HANDBOOK OF PHILOSOPHY OF

EDUCATION

The Handbook of Philosophy of Education is a comprehensive guide to the most important questions
about education that are being addressed by philosophers today. Authored by an international team
of distinguished philosophers, its thirty-five chapters address fundamental, timely, and controversial
questions about educational aims, justice, policy, and practices.
Part I (Fundamental Questions) addresses the aims of education, authority to educate, the roles of
values and evidence in guiding educational choices, and fundamental questions about human
cognition, learning, well-being, and identity. Part II (Virtues of Mind and Character) is concerned
with the educational formation of personal attributes that are often seen as essential to flourishing
individuals and societies. This section includes chapters on the cultivation of intellectual and character
virtues, the nature and formation of expertise, Stoic virtues, and intellectual vices. Part III (Education
and Justice) addresses fundamental and emerging issues of educational justice, from equal educational
opportunity, racial domination, and linguistic justice in education, to educational problems of mass
migration, global educational justice, the education of working children around the world, and the
costs of higher education and upward mobility. Part IV (Educational Practices) addresses controversial
aspects of contemporary education – pedagogical, curricular, and managerial practices – that deserve
careful examination. These include controversies surrounding free speech and instruction in
controversial issues; anti-racist, sustainability, and sex education; and the unfulfilled promises and
demoralizing impact of high-stakes accountability schemes.
The format and jargon-free writing in this volume ensure that topics are interesting and
accessible, helping facilitate the work of advanced students and professionals in Education.

Randall Curren is Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Education at the University of

Rochester, USA.
HANDBOOK OF
PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION

Edited by Randall Curren

 Cover image: Christ Church Meadow, Oxford – R. Curren
First published 2023
by Routledge
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© 2023 Randall Curren
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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Names: Curren, Randall R., editor.
Title: Handbook of philosophy of education / edited by Randall Curren.
Other titles: Philosophy of education
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022012822 (print) | LCCN 2022012823 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032000053
(Hardback) | ISBN 9781032000039 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781003172246 (eBook)
Subjects: LCSH: Education‐‐Philosophy. | Education‐‐Forecasting.
Classification: LCC LB14.7 .H3637 (print) | LCC LB14.7 (ebook) | DDC 370.1‐‐dc23/eng/
20220707
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LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022012823
ISBN: 978-1-032-00005-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-00003-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-17224-6 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003172246

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 CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ix
Contributors x

Introduction 1
Randall Curren

PART I
Fundamental Questions 13

1 Education for a Challenging World 15

Philip Kitcher

2 Civic Learning for the 21st Century: Disentangling the “Thin” and
“Thick” Elements of Civic Identity to Support Civic Education 27
Danielle Allen and David Kidd

