Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

PHYSICS
EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS

1. Vernier calipers - It is used to measure internal and external diameter and depth of a vessel.
th
1
It is a device used to measure accurately upto   of a millimetre. It was designed by the French
 10 
Mathematician Pierre Vernier. The vernier calipers is as shown in the figure.

The main parts of vernier calipers are :

Main scale
Vernier scale
Jaws
Metallic strip
Vernier scale : A vernier scale V slides on the metallic strip M. In laboratory vernier calipers, vernier scale has 10
divisions which coincide with 9 mm of the main scale.
Jaws : It has two fixed jaws A and C and two movable jaws B and D.
Vernier Constant
It is the difference between value of one main scale division and one vernier scale division of vernier callipers.
Let n vernier scale divisions (VSD) coincide with (n - 1) main scale divisions (MSD)
 nVSD   n  1 MSD

 n 1 
1VSD    MSD
 n 
Vernier constant, VC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

 n 1  1
Vernier constant, VC  1MSD    MSD  MSD
 n  n

Value of one main scale division

VC 
Total number of divisions on vernier scale

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Least Count
The smallest value of a physical quantity that can be measured accurately is called the least count of the
instrument. For a vernier callipers, its least count is equal to vernier constant.
Zero Error
When the jaws A and B touch each other and if the zero of the vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of
the main scale, then the instrument has error called zero error.
Zero error is of two types :
Positive zero error and Negative zero error
Positive zero error: Zero error is said to be positive if the zero of the vernier scale lies on the right of the zero of the
main scale as shown in figure (i).

Zero error is said to be negative if the zero of the vernier scale lies on the left of the main scale as shown in
figure (ii).

Zero Correction
It has a magnitude equal to zero error but its sign is opposite to that of the zero error.
Zero correction is always algebraically added or substracted to the observed reading depending on the sign of
the zero error.
Reading of Vernier Calipers
Place the body between the jaws and the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth division of main scale. Then
Main scale reading (MSR) = N
If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale, then
Vernier scale reading (VSR) = n × (VC)
where VC is vernier constant of vernier callipers
Total reading = MSR + VSR = N + n × (VC)

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2. Screw gauge : It is used is to determine thickness/diameter of thin sheet/wire

It works on the principle of micrometer screw. A screw gauge is as shown in figure

It consists of a U-shaped metal frame M. At one end of it is fixed with a small metal piece A of gun metal. It is
called stud and it has a plane face. The other end N of M carries a cylindrical hub H. On the cylindrical hub along its
axis, is drawn a line known as reference line. On the reference line graduations are in millimetre or half millimetre
depending upon the pitch of the screw. This scale is called linear scale or pitch scale or main scale. A nut is threaded
through the hub and the frame N. Through the nut moves a screw S made of gun metal. The front face B of the
screw, facing the plane face A, is also plane. A hollow cylindrical cap K, is capable of rotating over the hub when
screw is rotated. It is attached to the right hand end of the screw. As the cap is rotated the screw either moves in or
out. The bevelled surface E of the cap K is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. It is called the circular scale or head
scale. A ratchet R is fixed to the right hand side of the cap K. This ratchet avoids undue tightening of the screw.

Pitch

It is defined as the linear distance moved by the screw forward or backward when one complete rotation is
given to the circular cap.

Distance moved on linear scale

Pitch of the screw =
Number of rotations

Least Count

Pitch of the screw

Least count of the screw gauge =
Total number of divisions on the circular scale

Zero Error

When the two studs A and B of the screw gauge are brought in contact and if the zero of the circular scale does
not coincide with the reference line then the screw gauge has an error. This error is called zero error.

Positive zero error : Zero error is said to be positive if the zero of the circular scale lies below the reference line as
shown in figure (i).

Negative zero error : Zero error is said to negative if the zero of the circular scale lies above the reference line as
shown in figure (ii).

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Reading of a Screw Gauge

Place a wire between A and B by working the screw forward. The pitch scale reading (PSR) immediately
before the head scale is noted. The head scale reading (HSR) coinciding with the line of the pitch scale is also noted.
The zero correction is added or subtracted depending on the sign of the zero error to get correct head scale reading.
The pitch scale reading is then added to the corrected head scale reading (multiplied with LC) which gives the
diameter of the wire (d).
d = P.S.R. + (corrected H.S.R. × L.C.)
3. Simple pendulum - Dissipation of energy by plotting a graph between square of amplitude and time
When a simple pendulum swings in air, it eventually stops. This happens as the air drag and the friction at the
support, oppose the motion of the pendulum and dissipate its energy gradually.
The restoring force acting on the simple pendulum is
Fs   kx
mg
where k is force constant =
L
where m is the mass of the bob and L is its effective length.
The damping force acting on the bob is Fd = – bv where b is called damping constant and v is velocity of the
bob.
The total force acting on the bob at any time t is
F = – kx – bx
Using Newton’s second law,
d2x bdx d2x dx
m 2
  kx  or m 2
 b  kx  0
dt dt dt dt
The solution of this differential equation is

k b2
x  A 0e cos  t    where  
 bt /2m
 ---------- (1)
m 4m 2
The energy of a simple pendulum at any time t is given by
1
E  E 0 e  bt /m where E 0  kA 02 ---------- (2)
2
is the energy of undamped (in vacuum) simple pendulum

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The energy of simple pendulum is proportional to the square of amplitude, so dissipation of energy of simple
pendulum can be studied by measuring the amplitude of oscillations of simple pendulum with time.
The graph between the square of amplitude and time is as shown below.

The experimental setup for the study of dissipation of energy of an oscillating simple pendulum is as shown in figure
(a) and effective length of a simple pendulum is as shown in figure (b).

Effective length of the simple pendulum = length of the thread + length of the hook of bob + radius of bob
L = l' + h + r
Determination of value of ‘g’ using simple pendulum.
In this experiment, a small spherical bob is hung with a cotton thread. The bob is displaced slightly and allowed
to oscillate. To find time period, time taken for 50 oscillations is noted using a stop watch.

L L
Theoretically T  2  g  42 2
g T
where L = equivalent length of the pendulum.

l L

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Time for 50 oscillations

T
50

L
So g can be easily calculated by the equation g  4 .
2

T2

Graphical Method

 4 2 
T2   L So T 2  L
 g 

Find T for different values of L.

 42 
2 
Plot T - L graph. It should be a straight line with slope  
 g 

B
2
T
BP 4 2
Slope  tan   
AP g

A P

42
So g can be calcualted by the equation for slope 
g

4 2
 g
slope

4. Metre scale - Mass of a given object by principle of moments

Principle of moments : It states that under the effect of different forces if a beam is balanced, then the algebraic
sum of the moments of forces about the balancing point on the beam must be zero. i.e. in equilibrium, the sum of the
clockwise moments is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments.
Like a physical balance, a metre scale can be used as a beam balance making use of principle of moments.
A metre scale is supported at its centre of gravity on a wedge as shown in the figure (i).

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

An unknown mass m of weight mg is suspended from the left side at a distance x and a known standard mass
M of weight Mg is suspended from the right side at a distance y from the knife edge as shown in figure (ii). Applying
the principle of moments when the scale is in equilibrium about G, we get

y
mg  x  Mg  y or m  M   ---------- (3)
x

5. Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of a metallic wire

Young’s modulus of the material of the given wire is given by

MgL
Y Nm 2 ---------- (4)
r x
2

where M = Load applied at the end of the given wire

L = Original length of the wire
r = Radius of the wire
x = Extension produced in the wire.
Young’s modulus Y of the material of the given wire is determined by using Searle’s apparatus. The labelled
diagram of Searle’s apparatus is shown in the figure below.

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Searle’s apparatus : It consists of two metal frames F1 and F2. Each frame has a torsion head at the upper side and
a hook at the lower side. These frames are suspended from two wires AB and CD of same material, length and
cross-section. The upper ends of the wires are screwed tightly in two torsion heads fixed in the same rigid support.
The experimental wire AB can be loaded by slipping slotted weights on the hanger. A spirit level rests horizontally
with its one end hinged in the frame F2. The other end of the spirit level rests on the tip of a spherometer screw fitted
in the frame F1 .The spherometer screw can be rotated up and down along a vertical scale marked in millimeter. The
two frames are kept together by cross bars E1 and E2.

The graph between extension and load is a straight line as shown below.

Maximum permissible error in Y due to error in measurement of M, L, r and x

MgL
Y
r 2 x

If there is no tolerence in mass, maximum error in Y is

 Y  L 2r x
    
 Y max L r x

Measurement of Youngs Modulus

To measure extra elongation, compared to initial loaded position, we use a reference wire, also carrying 2 kg
load (dead weight). This method of measuring elongation by comparison also cancels the side effect of tamp and
yielding of support.

Observations

(i) Initial Reading = x0 = 0.540 mm (Micrometer Reading without extra load)

(ii) Radius of wire = 0.200 mm. (using screw gauge)

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

Measurement of Extension due to Extra load

Mean reading x extra

Extra load on Load Load
S.No. (x) (p + q/2) elongation
hanger m increasing decreasing
(mm) (x – x0) (mm)
(kg) (p) (mm) (q) (mm)
1 0.5 0.555 0.561 0.558 0.018
2 1.0 0.565 0.571 0.568 0.028
3 1.5 0.576 0.580 0.578 0.038
4 2.0 0.587 0.593 0.590 0.50
5 2.5 0.597 0.603 0.600 0.060
6 3.0 0.608 0.612 0.610 0.70
7 3.5 0.620 0.622 0.621 0.081
8 4.0 0.630 0.632 0.631 0.091
9 4.5 0.641 0.643 0.642 0.102
10 5.0 0.652 0.652 0.652 0.112

Method (1)
Plot x v / s W   m g 

BP L
Slope   .........   Y  .............
AP Y  r 2 
Method 2
Between observation (1)  (6)
and (2)  (7)
and (3)  (8) 2.5 kg extra weight is added
and (4)  (9)
and (5)  (10)
So elongation from observation (1)  (6), (2)  (7), (3)  (8), (4)  (9), and (5)  (10) will be due to
extra 2.5 kg wt.

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So we can find elongation due to 2.5 kg wt from x 6  x1 , x 7  x 2 , x 8  x 3 , or x10  x 5

and hence we can find average elongation due to 2.5 kg wt.

for W  2.5 kg , average elongation x  0.052 mm

 L 
x   2   W  where W  mg  25 N and  x  average = 0.5 × 10–4 m
 r Y 
Putting the values find Y = .............
6. Surface tension of water by capillary rise and effect of detergents
When a capillary tube of radius r is dipped in a liquid (water) of density  , the liquid will rise in the capillary
tube upto a height h above the free surface of the liquid and the force of surface tension acts tangentially to the
meniscus of the liquid as shown in figure (a).

The component of the surface tension acting vertically upwards is T cos  where  is the angle of contact.
Hence, the total force acting upwards is 2r T cos  . This force is equal to the weight of the liquid column raised in
the capillary tube.
The weight of the liquid column can be calculated as follows :
The volume of the liquid column upto lower meniscus = r 2 h
If the capillary tube is of very fine bore, its meniscus will be a hemisphere of radius r as shown in figure (b).

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

Volume of the liquid in the meniscus above B = Volume of cylinder of radius r and height r – Volume of
hemisphere of radius r
2 1
 r 2 r  r 3  r 3
3 3

1 3 2 r
Total volume of the liquid column  r h  r  r  h  
2

3  3

2 r
Weight of the liquid column  r  h   g
 3

 r
r  h   g
where  is the density of the liquid. For equilibrium, 2rT cos   r 2  h  r  g or T   3
 3 2 cos 

For water  is very small, so cos   1

 r
r  h   g
3
 T  ---------- (5)
2
The experimental set up for measuring the surface tension of water by capillary rise is as shown in the figure.

Using a travelling microscope, by coinciding the horizontal wire of the cross wire with the tip of the pointer
touching the liquid and tangential to the meniscus of the liquid in the tube, the height of liquid column for each capillary
tube is calculated. Using the same microscope, the radii of the capillary tubes are calculated. The surface tension of
the liquid is calculated by the equation

r r
T   h   g
2 3
Observation
Least count of travelling microscope (L.C.) = ......... cm

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Table for height of liquid rise

Reading of Meniscus Reading of Pointer Tip

Serial
Total Total Height
no. of M.S.R. V.S.R. M.S.R. V.S.R.
Reading Reading h1 – h 2
Capillary N n×(L.C.) N n×(L.C.)
N+n(L.C.) N+n(L.C.) = h(cm)
tube (c.m.) (cm) (cm) (cm)
h1(cm) h2(cm)
(1) (2a) 2(b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1.
2.
3.

Table for internal diameter of the capillary tube

Microscope Reading for

Internal Diameter
Serial cross wire in position Internal
No. of Mean radius
Vertical Horizontal AB  CD d
Capillary (A) (B) (C) (D)
AB CD  r  cm 
tube (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) 2 2
(cm) (cm)
d(cm)
(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (2d) (3a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1.
2.
3.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

Temperature of water, (t) = ..................oC

Density of water at observed temperature,   ............  g cm 3 

Angle of contact of water in glass,   8o

i.e., cos   0.99027 taken as1
CALCULATIONS

r  h  r / 3  g
From formula, T 
2 cos 
Put values of h (column 4 - first table) and r (column 4 - second table) for each capillary tube separately and
find the value of T (in dynes cm–1).

T1  T2  T3
Find mean value, T   ............dynes cm 1
3
RESULT
The surface tension of water at toC = ......... dynes cm–1.
Effect of Detergents
A detergent when added to water reduces the surface tension of water. Therefore, on adding a detergent to
water its surface tension decreases. The oil and grease spots on clothes cannot be removed by pure water because
pure water which does not wet oily clothes. On the other hand, when detergents (like soap) are added in water, the
surface tension of water decreases. As a result of this, wetting power of water increases. Thus, oil, grease and dirt
particles get mixed with water easily. Hence clothes are washed easily.
7. Coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal velocity of a given spherical
body
Viscosity is a measure of resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress.
Viscosity describes a fluids internal resistances to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. The S.I.
unit of viscosity is the pascal.second (Pa.s) equivalent to N.s/m2, or kg/(m.s.).
According to Stoke’s law, if a sphere of radius r is allowed to move freely through an infinite homogeneous,
incompressible fluid of viscosity  , it acquires a uniform terminal velocity v, which is given by the relation

F  6vr ---------- (6)

where F is the retarding viscous force acting on the sphere in upward direction.
When the sphere acquires terminal velocity, the upward force must be equal to the resultant downward force.
F = Resultant downward force
= Weight of the sphere – upthrust
= Weight of the sphere – weight of the liquid displaced

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4 4 4 2 r2
or 6vr  r 3g  r 3g  r 3      g or v       g ---------- (7)
3 3 3 9 

2 r2
where  is the density of material of the sphere,  is the density of the liquid or        g ---------- (8)
9 v
Knowing r,  and  and measuring v,,  can be calculated.
The experimental set up to determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given liquid by measuring terminal velocity
of a given spherical body is as shown in the figure below.

PROCEDURE
1. Determine mean radius of the ball using a screw gauge.
2. Drop the ball gently in the liquid. It falls down in the liquid with accelerated velocity for about one-third of the
height. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.
3. Start the stop clock/watch when the ball reaches some convenient division (20 cm, 25 cm, ........).
4. Stop the stop clock/watch just when the ball reaches lowest convenient division (45 cm).
5. Find and note the distance fallen and time taken by the ball.
6. Repeat steps two times more.
7. Record the observations as given below.
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of the vertical scale = ............. m
Least count of stop clock/watch = ............. s
Zero error of stock clock/watch = ............. s
Pitch of the screw (p) = 1 mm
Number of divisions on the circular scale = 100

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

1
Least count of screw gauge (L.C.) =  0.01 mm
100
Zero error of screw gauge (e) = ......... mm
Zero correction of screw gauge (C) (–e) = ......... mm
Diameter of spherical ball
(i) Along one direction, D1 = .........mm
(ii) In perpendicular direction, D2 = .........mm
Terminal velocity of spherical ball
Distance fallen S = ........mm
Time taken, t1 = ........s
t2 = ........s
t3 = ........s
CALCULATIONS

D1  D 2
Mean diameter D mm
2

D
Mean radius r mm = ................cm
2

t1  t 2  t 3
Mean time t  .........s
3

S
Mean terminal velocity, v = ............. cm s–1
t

2r 2      g
From formula,  C.G.S. units
9v
RESULT

The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid at temperature  o C  = .............. C.G.S. units

PRECAUTIONS
1. Liquid should be transparent to watch motion of the ball.
2. Balls should be perfectly spherical.
3. Velocity should be noted only when it becomes constant.

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8. Specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid and (ii) liquid by method of mixtures
Law of Mixtures
The law of mixtures states that when two substances at different temperatures are mixed, i.e., brought in
thermal contact with each other, then the heat is exchanged between them, the substance at higher temperature loses
heat and that at lower temperature gains heat. Exchange of heat energy continues till both the substances attain a
common temperature called equilibrium temperature.
The amount of heat energy lost by the hotter body is equal to the amount of heat energy gained by colder body,
provided (i) no heat is lost to the surroundings and (ii) the substances mixed do not react chemically to produce or
absorb heat.
In brief, the law of mixtures is also known as principle of calorimetry.
Principle of Calorimetry
On mixing of two substances at different temperatures, if no heat is lost to the surroundings, at the equilibrium
temperature, heat lost by hotter body is equal to heat gained by colder body
i.e. Heat gained = Heat lost
Specific Heat Capacity
It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance through 1°C.
For body of mass m, having a specific heat s, the amount of heat gained or lost Q is given by
Q  msT
where T is the rise or fall in the temperature of the body..
The Specific Heat of a Solid (Lead Shots)
The experimental set up to determine the specific heat of a given solid is as shown in the figure.

According to principle of calorimetry

Heat lost by given solid (lead shots) = Heat gained by water and calorimeter

 m3  m2  ss  Ts  t f    m2  m1  W   sw  Tf  Tw 

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

ss 
 m 2  m1  W   s w   Tf  Tw 
---------(9)
 m3  m 2  Ts  Tf 
where,
m1 = mass of (empty calorimeter + stirrer)
m2 = Mass of (calorimeter + water + stirrer)
m3 = Mass of (calorimeter + water + stirrer + solid (lead shots) )
Tw = Initial temperature of water in calorimeter
Ts = Steady temperature upto which solid (lead shots) heated in hypsometer
Tf = Final temperature of the mixture

m1s c
W = water equivalent s
w

sc = Specific heat of the material of calorimeter.

The specific heat of a given liquid (kerosene or turpentine oil)

The experimental set up to determine the specific heat of a given liquid (kerosene or turpentine oil) is as shown in
the figure below.

