volume 1 lb/in2 = 69 mbar = 6.9 kPa
System volume is determined by adding up the
1 in H2O = 0.04 lb/in2 = 25.4 mm H2O = 0.25 kPa
volume of each air dielectric transmission line
component for a given installation. For an Earth 1 SCFM = 60 SCFH = 1670 l/hr
station antenna, the system volume may consist 1 gal = 0.134 ft3 = 3.78 liters
of less than one cubic foot inside the feed and 1 ft3 = 7.48 gal = 28.32 liters = 0.028 m3
combiner. For a large microwave or broadcast 1 in = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm
system, it may consist of many cubic feet of air
contained in several hundred feet of air dielectric
SI units (metric)
cable or waveguide.
The selected dehydrator must be capable of 10 kPa = 100 mbar = 1.45 lb/in2
supplying this volume plus an anticipated leak rate 100 mm H2O = 1 kPa = 0.14 lb/in2 = 4.01 in H2O
of 1 percent, and provide sufficient capacity to 100 l/hr = 3.53 SCFH = 0.059 SCFM
maintain pressure during a 19°C (35°F)
1 liter = 0.26 gal = 0.04 ft3
temperature drop in 60 minutes.
1 m3 = 1,000 liters = 35.3 ft3 = 259.7 gal
Some typical volume requirements for transmission
1 cm = 10 mm = 0.39 in
lines are in the tables below.

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CommScope part num- Frequency range Volume ft3/1000 ft Volume litres/1000m

Microwave
ber backhaul
Elliptical waveguide The use of
EW240 24.0–26.5 GHz 0.6 microwave
communications
56 to
EW220 21.2–23.6 GHz 0.8 aggregate and
74
EW180 17.7–19.7 GHz 1.2 transmit 111
cellular voice
PRESSURIZATION EW132 14.0–15.35 GHz 1.8 167
and data to and from
AND WAVEGUIDE EW127A 11.7–13.25 GHz 2.7 the main251
EW90 10.5–11.7 GHz 3.6 334
Typical volumes for EW85 8.5–9.8 GHz 4.2 390
waveguide transmission EW77 7.125–8.5 GHz 6.3 585
lines EW64 7.125–7.750 GHz 7.8 725
EW63 6.425–7.125 GHz 9.2 855
EW52 5.6–4.25 GHz 11.3 1045
EW43 4.4–5.0 GHz 18.2 1690
EW37 3.58–4.26 GHz 21.1 1960
EW34 3.58–4.26 GHz 25 2323
EW28 2.9–3.4 GHz 36 3345
EW20 2.5–2.7 GHz 60.5 5621
EW17 1.7–2.3 GHz 71 6596
Rectangular waveguide
WR42 17.7–26.5 GHz 0.5 46
WR62 12.4–18.0 GHz 1.3 124
WR75 10.0–15.0 GHz 2 181
WR90 8.2–12.4 GHz 2.5 232
WR112 7.05–10.0 GHz 3.9 362
WR137 5.85–8.2 GHz 6 551
WR159 4.9–7.05 GHz 8.8 817
WR187 3.95–5.85 GHz 11.3 1053
WR229 3.3–4.9 GHz 18.2 1691

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ELLIPTICAL Recommended Maximum Hanger Spacing for Elliptical Waveguide, m (ft)

WAVEGUIDE Waveguide Type

Maximum Wind-
SPACING speed 160km/h (100mph) 200km/h (125mph) 240km/h (150mph)
Radial Ice No ice 13mm 25mm No Ice 13mm 25mm No ice 13mm 25mm
Recommended Maximum (0.5in) (1in) (0.5in)* (1in) (0.5in) (1in)
EW17 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.7 (5.5) 1.5 (5) 1.5 (5) 1.35 (4.5)
Hanger Spacing for
EW20 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.7 (5.5) 1.7 (5.5) 1.5 (5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4)
Elliptical Waveguide
EW28 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.5 (5) 1.5 (5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5)
EW34 1.8 (6) 1.8 (6) 1.7 (5.5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5) 1.2 (4)
EW37 1.7 (5.5) 1.7 (5.5) 1.5 (5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3)
EW43 1.5 (5) 1.5 (5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3)
EW52 1.35 (4.5) 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3) 0.9 (3) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5)
EW63 1.2 (4) 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.75 (2.5) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW64 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW77 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW85 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 1.0 (3.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW90 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW127A 1.35 (4.5) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 1.0 (3.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW132 1.5 (5) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW180 1.5 (5) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW220 1.5 (5) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)
EW240 1.5 (5) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 0.9 (3) 0.75 (2.5) 1.0 (3.5) 0.75 (2.5) 0.6 (2)

*Standard survival limit for microwave systems

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LEARN MORE ABOUT MICROWAVE PATH DESIGN WITH

COMMSCOPE’S ONLINE TRAINING
CommScope offers several online training courses through the CommScope Infrastructure
Academy as well as Comsearch®, a CommScope company. These courses cover the
science and practice of microwave communications; overcoming site-specific challenges
with the right planning and equipment; and building a deeper understanding of the
technology that makes microwave communications so important to modern wireless
networks.

CommScope Infrastructure Academy courses:

SP6105—Microwave radio antenna link fundamentals INFRASTRUCTURE ACADEMY

SP6180— Microwave radio antenna site planning

Comsearch, A CommScope Company course:

SP6700—Microwave path engineering fundamentals

Whether your interest is practical or theoretical, these courses can help take your
understanding to the next level.

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 CommScope (NASDAQ: COMM) helps design,
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For more than 40 years, our global team of
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Visit our website or contact your local CommScope representative for more information.

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This document is for planning purposes only and is not intended to modify or supplement any specifications or warranties relating to CommScope products or services.
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