3 Enabling Everyone to Live Well 42

Randall Curren

4 Mind, Reason, and Knowledge 57

David Bakhurst

5 Understanding as an Educational Objective 69

Catherine Z. Elgin

6 Values and Evidence in Educational Decision-Making 79

Harry Brighouse and Adam Swift

v
 Contents

7 How Should Evidence Inform Education Policy? 90

Kathryn E. Joyce and Nancy Cartwright

8 Who Should Make Decisions about Children’s Education? 103

Harry Brighouse and Adam Swift

9 Theorizing Educational Justice 114

Meira Levinson

PART II
Virtues of Mind and Character 125

10 Cultivating Intellectual Virtues 127

Duncan Pritchard

11 Intellectual Character Education: Some Lessons from Vice Epistemology 137

Heather Battaly

12 The Formation of Expertise 149

Ben Kotzee

13 Stoic Lessons for an Uncertain Future 162

Nancy Sherman

14 Character Education 172

Paul Watts and Kristján Kristjánsson

PART III
Education and Justice 185

15 Equal Educational Opportunity: What Should It Mean? 187

Gina Schouten

16 Non-Preparatory Dimensions of Educational Justice 199

Colin M. Macleod

17 Child Work and Education, a Global Perspective 209

Nico Brando

18 Educational Problems of Mass Migration 221

Danielle Zwarthoed

19 The Political Ethics of Bilingual Education 233

Daniel M. Weinstock

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 Contents

20 Global Democratic Educational Justice 245

Julian Culp

21 Neoliberalism and Education 257

Lawrence Blum

22 Racial Domination in Education 270

Quentin Wheeler-Bell

23 The Costs of Upward Mobility 283

Jennifer M. Morton

24 Who Should Pay for Higher Education? An Educational Aims Perspective 291
Christopher Martin

25 Toward a Post-Pandemic Higher Education System 302

Ariel C. Armony and Ann E. Cudd

PART IV
Educational Practices 317

26 Free Speech and Education 319

Sigal Ben-Porath and Dustin Webster

27 Democratic Education and the Controversy over Controversial Issues 332

Johannes Drerup

28 College Teaching, Indoctrination, and Trust 344

Anthony Simon Laden

29 Climate, Science, and Sustainability Education 353

Matt Ferkany

30 Is “Sex Education” an Intelligible Concept? 365

Lauren Bialystok

31 Racial Identity Formation and Antiracist Education 377

Winston C. Thompson

32 Discipline and Punishment in Schools 390

Bryan R. Warnick

33 Ability and Ability Grouping 401

Tammy Harel Ben Shahar

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 Contents

34 Malignant Accountability, False Promises, and the Future of Education 413

Yael Yuli Tamir

35 Burnout, Demoralization, and Racialized Failures to Recognize Teachers

as Moral Subjects 427
Doris A. Santoro

Index 440

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Handbook would not have existed without the encouragement and assistance of many people,
beginning with the Routledge Editor for Philosophy of Education Matthew Friberg, who recruited
me to fill the void created by the advanced age of my 2003 Blackwell Companion to the Philosophy of
Education and Harvey Siegel’s 2009 Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education. Such volumes may
remain landmarks in the development of their respective subfields of philosophy for many years, but
over time they become less representative of the current state of inquiry and less helpful to advancing
it. Matt approached me on March 5th, 2020, as I was preparing my department’s Pandemic Scenario
Continuity of Business Plan, and his enthusiasm for the project as it began to take shape in August of
that year persuaded me that academic life in the Age of COVID would be more than endless rounds
of administrative and instructional emergencies. He and the Editorial Assistant for this volume,
Jessica Cooke, have been unfailingly supportive through every phase of its development and
production. I am very grateful to them both.
My expectation that the opportunity to work with dozens of the world’s most talented
philosophers of education would make the orchestration of this volume a rewarding experience was
confirmed throughout its development. I owe the contributors my warmest thanks not just for the
excellence of their chapters, collaborative spirit, and friendship, but for all they have done to advance
a field that has truly flourished in the twenty years since my work on the Companion. For their
formative advice and suggestions regarding the plan for this volume I owe thanks to Meira Levinson,
Philip Cook, Gina Schouten, Larry Blum, and Danielle Zwarthoed. Finally, and with apologies to
anyone whose assistance I may be overlooking, I owe my Philosophy and Education Librarian,
Eileen Daly-Boas, an autographed copy of this Handbook and my profuse thanks for her wonderfully
resourceful work in answering a multitude of bibliographic inquiries.

ix
 CONTRIBUTORS

Danielle Allen is James Bryant Conant University Professor at Harvard University. A political
philosopher and public policy expert focused on democracy innovation, public health and health
equity, justice reform, education, and political economy, she has chaired numerous commission
processes and led development of influential policy roadmaps. She also directs the Democratic
Knowledge Project, a K–16 civic education provider. Her books include Our Declaration: A Reading
of the Declaration of Independence in Defense of Equality, Cuz: An American Tragedy, and Talking to
Strangers: Anxieties of Citizenship since Brown v. Board of Education.

Ariel C. Armony is Vice Provost for Global Affairs, Director of the University Center for
International Studies, and Professor in the Graduate School of Public and International Affairs at the
University of Pittsburgh. Prior to his current role, he led the University of Miami’s Institute for
Advanced Study of the Americas. He has been a Fulbright scholar, Rockefeller Foundation scholar,
and residential fellow at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. He has published
on democratization and civil society, transnational repression, the globalization of cities, and the
relationship between China and Latin America.

David Bakhurst is George Whalley Distinguished University Professor at Queen’s University at

Kingston. He is the author of Consciousness and Revolution in Soviet Philosophy (Cambridge, 1991) and
The Formation of Reason (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), and co-editor of The Social Self (Sage, 1995), Jerome
Bruner: Language, Culture, Self (Sage, 2001), and Education and Conversation: Exploring Oakeshott’s
Legacy (Bloomsbury, 2016). His philosophical interests include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics,
and Russian philosophy and psychology. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

Heather Battaly is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Connecticut. She specializes in

epistemology, ethics, and virtue theory. She is the author of Virtue (Polity, 2015), co-editor of Vice
Epistemology (Routledge, 2020), and editor of The Routledge Handbook of Virtue Epistemology (2018)
and of Virtue and Vice, Moral and Epistemic (Blackwell, 2010). She has published widely on the topics
of intellectual virtue and intellectual vice. Her current projects focus on humility, closed-
mindedness, and vice epistemology.

Sigal Ben-Porath is Professor of Education, Philosophy, and Political Science at the University of
Pennsylvania. She received her doctorate in political philosophy from Tel-Aviv University in 2000,

x
 Contributors

after which she joined Princeton University’s Center for Human Values as a post-doctoral fellow. She
chaired Penn’s Committee on Open Expression 2015–2019. Her books include Free Speech on Campus
(Penn Press, 2017), Making Up Our Mind: What School Choice is Really About (with Michael Johanek,
University of Chicago Press, 2019), and the forthcoming Campus Wars and the Struggle for Democracy.

Lauren Bialystok is Associate Professor in the Department of Social Justice Education at the Ontario
Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto. She received her PhD in Philosophy
(also at the University of Toronto) and specializes in ethics, identity, and education. She has conducted
empirical and theoretical research on sex education since 2015 and is co-author (with Lisa Andersen) of
Touchy Subject: The History and Philosophy of Sex Education (University of Chicago Press, 2022).

Lawrence Blum is (Emeritus) Distinguished Professor of Liberal Arts and Education, and Professor
of Philosophy, at the University of Massachusetts Boston. He is the author of “I’m Not a Racist,
But”: The Moral Quandary of Race (Cornell, 2002), High Schools, Race, and America’s Future (Harvard
Education Press, 2012) and Integrations: The Struggle for Racial Equality and Civic Renewal in Public
Education (with Zoë Burkholder, University of Chicago Press, 2021).

Nico Brando is Derby Fellow at the University of Liverpool and a former Newton International
Fellow of the British Academy at the Centre for Children’s Rights, Queen’s University Belfast. His
work in moral and political philosophy and practical ethics is focused on issues pertaining to
children. He has published in leading education, philosophy, and political science journals. He is also
the editor of the book Philosophy and Child Poverty (Springer, 2019).

Harry Brighouse is Mildred Fish Harnack Professor of Philosophy, Carol Dickson Bascom Professor
of the Humanities, Affiliate Professor of Education Policy Studies, and Director of the Center for
Ethics and Education at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is co-author of Family Values: The
Ethics of Parent-Child Relationships (Princeton, 2014) and Educational Goods: Values, Evidence and
Decision-Making (Chicago, 2018), and co-editor of The Aims of Higher Education: Problems of Morality and
Justice (Chicago, 2015). He wrote On Education (Routledge, 2005) on his own.

Nancy Cartwright FBA FAcSS is Professor of Philosophy at Durham University and Distinguished
Professor at the University of California San Diego, having worked previously at Stanford
University and the London School of Economics. She is a methodologist/philosopher of the
natural and human sciences, focusing on the social and economic sciences, with special attention to
evidence, objectivity, and how to put scientific knowledge to work. Her latest books are Nature, the
Artful Modeler and Improving Child Safety: Deliberation, Judgement and Empirical Research with Eileen
Munro, Jeremy Hardie, and Eleonora Montuschi.