According to the principle of calorimetry

Heat lost by solid (metal piece) = Heat gained by liquid and calirmeter

 m3  m2  ss  Ts  Tf   m1sc  Tf  Tl    m2  m1  s1  Tf  Tl 

sl 
 m3  m 2  ss  Ts  Tf   m1sc  Tf  Tl 
---------(10)
 m 2  m1  Tf  Tl 
m1 = Mass of (empty calorimeter + stirrer)
m2 = Mass of (calorimeter + liquid + stirrer)

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m3 = Mass of (calorimeter + stirrer + liquid + solid (metal piece)

Tl = Initial temperature of liquid in calorimeter.
Ts = Initial temperature of the solid (metal piece)
Tf = Final temperature of mixture
sc = Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter
sl = Specific heat capacity of given liquid
ss = Specific heat capacity of the solid (metal piece)
9. Speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube
A resonance tube apparatus consists of a long glass tube AB whose lower end is connected to a rubber tube
which in turn is connected to a reservoir R filled with water. The whole apparatus is mounted on a wooden board on
which a metre scale is fixed to note the length of air column in resonance (glass) tube as shown in the figure.

A tuning fork is set into vibrations and held over the glass tube. Stationary waves are formed in the air column
due to interference of reflected and incident waves. For a particular position of water level, intensity of sound is
maximum. At this position, resonance of air column with tuning fork takes place as frequencies of two become equal.
If l1, and l2 are the lengths of air column for the first and second positions of resonances, then

l1  e  ---------(11)
4
3
l2  e  ---------(12)
4
where e is the end correction and  the wavelength of the sound wave.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

Substracting (11) from (12),


l2  l1 
2

or 2  l2  l1    ---------(13)

v   ---------(14)
From equations (13) and (14), we get ,
v  2  l2  l1  ---------(15)

Therefore, speed of sound at room temperature is given by v  2  l2  l1 

where  is frequency of a tuning fork.
Working: Resonance tube is a 100 cm tube. Initially it is filled with water. To increase the length of air column in the
tube, water level is lowered. The air column is forced with a tuning fork of frequency f0. Let at length l1, we get a first
resonance (loud voice) then
V V
leq1   l1   
4f 0 4f 0 ---------(16) where  is end correction.
If we further lower the water level, the noise becomes moderate. But at l2. We, again get a loud noise (second
resonance) then
3V 3V
leq2   l2   
4f 0 4f 0 ---------(17)
For (i) and (ii)
V  2f 0  l2  l1 
Observation table:
Room temperature in beginning = 26oC, Room temperature at end = 28oC

Position of
water level (cm)
Freq. of Resonance Water level Water level Mean Speed of
tuning fork is falling is rising resonant sound V =
in (Hz) (f0) length 2f0 (I2 – I1)
1st Resonance 23.9 24.1 I1 = 24.0 V = ……
340 Hz
2nd Resonance 73.9 74.1 I2 = 74.0

10. Resistivity of the material of a given wire using metre bridge

Metre bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone bridge.
In a metre bridge, P and Q are the ratio arms of fixed resistance, R is an adjustable or variable resistance of
known value and S is replaced by unknown resistance X and balance point is obtained at B on the metre bridge
wire. Since a jockey is slided over the wire. It is called slide wire bridge.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

The circuit diagram to determine resistivity of the material of a given wire using metre bridge is shown in the
figure below.

Let AB = l cm then BC = (100 – l) cm

Resistance of AB P lx l
  
Resistance of BC Q 100  l  x 100  l  ---------(18)

where x is the resistance per unit length (cm) of the bridge wire.
According to Wheatstone’s bridge principle

P R Q
 or X  R or X 
100  l  R
Q X P l

Specific resistance    of the material of the given wire is given by

XD 2
 ---------(19)
4L
where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.
11. Resistance of a given wire using Ohm’s law
Ohm’s Law : It states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (like temperature etc.) of the conductor remain same.
V
ie, V  I or V = RI or R  ---------(20)
I
where R is a constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor. The unit of resistance is volt per unit
ampere or ohm (  ). Its value depends upon the nature of the conductor, its dimensions and the physical conditions.
The circuit diagram to determine the resistance of a given wire using Ohm’s law is as shown in the figure below.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

The graph between potential difference V and current I is a straight line as shown in the figure.

We can find that the specific resistance of a material using Ohm’s law experiment,

RA D 2 V
  .
L 4L I
12. Resistance and figure of merit of a galvanometer by half deflection method
The circuit diagram for finding the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method is as shown in the
figure below.

To find the resistance of the galvanometer

Put a high resistance from R. (say 2000  ). The key k1 is closed with k2 opened. Adjust the value of R so that
the deflection is maximum. Note the deflection. The deflection in the galvanometer is  .
The current through the galvanometer
E
I   -------- (21)
RG
Insert the key k2 also and without changing the value of R' adjust the value of S, such that deflection in the

galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value . Repeat the above steps taking different values of R and adjusting
2
S every time.
The current through the galvanometer
E S 
I1    --------- (22)
 GS  G  S 2
 R  G  S 

(21)
 22  gives
R  G  S  GS
2
RS  GS
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

RG + RS + GS = 2RS + 2GS
RG = RS + GS
RG – GS = RS
G(R – S) = RS
RS
G
R S
RS
The resistance of the galvanometer as found by half deflection method is G  ---------(23)
R S
where R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
Figure of merit of a galvanometer : It is defined as the current required to produce a deflection of one division in
the scale of the galvanometer. It is generally denoted by symbol k.
The circuit diagram for the determination of the figure of merit of a galvanometer is as shown in the figure.


The figure of merit, k   R  G   ---------(24)

where  is the emf of the cell and  is the deflection produced with resistance R.
13. Focal length of
(i) Concave mirror
(ii) Convex mirror
(iii) Convex lens
To Determine the Focal Length of a Concave Mirror
To perform the experiment, we require an optical bench with three uprights, concave mirror, a mirror holder,
two optical needles, a knitting needle and a half metre scale.
The ray diagram is as shown in the figure.

1 1 1 uv
According to mirror formula   or f  ---------(25)
f v u uv
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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

where, f = focal length of concave mirror

u = distance of object needle from pole of the mirror

v = distance of image needle from pole of the mirror

According to new cartesian sign convention both u and v are negative and f is also negative for concave mirror.

u-v graph : The graph between the u (along negative X axis or X' axis) and v (along negative Y axis or Y' axis) is a
rectangular hyperbola as shown in the figure below.

Draw a line OQ bisecting the angle X'OY' and meeting the curve at point Q. The coordinates of this point Q
are (–2f, –2f). Draw QP and QR perpendicular on X' and Y' axes respectively. The distances OP = OR = –2f. Half
of these distances give the focal length of the concave mirror. Focal length of the concave mirror,

OP OR OP  OR
f   f ---------(26)
2 2 4

1 1 1 1
and graph : The graph between (along negative X axis or X' axis) and (along negative Y axis or Y'
u v u v
axis) is a straight line as shown below.

The straight line cuts the two axes X' and Y' at an angle of 45o at points P and Q, respectively and making equal
intercepts of the axes.
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

1 1
Focal length of concave mirror, f  
OP OQ

1 1 1
According to mirror formula,  
v u f
1 1 1
If  0 , then 
u v f
1 1
Thus, intercept OQ  
v f
1 1 1
If  0 , then 
v u f

1 1 2
Thus, intercept OP   f ---------(27)
u f OP  OQ
To Determine the Focal Length of a Convex Mirror using a Convex Lens
To perform the experiment, we require an optical bench with four uprights, convex lens, convex mirror, a lens
holder, a mirror holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle, and a half metre scale.
The ray diagram is as shown in the figure below.

As a convex mirror always forms a virtual image, its focal length cannot be found directly as for a concave
mirror. For this purpose, indirect method is used, as described below.
A convex lens L is introduced between the convex mirror M and object needle O as shown in figure (a) above.
Keeping the object needle at distance about 1.5 times rough focal length of the convex lens, the position of convex
mirror behind convex lens is so adjusted that a real and inverted image of object needle O, is formed at O itself.
Under such condition, the light rays are incident normally over the convex mirror to retrace their path. In the absence
of convex mirror, these rays would have met at centre of curvature C of the convex mirror. The distance PC gives
the radius of curvature R of the mirror.
To locate the position of C, convex mirror is removed (without disturbing the object needle O and convex lens
L). An image needle I is put behind the convex lens and moved to a position at which there is no parallax between
tip of inverted image of O needle and tip of I needle. Position of image needle I gives position of centre of curvature
C of mirror M.,
R PI
Then, PC = PI = R and f  
2 2
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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

To Determine the Focal Length of a Convex Lens

To perform the experiment, we require an optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with lens holder, two
optical needles, a knitting needle and a half metre scale.
The ray diagram is as shown in the figure below.

1 1 1
  ---------(28)
f v u

where, u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens

v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens
f = focal length of convex lens.
According to new cartesian sign convention, u is negative and v is positive and f is positive for convex lens.
u-v graph : The graph between u (along negative X axis or X’ axis) and v (along positive Y axis or Y’ axis) is a
rectangular hyperbola as shown in the figure below.

Draw a line OQ bisecting the angle X'OY and meeting the curve at point Q. The coordinates of this point Q
are (–2f, 2f). Draw QP and QR perpendicular on X' and Y axes respectively.

| OP | OR OP  OR
Focal length of convex lens, f   f ---------(29)
2 2 4

1 1 1 1
and graph : The graph between (along negative X axis or X' axis) and (along positive Y axis or Y'
u v u v
axis) is a straight line as shown in the figure below.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

The straight line cuts the two axes X’ and Y at an angle of 45° at points P and Q respectively and making equal
intercepts on the axes.

1 1 2
Focal length of the convex lens, f   f ---------(30)
| OP | OQ OP  OQ

14. Using parallax method, Plot of angle of deviation vs angle of incidence for a triangular prism

The apparatus required is a drawing board, white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale,
office pins, graph paper and a protractor.

The white paper is pinned on the drawing board and the prism is fixed at a place. The outline of the prism is
marked on the paper. Then an incident ray (say at 30°) is drawn on one of the faces of the prism and two pins
are inserted at P1 and P2 on the ray as shown.

When viewed from the other face, the pins are along a particular line. We place pins P3 and P4 in line with the
images of P1 and P2 as seen in the prism. Thereafter line P3P4 is drawn which represents the emergent ray. Lift the
prism and make the dotted lines and discover the angle of deviation D1 here. This angle can be measured by a
protractor. Several such observations for angles of incidence ranging from 30° to 60° can be made and the
corresponding angle of deviation can be measured.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

The graph between angle of deviation (D) and angle of incidence (i) is as shown in the figure below.

15. Refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope

Travelling microscope: It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It can be moved up and
down, carrying a vernier scale moving along the main scale. In any position, the reading is taken by combining main
scale and vernier scale readings.

The apparatus required is a travelling microscope, glass slab and lycopodium powder

Re al thickness of slab
Refractive index of a glass slab, or   Apparent thickness of slab

Adjustment of a travelling microscope

1. To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.
2. For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.
3. Mark point P on the base of the microscope using black ink.
4. To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical and focus on P.
5. Let R1 be the combination of vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

6. Place the glass slab with least thickness over the mark P.
7. Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P1.
8. Let R2 be the reading of P1.
9. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab.
10. To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.
11. Let, R3 be the reading of S.
12. Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.
13. Record the observations.
Real thickness = (R3 – R1)
Apparent thickness = (R3 - R2)

 R 3  R1 
Refractive index,   R  R ---------(31)
 3 2
16. Characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias
Forward biasing : A p-n junction is said to be forward biased if the positive terminal of the external battery is
connected to p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side of p-n junction.
Reverse bias : A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of the external battery is connected
to n-side and the negative terminal to p-side of the p-n junction,
The circuit diagrams for studying the characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse biasing is
shown in figure (i) and (ii).

The characteristic curve (I-V curve) of a p-n junction diode is as shown below.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

17. Characteristic curves of a Zener diode and finding reverse breakdown voltage
Zener diode : It was invented by C. Zener. It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown region
and is used as a voltage regulator. The symbol for Zener diode is shown in the figure below.

The circuit diagram for plotting the characteristics of a Zener diode and determine its reverse breakdown
voltage is as shown in the figure below.

Circuit parameters : In the circuit as shown in the figure above,

Vin = Input voltage
Vout = Output voltage
Rin = Input resistance
RL = Load resistance
Iin = Input current
IZ = Zener diode current
IL = Load current
Relations

I L  Iin  I Z ---------(32)

Vout  Vin  R in Iin ---------(33)

Vout  R L I L ---------(34)
Initially as Vin is increased, Iin increases a little then Vout increases.
At breakdown, increase of Vin increases Iin by large amount, so that Vout = Vin – Rin Iin becomes constant. This
constant value of Vout which is the reverse breakdown voltage is called Zener voltage.
The graph between input voltage (Vm) and output voltage Vout is as shown below.

The constant output voltage of the above graph is the reverse breakdown voltage of Zener diode.

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18. Identification of Diode, LED, Resistor, a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
The diode and LED (light emitting diode) conduct when forward biased and do not conduct when reverse
biased. The LED when forward biased, not only conducts but emits light also, which helps to distinguish between
junction diode and LED.
Connect the two probes of the multimeter to the two end terminals of the diode and note whether the resistance
is low or high. Then interchange the two probes and again note the resistance whether it is high or low. If the
resistance of the diode is high in the first case, it will be low in the second case or vice versa. It shows the unidirectional
flow of current in diode.
For LED : Repeat the above process for LED. The LED glows by emitting light, when its resistance is low.
This shows unidirectional flow of current through an LED.
Checking Whether Diode, Transistor is in Working Order
A diode will conduct only in one direction i.e., first connect the ends of diode to the two metal ends of the
probes and reverse the connecting points. If it conducts in one case, then diode is in working order. If it conducts in
both cases or does not conduct in both cases, then it is damaged.
A resistor is a two terminal device. It conduct both with d.c. voltage and a.c. voltage. Further, a resistor
conducts equally even when terminals of d.c. battery are reversed.
A capacitor is a two terminal device which does not conduct with d.c. voltage applied either way. But conducts
with a.c. voltage.
Procedure
1. The component having two legs may either be a junction diode or capacitor or resistor or a light emitting diode.
These items can be distinguished from each other by using a multimeter.
2. Touch the probles to the two ends of each item and observe the deflection on the resistance scale. After this,
interchange the two probes and again observe the deflection.
3. a) If the same constant deflection is observed in the two cases (before and after interchanging the probes) the
item under observation is a resistor.
b) If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases, it is a junction diode.
c) If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases along with emission of light in the case when deflection
is large, the item under observation is a light emitting diode (LED).
d) On touching the probes, if large deflection is observed, which then gradually decreases to zero, the item
under observation is a capacitor.
In case of capacity of the capacitor is of the order of picofarad, then the deflection will become zero within no
time.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

CLASS DISCUSSION
1. In an experiment, the angles are required to be measured using an instrument, 29 divisions of the main scale
coincide with 30 divisions of the vernier scale. If the smallest division of the main scale is half a degree (=0.5o),
then the least count of the instrument is
1) half minute 2) one one degree 3) half degree 4) one minute
2. In a vernier callipers, N division of vernier scale coincide with (N – 1) divisions of the main scale (in which 1
division represents 1 mm). The least count of the instrument in cm should be

1 1
1) N 2) N – 1 3) 10 N 4)
N
3. In a vernier callipers, N divisions of the main scale coincide with N + m divisions of the vernier scale. What is
the value of m for which the instrument has minimum least count?

N
1) 1 2) N 3) Infinity 4)
2
4. The nth division of main scale coincides with (n + 1)th divisions of vernier scale. Given one main scale division
is equal to a units. The least count of the vernier is

a a a na
1) 2) 3) 4)
n 1 n 1 n n 1
5. The least count of vernier callipers is 0.1 mm. The main scale reading before the zero of the vernier scale is 10
and the zeroth division of the vernier scale coincides with the main scale division. Given that each main scale
division is 1 mm. What is the measured value?
1) 1.00 cm 2) 1.01 cm 3) 0.90 cm 4) 1.10 cm
6. The circular divisions of the shown screw gauge are 50. It moves 0.5 mm on main scale in one rotation. The
main scale reading is 2. The diameter of the ball is

1) 2.25 mm 2) 1.20 mm 3) 2.20 mm 4) 1.25 mm

7. In four complete rotations, the distance moved by the screw on the linear scale is 2 mm. Its circular scale
contains 50 divisions. Find the least count of the screw gauge.
1) 0.05 mm 2) 0.01 mm 3) 0.1 mm 4) 0.02 mm
8. The pitch of a screw gauge having 50 divisions on its circular scale is 1 mm. When the two jaws of the screw
gauge are in contact with each other, the zero of the circular scale lies 6 division below the line of graduation.
When a wire is placed between the jaws, 3 linear scale divisions are clearly visible while 31th division on the
circular scale coincide with the reference line. The diameter of the wire is:
1) 3.62 mm 2) 3.50 mm 3) 3.55 mm 4) 3.74 mm

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

9. The distance advanced by the screw of a screw gauge is 2 mm in four rotations. Its cap is divided into 50
divisions. There is no zero error. Find the diameter of a wire, if the screw reads 3 divisions on the main scale
and 32 divisions on the cap.
1) 3.32 mm 2) 2.32 mm 3) 1.82 mm 4) 3.52 mm
10. While determining the value of g using simple pendulum we plot a graph between l and T2 which is
1) a straight line 2) a parabola 3) an ellipse 4) a circle
11. A student measures the time period of 100 oscillations of a simple pendulum four times. The data set is 90 s, 91 s,
95 s and 92 s. If the minimum division in the measuring clock is 1 s, then the reported mean time should be
1) 92  2 s 2) 92  5.0 s 3) 92  1.8 s 4) 92  3s
12. A mass 60 gram is suspended at 30 cm mark of a metre scale pivoted at midpoint. Then at what location, a
weight of 40 gram can keep the metre scale horizontal?
1) 30 cm 2) 70 cm 3) 80 cm 4) 95 cm
13. In Searl’s experiment a graph is plotted between
1) load on hanger and radius of wire
2) load on hanger and mean value of spherometer screw reading
3) radius of the wire and spherometer screw reading
4) none of these
14. The device which measures the extension of wire in Searle’s apparatus for Young’s modulus of elasticity is
1) vernier callipers 2) screw gauge
3) spherometer 4) metre scale

 4MLg 
15. In the determination of Young’s modulus  Y   by using Searle’s method, a wire of length L = 2 m
 ld 2 
and diameter d = 0.5 mm is used. For a load M = 2.5 kg, an extension l = 0.25 mm in the length of the wire
is observed. Quantities d and l are measured using a screw gauge and a micrometer, respectively. They have
the same pitch of 0.5 mm. The number of divisions on their circular scale is 100. The contributions to the
maximum probable error of the Y measurement.
1) due to the errors in the measurements of d and l are the same
2) due to the error in the measurements of d is twice that due to the error in the measurement of l.
3) due to the error in the measurement of l is twice that due to the error in the measurement of d
4) due to the error in the measurement of d is four times that due to the error in the measurement of l.
16. The mass, specific heat capacity and initial temperature of a sphere was 1000 gm, 1/2 cal/gm oC and 80oC
respectively. The mass of the liquid and the calorimeter are 900 gm and 200 gm, and initially both were at
room temperature 20oC. Both calorimeter and the sphere are made of same material. If the steady-state
temperature after mixing is found to be 40oC, then the specific heat capacity of unknown liquid, is
1) 0.25 cal/g oC 2) 0.5 cal/g oC 3) 1 cal/g oC 4) 1.5 cal / goC

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

17. 200 g of solid ball at 20° C is added to 200 g of water in calorimeter having water equivalent of 50 g at 80°
C. The final temperature is 60° C. The specific heat of solid is
1) 0.625 cal g–1 oC–1 2) 6.25 cal g–1 oC–1 3) 1.6 cal g–1 oC–1 4) 0.4 cal g–1 oC–1
18. In a resonance column experiment to measure the velocity of sound, the first resonance is obtained at a length
l1 and the second resonance at a length l2. Then,
1) l2 > 3l1 2) l2 = 3l1 3) l2 < 3l1
4) may be any of the above, depending on the frequency of the tuning fork used
19. Using a given tuning fork, a student obtains 20.4 cm and 61.8 cm as the first and second resonance lengths.
If velocity of sound in air at room temperature is 331.2 m s-1, frequency of fork used is
1) 480 Hz 2) 512 Hz 3) 400 Hz 4) 256 Hz
20. In a meter bridge, null point is at l = 33.7 cm. When the resistance S is shunted by 12  resistance the null
point is found to be shifted by a distance of 18.2 cm. The value of unknown resistance R should be
1) 13.5  2) 6.84  3) 3.42  4) 68.8 
21. Two resistances are connected in two gaps of a slide wire bridge. The balance point is at 40 cm from left end.
A resistance X is connected in series with smaller resistance R and balance point shifts to 40 cm from right
end. What is the value of X if R is 4  ?