Ann E. Cudd is Provost and Senior Vice Chancellor and Professor of Philosophy at the University
of Pittsburgh. Prior to her current role she served as the Dean of the College and Graduate School at
Boston University, and before that as Vice Provost and Dean of Undergraduate Studies and
University Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the University of Kansas. A founding member
of the Society for Analytical Feminism, her work focuses on oppression, capitalism, and the role of
higher education in addressing inequality and promoting democratic engagement.

Julian Culp is Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Fellow of the Center for Critical Democracy
Studies at The American University of Paris. He is the author of Global Justice and Development
(Palgrave, 2014), Democratic Education in a Globalized World (Routledge, 2019), and numerous
articles in such journals as Theory and Research in Education, Third World Quarterly, and the European

xi
 Contributors

Journal of Political Theory. He is also co-editor of Education and Migration (Routledge, 2020) and the
book series Philosophy of Education – Debates and Constellations (mentis Verlag).

Randall Curren is Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Education (secondary) at the University of
Rochester and held a concurrent membership at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton
(2012–2013) and professorships at the Royal Institute of Philosophy (London) and the Jubilee Centre
for Character and Virtues at the University of Birmingham (UK) (2013–2015). His recent works include
Living Well Now and in the Future (with Ellen Metzger, MIT Press, 2017; Beijing Normal UP, 2021, in
Chinese) and Patriotic Education in a Global Age (with Charles Dorn, University of Chicago Press, 2018).

Johannes Drerup is Professor of Philosophy of Education and Educational Theory at TU

Dortmund, Germany and Guest Professor at the Free University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
His research interests lie in the areas of philosophy of education, philosophy of childhood, and
political and moral philosophy. He is author of Kontroverse Themen im Unterricht (Reclam, 2021) and
coeditor of the forthcoming Cambridge Handbook of Democratic Education (with Julian Culp and
Douglas Yacek, Cambridge University Press).

Catherine Z. Elgin is Professor of the Philosophy of Education at Harvard Graduate School of

Education. She is an epistemologist whose research spans the philosophy of science, the philosophy
of art, and the philosophy of education. She is the author of True Enough, Considered Judgment,
Between the Absolute and the Arbitrary, With Reference to Reference, and co-author with Nelson
Goodman of Reconceptions in Philosophy and Other Arts and Sciences.

Matt Ferkany is Associate Professor of Philosophy at Michigan State University. His work brings
ideas in environmental ethics, virtue theory, philosophy of education, and philosophy of science to
ethical problems in science and environmental education. It has been supported by the Spencer
Foundation and published in numerous journals.

Tammy Harel Ben Shahar is Senior Lecturer at the University of Haifa Faculty of Law. Her
research focuses on the philosophical and legal aspects of educational justice and distributive justice
more generally. She is the recipient of several grants and awards, including the German-Israel
Foundation grant and the Israel Science Foundation grant. In addition to teaching and research she is
the Academic Director of the Haifa University Legal Clinics.

Kathryn E. Joyce is a postdoctoral research associate in Values and Public Policy at the Princeton
University Center for Human Values and the Education Research Section in the School of Public and
International Affairs. She received her doctorate in philosophy from the University of California, San
Diego in 2020. She specializes in political philosophy and philosophy of education, focusing on
normative, methodological, and epistemological issues associated with the evidence-based approach to
education policy and practice.

David Kidd is a principal investigator at the Harvard Graduate School of Education’s Project Zero and
the Chief Assessment Scientist for the Democratic Knowledge Project. He received a PhD in Social
Psychology from the New School for Social Research in 2015, and currently works on new approaches
to evaluation and assessment in the humanities, including in ethics and civic education.

Philip Kitcher is John Dewey Professor of Philosophy Emeritus at Columbia University. His most
recent books are Moral Progress and The Main Enterprise of the World: Rethinking Education. He is a

xii
 Contributors

fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the British Academy, a member of the
American Philosophical Society, and an Honorary Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge.

Ben Kotzee is Reader in Philosophy of Education at the University of Birmingham and Deputy
Director of the Midlands Graduate School ESRC Doctoral Training Partnership. He researches
questions in applied epistemology and applied ethics, with a particular focus on professions and
professional development. He is editor of Education and the Growth of Knowledge: Perspectives from the
Social Sciences and Virtue Epistemology (Wiley-Blackwell, 2013) and editor-in-chief of the journal
Theory and Research in Education.

Kristján Kristjánsson is Professor of Character Education and Virtue Ethics in the Jubilee Centre
for Character and Virtues at the University of Birmingham, UK. His interests lie in research on
character and virtues at the intersection between moral philosophy, moral psychology, and moral
education. He has published six books on those issues, including Aristotelian Character Education
(Routledge, 2015), which won the British Society for Educational Studies Prize as the Best
Education Book of the year. He is the editor of Journal of Moral Education.

Anthony Simon Laden is is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Illinois at Chicago and
Associate Director of the Center for Ethics and Education at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
He is the author of Reasoning: A Social Picture (Oxford, 2012) and numerous articles on reasoning
together, the politics of identity, and the philosophy of John Rawls. He is currently working on a
book with the tentative tile, How Democracy Doesn’t End.

Meira Levinson is Juliana W. and William Foss Thompson Professor of Education and Society at
Harvard Graduate School of Education. She is currently working to start a global field of educational
ethics, modeled partially after bioethics, that is philosophically rigorous, disciplinarily and
experientially inclusive, and both relevant to and informed by educational policy and practice.
Her work in this area includes Dilemmas of Educational Ethics and Democratic Discord in Schools (both
co-edited with Jacob Fay), No Citizen Left Behind, and JusticeinSchools.org.

Colin M. Macleod is Professor of Philosophy and Law at the University of Victoria. His research
focuses on issues in contemporary moral, political and legal theory with a special focus on egalitarian
justice; children, families, and justice; and democratic ethics. He is the author of Liberalism, Justice,
and Markets (OUP, 1998), co-editor with David Archard of The Moral and Political Status of Children
(OUP, 2002), and co-author with Ben Justice of Have a Little Faith: Religion, Democracy and the
American Public School (University of Chicago Press, 2016).

Christopher Martin is Associate Professor of Philosophy and Education at the University of British
Columbia. His current research focuses on issues relating to the nature and role of educational
institutions in liberal societies. His most recent book is The Right to Higher Education: A Political
Theory (Oxford University Press, 2022).

Jennifer M. Morton is the Penn Presidential Compact Associate Professor of Philosophy at the
University of Pennsylvania and a Senior Fellow at the Center for Ethics and Education at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her research is focused on how agents reason and act under
conditions of adversity and how educational institutions shape our agency. She is the author of
Moving Up Without Losing Your Way (Princeton University Press, 2019), which won the Frederic W.
Ness Award from the Association of American Colleges and Universities.

xiii
 Contributors

Duncan Pritchard is UC Distinguished Professor of Philosophy and Director of the Center for
Knowledge, Technology and Society at the University of California, Irvine. His monographs include
Epistemic Luck (OUP, 2005), The Nature and Value of Knowledge (co-authored, OUP, 2010),
Epistemological Disjunctivism (OUP, 2012), and Epistemic Angst: Radical Skepticism and the
Groundlessness of Our Believing (Princeton University Press, 2015). His most recent book is
Scepticism: A Very Short Introduction (OUP, 2019).

Doris A. Santoro is Professor of Education at Bowdoin College. A philosopher of education who

conducts empirical research on teachers’ moral and ethical concerns, she is author of Demoralized:
Why Teachers Leave the Profession They Love and How They Can Stay and articles in the American
Journal of Education, Educational Theory, Studies in Philosophy and Education, and Teachers College Record.
She is co-editor of Principled Resistance: How Teachers Resolve Ethical Dilemmas and a Senior Associate
Editor for the American Journal of Education.

Gina Schouten is Professor of Philosophy at Harvard University. Her research focuses on matters
of justice and political legitimacy. She has written about educational justice and gender justice, and
about whether political liberalism can constitute an adequate theory of legitimacy. Her 2019 book,
Liberalism, Neutrality, and the Gendered Division of Labor, argues that the state may legitimately enact
social policy aimed at promoting a gender-equal sharing of domestic and unpaid caregiving work,
even consistent with the constraints of liberal neutrality.

Nancy Sherman is University Professor and Professor of Philosophy at Georgetown University

and was the inaugural Distinguished Chair in Ethics at the U.S. Naval Academy. A New York Times
Notable Author, her most recent book is Stoic Wisdom: Ancient Lessons for Modern Resilience (2021).
Her other books include Afterwar, Stoic Warriors, Making a Necessity of Virtue, and The Fabric of
Character. She has written for the New York Times, Washington Post, and Los Angeles Times and
contributes frequently to many other media outlets in the U.S. and elsewhere.

Adam Swift is Professor of Political Theory in the Department of Political Science at University
College, London. He is co-author of Family Values: The Ethics of Parent-Child Relationships
(Princeton University Press, 2014) and Educational Goods: Values, Evidence and Decision-Making
(University of Chicago Press, 2018). He wrote How Not to Be A Hypocrite: School Choice for the
Morally Perplexed Parent (Routledge, 2003) and Political Philosophy: A Beginners’ Guide for Students and
Politicians (Polity, 4th ed 2019) on his own.

Yael (Yuli) Tamir is the President of Beit Berl College and an adjunct professor at the Blavatnik
School of Government, Oxford University. She served as Israel’s Minister of Immigration (1999-
2001), Minister of Education (2006-2009), and Deputy Speaker of the Knesset, and was Professor at
Tel-Aviv University and a scholar-in-residence at Princeton, Harvard, the European University in
Florence, the Central European University in Budapest, NYU, and Penn. A recipient of many
academic awards, her publications in moral, political, and educational philosophy, feminism, and
human rights include Why Nationalism (Princeton, 2019).

Winston C. Thompson is Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Studies and

Associate Professor in the Department of Philosophy (by courtesy) at The Ohio State University. A
former Fellow-in-Residence at the Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics at Harvard University,
Thompson’s scholarship explores ethical and political dimensions of educational policy and practice,
including issues of race and other identity categories.

xiv
 Contributors

Bryan R. Warnick is Professor of Philosophy of Education in the Department of Educational

Studies at Ohio State University. He is co-author of Spare the Rod: Punishment and the Moral
Community of Schools (University of Chicago Press, 2021), Understanding Student Rights in Schools (TC
Press, 2012), and Imitation and Education: A Philosophical Inquiry into Learning by Example (SUNY
Press, 2008). His interests include educational ethics, school shootings and security, school
discipline, and the educational significance of economic systems.

Paul Watts is a Lecturer in the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues at the University of
Birmingham, UK, where he teaches on the MA Character Education program. His research interests
include the practical application of character education, teacher education, and how teachers use and
value stories as a vehicle for character education. He is co-author of Understanding Character
Education: Approaches, Applications and Issues (Open University Press, 2021).

Dustin Webster is PhD student at the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education.
He has a professional background in a variety of roles in K–12 education, including working in the
after-school context, teaching English abroad, and most recently teaching 5th grade. His interests
include character and virtue education, educational ethics, economic mobility and education, and
philosophy in K–12 schools.

Daniel M. Weinstock is Katharine A. Pearson Chair in Civil Society and Public Policy in the
Faculty of Law and of Arts, Professor in the Department of Philosophy and in the Institute for
Health and Social Policy, and Associate Dean for Research in the Faculty of Law, at McGill
University. His research has spanned a wide range of topics in moral and political philosophy, from
the just management of ethnocultural and religious diversity in modern liberal democracies, to state
policy with respect to children, families, and educational institutions.

Quentin Wheeler-Bell is Associate Professor of Philosophy of Education in the Department of

Educational Leadership & Policy Studies at Indiana University. His research interests include critical
theory, critical pedagogy, democratic theory, and policy issues such as school choice, integration,
and urban poverty. His work has appeared in Educational Policy, Educational Theory, Philosophical
Inquiry in Education, Critical Education, Journal of Curriculum Studies, and other leading publications.