1) 4  2) 5  3) 6  4) 7 
22. In measuring the value of resistance, different students connect ammeter and voltmeter as shown in following
figures. Which of these will be correct?

1) Both figures are correct. 2) Both are wrong.

3) Only figure (i) is correct. 4) Only figure (ii) is correct.
23. In an experiment to determine the figure of merit of a galvanometer the circuit shown is used. If E be the emf
of the battery, R is the series resistance, G is the resistance of the galvanometer and  is the deflection, then
the figure of merit of galvanometer is

E E EG E
1)  R  G   2)  R  G   3) 4)
R R G

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24. In an experiment to determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method, the circuit shown is
used. In one set of readings, if R  10  and S  4  , then the resistance of the galvanometer is

20 40 50 10
1)  2)  3)  4) 
3 3 3 3
25. The |u|, |v| graph for a concave mirror is as shown in figure. Here |u| > |f |. A line passing through origin of
slope 1 cuts the graph at point P. Then co-ordinates of point P are

1) ( |2f |, |2f |) 2) (|2f |, |f |) 3) (|f |, |2f |) 4) (|f |, |f |)

26. A student performed the experiment of determination of focal length of a concave mirror by u-v method using
an optical bench of length 1.5 meter. The focal length of the mirror used is 24 cm. The maximum error in the
location of the image can be 0.2 cm. The 5 sets of (u, v) values recorded by the student (in cm) are: (42, 56),
(48, 48), (60, 40), (66, 33), (78, 39). The data set(s) that cannot come from experiment and is (are) incorrectly
recorded is (are)
A) (42, 56) B) (48, 48) C) (66, 33) D) (78, 39)
1) A and C 2) B and C 3) C and D 4) B and D
27. In an optics experiment, with the position of the object fixed, a student varies the position of the convex lens
and for each position, the screen is adjusted to get a clear image of the object. A graph between the object
distance u and the image distance v, from the lens, is plotted using the same scale for the two axes. A straight
line passing through the origin and making an angle of 45o with the x-axis meets the experimental curve at P.
The coordinates of P will be:

f f 
1)  ,  2) (f, f) 3) (4f, 4f) 4) (2f, 2f)
2 2

Real depth
28. Refractive index,   Apparent depth

During determination of refractive index of water by means of water by a travelling microscope, the focus of
the microscope on the bottom mark with the empty beaker has reading x. Reading of the microscope is y,
when the same mark is focused on the water filled beaker. The distance between water surface and microscope
is l measured by a scale. All readings suffer an error of 1%. The percentage error in the determination of
refractive index is n%. Find the value of n.
1) 1 2) 2 3) 3 4) 4
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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

29. Figure shows zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 40 V connected to a 100 Volt D.C. source with a
series resistance R and a load resistance (RL). The output voltage across RL is

1) 40 V 2) 20 V 3) 50 V 4) 60 V
30. In an experiment to identify an electronic component, unidirectional current flow for which of the following
components ?
1) Diode, LED, resistor 2) Diode, LED, capacitor
3) Diode, LED, IC 4) Diode, LED

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HOMEWORK
LEVEL - I
1. When both jaws touch to each other, but zero mark of vernier scale is right to zero mark of main scale. Further
4th mark of vernier scale coincides with a certain mark of main scale. While measuring the side of a cube, it
gives 10 divisions on main scale and 6th division of vernier scale coincide with main scale division. Find the
side length of the cube.
1) 10.6 mm 2) 11.0 mm 3) 10.2 mm 4) 10.4 mm
2. 2 cm on a main scale of vernier callipers is divided into 20 equal parts. If 20 divisions of vernier scale coincide
with 16 divisions of the main scale. The least count of vernier caliper is
1) 0.1 cm 2) 0.01 cm 3) 0.02 cm 4) 0.002 cm
3. The main scale of a vernier callipers reads in millimeter and its vernier is divided into 10 divisions which
coincide with 9 divisions of the main scale. The correct reading is:

1) 7.1 mm 2) 7.8 mm 3) 6.9 mm 4) 6.8 mm

4. The smallest division on the main scale of a vernier callipers is 1 mm, and 10 vernier divisions coincide with 9
main scale divisions. While measuring the diameter of a sphere, the zero mark of the vernier scale lies between
2.0 and 2.1 cm and the fifth division of the vernier main scale coincide with a main scale division. Then
diameter of the sphere is
1) 2.05 cm 2) 3.05 cm 3) 2.50 cm 4) None of these
5. The least count of a meter scale is 1 mm. Which of following lengths is/are measured by the meter scale?
A) 2.8 cm B) 2.80 cm C) 2.834 cm D) 2 mm
1) A and D only 2) A, B and C 3) D only 4) A only
6. A screw gauge gives the following reading when used to measure the diameter of a wire.
Main scale reading : 0 mm
Circular scale reading : 52 divisions
Given that 1 mm on main scale corresponds to 100 division of the circular scale.
The diameter of wire from the above data is
1) 0.052 cm 2) 0.026 cm 3) 0.005 cm 4) 0.52 cm
7. The circular scale of a micrometer has 200 divisions and pitch of 2 mm. Find the measured value of thickness
of a thin sheet.

1) 3.41 mm 2) 6.41 mm 3) 3.46 mm 4) 3.51 mm

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

8. A student measured the length of a rod and wrote it as 3.50 cm. Which instrument did he use to measure it?
1) A screw gauge having 100 divisions in the circular scale and pitch as 1 mm
2) A screw gauge having 50 divisions in the circular scale and pitch as 1 mm
3) A meter scale
4) A vernier calliper where the 10 divisions in vernier scale matches with 9 division in main scale and main
scale has 10 divisions in 1 cm.
9. When a screw gauge is completely closed, zero of circular scale is 7 division above the reference line of
graduation. If LC of screw gauge is 10–3 cm, the zero error is
1) – 7 × 10–3 cm 2) + 7 × 10–3 cm
3) – 0.007 mm 4) + 0.007 mm
10. The length of the string of a simple pendulum is measured with a meter scale to be 63.5 cm, the radius of the
bob plus the hook is measured with the help of vernier caliper to be 1.55 cm. Select the incorrect statement.
1) Least count of meter scale is 0.1 cm
2) Least count of vernier caliper is 0.01 cm
3) Effective length of pendulum is 65.1 cm
4) Effective length of pendulum is 65.2 cm
11. The least count of a stop watch is 0.2 second. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to be 25
seconds. The percentage error in the time period is
1) 16% 2) 0.8% 3) 1.8% 8%
12. A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a microscope of magnification 100.
He makes 20 observations and finds that the average width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope
is 3.5 mm. The thickness of hair is
1) 0.035 mm 2) 0.04 mm 3) 0.35 mm 4) 0.40 mm
13. The readings of a constant potential difference is noted four times by a student. The student averages these
readings but does not take into account the zero error of the voltmeter. The average measurement of the
potential difference is
Reading 1 1.176 V
Reading 2 1.178 V
Reading 3 1.177 V
Reading 4 1.176 V

1) precise and accurate 2) precise but not accurate

3) accurate but not precise 4) not accurate and not precise
14. How many number of wires are used in Searl’s experiment for determining Young’s modulus of elasticity?
1) 3 2) 1 3) 2 4) 4

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

P R
15. In the following Wheatstone bridge  . If the key K is closed, then the galvanometer will show deflection.
Q S

1) in left side 2) in right side 3) no deflection 4) in either side

16. If in the experiment of Wheatstone’s bridge, the positions of the cell and galvanometer are interchanged, then
balance points will
1) change
2) remain unchanged
3) depend on the internal resistance of cell and resistance of galvanometer
4) none of these
17. In an experiment of meter bridge, a null point is obtained at the centre of the bridge wire. When a resistance
of 10 ohm is connected in one gap, the value of resistance in other gap is
1
1) 10  2) 5  3)  4) 500 
5
18. If resistance S in resistance box = 300  , then the balanced length is found to be 25.0 cm from end A. The
diameter of unknown wire is 1 mm and length of the unknown wire is 31.4 cm. The specific resistivity of the
wire should be
1) 2.5  104 -m 2) 3.5  104 -m

3) 4.5  104 -m 4) None of these

19. In the previous question, if R and S are interchanged, the balanced point is shifted by
1) 30 cm 2) 40 cm 3) 50 cm 4) none of these
20. An unknown resistance R1 is connected in series with a resistance of 10 ohm. This combination is connected
to one gap of a metre bridge, while other gap is connected to another resistance R2. The balance point is at 50
cm. Now, when the 10 ohm resistance is removed, the balance point shifts to 40 cm. Then, the value of R1 is
1) 60  2) 40  3) 20  4) 10 
21. In a meter bridge for measurement of resistance, the known and the unknown resistance are interchanged.
The error so removed is
1) end correction 2) index error
3) due to temperature effect 4) random error

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

22. In an experiment, a graph was plotted with the potential difference V between the terminals of a cell against
the circuit current i by varying load rheostat. Internal conductance of the cell is given by

y x
1) xy 2) 3) 4) (x – y)
x y

23. The graph showing correctly the variation of image distance (v) as a function of object distance (u) in case of
a concave mirror is:

1 1
24. The shape of graph between and in case of a convex lens is
u v

1) 2) 3) 4)

25. In an experiment to determine the focal length (f) of a concave mirror by the u-v method, a student places the
object pin A on the principal axis at a distance x from the pole P. The student looks at the pin and its inverted
image from a distance keeping his/her eye in line PA. When the student shifts his/her eye towards left, the
image appears to the right of the object pin. Then,
1) x < f 2) f < x < 2f 3) x = 2f 4) x > 2f

LEVEL - II
1. Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length?
1) A vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
2) A screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
3) An optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light
4) All are equally precise devices for measuring length

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

2. A vernier callipers having 1 main scale division = 0.1 cm is designed to have a least count of 0.02 cm. If n be
the number of divisions on vernier scale and m be the length of vernier scale, then
1) n = 10, m = 0.5 cm 2) n = 9, m = 0.4 cm
3) n = 10, m = 0.8 cm 4) n = 10, m = 0.2 cm
3. The side of a cube measured by vernier scale is 10 division on main scale and first division of vernier scale
coincides with main scale division. The mass of cube is 2.732 g. Assume that vernier caliper is zero error free.
Find the density of the cube
1) 2 g cm–3 2) 2.6 g cm–3 3) 2.65 g cm–3 4) 2.65165 g cm–3
4. The length of a cylinder is measured with a metre scale having least count 0.1 cm. Its diameter is measured
with vernier calipers having least count 0.01 cm. Given that the length is 5.0 cm and radius is 2.0 cm. What
is the percentage error in the calculated value of volume?
1) 3 2) 4 3) 2 4) 5
5. In the given figure, main scale is graduated in millimeter. Find the reading, if least count is 0.1 mm

A) The main scale reading is 2.4 cm B) The vernier scale reading is 0.3 mm
C) The total reading is 2.43 cm 4) The total reading is 2.4 cm
1) A and B are correct 2) A, B and D are correct
3) A, B and C are correct 4) A and B are correct
6. The smallest division on the main scale of a vernier callipers is 1 mm and 10 vernier divisions coincide with 9
main scale divisions. While measuring the diameter of a sphere, the zero mark of the vernier scale lies
between 20 and 21 mm and the fifth division of the vernier scale coincide with 26th division of the main scale.
The diameter of the sphere is
1) 20.5 mm 2) 21.5 mm 3) 21.50 mm 4) 20.50 mm
7. The length of a cylinder is measured with a meter scale having least count 0.1 cm. Its diameter is measured
with vernier calipers having least count 0.01 cm. Given that the length is 5.0 cm and radius is 2.0 cm. What
is the percentage error in the calculated value of the volume?
1) 2 % 2) 4 % 3) 3 % 4) 6 %
8. One centimeter on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into 10 equal parts. If 10 divisions of the
vernier scale coincides with 8 small divisions of the main scale. The least count of the callipers is
1) 0.01 mm 2) 0.02 cm 3) 0.01 mm 4) 0.02 mm
9. In an experiment the angles are required to be measured using an instrument. 29 divisions of the main scale
exactly coincide with the 30 divisions of vernier scale. If the smallest division of the main scale is half-a degree
(= 0.5o), then what is the least count of the instrument?

1 1
1) minute 2) 1 minute 3) 2 minute 4) 1 minute
2 2

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

10. Two full turns of the circular scale of a screw gauge cover a distance of 1 mm on its main scale. The total
number of divisions on the circular scale is 50. Further, it is found that the screw gauge has a zero error of
– 0.03 mm. While measuring the diameter of a thin wire, a student notes the main scale reading of 3 mm and
the number of circular scale divisions in line with the main scale as 35. The diameter of the wire is
1) 3.32 mm 2) 3.37 mm 3) 3.67 mm 4) 3.38 mm
11. The density of a solid ball is to be determined in an experiment. The diameter of the ball is measured with a
screw gauge, whose pitch is 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisions on the circular scale. The reading on the main
scale is 2.5 mm and that on the circular scale is 20 divisions. If the measured mass of the ball has a relative
error of 2%, the relative percentage error in the density is
1) 0.9% 2) 2.4% 3) 3.1% 4) 4.2%
12. The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on the circular scale. Screw gauge is zero
error free. While measuring diameter of a wire, the main scale reads 1 mm and 48th division on circular scale
coincides with the reference line. The length of wire is 5.0 cm. Find the volume of the wire.
1) 2.6 cm3 2) 0.086 cm3 3) 0.026 cm3 4) 0.36 cm3
13. The pitch of the screw gauge is 1 mm. There are 100 divisions on the circular M scale. When the gap AB is
just closed, 8th division of the circular scale coincides with reference line. While measuring the diameter of a
wire, the linear scale reads 1 mm and 50th division on the circular scale coincides with the reference line. The
length of the wire is 8.6 cm. Find the curved surface area of the cylinder.
1) 3.8 cm2 2) 3.834 cm2 3) 2.6 cm2 4) 2.68 cm2
14. In 10 complete rotations, the distance moved on the linear scale is 1 cm. There are 100 divisions on circular
scale. When the gap AB is just closed, the 95th division of circular scale coincide with the reference line.
While measuring the diameter of a wire, the linear scale reads 2 mm and 45th division on the circular scale
coincides with the reference line. Find cross-sectional area of the wire
1) 3.8 cm2 2) 0.049 cm2 3) 0.098 cm2 4) 0.45 cm2
15. A student makes a circular scale having 50 divisions fitted on the screw. The nut is held fixed on a stand. A
scale S is put by the side of circular scale. In ten full rotations, the screw goes down by 10 mm. Then,

A) the pitch of set up is 1 mm B) the least count of set up is 0.02 mm

C) the pitch of set up is 10 mm D) the least count of set up is 0.01 mm
1) Both A and C 2) Both A and B 3) A only 4) Both B and D

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16. The least count of a wrist watch graduated at every second is

A) one second if it has hour hand, minute hand and second hand
B) one minute if it has only hour hand and minute hand
C) one second in any case
D) one minute in any case
1) Both A and C 2) B only 3) Both B and D 4) Both A and B
17. Two full turns of the circular scale of a screw gauge cover a distance of 1 mm on its main scale. The total
number of divisions on the circular scale is 50. Further, it is found that the screw gauge has a zero error
of – 0.03 mm. While measuring the diameter of a thin wire, a student notes the main scale reading of 3 mm and
the number of circular scale divisions in line with the main scale, as 35. The diameter of the wire is
1) 3.97 mm 2) 3.38 mm 3) 3.35 mm 4) 3.32 mm
18. In an experiment to determine acceleration due to gravity, the length of the pendulum is measured as 98 cm by
a meter scale of least count of 1 cm. The period of swing/oscillations is measured with the help of a stop watch
having a least count of 1 s. The time period of 50 oscillations is found to be 98 s. Express value of g with
proper error limits.

1)  9.9  0.3 ms 2 2) 10.1  0.3 ms 2 3)  9.81  0.3 ms 2 4)  9.9  0.1 ms 2

19. The relative density of a metal may be found by hanging a block of the metal from a spring balance. In air the
balance reads  5.00  0.05  N while in water it reads  4.00  0.05  N . The relative density would be
quoted as

1)  5.00  0.05  2) 5.00  11% 3)  500  0.10  4) 5.00  6%

20. A student performs an experiment to determine the Young’s modulus of a wire, exactly 2 m long, by Searle’s
method. In a particular reading, the student measures the extension in the length of the wire to be 0.8 mm with
an uncertainty of ± 0.05 mm at a load of exactly 1.0 kg. The student also measures the diameter of the wire
to be 0.4 mm with an uncertainty of ± 0.01 mm. Take g = 9.8 m s–2 (exact). Young’s modulus obtained from
the reading is
1) (2.0 ± 0.3) × 1011 N m–2
2) (2.0 ± 0.2) × 1011 N m–2
3) (2.0 ± 0.1) × 1011 N m–2
4) (2.0 ± 0.05) × 1011 N m–2
21. While measuring the speed of sound by performing a resonance column experiment, a student gets the first
resonance condition at a column length of 18 cm during winter. Repeating the same experiment during summer,
she measures the column length to be x centimetre for the second resonance. Then
1) 54 > x > 36 2) 36 > x > 18 3) 18 > x 4) x > 54

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

22. In a meter bridge experiment, the null point is obtained at 20 cm from one end of the wire when resistance X
is balanced against another resistance Y. If X < Y, then where will be the new position of the null point from the
same end, if one decides to balance a resistance of 4X against Y?
1) 50 cm 2) 80 cm 3) 40 cm 4) 70 cm

1 1
23. For a concave mirror, if real image is formed the graph between and is of the form
u v

1 1 1
24. The focal length of a spherical mirror is given by   , where u is the position of object from pole of the
f v u
mirror and v is position of image from pole of the mirror.