Danielle Zwarthoed earned a PhD in Philosophy (Paris Est, 2013), taught Economic and Social
Ethics for a few years at the Hoover Chair (Université catholique de Louvain, Belgium), and then
decided to switch discipline and teach History in high school in the region of Paris. Her
philosophical research appears in journals such as Theory and Research in Education, the Journal of
Applied Philosophy, and Ethical Theory and Moral Practice. She is the co-editor of Education and
Migration (Routledge, 2020).

xv
 INTRODUCTION
Randall Curren

When I last edited a volume of this kind twenty years ago, I wrote that the philosophy of education
had enjoyed a notable resurgence, “fueled in part by developments in related branches of practical
philosophy” (Curren 2003: 1). Education being the dauntingly complex human endeavor that it is,
I hastened to add that there are several sub-fields of philosophy besides ethics and political philo-
sophy that have informed work in philosophy of education. I also noted that there had been
growing interest in the history of philosophy of education, and that philosophers of education were
bringing their methods and perspectives to bear on public and theoretical debates about education
and philosophical aspects of teaching and curricula. Notable features of the landscape were Critical
Thinking (CT) and Philosophy for Children (P4C) movements that spanned philosophy and
education. Another notable feature was a rough division of labor in which philosophy of education
was still often framed as a foundational aspect of teacher education in schools of education – and was
thus focused on K-12 education – while philosophers employed in philosophy departments were at
greater liberty to address issues in higher education. Collectively, these patterns and developments
justified a volume with sections on historical and contemporary movements, teaching and learning,
the politics and ethics of schooling, and higher education.
Philosophy of education has flourished through the intervening years in ways that require a
different structure and focus, if one is to accurately represent the current state of inquiry and provide
what is most helpful to advancing it. It has grown impressively stronger as a field of practical
philosophy, overlapping with ethics, social and political philosophy, feminist philosophy and phi-
losophy of race, the philosophy of childhood and children, moral psychology, and epistemology.
New journals, research centers, organizations, and funding have nurtured growing collegial en-
gagement and collaboration between education-focused researchers in philosophy departments,
departments and schools of education, history, psychology, sociology, political science, law, and
other fields. New lines of inquiry have addressed diverse aspects of educational justice; human
flourishing; intellectual, moral, and civic virtues; pathologies of public discourse and threats to
democracy; environmental and sustainability education; and other important topics.
The state of the world for which rising generations must be prepared is less benign than it was
twenty years ago, and any field of study with a stake in humanity’s future must find ways to respond
to the challenges we all face: the imperiled state of work, democracy, civic life, public knowledge,
public health, countless species, a stable climate, and eight other earth systems on which we all
depend.1 These challenges are overwhelmingly global in scope, and it is only as one global com-
munity that we can address them effectively. Philosophy of education is growing more global in its

DOI: 10.4324/9781003172246-1 1
 Randall Curren

perspective, and it increasingly embraces the value of philosophical work being empirically well-
informed and collaborative in its engagement with other disciplines, as it seeks to engage the
educational problems of our time meaningfully. To recognize this is not to deny the value of
historical scholarship in philosophy of education and the lessons it can offer. I take these lessons to
begin with the ancient propositions that education – not law or technology – is the fundamental
means by which a civilization can be preserved, that it can only succeed as a collective enterprise,
and that it is only through institutions that honor and cultivate norms of respect for reason and
evidence that we can enjoy the benefits of a society in which we reason together, face our problems
squarely, and manage to solve the problems that matter most.
This Handbook is shaped by these lessons and developments in the field. It is forward-looking in
featuring emerging issues that will be important in the years ahead, while also addressing funda-
mental perennial questions. These perennial questions of educational aims, authority, responsi-
bilities, content, and conduct frame and infuse the entire volume. Part I (Fundamental Questions)
addresses the nature and aims of education, authority to educate, the roles of values and evidence in
guiding educational choices, and fundamental questions about human cognition, learning, well-
being, and identity. Part II (Virtues of Mind and Character) is concerned with the educational
formation of valuable attributes – virtues – that have been extensively investigated and defended in
recent years as essential to flourishing individuals and societies. This section includes chapters on the
cultivation of intellectual and character virtues, the nature and formation of expertise, Stoic virtues,
and intellectual vices. Part III (Education and Justice) addresses fundamental and emerging issues of
educational justice, from equal educational opportunity, racial domination, and linguistic justice in
education, to educational problems of mass migration, global educational justice, the education of
working children around the world, and the costs of higher education and upward mobility. Part IV
(Educational Practices) addresses controversial aspects of contemporary education – pedagogical,
curricular, and managerial practices – that deserve careful examination. These include controversies
surrounding free speech and instruction in controversial issues; anti-racist, sustainability, and sex
education; and the unfulfilled promises and demoralizing impact of high-stakes accountability
schemes.

Part I: Fundamental Questions

The chapters of Part I address fundamental questions about education, how these questions can be
meaningfully addressed, and how decisions about educational policies and practices should be made:
What aims are most important in education? On what grounds should some aim or aims be given
priority over others? What is most important to achieving such educational aims as facilitating
students’ success in meeting life’s challenges, democratic citizenship, and living well, or the de-
velopment of their powers of reason, knowledge, and understanding? What are the respective roles
of values and evidence in educational decision-making? Which values and what kinds of evidence?
Who should make decisions about children’s education? What considerations are relevant to de-
ciding who should make these decisions? How are all these questions related to matters of justice?
What would a comprehensive theory of educational justice look like?
Philip Kitcher’s opening chapter identifies some crucial limitations of the currently ascendent
conception of what is prudent and sensible in education. What is ascendent the world over is
education in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM subjects) aiming at in-
dividual and national economic competitiveness and growth. Kitcher argues that such education is
not a sensible way to prepare young people for the world they will inhabit, since it not only ignores
the most important difficulties they will face but makes things worse by accelerating the dis-
appearance of rewarding work and the destabilization of Earth’s climate, which is already driving
large-scale human migration, contributing to public health crises, and making the planet less