If u   30  0.3 cm and v   60  0.6  cm . The maximum percentage error in the measurement of focal
length of the mirror is n%. Find the value of n.
1) 1 2) 2 3) 3 4) 4
25. An experiment is performed to find the refractive index of glass using a travelling microscope. In this experiment,
distances are measured by
1) a metre scale provided on the microscope
2) a screw gauge provided on the microscope
3) a vernier scale provided on the microscope
4) a standard laboratory scale

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KEY WITH HINTS

CLASS DISCUSSION
1. 4 As, 30 VSD = 29 MSD
29
1 VSD  MSD
30

 29  1 1o

Least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD  1   MSD   0.5o
  1 minute
 30  30 60
2. 3 Least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

 N  1 MSD  N  VSD   VSD  1 

1  1
 MSD, L.C.  1MSD  1   MSD
 N  N
1 1
Least count    1mm   cm
N 10 N
3. 1 L.C. = 1 MSD – 1 VSD but (N) MSD= (N + m) (VSD)

 N 
 L.C.  1 MSD    MSD
Nm
For minimum least count, m should be minimum, so m = 1
4. 2 (n + 1) divisions of vernier scale = n divisions of main scale.

n
 One vernier division  main scale division.
n 1

 n  1 a
Least count = 1M.S.D.  1V.S.D.   1   M.S.D.  M.S.D. 
 n 1  n 1 n 1
5. 1 Length measured with vernier callipers = reading before the zero of vernier scale. + (the number of
vernier divisions coinciding with any main scale division × least count)
= 10 mm + 0 × 0.1 mm = 10 mm = 1.00 cm
0.5
6. 2 Zero error = 5   0.05 mm
50
0.5
Actual measurement = 2 × 0.5 mm + 25 ×  0.05 mm
50
= 1 mm + 0.25 mm – 0.05 mm = 1.20 mm
2
7. 2 Pitch   0.5 mm
4
0.5
 Least count =  0.01 mm
50

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

 1 
8. 2 Diameter =  31     31  6  = 3.50 mm
 50 

2 mm
9. 3 Pitch   0.5 mm
4

0.5
Least count   0.01 mm
50
Diameter of the wire = 1.5 + 32 × 0.01 = 1.82 mm

l  g 
10. 1 T  2  l   2  T2
g  4 

g
ie, l – T2 graph is a straight line passing through origin of slope .
4 2
11. 1 Measured time period of 100 oscillations are 90 sec, 91 sec, 95 sec and 92 sec.
90  91  95  92
Mean value of time = t m   92 sec
4
Absolute error in measurement
| t1 |  | t m  t1 |  2 sec

| t 2 |  | t m  t 2 |  1 sec

| t 3 |  | t m  t 2 |  3 sec

| t 4 |  | t m  t 4 |  0sec

2 1 3  0
Mean absolute error t mean   1.5 sec
4
But the least count of the measuring clock is 1 sec, so it cannot measure upto 0.5 second, so we have
to round it off. So mean error will be 2 second.

Hence mean time  92  2sec 

12. 3

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Let the distance of 40 g from the one end (ie, 0 cm) of the metre scale be x.
Distance of 60 g from midpoint = 50 cm – 30 cm = 20 cm
Distance of 40 g from midpoint = (x – 50) cm
Using principle of moments 20 × 60g = 40 g × (x – 50)
x – 50 = 30
x = 80 cm
13. 2
14. 3
Pitch 0.5 mm
15. 1 L.C.    0.005 mm
N 100
4MLg 4
Y  MLg l 1 d 2
ld 2

d l
 Max. error in Y due to measurements of d and l respectively are 2 and
d l
0.005 0.005
or 2  and or 0.02 and 0.02
0.5 0.25
16. 3 m = 1000 g
1
S=
2
  80o C
1 1
100   40  900  Sl  20  200   20
2 2
20000  18000 Sl  2000
18000 = 18000 Sl
Sl = 1 cal/g oC
17. 1 Mass of solid, m1 = 200g
Temperature of solid, T1 = 20oC
Final temperature, T = 60oC
Heat gained by solid = m1  ss   T  T1  = 200  ss  40 (i)
where ss is the specific heat of solid.
Mass of water, m2 = 200 g
Water equivalent of calorimeter, W = 50 g.
Temperature of (water + calorimeter), T2 = 80oC
Heat cost by (water + calorimeter) =  m 2  W   s w   T2  T 
= 250 × 1 × 20 = 5000 cal (ii)
From principle of calorimetery, Heat gained by solid = Heat lost by water and calorimeter
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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

200  ss  40  5000

5
or ss   0.625 cal g 1 o C 1
8

18. 1 l1  e  -----(i)
4
3
l2  e  -----(ii)
4
where e is the end correction and  is the wavelength of the sound
l2 + e = 3(l1 + e) (Using (i)
or l2 = 3l1 + 2e
 l2  3l1
19. 3 Here, l1 = 20.4 cm, l2 = 61.8 cm; v = 331.2 ms–1 = 33120 cm s–1
v
v  2  l2  l1  or   2  l  l 
2 1

33120 cm s 1 33120 cm s 1
Substituting the given values, we get   2 61.8 cm  20.4 cm   400 Hz
  2  41.4 cm
R 33.7 33.7
20. 2   ------(1)
S 100  33.7 66.3

R

 33.7  18.2   51.9 -----(2)
 12S  100   33.7  18.2  48.1
 
 12  S 
Dividing eq. (1) by (2)
12S 33.7 48.1 1621
  
12  S  S 66.3 51.9 3441
21840 = 1621 S  S  13.47

33.7
Substituting in eqn. (1) R   13.47  6.84 
66.3
21. 2 If R and S (R < S) are two resistances in two gaps and balance point is on 40 cm from left end.
R l 40 2
   (i)
S 100  l 60 3
Now X is in series with R, l' = 60 cm
RX l 60 3
   (ii)
S 100  l  40 2

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Dividie (i) by (ii), we get

R 2 2 4 4
  or
RX 3 3

4X 9
 R  4 (given) 
or 16 + 4X = 36 or X = 5 
22. 1 There is no difference in two figures, ammeter A is in series and voltmeter V is in parallel to resistance.
I E
23. 2 k 
 R  G 

RS 10  4 20
24. 1 G   
R  S 10  4 3
25. 1 When object is at centre of curvature, image coincides with object.
1 1 1
26. 3 We know  
f v u

1 1 1 |u||f |
Hence  | f |   | v |   | u |  | v | | u |  | f |

For |u| = 42 cm

 42  24 
We get | v | 42  24  56 cm
 
So (42, 56) is correct observation.

|v| 
 66    24   38 cm
For |u| = 66 cm, we get
 66  24 
Hence (66, 33) is not correct observation.

|v| 
 48   24   48 cm
For |u| = 48 cm, we get
 48  24 
Hence (48, 48) is correct observation.

 78   24   35 cm
For |u| = 78 cm, we get | v | 
 78  24 
Hence (78, 39) is not correct observation.

1 1 1 2 1
27. 4 V  u and   , 
v u f v f
 v  2f , u  2f

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

28. 4

l
y
x

Here, real depth = x – l

and apparent depth = y – l

x l    x  l    y  l 
    
yl  x l yl
1 1
Here,   x  l   x  l    0.02
100 100

1 1  x  l y  l
  y  l   y  l    0.02   100   100  100
100 100  x  l yl

Percentage error in refractive index = 0.02 × 100 + 0.02 × 100 = 4% n 4

29. 1 The output voltage acorss RL will be equal to the voltage across the zener diode, ie, 40 V
30. 4

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HOMEWORK
LEVEL - I
1. 3 Side length of cube = 10 mm + 6 × 0.1 mm – 4 × 0.1 mm = 10.2 mm
2 cm 1
2. 3 1 MSD   cm  0.1cm
20 10
 20 divisions of vernier scale = 16 divisions of main scale
20 VSD = 16 × 0.1 cm = 1.6 cm
1.6
1 VSD   0.08 cm
20
Least count (LC) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD = 0.1 cm – 0.08 cm = 0.02 cm
1 mm
3. 1 Least count =  0.1 mm
10
Zero error = – 6 × 0.1 = – 0.6 mm
Reading = 6 + 5(0.1) = 6.5
Corrected reading = 6.5 + 0.6 = 7.1 mm
4. 1 10 VSD = 9 MSD

 9  9 9
 1 VSD    MSD    1 mm   mm
 10   10  10

9
LC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD = 1mm  mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
10
Diameter = (2.0 cm) + (0.01 cm) (5) = 2.05 cm
5. 1 Since, least count is 1 mm, so we cannot measure the length less than 1 mm. Hence, option (A) and (D)
are correct.
Pitch 1mm
6. 1 LC    0.01 mm
N 100
 Diameter = 0 + 52 × 0.01 = 0.52 mm = 0.052 cm

pitch 2
7. 2 Least count =   0.01 mm
No.of divisions 200

Reading = 3 × 2 + (46 – 5) × 0.01 = 6.41 mm

8. 4 As measured value is 3.50 cm, the least count must be 0.01 cm = 0.1 mm
For vernier scale with 1 MSD = 1 mm and 9 MSD = 10 VSD,
Least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD = 0.1 mm

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

9. 1 A zero of circular scale is above the reference line of graduation, zero correction is positive and zero
error is negative.
Zero error = – 7 × 10–3 cm
10. 4 From the measurements least count of meter scale is 0.1 cm and least count of verner callipers is 0.01
cm. Effective length of simple pendulum = 63.5 + 1.55 = 65.05 = 65.1 cm

t t T t 0.2
11. 2 T  T  or  100   100   100  0.8%
n n T t 25
12. 1 Magnification of micrscope = 100
Observed width of the hair = 3.5 mm
Observed width Observed width 3.5
Magnification = Real width ; Real width = Magnification width  100

= 0.035 mm
13. 2 Average a number of readings makes the measurement more precise.
14. 3
15. 4 Pressing the key does not disturb current in all resistances as the bridge is balanced. Therefore, deflection
in the galvanometer in whatever direction it was, will stay.
16. 2 The actual circuit is same.
17. 1 Wheatstone bridge is balance, therefore

P R 10
 or 1   S  10 ohm
Q S S

R 25
18. 1 
300 75
R  100 

RA Rd 2
   2.5  104 -m
L 4L
19. 3 If R and S are interchanged
l = 75 cm, 100 – l = 25 cm
Balance point will be shifted by 75 – 25 = 50 cm.
R 1  10 50
20. 3 
R2 50 -----(1)
R 1 40

R 2 60 -----(2)
Solving these two equations we get R 1  20  .
21. 1
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

x 1 y
22. 2 Here internal resistance is given by the slope of graph ie, . But conductance = =
y Resistance x
23. 1 For object placed beyond F or for all object distances > f, the concave mirror forms a real image,
however for object lying between F and P ie, (u < f), the image formed is a magnified virtual image.
24. 1
25. 2 Since object and image move in opposite directions, the positioning should be as shown in figure.
Object lies between focus and centre of curvature f < x < 2f.

LEVEL - II
1. 3 The instrument whose least count is minimum, is called the most precise device.
1) Number of division (MSD) = 1mm
As 20 divisions on vernier scale will be equal to the 19 divisions on main scale.
19
 Vernier Scale Division (VSD) = MSD
20
Least count of vernier callipers = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
19 1 1 1
 1 MSD  MSD  MSD  mm  cm  0.005 cm
20 20 20 200
2) Pitch of screw gauge = 1 mm
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
Pitch
Least count of screw gauge = Number of divisions on circular scale

1 1
mm   0.001 cm
100 1000 cm

3) Wavelength of light     107 m  105 cm  0.00001 cm

 As the given optical instrument can measure length to within a wavelength of light, therefore least
count of the given optical instrument = Wavelength of light = 0.00001 cm.
The least count is minimum for the given optical instrument. Therefore, the given optical instrument is
most precise.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

2. 3 L.C. = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

m m
 0.02  0.1    0.08 cm
n n

m
 n  11mm  m , 1
n
 0.2

nm
 0.2 , n = 1 + m
n

1 m  m 1
 0.2 ,  0.2
1 m 1 m
0.2 + 0.2 m = 1
0.2 m = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8

0.8
m  4 mm
0.2
n = 5 or m = 8 mm and n = 10
3. 3 The side of cube, l = 10 mm + 1 × VC
 l = 10 mm + 1 × 0.1 mm = 10.1 mm

Mass M 2.732
 Density  Volume  l 3  g cm 3  2.65165g cm 3
 
3
10.1 10 1

Applying the rule of significant figure,

Density = 2.65 g cm–3

d2
4. 1 Volume V  r 2l ; V   .l
4
where l and d are the length and diameter of the rod respectively percentage error in the volume is

V 2 d l  2  0.01 0.1 
 100   100   100     100  3%
V d l  2.00 5.0 
5. 3 1) Zero mark of vernier scale is ahead 2.4 cm mark on the main scale.
So, the reading of main scale is 2.4cm.
2) The third division of vernier scale exactly coincide with a mark of main scale.
3) Total reading = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading
= 2.4 cm + 0.3 mm = 2.4 cm + 0.03 mm = 2.43 cm
10  9
6. 1 D  20  5   20.5 mm
10

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

d2
7. 3 Volume V  r 2l V   l
4
where, l and d are the length and diameter of the rod respectively.
Percentage error in the volume is:
V 2 d l  2  0.01 0.1 
 100   100   100     100  3%
V d l  2.00 5.0 
8. 2 1 main scale division (M.S.D.) = 1 mm.
10 vernier scale division (V.S.D.) = 8 M.S.D.
8
1 V.S.D.  M.S.D.  0.8 mm
10
Least count = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = 1 – 0.8 = 0.2 mm = 0.02 cm
9. 2 Here 29 divisions of main scale coincides with 30 divisions of vernier scale.
30  29 1
Here 1 division of vernier scale =
30
of main scale 
30
 0.5o  .
value of main scale division 1
Alternately, least count = number of divisions on vernier scale  30 MSD

1
  0.5   1minute
o
=
30

1
10. 4 As, pitch = mm  0.5 mm
2
0.5
Least count = mm  0.01mm
50
Zero error = – 0.03 mm
Zero correction = + 0.03 mm
Corrected diameter of wire = 3.35 mm + 0.03 mm = 3.38 mm
Pitch 0.5 mm
11. 3 L.C. =   0.01 mm
N 50
Diameter, d = [(2.5 + 20 × 0.01)  0.01] mm = (2.70  0.01) mm

m 6m 6
Density,     md 3
4 3 d 3

r
3

 m d 0.01
  3  2%  3   100% = 3.1%
 m d 2.70

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

1
12. 2 LC  mm  0.01mm
100
Diameter of wire = Reading of main scale + Reading of circular scale.
= 1 mm + 48 × LC = 1 mm + 48 × 0.01 mm = 1.48 mm

 Volume of wire = 
d2
l = 3.14×
1.48 10 
1 2

 5 cm3  0.0859732 cm 3  0.086 cm3

4 4
1
13. 1 L.C. =  0.01 mm
100
Zero error = +8 × LC = 8 × 0.01 = 0.08 mm
 Diameter of wire, d = Reading of main scale + Reading of circualr scale – Zero error
 d = 1 mm + 50 × LC – 0.08 mm = 1 mm + (50 × 0.01 – 0.08) mm
= 1.42 mm = 1.42 × 10–1 cm
Curved surface area = ld = 3.14 × 8.6 × 1.42 × 10–1 = 3.8 cm2
1 cm 10 mm
14. 2 Here, Pitch    1 mm
10 10
Pitch 1
Least count (LC) = Number of divisions on circular scale  100  0.01 mm

The diameter of wire is

d = Reading of main scale + Reading of circular scale + (zero error)
= 2 mm + (45 × 0.01 + 0.05) mm = 2.5 mm

d 2 3.14   2.5  10 
1 2

 Cross-sectional area =  cm 2  0.049 cm 2

4 4
10 mm
15. 2 Pitch   1 mm
10
Pitch 1
B) Least count  Number of divisions on circular scale   0.02 mm
50
16. 4 1) The least value of measurement in option (A) is 1 s. So, least count is 1 s.
2) The least value of measurement in option (B) is 1 min. So, least count is 1 min.

1
17. 2 Pitch of screw gauge = mm  0.5 mm
2

0.5
Least count of the screw gauge  mm  0.01 mm
50

Zero error = – 0.03 mm Zero correction = +0.03 mm

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Main scale reading = 3 mmCircular scale reading = 35

Observed diameter of the wire = 3 mm + 35 × (0.01) mm = 3.35 mm

Corrected diameter of the wire = (3.35 + 0.03) mm = 3.38 mm

l
18. 2 As T  2
g

Now, time period of 50 oscillations is 98 s

98
 Time period of one oscillation is  1.96s
50

4 2 l 0.98
 4  3.14 
2
g  10.06 m / s 2
T 2
1.96  1.96
Let us find the permissible error in the measurement.

4 2 l g l 2T
As g  2 , we have g
 
T l T

 1 2 1 
g  10   
 98 98 
 Least count of meter scale is 1 cm and least count of stop watch is (1 s), g  0.3 m / s 2 . So, final
result can be expressed as 10.1  0.3 ms 2 .

weight in air
19. 2 RD 
loss of weight in water

5.00
  5.00
1.00

d 0.05 0.1
   0.11 or 11%    5.00  11%
 5.00 1.00

MgL 4MgL
20. 2 Young’s modulus Y  
r L D 2 L
2

4 1 9.8  2
Y  2  1011 N m 2
Substituting the given values, we get   0.4  10 
3 2
 0.8  10 3

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

Y 2D   L 
Now,  
Y D L
 2  0.01 0.05  2 2
Y      2  10 Nm  0.2  10 Nm
11 11

 0.4 0.8 

Hence, the Young’s modulus obtained from the reading is  2.0  0.2   1011 Nm 2

RT
21. 4 The speed of the sound in air can be written as v1 
M
Here we are assuming M is the average molar mass of the air and g is the adiabatic constant of air.

RT1 RT2
Hence we can write, v1  ; v2  where T1 and T2 stand for winter and summer
M M
temperatures.