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habitable. His defense of an alternative – education for global democratic problem-solving – rests on
the premise that education should prepare young people, individually and collectively, to address
and solve the problems they will face, and should mitigate, not exacerbate, those problems.
Kitcher is not alone in arguing that today’s global problems call for global democratic solidarity,
and this implies some understanding of ourselves as members of an inclusive global public with the
potential to engage in democratic cooperation.2 Danielle Allen and David Kidd’s chapter addresses
underlying questions of civic identity formation and inclusivity, with reference to the endangered
state of democracy in the United States. Drawing on sociocultural theories of learning and devel-
opment, they argue that it is important for schools to support students’ integration of the disposi-
tions, knowledge, and skills central to a democratic civic role with their other identities, such as race,
gender, or religion. Their approach is focused on helping students bring their distinctive identities
into civic life in ways that are effective, equitable, and self-protecting.
My own chapter addresses the nature of well-being, happiness, and flourishing and their roles in
education. It addresses the ethical significance of students’ well-being and the relationships between
students’ needs, well-being, and academic success, drawing on important findings in Basic
Psychological Needs Theory. It proposes a role for basic needs in educational justice and addresses
the basis of claims about the aims of education, while defending flourishing as the paramount aim of
education and identifying the cultivation of capabilities, understanding, and virtues as the primary
developmental sub-aims. It concludes by redefining the ideal of a just school community and insisting
that justice in enabling everyone to live well applies both now and with respect to future genera-
tions. Educational justice and equality of opportunity would be, in this sense, not simply present-
regarding (synchronic), but intergenerational (diachronic) (Curren & Metzger 2017; Curren 2018).
The chapters by David Bakhurst and Catherine Elgin continue and deepen the discussion of de-
velopmental aims of education by addressing the role of an adequate philosophy of psychology in
cultivating students’ rational powers, and the disciplinary and pedagogical foundations of under-
standing and epistemic autonomy. Bakhurst rejects a conception of the mind as a self-contained, self-
sufficient subjective world of thoughts and experiences, in favor of one that sees our rational capacities
as present in and expressed by our embodied engagement with the world. He explains how the latter
grounds a view of education as the cultivation of powers of reason through initiation into traditions of
thought and action, and he concludes that a variety of epistemic aims of education – the imparting of
knowledge, development of reason and powers of mind, and facilitation of autonomous epistemic
agency – are inseparable. Elgin’s disciplinary and pedagogical perspective on these aspects of education
leads her to similar conclusions: Students’ epistemic agency is an important aim of education that is
evident in a great deal of K-12 educational practice. It is grounded in subject matter disciplines that can
enable students to see, think about, and understand aspects of the world in new ways, if they embrace
the resources of these disciplines as their own. Their education should enable them to grasp and
reflectively endorse disciplinary standards of judgment, understanding why practitioners in the dif-
ferent disciplines favor their criteria of reason or evidence, and understanding how those criteria can be
challenged responsibly.
Chapters 6, by Harry Brighouse and Adam Swift, and 7, by Kathryn Joyce and Nancy
Cartwright, take us from these general questions about the aims of education and fundamental
aspects of achieving them, to the basis of specific decisions regarding educational policy and practice
that are made in specific circumstances by specific people. Rejecting the influential idea that
educational decision-making should be “data-driven,” Brighouse and Swift point out that sound
decision-making requires knowing what one has reason to value, knowing what options are
available, and having evidence concerning the likely effects of choosing those options. It must
therefore be “value-led and data-informed.” The chapter presents a step-by-step model for how to
engage in such decision-making and illustrates this model with reference to school financing, charter
schools, and proficiency grouping in classrooms. In doing this, Brighouse and Swift provide a

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suggested set of values: (1) educational aims consisting of capacities conducive to the flourishing of
students and those with whom they interact, (2) equality, adequacy and concern for the worse off,
and (3) other values such as goods of childhood, parental rights, and democratic ideals. Joyce’s and
Cartwright’s chapter focuses on predictions about how prospective policies are likely to play out in
specific settings. Although evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) is widely viewed as
the gold-standard, they argue that it is neither sufficient nor necessary to ground education policies;
the kinds of information needed can only be obtained through a mix of research methods, theory,
and local sources. Like Brighouse and Swift, they reject a “value-free” conception of evidence-based
decision-making.
Brighouse and Swift’s second chapter turns from the basis of specific decisions regarding edu-
cational policy and practice, to the question of who should make the decisions about children’s
education. Relying on the same values enumerated in their chapter on educational decision-making,
they argue that consequentialist considerations weigh in favor of placing educational decisions in the
hands of whoever’s decision, in the specific context, is most likely to yield the outcomes most
consistent with the relevant values. Judgments may differ regarding the relative weightings of values
and assessments of the evidence, and these differing judgments may favor different assignments of
decisional authority. Other non-consequentialist considerations, such as parents’ rights and chil-
dren’s rights, could also lead to different assignments of decisional authority. While their analysis
should be helpful in many instances, it offers no solution to contentious disagreements about
educational authority, let alone who has the authority to decide who gets to decide matters con-
cerning children’s education.3
Meira Levinson rounds out our consideration of fundamental questions by asking what a com-
prehensive theory of educational justice would look like. She notes that some steps have been taken
beyond simply importing theories of distributive justice directly into philosophy of education, but she
rightly observes that no comprehensive theory of educational justice has been proposed. The method
she uses to reach some preliminary criteria for what would constitute an adequately comprehensive
theory is a detailed case analysis. Based on this initial case analysis of an ethically complex decision a
teacher must make on the spur of the moment, she concludes that such a theory would, among other
things: (a) recognize that children are not fully rational and do not reliably comply with schools’
expectations; (b) coherently integrate corrective and distributional aspects of justice; (c) define
boundaries for the social construction of difference; and (d) be informed by a more comprehensive
collection of case studies.