For 1st resonance: L1   18 cm
4

v1 v
f  1
 4L1
At temperature T1
v1
L1   18 cm  v1  72f cm / s
4f
3
For 2nd resonance: L 2 
4
4fL 2
At temperature T2 v2 
3
4fL 2
At T2, in summers, v2 > v1, ie, ie, 72f   L 2  54 cm
3
R 1 l1
22. 1 We have from the meter bridge experiment, R  l where l2 = (100 – l1) cm
2 2

X 20
In the first case, 
Y 80
4X l
In the second case, 
Y 100  l
l = 50 cm

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1 1 1 1 1 1
23. 1 Since     
f v u v u f
1 1 1 1 1 1
Putting the sign convention properly   v    u    f   v   u  f

Comparing this equation with y = mx + c

1
Slope = m  tan   1    135o or  45o and intercept C  
f

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
24. 1    or   or  
f v u f 30 60 f 60 60

1 1 1 1 df 1 dv 1 du
 f = 20 cm    or 2
 2 
f v u f dx v dx u 2 dx

f v u f 0.6 0.3
     
f 2 v2 u 2 400 3600 900

f 0.6 0.3 1 1 f 1 1
      
4 36 9 60 30 2 30 15

1  2  1
f  2    0.2
 30  5

f 0.2
Percentage error in focal length   100   100  1%
f 20
25. 3 A travelling microscope moves horizontally on a main scale provided with a vernier scale, provided
with the microscope.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

CHEMISTRY

PRINCIPLES RELATED TO PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY

A. DETECTION OF THE FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

I. DETECTION OF HYDROXYL GROUP
i. TEST FOR ALCOHOLIC (R–OH) GROUP
Theory
Alcoholic compounds on reaction with ceric ammonium nitrate give a red colouration due to the
formation of a complex.

Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols can be done on the basis of iodoform
test and Lucas test. Ethanol and secondary alcohols which contain CH3 – CH(OH)R group (iodoform
reaction) give positive iodoform test. To carry out reaction, potassium iodide and sodium hypochlorite
solutio are added to the compound in the presence of sodium hydroxide solution. Probably sodium
hypochlorite first oxidses potassium iodide into potassium hypoiodite, which oxidises CH3 –CH(OH)R
group to CH3COR group and then iodinates it in the alkaline medium of the reaction mixture by
replacing the α -hydrogen attached to the carbon atom adjacent to carbonyl group by iodine. Iodoform
is formed after cleavage of C – C bond.

Lucas Test
Lucas reagent contains zinc chloride and concentrated hydrochloric acid. This reagent reacts with
primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols at different rates. Tertiary alcohols react almost
instantantaneously, secondary alcohols react in about 1-5 minutes and primary alcohols react very
slowly. The reaction may take 10 minutes to several days.

Alcohols are soluble in Lucas reagent but the formed alkyl halides are not solube. Therefore, formation
of two layers in the reaction medium indicate the occurrence of the reaction.
Primary alcohols - Layers do not separate
Secondary alcohols - Layers separate within 1-5 minutes
Tertiary alcohols - Layers separate immediately
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ii. TEST FOR PHENOLIC (AR-OH) GROUP

Theory
The –OH group attached directly to the ring carbon of an aromatic ring is called phenolic –OH group.
Phenols are weakly acidic, therefore they are soluble in NaOH solution but at the same time they are
not sufficiently acidic to be soluble is sodium hydrogen carbonate solution. Phenols give coloured
complex with neutral ferric chloride solution. For example, phenol gives a complex of violet colour as
follows :

Resorcinol, o–, m– and p-cresol give violet or blue colouration, catechol gives green colour which
rapidly darkens. 1 and 2-Naphthol do not give characteristics colours. Phenols condense with phthalic
anhydride in the presence of concentrated H2SO4, Phenol condeses to give phenolphthalein which
gives a dark pink colour with NaOH solution. This is called phthalein dye test.

Colours produced by some other phenolic compounds in phthalein dye test

Compound Colour Compound Colour
Usually blue takes
o-Cresol red Catechol
longer time to appear
m-Cresol bluish - purple
Green fluorescent
p-Cresol No colour Resorcinol
colour of fluorescein
II. DETECTION OF CARBONYL GROUP
O
(ALDEHYDIC AND KETONIC GROUPS ( CHO and C ))

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

Theory
Both aldehydes and ketones contain carbonyl group (>C = O) and commonly known as carbonyl
compounds. Identification of a aldehydes and ketones is done by two important reactions of carbonyl
group i.e.
i) addition reaction on double bond of > C = O group and
ii) oxidation of carbonyl group
Addition reactions of derivatives of ammonia are important from the point of view of identification of
carbonyl compounds. Addition is generally followed by elimination resulting in the formation of
unsaturated compound.

These reaction are catalysed by an acid or a base and do not occur under strongly acidic or basic
conditions. Each reaction requires an optimum pH for its occurrence. Therefore, maintenance of pH
is very important while carrying out these reactions. As far as oxidation is concerned, aldehydes are
easily oxidised to carboxylic acids while ketones require relatively stronger oxidising agent. Distinction
can be made between these two types of carbonyl compounds on the basis of difference in their
reactivity.
Following tests are performed for the identification of aldehydic and ketonic groups.
i) On reaction with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2, 4-DNP), they form the respective 2, 4-dinitrophenyl
hydrazones.

These two carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones) are distinguished on the basis of tests
using mild oxidising reagents, like Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s reagent or Benedict’s reagent. Tollen’s
reagent is an alkaline solutions of silver cation complexed with tartarate and citrate ions respectively.
Fehling’s reagent is freshly prepared by mixing equal amounts of Feshling’s solution A and Fehling’
s solution B.Fehling’s reagent deteriorates on keeping while Fehling’s solutions A and B are quite
stable. Fehling’s solution A is an aqueous copper sulphate solution while Fehling’s solution B is an
alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle’s salt). The reagent contains Cu2+ ion
complexed with tartarate ions. The structure of the complex is given below :

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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Benedict modified the original Fehling’s test by using a single solution which is more convenient for
alkaline solution containing a mixture of copper sulphate and sodium citrate (2Na3C6H5O7.11H2O).
Complex formation decreases the cupric ion concentration below that necessary for precipitation of
cupric hydroxide. These two reagents oxidize aldehydes while ketones remain unaffected. The
chemistry of these tests is as follows:

RCHO  2AgNH3 2  2OH 

 2Ag  3NH2  H2O  RCOOH4
From Tollen ' s reagent

RCHO  2Cu2 complexed 5OH 

 RCOO  Cu2O  3H2O
Fehling ' s solution

However, aromatic aldehydes do not give positive Fehling’s test. In Benedict test also, Cu2+ ions are
reduced to Cu+ ions in the same manner as in the case of Fehling’s reagent.
Aldehydes also give pink colour with Schiff’s reagent (the reagent is prepared by decolourising aqueous
solution of p-rosaniline hydrochloride dye by adding sodium sulphite or by passing SO2 gas). Ketones
do not respond to this test.
III. DETECTION OF CARBOXYL GROUP (–COOH)
Theory
Organic compounds containing carboxyl functional groups are caled carboxylic acids.
The term carboxyl, derives its name from the combination of words carbonyl and hydroxyl because
O
carboxylic functional group contains both of these groups( C OH ). These acids turn blue litmus
red and react with sodium hydrogencarbonate solution to produce effervescence due to the formation
of carbon dioxide. This is a test that distinguishes caboxylic acids from phenols.

These react with alcohols in the acidic medium to produces esters.

IV. DETECTION OF AMINO GROUP (–NH2)

Theory
Organic compounds containing amino group are basic in nature. Thus they easily react with acids to
form salts, which are soluble in water. Both, aliphatic and aromatic amines are classified into three
classes namely-primary(–NH2), secondary (–NH–) and tertiary (–N<), depending upon the number of
hydrogen atoms attached to the nitrogen atom. Primary amine has two hydrogen atoms, secondary
has one while tertiary amine has no hydrogen atom attached to nitrogen.
i) Carbylamine test
Aliphatic as well as aromatic primary amines give carbylamine test in which an amine is heated with
chloroform.
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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

iI) Azo dye test

Aromatic primary amines can be confirmed by azo dye test. Primary amine e.g. aniline reacts with
nitrous acid generated in situ by the reaction of sodium nitrite with HCl at 0 - 5oC to produce diazonium
salt. This couples with a-naphthol to give a scarlet red dye, which is sparingly soluble in water.

B. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Analysis always does not mean breaking of substance into its ulitmate constituents. Finding out the
nature of substance and identify of its constituents is also analysis and is known as qualitative analysis.
Qualitative analysis of inorganic salts means the identification of cations and anions present in the
salt of a mixture of salts. Inorganic salts may be obtained by complete or partial neutralisation of acid
with base or vice-versa. In the formation of a salt, the part contributed by the acid is called anion and
the part contributed by the base is called cation. For example, in the salts CuSO4 and NaCl, Cu2+ and
Na+ ions are cations and SO 24  and Cl– ions are anions. Qualitative analysis is carried out on various
scales. Amount of substance and employed in these is different. In macro analysis, 0.1 to 0.5 g of
substance and about 20 mL of solution is used. For semimicro analysis, 0.05 g substance and 1 mL
solution is needed while for micro analysis amount required is very small. Qualitative analysis is
carried out through the reactions which are easily perceptible to our senses such as sight and smell.
Such reactions involve:
a) Formation of a precipitate
b) Change in colour
c) Evolution of gas etc.
Systematic analysis of an inorganic salt involves the following steps :
i) Preliminary examination of solid salt and its solution.
ii) Determination of anions by reactions carried out in solution (wet tests) and confirmatory tests.
iii) Determination of cations by reactions carried out in solution (wet tests) and confirmatory tests.
Preliminary examination of a salt often furnishes important information, which simplifies further course
of analysis. Although these tests are not conclusive but sometimes they give quite important clues for
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 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

the presence of certain anions or cations. These tests can be performed within 10-15 minutes. These
involve noting the general appearance and physical properties, such as colour, smell, solubility etc. of
the salt. These are named as dry tests.
Heating of dry salt, blow pipe test, flame tests, borax bead test, sodium carbonate bead test, charcoal
cavity test etc. come under dry tests.
Solubility of a salt in water and the pH of aqueous solutions give important information about the
nature of ions present in the salt. If a solution of the salt is acidic or basic in nature, this means that it
is being hydrolysed in water. If the solution is basic in nature then salt may be some carbonate or
sulphide etc. If the solution shows acidic nature then it may be an acid salt or salt of weak base and
strong acid. In this case it is best to neutralise the solution with sodium carbonate before testing it for
anions.
Gases evolved in the preliminary tests with dil. H2SO4/dil. HCl and conc. H2SO4 also give good
indication about the presence of acid radicals. Preliminary tests should always be performed before
starting the confirmatory tests for the ions.
Theory
Two basic principles of great use in the analysis are :
i) the solubility product and
ii) the common ion effect
When ionic product of a salt exceeds its solubility product, precipitation takes place. Ionic product of
salt is controlled by making use of common ion effect which you have studied in the textbook of
chemistry.
I(a) ANALYSIS OF ANIONS
Preliminary Test with Dilute Sulphuric Acid
In this test the action of dilute sulphuric acid (procedure is given below) on the salt is noted at room
temperature and on warming. Carbonate ( CO32 ) , sulphide (S2–), sulphite ( SO32 ), nitrite ( NO2 ) and
acetate (CH3COO–) react with dilute sulphuric acid to evolve different gases. Study of the characteristics
of the gases evolved gives information about the anions. Summary of characteristic properties of
gases is given below.
Preliminary test with dilute sulphuric acid
Inference
Observations
Gas Evolved Possible Anion
A colourless, odourless gas is evolved with brisk
effervescence, which turns lime water milky. CO2 Carbobate CO32 

Colourless gas with the smell of rotteneggs is

evolved which turns lead acetate paper black. H2S Sulphide (S2-)

Colourless gas with the a pungent smell, like

burning sulphur which turns acidified potassium SO2 Sulphite SO32 
dichromate solution green.
Brown fumes which turn acidified potassium
NO2 Nitrite NO2 
iodide solution containing starch solution blue.
Colourless vapours with smell of vinegar.
CH3COOH vapours Acetate, (CH3COO-)
Vapours turn blue litmus red.

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Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests

Confirmatory (wet) tests for anions are performed by using water extract when salt is soluble in water
and by using sodium carbonate extract when salt is insoluble in water. Confirmation of CO23  is done
by using aqueous solution of the salt or by using solid salt as such because sodium carbonate extract
contains carbonate ions. Water extract is made by dissolving salt in water. Preparation of sodium
carbonate extract is given below.
Preparation of sodium carbonate extract
Take 1 g of salt in a porcelain dish or boiling tube. Mix about 3 g of solid sodium carbonate and add
15 mL of distilled water to it. Stir and boil the content for about 10 minutes. Cool, filter and collect the
filtrate in a test tube and label it as sodium carbonate extract.

1. Test for Carbonate ion CO23 

If there is effervescence with the evolution of a colourless and odourless gas on adding dil. H2SO4 to
the solid salt, this indicates the presence of carbonate ion. The gas turns lime water milky due to the
formation of CaCO3

Na 2CO3  H2SO 4 
 Na 2SO 4  H2O  CO 2

Ca OH2  CO2 
 CaCO3  H2O
If CO2 gas is passed in excess through lime water, the milkiness produced disappears due to the
formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate which is soluble in water.

 Ca HCO3 2
CaCO3  CO2  H2O 
2. Test for Sulphide ion [S2–]
a) With warm dilute H2SO4 a sulphide gives hydrogen sulphide gas which smells like rotten eggs. A
piece of filter paper dipped in lead acetate solution turns black on exposure to the gas due to the
formation of lead sulphide which is black in colour.

Na2S  H2SO 4 
 Na2SO 4  H2S

CH3COO2 Pb  H2S  LeadPbS

sulphide
 2CH3COOH
Black precipitate

b) If the salt is soluble in water, take the solution of salt in water make it alkaline with ammonium
hydroxide and add sodium nitroprusside solution. If it is insoluble in water take sodium carboante
extract and add a few drops of sodium nitroprusside solution. Purple or violet colouration due to
the formation of complex compound Na4[Fe(CN)5NOS] confirms the presence of sulphide ion in
the salt.

3. Test for Nitrite ion NO2 

a) On treating a soild nitrite with dil.H2SO4 and warming, reddish brown fumes of NO2 gas are
evolved. Addition of potassium iodide solution to the salt solution followed by freshly prepared
starch solution and acidification with acetic acid produces blue colour. Alternatively, a filter paper
moistened with potassium iodide and starch solution and a few drops of acetic acid turns blue on
exposure to the gas due to the interaction of liberated iodine with starch.

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i) 2NaNO 2  H2SO4 
 Na2SO 4  2HNO 2

3HNO 2 
 HNO3  2NO  H2O

2NO  O2 
 2NO2
Brown gas

ii) NO2  CH3COOH 

 HNO2  CH3 COO

2HNO 2  2KI  2CH3COOH 

 2CH3 COOK  2H2O  2NO  I2

I2  Starch 
 Blue complex

b) Sulphanilic acid – 1-napthylamine reagent test (Griss - Ilosvay test). On adding sulphanilic acid
and 1-naphthylamine reagent to the water extract or acidified with acetic acid, sulphanilic acid is
diazotised in the reaction by nitrous acid formed. Diazotised acid couples with 1-naphthylamine
to form a red azo-dye.

NO2  CH3COOH 
 HNO 2  CH3 COO

The test solution should be very dilute. In concentrated solutions reaction does not proceed
beyond diazotisation.

Preliminary Test with Concentrated Suphuric Acid

If no positive result is obtained from dil. H2 SO4 test, take 0.1 g of salt in a test tube and 3-4
drops of conc. H2SO4. Observe the change in the reaction mixture in cold and then warm it.
Identify the gas evolved on heating

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Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests

1. Test for Chloride ion [Cl–)
a) If on treatment with warm conc. H2SO4 the salt gives a colourless gas with pungent smell or and
if the gas which gives dense white fumes with ammonia solution, then the salt may contain Cl–
ions and the following reaction occurs.
NaCl  H2SO4 
 NaHSO 4  HCl
Sodium Hydrogen chloride
hydrogen sulphate Colourless gas

HCl  NH3 
 NH Cl4
Ammonium chloride
White fumes

b) If a salt gives effervescence on heating with conc. H2SO4 and MnO2 and a light greenish yellow
pungent gas is evolved, this indicates the presence of Cl– ions.
MnO2  2NaCl  2H2SO 4 
 Na 2SO 4  MnSO 4  2H2O  Cl2
c) Salt solution acidified with dilute HNO2 on addition of silver nitrate solution gives a curdy white
precipitate soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution. This indicates the presence of Cl– ions in
the salt.
NaCl  AgNO3 
 NaNO3  AgCl
Silver chloride
 White precipitate

  AgNH3 2  Cl
AgCl  2NH4OH 
Diammin e silver I
chloride

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d) Mix a little amount of salt and an equal amount of solid potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in a test
tube and add conc. H2SO4 to it. Heat the test tube and pass the evolved gas through sodium
hydroxide solution. If a yellow solution is obtained, divide the solution into two parts. Acidify the
first part with acetic acid and then add lead acetate solution. Formation of a yellow precipitate of
lead chromate confirms the presence of chloride ions in the salt. This test is called chromyl
chloride test.

4NaCl  K 2Cr2O7  6H2SO4 

 2KHSO4  2CrO2Cl2  4NaHSO 4  3H2O
(Chromyl
chloride)

CrO2Cl2  4NaOH 
 Na2CrO 4  2NaCl  2H2O

CH3COO2 Pb  Na2CrO 4  PbCrO 4  2CH3COONa

Sodium Lead chromate
chromate ( Yellow precipitate)

Acidify the second part with dilute sulphuric acid add small amounts of amyl alcohol and then
1 mL of 10% hydrogen peroxide solution. On gentle shaking organic layer turns blue. CrO24 ion
formed in the reaction of chromyl chloride with sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrogen peroxide
to form chromium pentoxide (CrO5) (See structure) which dissolves in amyl alcohol to give blue
colour.
CrO24  2H  2H2O 2 
 CrO5  3H2O
Chromium
pentoxide

2. Test for Bromide ion [Br–)

If on heating the salt with conc.H2SO4 reddish brown fumes of bromine are evovled in excess, this
indicates the presence of Br ions. The fumes get intensified on addition of MnO2. Bromine vapours
turn starch paper yellow.

2NaBr  2H2SO 4 
 Br2  SO2  Na2SO 4  2H2O

2NaBr  MnO2  2H2SO 4 

 Na 2SO 4  MnSO 4  2H2O  Br2
a) Add 1 mL of carbon teterachoride (CCl4)/chloroform (CHCl3)** and excess of freshly prepared
chlorine water dropwise to the salt solution in water or sodium carbonate extract neutralised with
dilute HCl. Shake the test tube vigorously. The appearance of an orange brown colouration in
the organic layer due to the dissolution of bromine in it, confirms the presence of bromide ions.

2NaBr  Cl2 
 2NaCl  Br2
b) Acidify the sodium carbonate extract of the salt with dil. HNO3. Add silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution
and shake the test tube. A pale yellow precipitate is obtained which dissolves in ammonium
hydroxide with difficulty.

NaBr  AgNO3 
 NaNO3  AgBr
Silver bromide
Pale yellow precipitate

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3. Test for Iodide ion [I–)

If on heating the salt with conc.H2SO4 deep violet vapours with a pungent smell are evolved. These
turns starch paper blue and a violet sublimate is formed on the sides of the test tube, it indicates the
presence of I– ions. Some HI, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and sulphur are also formed due to
the following reactions.