Part II: Virtues of Mind and Character

Virtue studies has been a burgeoning arena of interdisciplinary research focused on epistemic, moral,
civic, and other virtues, and it has substantially enriched philosophical work on the epistemic, moral,
and civic aims of education. The emergence of virtue ethics as an influential approach to normative
ethical theory in the 1980s (Slote & Besser-Jones 2015), and subsequent emergence of virtue
epistemology as an approach to defining the nature of knowledge (Battaly 2019), have played
formative roles in these developments, though virtue-focused work on the epistemic, moral, and
civic aims of education is not inherently beholden to orthodox forms of virtue ethics or virtue
epistemology. The fundamental merit of a virtue-focused perspective for philosophy of education is
that it concerns the nature, formation, and functioning of desirable human attributes that educators
might do well to cultivate. A merit of the interdisciplinary character of virtue studies is that it has
made it possible to not only develop philosophical accounts of the relevant virtues but also psy-
chological models and measures that can inform educational practice.
Duncan Pritchard and Heather Battaly open this section with chapters on intellectual character
education. Pritchard argues that the overarching epistemic goal of education is the development of

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virtuous intellectual character, contrasting it with the goal of students becoming critical thinkers.
A goal of teaching for virtuous intellectual character would be for students to value truth as an
intellectual good, and Pritchard considers the objection that this would make such teaching
an objectionable form of indoctrination. He responds, in part, that teaching students to value truth
can scarcely be a violation of their intellectual autonomy, because valuing truth is foundational to
acquiring intellectual autonomy. Battaly explains the current standard approach to education for
virtuous intellectual character, involving such things as exposure to exemplars of intellectual virtues
and practice in emulating them. She then pivots from virtue epistemology to vice epistemology,
which addresses the character, origins, and remediation of intellectual vices, such as closed-
mindedness, intellectual arrogance, and epistemic injustice. She argues that the standard approach
isn’t likely to help students in whom intellectual vices are already well-established, and that if
tendencies toward intellectual vices are widespread, then systemic changes in education and the
structures that engender intellectual vices will be required. The standard approach would play a less
central role than its proponents, including Battaly, have assumed.
The acquisition of expertise is a prominent aspect of technical, professional, and higher educa-
tion, but there are two broad views of its nature, which Ben Kotzee dubs the “cognitive” and
“skills-based” accounts. His chapter examines these approaches in detail and concludes that neither
of them offers guidance for the educational development of expertise. He argues that the educational
formation of expertise should be understood in the context of occupational preparation, and that the
development of trustworthiness should be a central aspect of it.
Virtues of resilience, “grit,” and gratitude have gone mainstream in recent years, capturing the
imagination of a public hungry for self-help nostrums and government officials seeking remedies for
the desperation of young people “lost in transition” from high school to life, as pathways of op-
portunity have disappeared (Paterson et al. 2014: Smith et al. 2011). Nancy Sherman brings to this
scene – and the suffering associated with persistent racism, a pandemic, threats to democracy, and a
planet on fire – an authoritative and well-practiced command of Stoic lessons for handling worst-
case scenarios. How can we face our vulnerability to misfortune and injustice, mitigate our fear, and
help those we mentor and teach do the same? Stoic resilience is as much an art of social connection
as an art of managing one’s own responses to aspects of the world beyond one’s control, and a central
aim of Sherman’s chapter is to explain how these different aspects of it are compatible. Paul Watts
and Kristján Kristjánsson close out Part II with a chapter on character education, which they identify
as any form of holistic moral education that is focused on the development of enduring virtues of
character, aims to promote human flourishing, and is founded on a general theory of virtue. Their
chapter distinguishes some leading perspectives on character education and it addresses some con-
troversies pertaining to these perspectives, the main approaches to developing character, and
methods of evaluating the success of character-education programs. It concludes with a discussion of
the potentially positive outcomes for students and schools.

Part III: Education and Justice

There was a time when education in schools, colleges, and universities occupied fewer years and
hours of people’s lives, the lines between work and education were less clear, and the completion of
high school and higher degrees made less difference to labor market and life outcomes. In 1945, only
half of US residents had any formal education beyond elementary school, there were only a few
million students enrolled in secondary schools versus about 450 million today, and only 5 percent of
adults completed baccalaureate degrees versus about 30 percent today (Baker 2011: 10−11).
Meanwhile, across the globe, college enrollments grew from about 1 percent of college-age youth in
1900 to 20 percent in 2000, and the rising tide of college graduates enabled universities to create a
growing multitude of postgraduate programs (Sachs 2015: 243−254; Baker 2014; Collins 1979). In