2NaI  2H2SO 4 
 Na2SO 4  SO2  2H2 O  I2

I2  Starch solution 
 Blue colour

NaI  H2SO 4 
 NaHSO 4  HI

2HI  H2SO 4 
 2H2O  I2  SO 2

6NaI  4H2SO 4 
 3I2  4H2O  S  3Na2SO 4

8NaI  5H2SO 4 
 4I2  H2S  4Na 2SO 4  4H2O
On adding MnO2 to the reaction mixture, the violet vapours become dense.

2NaI  MnO 2  2H2SO4 

 I2  MnSO 4  Na2SO 4  2H2O
b) Add 1 mL of CHCl3 or CCl4 and chlorine water in excess to the salt solution in water or sodium
carbonate extract neutralised with dil.HCl and shake the test tube vigorously. Presence of violet
colouration in the organic layer confirms the presence of iodide ions.

2NaI  Cl2 
 2NaCl  I2
Iodine dissolves in the organic solvent and solution becomes violet.
c) Acidify sodium carbonate extract of the salt with dil.HNO3 and add of NH4OH confirms the presence
of iodide ions.

NaI  AgNO3 
 AgI  NaNO3
Silver iodide
Yellow precipitate

4. Test for Nitrate ion NO3 

a) If on heating the salt with conc. H2SO4 light brown fumes are evolved then heat a small quantity
of the given salt with few copper turnings or chips and conc. H2SO4. Evolution of excess of brown
fumes indicates the presence of nitrate ions. The solution turns blue due to the formation of
copper sulphate.

NaNO3  H2SO 4 
 NaHSO 4  HNO3

4HNO3 
 4NO 2  O 2  2H2O

2NaNO3  4H2SO4  3Cu 

 3CuSO4  Na2SO4  4H2O  2NO
Copper sulphate
Blue

2NO  O2 
 2NO2
Brown fumes

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b) Take 1 mL of an aqueous solution of the salt and add 2 mL conc. H2SO4 slowly. Mix the solutions
thoroughly and cool the test tube under the tap. Now, add freshly prepared ferrous sulphate
solution along the sides of the test tube dropwise so that it forms a layer on the top of the liquid
already present in the test tuebe. A dark brown ring is formed at the junction of the two solutions
due to the formation of nitroso ferrous sulphate. Alternatively first ferrous sulphate is added and
then concentrated sulphuric acid is added.

NaNO3  H2SO 4 
 NaHSO 4  HNO3

 3Fe2 SO4 3  4H2O  2NO

6FeSO4  3H2SO4  2HNO3 

 Fe NOSO 4
FeSO4  NO 
Nitroso ferrous sulphate
Brown

Test for Sulphate

If no positive test is obtained in previous steps, then tests for the presence of sulphate ions are performed.

Test of Sulphate ions SO24 

a) Aqueous solution or sodium carbonate extract of the salt acidified with acetic acid on addition of
barium sulphate insoluble in conc. HCl or conc. HNO3.

Na2SO 4  BaCl2 
 BaSO 4  2NaCl
Barium sulphate
 Whiteprecipitate

b) Sulphate ions give white precipitate of lead sulphate when aqueous solution or soidum carbonate
extract neutralised with acetic acid is treated with lead acetate solution.

Na2SO4  CH3COO2 Pb 
 PbSO4  2CH3COONa
Lead sulphate
 White precipitate 

I(b) ANALYSIS OF CATIONS

Step - I : Preliminary Examination of the Salt for Identification of Cation
1. Colour Test

Colour Cations Indicated

Light green, Yellow, Brown Fe , Fe3+
2+

Blue Cu2+
Bright green Ni2+
Blue, Red, Violet, Pink Co2+
Light pink Mn2+

2. Dry Heating Test

i) Take about 0.1 g of the dry salt in a clean and dry test tube.
ii) Heat the above test tube for about one minute and observe the colour pf the residue when it is
hot and also when it becomes cold. Observation of changes gives indications about the presence
of cations, which may not be taken as conclusive evidence

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Inference from the colour of the salt in cold and on heating

Colour when cold Colour when hot Cations Indicated
Blue White Cu2+
Green Dirty white or yellow Fe2+
White Yellow Zn2+
Pink Blue Co2+
3. Flame Test
The chlorides of several metals impart characteristic colour to the flame because they are volatile in
non-luminous flame. This test is performed with the help of a platinum wire as follows :
i) Make a tiny loop at one end of a plantinum wire.
ii) To clean the loop dip it into concentrated hydrochloric acid and hold it in a non-luminous flame
iii) Repeat step (ii) until the wire imparts no colour to the flame.
iv) Put 2-3 drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid on a clean watch glass and make a paste of a
small quantity of the salt in it.
v) Dip the clean loop of the platinum wire in this paste and introduce the loop in the non-luminous
(oxidising) flame
vi) Observe the colour of the flame first with the naked eye and then through a blue glass and
identify the metal ion

Inference from the colour of the salt in cold and on heating

Colour of the flame Colour of the flame
Inference
observed by naked eye observed through blue glass
Green flame with Same colour as observed
blue centre Cu2+
without glass
Crimson red Purple Sr2+
Apple green Bluish green Ba2+
Brick red Green Ca2+
4. Borax Bead Test
This test is employed only for coloured salts because borax reacts with metal salts to form metal
borates or metals, which have characteristic colours.
i) To perform this test make a loop at the end of the platinum wire and heat it in a flame till it is red
hot.
ii) Dip the hot loop into borax powder and heat it again until borax forms a colourless transparent
bead on the loop. Before dipping the borax bead in the test salt or mixture, confirm that the bead
is transparent and colourless. If it is coloured this means that, the platinum wire is not clean.
Then make a fresh bead after cleaning the wire.
iii) Dip the bead in a small quantity of the dry salt and again hold it in the flame.
iv) Observe the colour imparted to the bead in the non - luminous flame as well as in the luminous
flame while it is hot and when it is cold
v) To remove the bead from the platinum wire, heat it to redness and tap the platinum wire with your
finger.
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On heating, borax loses its water of crystallisation and decomposes to give sodium metaborate
and boric anhydride.

Na2B4O7 .10H2O 
 Na2B4O7  10H2O
Borax

Na2B 4O7 
 2NaBO2  B2O3
Sodiummetaborate Boric anhydride

On treatment with metal salt, boric anhydride forms metaborate of the metal which gives different
colours in oxidising and reducing flame. For example, in the case of copper sulphate, following
reactions occur.

CuSO4  B2O3    
Nonlu min ous flame
 Cu BO2 2  SO3
Cupric metaborate
Blue green

Two reactions may take place in the reducing flame :

i) The blue Cu(BO2)2 is reduced to colourless cuprous metaborate as follows:

2Cu BO2 2  2NaBO2  C 

Lumin ous flame
2CuBO2  Na2B4O7  CO
or (ii) Cupric metaborate may be reduced to metallic copper and the bead appears red and
opaque.

2Cu BO2 2  4NaBO2  2C 

Luminous flame
2Cu  2Na2B4O7  2CO
Inference from the borax bead test
Heating in oxidising Heating in reducing
(non-luminous) flame (luminous) flame
Inference
Colour of the salt bead Colour of the salt bead
In cold In hot In cold In hot
Blue Green Red opaque Colourless Cu2+
Reddish brown Violet Grey Grey Ni2+
Light violet Light violet Colourless Colourless Mn2+
Yellow Yellowish brown Green Green Fe2+
5. Charcoal Cavity Test
Metallic carbonate when heated in a charcoal cavity decomposes to give corresponding oxide.
The oxide appears as a coloured residue in the cavity. Sometimes oxide may be reduced to
metal by the carbon of the charcoal cavity.

6. Cobalt Nitrate Test

If the residue in the charcoal cavity is white, cobalt nitrate test is performed.
(i) Treat the residue with two or three drops of cobalt nitrate solution.
(ii) Heat it strongly in non-luminous flame with the help of a blow pipe and observe the colour of the
residue.

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On heating, cobalt nitrate decomposes into cobalt (II) oxide, which gives a characteristic colour
with metal oxide present in the cavity.
Thus, with ZnO, Al2O3 and MgO, the following reactions occur.

Wet Tests for Identification of Cations

The cations indicated by the preliminary tests given above are confirmed by systematic analysis
given below. The first essential step is to prepare a clear and transparent solution of the salt. This
is called original solution. It is prepared as follows:
Preparation of Original Solution (O.S.)
To prepare the original solution, following steps are followed one after the other in a systematic order.
In case the salt does not dissolve in a particular solvent even on heating, try the next solvent.
The following solvents are tried:
1. Take a little amount of the salt in a clean boiling tube and add a few mL of distilled water and shake
it. If the salt does not dissolved, heat the content of the boiling tube till the salt completely
dissolves.
2. If the salt is insoluble in water as detailed above, take fresh salt in a clean boiling tube and add a
few mL of dil.HCl to it. If the salt is insoluble in cold, heat the boiling tube till the salt is completely
dissolved.
3. If the salt does not dissolve either in water or in dilute HCl even on heating, try to dissolve it in a few
mL of conc. HCl by heating.
4. If salt does not dissolve in conc. HCl, then dissolve it in dilute nitric acid.
5. If salt does not dissolve even in nitric acid then a mixture of conc. HCl and conc. HNO3 in the ratio
3:1 is tried. This mixture is called aqua regia. A salt not soluble in aqua regia is considered to be
an insoluble salt.
Group Analysis
(I) Analysis of Zero group cation (NH4+ ion)
(a) Take 0.1 g of salt in a test tube and add 1-2 mL of NaOH solution to it and heat. If there is a smell
of ammonia, this indicates the presence of ammonium ions. Bring a glass rod dipped in hydrochloric
acid near the mouth of the test tube. White fumes are observed.
(b) Pass the gas through Nessler’s reagent. Brown precipitate is obtained.
Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests for NH4+ ion
(a) Ammonia gas evolved by the action of sodium hydroxide on ammonium salts reacts with
hydrochloric acid to give ammonium chloride, which is visible as dense white fume.

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Separation of all the six groups

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Group reagents for precipitating ions

(II) Analysis of Group - I cations

Take a small amount of original solution ( if prepared in hot conc. HCl) in a test tube and add cold
water to it and cool the test tube under tap water. If a white precipitate appears, this indicates the
presence of Pb2+ ions in group –I. On the other hand, if the original solution is prepared in water
and on addition of dil. HCl, a white precipitate appears, this may also be Pb2+.

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(IV) Analysis of Group - III cations

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2. Test for Nickel ion (Zn2+)

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2. Test for Calcium ion(Ca2+)

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C. Preparation of some compounds

I Inorganic Compounds
To prepare double salts : ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohr’s salt) and potash alum.
Theory
When a mixture containing equimolar proportions of potassium sulphate and aluminium sulphate or
ferrous sulphate and ammonium sulphate is crystallised from its solution, a double salt is formed. The
formation of double salt may be shown as follows:

Fe2+ and Al3+ ions undergo hydrolysis, therefore, while preparing aqueous solutions of ferrousulphate
and aluminium sulphate in water, 2-3 mL dilute sulphuric acid is added to prevent the hydrolysis of
these salts.
a) Preparation of Double Salt : Potassium Aluminium Sulphate (Potash Alum)
i) Take 10 mL of distilled water in a 50 mL beaker and heat it to about 40oC. Dissolve 6.6 g of
aluminium sulphate in it and add about 0.4 mL of dilute sulphuric acid.
ii) Weigh 2.4 g of powdered potassium sulphate and transfer it to the above solution.
iii) Heat the solution with constant stirring till potassium sulphate dissolves compeltely.
iv) Allow the solution to cool to room temperature slowly.

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v) On cooling, white crystals of potash alum separate out.

vi) Decant the mother liquor and wash the crystals by gently shaking with 1 : 1 cold water and alcohol
mixture.
vii) Filter the crystals, dry these between the folds of a filter paper and note the yield.
b) Preparation of Double Salt : Ammonium Ammonium Sulphate
i) Dissolve 3.5 g of ferrous sulphate and 1.7 g of ammonium sulphate (weighed separately), in 5 mL
of distilled water contained in a 50 mL conical flask by heating. Add about 0.5 mL of dilute sulphuric
acid to the flask and concentrate the solution by heating till the crystallization point is reached.
ii) Allow the mixture to cool to room temperature slowly.
iii) On cooling, light green crystals of ferrous ammonium sulphate separate out.
iv) Decant the mother liquor and wash the crystals by shaking with very small amounts of 1:1 cold
water and alcohol mixture to remove sticking mother liquor.
v) Separate the crystals by filtration wash with alcohol, dry between the folds of a filter paper and
record the yield.
Precautions
a) Cool the solution slowly to get good crystals. Avoid rapid cooling.
b) Do not disturb the solution while cooling.
c) Avoid prolonged heating while preparing crystals of ferrous ammonium sulphate, as it may oxidise
ferrous ions to ferric ions and change the stoichiometry of the crystals.
II. Organic Compounds
a) Acetanilide.
Theory
The replacement of one hydrogen atom of the –NH2 group of aniline by CH3CO– group in the presence
of glacial acetic acid. Gives acetanilide. In the laboratory, acetylation is usually carried out with acetic
anhydride. Acetyl chloride may also be used for the purpose of acetylation if acetic anhydride is not
available. Acetylation with CH3COCl is usually carried out in the presence of pyridine.

Procedure
i) Take 5 mL of aniline in a 100 mL round bottom flask and add acetylating mixture containing 5 mL
acetic acid. Alternatively, you can use 5 mL of acetyl chloride and 5 mL of dry pyridine as the acetylating
mixture.
ii) Fir an air condenser on the mouth of the round bottom flask after adding a few pumice stones and
reflux the mixture gently for 10-15 minutes on a sand ethanol.
iii) Cool the reaction mixture and pour it slowly in 150-200 mL of ice cold water with stirring.
iv) Filter the solid, wash it with cold water and recrystallise a small amount of sample from hot water
containing a few drops of methanol or ethanol.
v) Report the yield and the melting point of the compound.
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Precautions
a) Handle acetic anhydride and acetyl chloride carefully as they cause irritation to the eyes and acetyl
chloride also strongly fumes in air.
b) Store acetylchloride under dry conditions.
c) Handle pyridine with extreme caution. Dispense it in an efficient fume cupboard and water disposable
glasses while using it.
d) Distil pyridine before use because it absorbs mioisture and the reaction does not take place under
moist conditions.
e) Wash the solid 2-3 times with cold water till the filtrate is neutral to litmus.
f) Determine the melting point of perfectly dried and recrystallised sample.
ALTERNATIVE METHOD FOR THE PREPARATION OF ACETANILIDE
If acetic anhydride of pyridine is not available then the following method can be used for the preparation
of acetanilide.
Procedure
i) Take 1 mL of aniline in a dry boiling tube, add 1 mL of glacial acetic acid to it and mix the two
thoroughly.
ii) To the above mixture add 1 mL of acetyl chloride in lots (0.3 mL at a time). The mixture becomes
warm. If the boiling tube becomes unbearable to touch, cool it under tap water.
iii) After addition of whole amount of acetyl chloride, heat the mixture for five minutes in a boiling water
bath.
iv) Cool the boiling tube and add ice-cold water  10mL  into the tube with constant stirring.
v) Filter the acetanilide separated as white powder and wash with water fill filtrate is neutral to litmus.
vi) Crystallise the crude acetanilide with hot water. White shining needle shaped are obtained.
vii) Report the yield and melting point of the compound.
Precautions
a) If aniline sample is too much coloured, distill it before carrying out the experiment, because yield is
lowered with impure aniline.
b) Use perfectly dry apparatus.
c) Do not inhale the vapours coming out during the addition of acetylchloride.
b) p-nitroacetanilide.
Theory
p-Nitroacetanilide is prepared by the nitration of acetanilide by using a mixture of conc. nitric acid and
conc. sulphuric acid as nitrating reagent. The mixture of the two acids release nitronium ion NO2  ,
which acts as an electrophile in the reaction.
HNO3  2H2SO 4 
 NO2  H2O  2HSO4
Nitronium ion attacks the benzene ring containing anilide group, mainly at the para position to give p-
nitroacetanilide as a major product. This is an example of aromatic electrophilic substitution reaction.

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Procedure
i) Dissolve 2 g of acetanilide in 2 mL of glacial acetic acid taken in a 100 mL beaker.
ii) Add 4 mL of conc. H2SO4 gradually with stirring to the above mixture. The mixture becomes hot and
clear solution is obtained. Cool the reaction mixture in an ice bath maintained at 0-5oC.
iii) Add a cold mixture of 1.0 mL conc. HNO3 and 1.0 mL conc. H2SO4 to the viscous reaction mixture
drop by drop with constant stirring, so that the temperature of the mixture does not rise above 10oC.
iv) Remove the beaker from the ice bath and allow the reaction mixture to attain room temperature.
Let it stand at room temperature for about 30 minutes. Stir the reaction mixture continuously and pour
it on 100 g of crushed ice.
v) Stir the mixture well and filter the compound so obtained.
vi) Wash the compound with cold water and dry it.
vii) Recrystallise a small amount of the pale yellow solid from alcohol. Colourless crystals of
p-nitroacetanilide are obtained. Yellow ortho-nitroacetanilide formed in the small amount remains
dissolved in the mother liquor.
viii) Record the yield and metlting point of the pure compound.
Precautions
a) Do not allow the temperature of the reaction mixture to exceed 10oC during addition of nitrating
mixture.
b) Add mixture of concentrated nitric acid and sulphuric acid into the solution of acetanilide slowly and
carefully.
c) Aniline yellow (p-amino-azobenzene)
Theory
p-aminobenzene can be prepared in a good yield by rearrangement reaction of diazoaminobenzene
with a small quantity of aniline hydrochloride in the presence of aniline as solvent. The chemistry of
this conversion is as follows :

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The above reaction is carried out only in weekly acidic conditions.

Procedure
i) Dissolve 3 g of finely powdered diazoaminobenzene in 7 mL of aniline in a 100 mL conical flask.
ii) Add 1.5 g of finely powdered aniline hydrochloride to the above mixture.
iii) Warm the mixture with occasional shaking on a water bath at about 40-45oC, for a period of about
one hour.
iv) Remove the flask from the water bath and allow the reaction mixture to stand at room temperature
for about 30 minutes.
v) Add 9 mL of glacial acetic acid diluted with an equal volume of water and shake the reaction
mixture thoroughly to convert excess aniline to its acetate, which is water-soluble.
vi) Allow the mixture to stand for 15 minutes with occasional stirring.
vii) Filter p-aminoazobenzene, wash with a little cold water and dry between the folds of a filter paper.
viii) Recrystallise a small portion of crude p-aminoazobenzene from carbon tetrachloride.
ix) Report the yield and melting point of p-aminoazobenzene.
Precautions
a) Maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture at about 40-50oC.
b) Wash the crude product with a small volume of water repeatedly.
c) Note the melting point of the perfectly dry sample.
ANALTERNATIVE PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING ANILINE YELLOW
Theory
Aniline yellow can also be prepared by direct diazotisation and coupling as followed for phenyl-azo-
β -naphthol dye. However, coupling of the diazonium salt with aniline or any other aromatic amine is
carried out in a weakly acidic medium.
Procedure
i) Prepare a solution of benzene diazonium chloride using 2 mL of aniline according to the method
described for the preparation of phenyl-azo- β -naphthol dye (see experiment 10.4)
ii) Prepare a solution of 4 mL aniline in 4 mL 1.0 M HCl.
iii) Add the cold solution of aniline hydrochloride slowly into the cold solution of benzene diazonium
chloride.
iv) Filter the yellow compound and dry it between the folds of a filter paper.
v) Recrystallise the small amount of crude sample from carbon tetrachloride and report the yield and
melting point.
d) Iodoform
Theory

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Procedure
Mass 5 grams of potassium carbonate K2CO3. Dissolve in 20 mL of distilled water, taken in an
Erlenmeyer flask. Stir the mixture constantly to ensure the potassium carbonate is completely dissolved.
The mixture is then placed in a warm water bath, which is at about 75 to 80 degrees Celsius. Cool the
solution when the reaction is complete. The yellow crystals formed is iodoform. Separate the iodoform
from the mixture by filtration. Wash the iodoform with water. A small sample of the iodoform is
recrystallized from alcohol. Dry the iodoform crystals.
III. Colloids

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D. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS- TITRATION

Titration is the measurement of the volume of a solution of one reactant that is required to react
completely with a measured amount of another reactant. As both the reactants are taken in the form
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of solutions and the titration is the measurement of volume of one solution that must be added to
another solution till the reaction is complete, this method of quantitative analysis is, therefore, called
volumetric analysis. Usually the concentration of one of the solutions is known, (called standard
solution) and it is desired to find the concentration of the other by titration. The apparatus used is
shown in Fig. 8.2. A known volume of the solution is taken in the titration flask (with the help of a
pipette) and the other solution is taken in the burette which is graduated in cc’s and has a stop-clock
at the bottom to control the amount of flow into the flask. The solution to be titrated (taken in the flask)
is called titrate and the solution with which the titration is to be done (taken in the burette) is called the
titrant. The point at which the required volume of one solution has been added to the other to exactly
complete the reaction between the two is called end point or equivalence point.
There are many types of titrations such as redox titrations (involving oxidation and reduction), acid-base
titrations (involving neutraisation), precipitation titrations (titrations (r.g. NaCl vs AgNO3), complexometric
titrations (involving formation of complexes) but here we shall take up a brief discussion of acid-base
titirations in aqueous solutions only.
i) Acid - Base Titration
Theory of Indicates
An indicator is a substance which is used to determine the end point in a titration. In acid base titrations
organic substances are generally used as indicators. They change their colour within a contain pH range.
The colour change and the pH range. The colour change and the pH range of common indicators are
tabulated below.

Indicator pH range Colour change

Methyl orange 3.2 - 4.5 Pink to yellow
Methyl red 4.4 - 6.5 Red to yellow
Litmus 5.5 - 7.5 Red to blue
Phenol red 6.8 - 8.5 Yellow to red
Phenolphthalein 8.3 - 10.5 Coloureless to pink
Theory of acid-base indicators
Ostwald’s theory : According to this theory
a) The colour change is due to ionisation of the acid-base indicator. The unionised form has different colour
than the ionised form.
b) The ionisation of the indicator is largely affected in acids and bases as it is either a weak acid or a weak
base. In case, the indicator is a weak acid, its ionisation is very much low in acids due to common H+ ions
while it is fairly ionised in alkalies. Similarly, if the indicator is a weak base, its ionisation is large in acids and
low in alkalies due to common OH– ions.
Considering two important indicators phenolphthalein (a weak acid) and methyl orange (a weak base),
Ostwald’s theory can be illustrated as follows:
Phenolphthalein : It can be represented as HPh. It ionises in solution to a small extent as :

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Applying law of mass action,

The undissociated molecules of phenolphthalein are colourless while Ph– ions are pink in colour. In presence
of an acid, the ionisation of HPh is practically negligible as the equilibrium shifts to left hand side use due to
high concentration of H+ ions. Thus, the solution would remain colourless. On addition of alkali, hydrogen
ions are removed by OH– ions in the form of water molecules and the equilibrium shifts to right hand side.
Thus, the concentration of Ph– ions increases in solution and they impart pink colour to the solution.
Let us derive Henderson’s equation for an indicator

At equivalence point;

Methyl orange : It is a very weak base and can be represented as MeOH. It is ionised in solution to give
Me+ and OH– ions.

Applying law of mass action,

In presence of an acid, OH– ions are removed in the form of water molecules and the above equilibrium
shifts to right hand side. Thus, sufficient Me+ ions are produced which impart red colour to the solution. On
addition of alkali, the concentration of OH– ions increases in the solution and the equilibrium shifts to left

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hand side, i.e., the ionisation of MeOH is practically negligible. Thus, the solution acquires the colour of
unionised methyl ornage molecules, i.e., yellow.
This theory also explains the reason why phenolphthalein is not a suitable indicator for titrating a weak base
against strong acid. The OH– ions furnished by a weak base are not sufficient to shift the equilibrium
towards right hand side considerably, i.e., pH is not reached to 8.3. Thus, the solution does not attain pink
colour. Similarly, it can be explained why methyl orange is not a sutiable indicator for the titration of weak
acid with strong base.
Selection of suitable indicator or choice of indicator
The neutralisation reactions are of the following four types :
i) A strong acid versus a strong base.
ii) A weak acid versus a strong base.
iii) A strong acid versus a weak base.
iv) A weak acid versus a weak base.
In order to choose a suitable indicator, it is necessary to understand the pH changes in the above four types
of titrations. The change in pH in the vicinity of the equivalence point is most important for this purpose. The
curve obtained by plotting pH as ordinate against the volume of alkali added as abscissa i known as
neutralisation or titration curve.

ii) Redox Titration- Permanganometry

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MOHR’S SALT
AIM : (a) To prepare 250 ml of M/20 solution of Mohr’s
(b) Using this calculate the molarity and strength of the given KMnO4 solution
APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS REQUIRED :- Mohr’s salt, weighing bottle, weight box, volumetric flask,
funnel, distilled water, chemical balance, dilute H2SO4, beakers, conical flask, funnel, burette, pipette,
clamp stand, tile, KMnO4 solution.
THEORY : (a) Mohr’s salt having the formula FeSO4 (NH4)2SO4.6H2O has molar mass 392 gmol–1. It is a
primary standard.
Its equivalent mass is 392/1 = 392 as its n factor is 1 as per the following reaction

Fe 2  Fe 3  e 
PROCEDURE:
1. Weight a clean dry bottle using a chemical balance
2. Add 4.9 g more weights to the pan containing the weights for the weighting bottle
3. Add Mohr’s salt in small amounts to the weighing bottle, so that the pans are balanced.
4. Remove the weighing bottle from the pan
5. Using a funnel, transfer the Mohr’s salt to the volumetric flask
6. Add about 5 ml of dilute H2SO4 to the flask followed by distilled water and dissolve the Mohr’s salt
7. Make up the volume to the required level using distilled water
8. The standard solution is prepared
(B) THEORY
1. The reaction between KMnO4 and Mohr’s salt is a redox reaction and the titration is therefore called
a redox titration.
2. Mohr’s salt is the reducing agent and KMnO4 is the oxidizing agent
3. KMnO4 acts as an oxidising agent in all the mediums; i.e. acidic, basic and neutral medium.
4. KMnO4 acts as the strongest oxidizing agent in the acidic medium and therefore dil. H2SO4 is added
to the conical flask before starting the titration.
Ionic equations involved:-

Reduction half : MnO 4  8H   5e  

 Mn 2  4H 2 O

Oxidation half : 5Fe 2  

 5Fe3  5e 

Overall Equation : MnO 4  8H   5Fe 2  

 Mn 2   5Fe3  4H 2 O
INDICATOR : KMnO4 acts as a self indicator
END POINT : Colourless to light pink (KMnO4 in the burette)
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the burette with KMnO4 solution
2. Pipette out 10 ml of Mohr’s salt solution into the conical flask

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3. Add half test tube of dil. H2SO4

4. Keep a glazed tile under the burette and place the conical flask on it
5. Note down the initial reading of the burette
6. Run down the KMnO4 solution into the conical flask drop wise with shaking
7. Stop the titration when a permanent pink colour is obtained in the solution.
8. This is the end point. Note down the final burette reading
9. Repeat the experiment until three concordant values are obtained.
10.
OBSERVATION TABLE (TO BE PUT UP ON THE BLANK SIDE USING A PENCIL)
Volume of Mohr’s salt solution taken:-

Burette Readings Volum e of KMnO 4

Sl.No
INITIAL FINAL USED (m l)
1 10 18.8 8.8
2 18.8 27.7 8.9
3 27.7 36.5 8.8

Concordant Value = 8.8 mL

Calculations : (To be put up on the blank side using a pencil)
Calculation of amount of Mohr’s salt to be weighed to prepare 100 mL M/20 solution:
Molecular mass of Mohr’s salt - 392 g/mole
1000 cm3 of 1M KMnO4 require 393 g Mohr’s salt
250 cm3 of M/40 KMnO4 require = 392/40g = 4.9 g
Using formula:

N1M1V1  N 2 M 2 V2
Where N1 = 5 (for KMnO4), V1 = 8.8 mL; M1 = ?
N2 = 1 (for Mohr’s salt), V2 = 10 mL, M2 = 1/20 M
M1 = [1*(1/20)*10]/[5*8.8] = 1/88 M = 0.01 M
Strength = M × Molar mass = 158* (1/88) = 1.79 g/L
Result (On ruled side) : The molarity of KMnO4 = 0.01 M and the strength of KMnO4 = 1.79 g/L
OXALIC ACID
AIM : (a) To prepare 100 ml of M/40 solution of oxalic acid.
(b) Using this calculate the molarity and strength of the given KMnO4 solution
Apparatus and chemicals required : Oxalic acid, Weighing bottle, Weight box, Volumetric flask,
Funnel, Distilled water, Chemical balance, Beakers, Conical flask, Funnel, Burette, Pipette, Clamp
stand, Tile, Dilute H2SO4, KMnO4 solution.
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Theory : (a) Oxalic acid is a dicarboxylic acid having molar mass 126 gmol–1. It is a primary standard
and has the molecular formula COOH–COOH.2H2O. Its equivalent mass is 126/2 = 63 as its n factor
is 2 as per the following reaction.
COOH –COOH  2CO2 + 2H+ + 2e–
PROCEDURE
1. Weigh a clean dry bottle using a chemical balance
2. Add 3.15g more weights to the pan containing the weights for the weighting bottle
3. Add oxalic acid in small amounts to the weighing bottle, so that the pans are balanced.
4. Remove the weighing bottle from the pan
5. Using a funnel, transfer the oxalic acid to the volumetric flask
6. Add a few drops of distilled water to dissolve the oxalic acid
7. Make up the volume to the required level using distilled water
8. The standard solution is prepared
THEORY
1. The reaction between KMnO4 and oxalic acid is a redox reaction and the titration is therefore called a
redox titration.
2. Oxalic acid is the reducing agent and KMnO4 is the oxidising agent
3. KMnO4 acts as an oxidising agent in all the mediums, i.e. acidic, basic and neutral medium
4. KMnO4 acts as the strongest oxidizing agent in the acidic medium and therefore dil. H2SO4 is added
to the conical flask before starting the titration.
5. The titration between oxalic acid and KMnO4 is a slow reaction, therefore heat the oxalic acid solution
to about 60°C to increase the rate of the reaction.
ionic equations involved:

Reduction half : MnO 4  8H   5e  

 Mn 2   4H 2 O]X 2

Oxidation half : C 2 O 42 

 2CO 2  2e  ] X 5

Overall equation : 2MnO 4  16H   5C 2 O 42 

 2Mn 2   10CO 2  8H 2 O
INDICATOR : KMnO4 acts as a self indicator.
END POINT : Colourless to light pink [KMnO4 in the burette]
PROCEDURE:-
1. Fill the burette with KMnO4 solution
2. Pipette out 10 ml. of oxalic acid solution into the conical flask
3. Add half a test tube of dil. H2SO4 and heat the solution to about 60°C to increase the rate of the
reaction.
4. Keep a glazed tile under the burette and place the conical flask on it
5. Note down the initial reading of the burette

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6. Run down the KMnO4 solution into the conical flask drop wise with shaking
7. Stop the titration when a permanent pink colour is obtained in the solution.
8. This is the end point. Note down the final burette reading
9. Repeat the experiment until three concordant values are obtained.
Observation table : (To be put up on the blank side using a pencil)
Volume of Oxalic Acid solution taken = 10 mL

Burette Readings Volume of KMnO4

Sl.No
INITIAL FINAL USED (ml)
1 16 26.5 10.5
2 26.5 36.9 10.4
3 36.9 47.4 10.5

Concordant Value = 10.5 mL

Calculations (To be put up on the blank side using a pencil)
Calculation of amount of oxalic acid to be weighed to prepare 100 ml M/20 solution.
Molecular Mass of Oxalic Acid = 126g/mole
1000 cm3 of 1M oxalic acid require 126g oxalic acid
1000 cm3 of M/40 oxalic acid require = 126/40 g = 3.15g
Using formula
N1M1V1 = N2M2V2
Where N1 = 5 (for KMnO4), V1 = 10.5; M1 = ?
N2 = 2 (for oxalic acid), V1 = 10 ml; M2 = 1/40
M1 = [2*(1/40)*10]/[5*10.5] = 1/105 m = 0.0095 M
Strength = M × Molar maxx = 1.58 * (1/105) = 1.504 g/L
RESULT (ON RULED SIDE)
The Molarity of KMnO4 = 0.0095 M and the strength of KMnO4 = 1.504 g/L

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QUESTIONS
PRINCIPLES RELATED TO PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY
1. A phenolic compound gives green colour which rapidly darkens with neutral ferric chloride solution.
The compound is
1) Resorcinol 2) Catechol 3) o-Cresol 4) m-Cresol
2. Match Column-I with Column-II
Column-I (Test) Column-II (Reagents)
a) Tollen’s test p) CuSO4 + Na3C6H5O7
b) Schiff’s test q) CuSO4 + KNaC4H4O6
c) Fehling’s test r) [Ag(NH3)2]NO3]OH–
d) Benedict’s test s) p-Rosaniline hydrochloride + SO2(g)
1) a  r; b  s; c  q; d  p 2) a  s; b  r; c  p; d  q

3) a  s; b  r; c  q; d  p 4) a  p; b  q; c  r; d  s
3. Ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) reagent is used to test
1) Alcoholic group 2) Phenolic group 3) Aldehydic group 4) Amino group
4. Aniline and Benzylamine can be best distinguished by
1) Carbylamine test 2) Azo dye test 3) CAN test 4) Luca’s test
5. Action of dilute H2SO4 on an inorganic salt gives a colourless gas with the smell of rotten eggs.
Identify the correct statement from the following
1) The gas is SO2 2) The gas turn lead acetate paper black
3) The gas turns lime water milky 4) The gas is non toxic
6. Griss-Ilosvay test is used for the confirmatory test for

1) CH 3 COO  ion 2) S2 ion 3) NO 2 ion 4) NO 3 ion

7. Consider the reactions

NaCl  H 2SO 4 
 X  Ygas
Y  Z 
 Wgas

W is
1) NH3 2) (NH4)2 SO4 3) NH4Cl 4) (NH4)3PO4
8. Presence of yellow precipitate in chromyl chloride test confirms the presence of chloride ion. The
yellow precipitate is
1) CrO2Cl2 2) Na2CrO4 3) PbCl2 4) PbCrO4
9. Which of the following compound is coloured?
1) [Fe(NO)]SO4 2) BaSO4 3) PbSO4 4) AgCl
10. During the preliminary examination of the salt, a bright green colour is observed which indicates
the presence of
1) Fe3+ 2) Cr2+ 3) Mn2+ 4) Ni2+

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11. Which of the following is a pair of group-III cations?

1) Pb2+, Cu2+ 2) Al3+, Fe3+ 3) Co2+, Ni2+ 4) Ba2+, Ca2+
12. In group analysis of cations in inorganic salts, group-II cations are precipitated as
1) Chloride 2) Sulphides 3) Hydroxides 4) Carbonates
13. No specific group reagent is required for the precipitation of
1) Ni2+ 2) Pb2+ 3) Mg2+ 4) Mn2+
K  Fe  CN  
14. In the reaction Cu  NH 3 4  SO 4 
CH 3COOH
 
4 6
 X  Chocolate brown precipitate  . Then
oxidation state of counter ion in X is
1) 0 2) +1 3) +2 4) +3
15. ‘Lake test’ is used for the confirmation of
1) Fe3+ 2) Ni2+ 3) Al3+ 4) Mg2+
16. Aqueous solution of which of the following metal ion gives a brilliant red precipitate with DMG?
1) Zn2+ 2) Ni2+ 3) Cu2+ 4) Mg2+

Diazoaminobenzene   X . Then X is

HCl
17. Aniline solvent

1) Iodoform 2) Aniline yellow 3) p-nitroacetanilide 4) Acetanilide

18. Identify a mismatch
Colloid Preparation method
1) Au sol Bredig’s arc method
2) S sol Oxidation
3) Fe(OH)3sol Hydrolysis
4) As2S3 sol Reduction
19. Which of the following titration will have the equivalence point of a pH > 8?
1) HCl and NH3 2) CH3COOH and NH3 3) HCl and NaOH 4) CH3COOH and NaOH
20. Observation table for a permanganometric titration for the estimation of concentration of KMnO4 is
given below

Burette reading
No Volume of KMnO4 used (mL)
Initial Final
1 18 28.2 10.2
2 28.2 38.3 10.1
3 38.3 48.4 10.1

Volume of (M/20) oxalic acid solution = 10 mL

Strength of KMnO4 is
1) 1.504 g/L 2) 3.128 g/L 3) 4.169 g/L 4) 5.088 g/L

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BIOLOGY

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

BRASSICACEAE FAMILY
Medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards,
the crucifers, or the cabbage family.
Vegetative characteristics
Most are herbaceous plants and can be annuals, biennials or perennials., while some are shrubs
Leaves -The leaves are simple (although are sometimes deeply incised), lack stipules and appear
alternately on stems or in rosettes.
Inflorescences - Racemose type and ebracteate
Flower - Bisexual, actinomorphic, rarely zygomorphic, tetramerous, hypogynous
The flowers are cruciform (in the form of a cross)
Calyx - 4 sepals, polysepalous, arranged in two whorls of two each
Corolla - 4 petals, polypetalous, cruciform
Androecium - 6 stamens, polyandrous, arranged in two whorls, two stamens in the outer whorl are
with short filaments, while four stamens in the inner whorl are with long filaments - Tetradynamous
stamens.
Gynoecium - Two carpels, syncarpous, superior ovary with parietal placentation
Fruits - Siliqua (elongated, narrow fruits with a long and slender shape). The fruit has seeds, in rows,
divided by a thin wall ( or septum)
Seed - Non-endospermic
Floral formula and Floral diagram : Mustard Plant

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Economic importance
The family includes many plants of economically importance that have been extensively altered and
domesticated by humans.
Vegetables
 Brassica oleracea : Cultivated as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli and collards.
 Brassica rapa (turnip, chinese cabbage, etc)
 Brassica napus (rapeseed etc)
 Raphanus sativus ( Common radish)
 Arabidopsis thaliana - Model organism

MALVACEAE FAMILY (Cotton Family/Mallow Family)

Habitat - Plants belongs to Malvaceae family are widely distributed throughout the world, especially in
the tropical and temperate countries.
Habit - They includes herbs like Sida and Abutilon, shrubs like Hibiscus and Gossipium and rarely
trees like Thespesia. They includes annuals and perennials.
Stem - Stems of Malvaceae generally covered with stellate hairs and have muscilagenous sap.
Leaves - Leaves are simple, stipulate, petiolate mucilaginous with serrate margins. Leaf apex is
acute, with reticulate venation. Simple, alternate, petiolate, stipulate with reticulate venation.
Floral characters
Inflorescence - Flowers are solitary terminal or axillary
Flower - Bracteate, bracteolate (Epicalyx), pedicellate, bisexual, actinomorphic, pentamerous and
hypogynous. In Sida and Abutilon, epicalyx is absent.

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 Additional Topics (Phy+Chem+Bio)

Calyx - Sepals are five in number, gamosepalous, persistant with valvate aestivation.
Corolla - Petals are five, polypetalous with twisted aestivation. Petals are united with the staminal tube
at the base
Androecium - Stamens are numerous, monadelphous which forms a staminal tube around the ovary.
Anther is monothecous and reniform. Staminal tube fused with petals to make them appear
gamopetalous.
Gynoecium - Carpels are five in number, ie., multicarpellary syncarpous, superior multilocular ovary
with axile placentation. In each chamber one or more ovules are found.
Fruit - Generally capsule (Hibiscus, Gossypium)
Seed - Endospermous
Floral formula

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Economic Importance
1) Gossypium herbaceum (Cotton plant, Cotton fibres are surface fibres. ie., (epidermal fibres from
seed coats) used in textile industry.
2) Sida rhombifolia - All parts of sida are medicinally useful.
3) Thespesia - Timber yielding tress
4) Hibiscus esculentans - (Abel moschus - lady’s finger) is a vegetable
5) Hibiscus rosasinensis (China rose or, shoe flower) - garden plants
6) Abutilon - Indian mallow - to treat various diseases, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory
7) Sida, Urena, Abutilon (Medicinal)
LEGUMINOSAE FAMILY
I. Sub family - Fabaceae
This family was earlier called Papilonoideae, a subfamily of family Leguminosae. It is distributed all
over the world
Vegetative characters
Trees, shurbs, herbs; root with root nodules
Stem - erect or climber
Leaves - alternate, pinnately compound or simple; leaf base, pulvinate; stipulate; venation reticulate.

Floral characters
Inflorescence - racemose
Flower - bisexual, zygomorphic
Calyx - sepals five, gamosepalous; imbricate aestivation
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Corolla - petals five, polypetalous, papilionaceous, consisting of a posterior standard, two lateral
wings, two anterior ones forming a keel (enclosing stamens and pistil), vexillary aestivation
Androecium - ten, diadelphous, anther dithecous
Gynoecium - Ovary superior, mono carpellary, unilocular with may ovules, style single
Fruit - legume; seed : one to many, non-endospermic

Floral Formula -

Economic Importance
Many plants belonging to the family are sources of pulses (gram, arhar, sem, moong, soyabean;
Edible oil (soybean, groundnut); dye (indigofera); fibres (sunhemp); fodder (Sesbania, Trifolium),
ornamentals (lupin, sweet pea) ; medicine (muliathi)
II. Sub family - Caesalpiniaceae
Commonly called Cassia family. They are cosmopolitan in distribution.
Vegetative Characters
Mostly trees or shrubs. Cassia is an undershrub. Tamarindus is a tree rarely herbs.
Leaves - Large, pinnately or bipinnately compound.
Stipulate - Stipule is spiny (parkinsonia) or leafy (delonix) leaf base is swollen and pulvinate.
Floral characters
Inflorescence - Mostly racemose
Flowers - Flowers are large and showy forming cluster, pedicellate, bracteate, zygomorphic, complete
bisexual, perigynous or hypogynous and pentamerous.
Calyx - 5 sepals. United or free only four in Saraca and Tamarindus. Sepals are petaloid in general
where petals are completely absent. Eg. Saraca. Valvate or imbricate in Cassia.
Corolla - 5 petals. Polypetalous, ascendingly imbricate, petals are absent in Saraca.
Androecium - Stamens 10, free, anther dithecous with apical dehiscence.
Gynoecium - Monocarpellary, unilocular superior ovary with ovules on marginal placentation.
Fruit is a Legume.
Seed non-endospermic
Economic importance
1. Saraca indica, Cassia angustifolia (Senna) - Medicinal
2. Poinciana regia (Gulmohar), Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Cassia fistula (Kanikonna) State flower-
Ornamental plants
3. Tamarindus indica- Fruits edible

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Floral formula : Br % K5C5A3+4+3 ‘staminoids’ G1

Caesalpiniaceae - Cassia fistula L.

III. Sub family - Mimosaceae
It is a subfamily of family Leguminosae. It is distributed all over the world particularly in tropical or
subtropical in distribution.
Vegetative characters
Mostly shrubs or trees, rarely herbs.
Stem - Erect, herbaceous above and woody below. Solid branched and prickly.
Leaves - Bipinnately compound with distinct pulvinus.
Stipulate - Stipule modified into spine
Petiolate - Petiole long and prickly alternate.
Leaflet - sessile, opposite, reticulate venation
Root - Tap root. Branched
Floral characters
Inflorescence - Racemose
Flower - Flowers inconspicuous. Individual flower not showy. Bracteate, complete, bisexual,
actinomorphic, pentamerous or tetramerous, hypogynous
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Calyx - Sepals 4 or 5, gamosepalous or polysepalous, valvate

Corolla - Petals 4 or 5, in mimosa gamopetalous or polypetalous, tubular with valvate aestivation.
Androecium : Stamens 10 to numerous, free . Anther dithecous small and longitudinally dehiscent.
Gynoecium - Monocarpellary, superior, unilocular ovary, many ovule with marginal placentation. Ovules
are borne two rows. Style long and filiform.
Fruit - Legume or lomentum
Seed - non endospermous

Floral formula of mimosa pudica - Br K4C4A4G1

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Economic importance

1. Mimosa pudica - Medicinal plant

2. Acacia catechu - Medicinal plant

3. Acacia arabica (babul) - Fodder

4. Acacia senegal - gum yielding

5. Albizzia lebbeck - fodder and plant parts used as medicine

ASTERACEAE / COMPOSITAE (Sun flower Family)

It is the largest family of dicot and 2nd largest family of flowering plants (only the orchidaceae has more
species)

Habitat : Cosmopolitan from sea level to the tops of mountain, arid desert to aquatic environment.

Vegetative Characters

Habit - Mostly herbs or shrubs or trees (rarely)

Stem - Might be erect, hairy, woody/ herbaceous. Sometimes possess latex. Stems contain trichomes

Leaves - Simple, Alternate or opposite (rarely whorled). Exstipulate, petiolate, reticulate venation

Roots - Tap root system, Tuberous roots present in Dahlia.

Floral Characters

Inflorescence : Head/ Capitulum, consist of large number of flowers or florets closely arranged on an
axis surrounded by Involuare of green bracts, which are protective in function. Head may be homogamous
or heterogamous.

Flowers of this inflorescence are called florets.

Flowers open in acropetal / centripetal succession.

Florets are borne on a flat, concave or convex receptacle

Flower - Bracteates, sessile, bisexual or unisexual, actinomorphic or zygomorphic, epigynous

Homogamous - Head  Bisexual

All florets are alike in structure and function.

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Heterogamous Head

Disc florets Ray florets

Centripetally arranged Peripherally placed /
complete flowers Incomplete flower
Tubular, Bisexual, Zygomorphic
Actinomorphic Unisexual or neutral
Bractate ligulate floret
Calyx : Absent or modified into Absent or Hairy pappus
pappus or scaly persistent
Corolla : Petals 5, Gamopetalous tubular Petals 5, Gamopetalous, valvate
Androecium: Stamens 5 and are epipetalous,
anthers dithecous and Androecium : Absent
syngenesious (filaments free but Gynoecium : Bicarpellary,
anthers united laterally) syncaprous, unilocular
Gynoecium : Bicarpellary, Inferior
Syncarpous, unilocular with Basal placentation
One ovule
Basal placentation
Ovary inferior

Floral Formula :

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Fruit - Cypsella, which is dispersed by pappus hairs

Seed - Non-endospermous
Economic Importance
 Source of food ( leaves)
Lactuca sativa (Lettuce) - vegetable
 Edible oil - Seeds of Helianthus annus (Sun flower)
Seeds of Carthamus tinctorius ( Saff flower)
 Ornamentals
Sunflower
Tagetes erecta (African Marigold)
Garden Dahlia (Dahlia pinnata)
 Medicinal Plants
1) Calendula officinalis
2) Eclipta alba
3) Vernonia cinerea
4) Elephantopus scaber

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POACEAE FAMILY
This family was earlier called Gramineae and is distributed all over the world.
Vegetative characters
Plants are generally annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or rarely trees (Bamboo-monocarpic tree)
roots fibrous in maize and sugarcane stilt roots also present.
Stem - Cylindrical with clear nodes and usually with hollow internodes (culms)
Leaves - Simple, alternate, exstipulate, leaf base modified to sheath may be ligulate with parallel
venation.
Floral Characters
Inflorescence - Flowers usually bisexual sometimes unisexual monoecious. Basic unit of inflorescence
is spikelets-sessile or pedicellate combined into spikes (Wheat) panicles (oats, paddy) or racemes.
Each spikelet consists of one or few flowers on a short axis (rachilla) and its base bears two empty
bracts or glumes, one placed a little above and opposite the other. A third glume called lemma or
flowering glume stand opposite to second glume. The lemma encloses a flower in its axil. It may have
a bristle like appendage short or long known as a awn. Opposite to the flowering glume (lemma) there
is a smaller glume called palea and represent bractiole below the flower.
Perianth - Represented by 2 or 3 minute scales called the lodicules at the base of the flower to form
rudimentary perianth
Androecium - Stamens 3 or 6 polyandrous, anthers versatile
Gynoecium - Tricarpellary unilocular ovary with one or two styles and feathery stigma favouring
anemophily. Ovary superior with single ovule on basal placentation.
Fruit - Caryopsis - Paddy, Wheat
Seed - Endospermic
Economic Importance
Cereals - Wheat, Rice, Corn, Barley, Oats
Millets - Ragi
Source of sucrose - Sugarcane
Medicinal - Vetiver, Lemongrass
Paper pulp - Bamboo

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QUESTIONS
1. Brassicaceae family have the androecium where
1) Two stamens in two height 2) Four stamens in two height
3) Six stamens in two height 4) Numerous stamens in different height

2. The floral formula is applicable to the following plant

1) Brassica oleracea 2) Hibiscus esculentus

3) Pisum sativum 4) Helianthus annus
3. Cruciform corolla and parietal placentation is unique to the following family
1) Mimonae 2) Caesalpiniaceae 3) Brassicaceae 4) Poaceae
4. Glume and lemma are the two types of bracts present in a typical inflorescence of the family
1) Malvaceae 2) Fabaceae 3) Caesalpiniaceae 4) Poaceae
5. Which among the following is not a distinguishing character of family Poaceae ?
1) Tricarpellary unilocular ovary
2) Presence of spikelet-inflorescence
3) Syngenesious stamen
4) Occurrence of caryopsis fruit
6. Lodicules found in graminae are
1) Reduced perianth 2) Reduced calyx 3) Modified bract 4) Modified corolla
7. Stamens exhibit cohesion and adhesion in
1) Solanaceae 2) Poaceae 3) Asteraceae 4) 1 and 3
8. Basal placentation is noticed in
1) Sunflower and Potato 2) Sunflower and Rice
3) Marigold and Potato 4) Chinarose and Potato
9. Anther in Malvaceae is
1) Monothecous, reniform and bisporangiate
2) Dithecous, reniform and monosporangiate
3) Monothecous, reniform tetrasporangiate
4) Dithecous, bilobed and tetrasporangiate
10. Stellate hairs are present in
1) Solanaceae 2) Malvaceae 3) Fabaceae 4) Asteraceae
11. Which of the following is a common character in the subfamilies of Leguminosae ?
1) Pentamerous flower 2) Valvate sepals
3) Imbricate petals 4) Marginal placentation

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12. Apical dehiscence of stamens is a character of

1) Leguminosae 2) Caesalpiniaceae 3) Malvaceae 4) Poaceae
13. Inferior ovary and basal placentation is present in
1) Liliaceae 2) Poaceae 3) Asteraceae 4) Mimosaceae
14. Tricarpellary ovary with basal placentation is present in
1) Poaceae 2) Asteraceae 3) Liliaceae 4) Both 1 and 2
15. Indefinite stamens present in
1) Malvaceae 2) Mimosaceae 3) Liliaceae 4) Both 1 and 2

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VACCINE PRODUCTION

A vaccine is a biological agent that prevents us from an infectious disease-causing pathogen such as
a virus, bacteria or parasite. It guides the body on defending itself against the pathogen attack by
generating an immune response. Usually, it is administered in our body in liquid form, either by injection,
by oral doses, or by intranasal routes.
Recombinant DNA technology in recent years has become a boon to produce new generation vaccines.
The recombinant vaccines may be broadly categorized into different groups:
1. Subunit recombinant vaccines
Subunit recombinant vaccines are the components (proteins, peptides, DNAs) of the pathogenic
organisms.
HEPATITIS B VACCINE
Recombinant vaccine for hepatitis B (i.e. HBsAg) became the first synthetic vaccine for public use. It
was marketed by trade names Recombivax and Engerix-B.
India is the fourth country (after USA, France and Belgium) in the world to develop an indigenous
hepatitisB vaccine. It was launched in 1997, and is now being used.
The gene encoding for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) has been identified. Recombinant hepatitis
B vaccine as a subunit vaccine, is produced by cloning HbsAg gene in yeast cells. Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, a harmless baking and brewing yeast, is used for this purpose.

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Plants as Edible Subunit Vaccines:

In recent years edible vaccine emerged as a new concept developed by biotechnologists. Edible vaccines
are subunit vaccines where the selected genes are introduced into the plants and the transgenic plant
is then induced to manufacture the encoded protein.Plants serve as a cheap and safe production
systems for subunit vaccines. The edible vaccines can be easily ingested by eating plants.
Edible vaccines present exciting possibilities for significantly reducing various diseases such as measles,
hepatitis B, cholera, diarrhea, etc., mainly in developing countries

2. DNA vaccines
Genetic immunization by using DNA vaccines is a novel approach that came into being in 1990. The
immune response of the body is stimulated by a DNA molecule. A DNA vaccine consists of a gene
encoding an antigenic protein, inserted onto a plasmid, and then incorporated into the cells in a target
animal.

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3. mRNA vaccine
An mRNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a copy of a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA)
to produce an immune response. mRNA vaccine is based on the principle that mRNA is an intermediate
messenger to be translated to anantigen after the delivery into host cells via various routes.

4. Attenuated Recombinant Vaccines

It is now possible to genetically engineer the organisms (bacteria or viruses) and use them as live
vaccines, and such vaccines are referred to as attenuated recombinant vaccines. The genetic
manipulations for the production of these vaccines are broadly of two types:
1. Deletion or modification of virulence genes of pathogenic organisms.
2. Genetic manipulation of non-pathogenic organisms to carry and express antigen determinants from
pathogenic organisms.
5. Vector Recombinant Vaccines
Some of vectors can be genetically modified and employed as vaccines against pathogens.

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QUESTIONS
1. First synthetic recombinant vaccine was produced against which disease?
1) HIV 2) Hepatitis B
3) Hepatitis A 4) pneumonia
2. Recombivaxwas produced by using ------- as the transgenic host
1) Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2) Ecoli
3) virus 4) protozoa
3. Choose the in correct statement
1) A subunit vaccine will include specific components originating from disease-causing bacteria,
parasites, or viruses.
2) The first edible vaccine was produced in tobacco in 1990
3) KatalinKarikó and Drew Weissman was awarded Nobel prize for their discoveries concerning
nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against
COVID-19
4) DNA vaccine,translate protein from the virus or bacteria into a gene particle that your body recognizes
as a foreign element.

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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

DENGUE FEVER (Break bone disease)

Causative organism : Dengue virus/ Arbovirus or Flavi virus
It cause yellow fever also
Mode of transmission : By infected Aedes aegypti mosquito bites with dengue viruses.
Symptoms
Mild fever to haemorrhagic fever, bleeding from gums and nose, severe headache, muscle and joint
pain , Decrease of platelets etc.
Incubation period : 3-8 days
Dengue fever are of two type
1) Classical dengue fever (Break bone fever)
2) Dengue haemorrhagic fever
Prevention and Cure :
No specific drug/ vaccines are yet to develop for dengue. Best treatment is to maintain drinking lot of
fluids and non-aspirin, fever reducing medicines recommended.
Confirmatory Test :
- ELISA
- Torniquet Test ( for detect platelet count)
CHIKUNGUNYA [ Broken joint disease]
Mosquito born viral disease
Causative Virus : Alpha Virus
Mode of transmission : By the bites of infected female mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Adedes albopictus
Symptoms : abrupt onset of fever accompanied by joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue etc.
Diagnosis :
- Serological tests such as ELISA
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) methods
Treatment :
Chloroquinone phosphate has been found to reduce the impact of disease.
Prevention and Cure :
No vaccine available
Personal protection from mosquitoes and environmental control on them.

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QUESTIONS
1. All the following viral diseases are transmitted by the bite of Aedes aegypti, except;
1) Malaria 2) Dengue fever 3) Yellow fever 4) Chikungunya
2. Select the incorrectly matched viral diseases with respect to their pathogen
1) Dengue fever - Rhabdo virus
2) Chikungunya - Alpha virus
3) Chicken pox - Varicella zoster
4) Mumps - Paramyxo virus
3. Which of the following are major symptoms of chikungunya ?
1) Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails and scalp
2) Rupture of RBCs, chill and high fever
3) Decrease of platelet count, bleeding from gums and nose
4) Abrupt onset of fever, joint pain, muscle pain, headache
4. Diagnostic test for chikungunya is ;
1) Widal test 2) RT-PCR 3) ELISA 4) Both 2 and 3
5. Arbovirus or Flavivirus will cause ;
1) Chikungunya 2) Genital herpes 3) Dengue fever 4) Small pox

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