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the United States today, college graduates comprise half of the populations of several major cities
(Baker 2014), a baccalaureate degree is all but essential to a middle-class existence (Duncan &
Murnane 2011), and those without college degrees are experiencing declining life expectancy,
owing to deaths of despair by suicide, drug overdose, and alcohol (Case & Deaton 2020). The only
thing more costly than obtaining a college degree is failing to obtain one, proving once again that
invention is the mother of necessity.
In this context, the irresistible point of departure for Part III is the ideal of equal educational
opportunity. It has meant many things, and Gina Schouten devotes her chapter to what it should
mean. She argues that educational justice is foundational to social justice and that we should regard
education as just when it equalizes students’ prospects for living good lives. Equalization of this kind
is presently unattainable, but she argues we can and should make progress toward it by using
education to improve the life prospects of those who are badly off, assigning moral weight to
students’ interests in proportion to how bad their prospects for living well are. Schouten’s focus on
distributional justice regarding educational contributions to students’ prospects of living well con-
nects it in significant ways to my own chapter and Brighouse and Swift’s chapters. Colin Macleod’s
chapter on non-preparatory dimensions of educational justice also intersects with these chapters, but
on the theme of students’ present well-being – the goodness of children’s lives as children. The
resources and opportunities available to children in schools plays a significant role in their access to
important goods of childhood, and Macleod argues that fair access to these goods is an important
dimension of educational justice.
The quality of children’s lives and their future opportunities are both at stake in Nico Brando’s
chapter on child work and education, which is the first of four that offer global perspectives on
aspects of educational justice. In affluent countries today, it is taken for granted that children belong
in school preparing for adulthood, not going to work, yet almost one-fifth of the world’s school-
aged children do not go to school, often because they are at work. Brando examines the conceptual
and ethical issues at stake, using examples from around the world. What are “education” and
“work” and how are they related? What are the arguments for banning children from working and
making schooling compulsory, and what are the costs of this compulsion-and-ban approach? Brando
documents ways in which the difficult circumstances of many children’s lives make the compulsion-
and-ban approach both ineffective and ethically problematic, and he concludes that the needed
reforms include accommodations to improve working children’s access to education.
There are meanwhile over 80 million people in the world today – one percent of humanity –
who have been forcibly displaced from their homes, including 30 million who have fled their
countries and are seeking asylum or awaiting resettlement by the United Nations Human Rights
Agency (UNHCR).4 Most of these refugees languish for years in “temporary” refugee camps or
work in the underground economies of cities in the Global South, and over 40 percent of them are
children with limited to nonexistent educational opportunities (Parekh 2020). Many other inter-
national migrants who are seeking a better life beyond their home countries would not qualify as
refugees, because their reasons for migrating are economic and often rooted in climate change, but
their situations also raise questions of educational justice that demand the attention of philosophers.
Danielle Zwarthoed focuses on three specific issues: (1) the relevance of citizenship education for
children who will not get citizenship in their country of residence; (2) equality of opportunity for
students whose families lack the linguistic and cultural capital important to opportunities in the
country of arrival; and (3) fair distribution of educational costs and benefits, in a world in which
people do not always work and pay taxes in the country that paid for their education.
Linguistic and global justice in education are topics addressed more broadly by Daniel Weinstock
and Julian Culp. Weinstock is concerned specifically with bilingual education and its relationship to
linguistic justice. He begins with the presumption that there are very strong reasons for children to
be educated bilingually, when it is feasible, and asks whether there are specific contexts in which this

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presumption is overridden. He considers the case of asymmetrical bilingualism, or contexts in which

the two languages in which bilingual systems educate children differ in their capacity to attract
speakers, and “nation-building” arguments for unilingual education to establish a single language
across an entire territory. He concludes that in some contexts there are valid moral reasons favoring
unilingual education, even if bilingual education is feasible, but that in many contexts the arguments
made for unilingual education are not sound. Turning to global educational justice, Culp points out
that work on educational justice has generally retained a domestic focus, even as political philo-
sophers have developed and debated theories of global justice. He argues that philosophers of
education cannot safely assume that the views they hold regarding aspects of educational justice will
be immune to revision when considerations of global justice are factored in. His chapter aims to take
the field in an important new direction by presenting a democratic conception of global educational
justice.
Education has been reshaped in countries across the world by neoliberalism, a globally influential
policy orientation that advocates the introduction of market mechanisms in all aspects of social life.
Lawrence Blum identifies some central features of neoliberal doctrine and argues that neoliberal
principles of competition, consumerism, and choice cannot serve as foundations of a sound and
equitable public education system. Focusing on charter schools as an important manifestation of
neoliberalism in education, he details limitations of the evidence that charter advocates rely on in
asserting that charter schools are superior to traditional public schools, and he examines the role of
charter management organizations and private foundation funding in limiting innovation and
competition within the charter sector. While a segment of this ‘marketized’ sector sees itself as
advancing racial justice in education, Blum argues that this is limited by its narrow human capital
approach to education, the inequality it creates by serving a relatively advantaged segment of dis-
advantaged students, its failure to acknowledge the impact of poverty on educational outcomes, and
its devaluing of students’ family cultures.
Racial justice is front and center in Quentin Wheeler-Bell’s chapter, which addresses the nature
of racial domination and presents a critical approach to addressing racial domination in and through
education. Along the way it presents and critiques three influential conceptions of what is essential to
racial justice in and through education: multicultural education, equal educational opportunity, and in-
tegrating schools. The chapter explains how a critical approach to racial justice in education is
grounded in a critique of racial domination and is focused on democratic empowerment, equipping
students through conversations and inquiry with morally reflective understanding of structures of
power and how to deepen democracy.
Part III closes with three chapters on higher education and justice, by Jennifer Morton,
Christopher Martin, and Ariel Armony and Ann Cudd. Morton notes that many proponents of
equal opportunity have come to regard universities as institutions that can and should reduce ex-
isting inequalities by admitting more low-income students and enabling them to climb the eco-
nomic ladder. This would make upward mobility a central mission of higher education today, much
as upward mobility was seen as a central mission of universal secondary education by leaders of
public-school movements and labor unions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
(Peterson 1985). Morton calls for a reevaluation of mobility as an ideal, detailing its costs to those
who experience it, to the society, and to institutions of higher education themselves. She argues that
equal opportunity in higher education should be focused on ensuring that the educational goods
inherent to its mission – knowledge, personal transformation, and value acquisition – are available to
all who wish to pursue them. The costs of higher education are an important aspect of availability,
and Martin addresses the question of who should bear those costs. Approaching this as a problem of
distributive fairness, he argues that the aims of higher education make a great deal of difference to
what is fair. The aims he considers are upward mobility and personal autonomy. He undertakes an
investigation of the conditions in which it could be reasonable to treat higher education as a

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universal right, provided at public expense, and arrives at the conclusion that this would require an
educational aim that would make higher education a genuinely universal benefit to all the members
of the society. Personal autonomy could be one such aim, he argues.
Armony and Cudd offer further reflections on equality and access in higher education, but they
do so in the context of a more systematic assessment of higher education’s shortcomings. They focus
on three basic tensions that colleges and universities need to address: (a) between embracing
competition and elite education versus emphasizing more equality and access; (b) between fostering
open debate and providing safe spaces for minorities; and (c) between universities as ivory towers
and universities as institutions devoted to the common good. Their examination of these tensions
yields some proposals for redefining higher education in a post-pandemic world.

Part IV: Educational Practices

Justice and the formative and further aims of education remain important in Part IV, but the focus
shifts to specific and controversial aspects of pedagogical, curricular, and managerial practices. The
first three chapters pertain to free speech, discussion of controversial subject matter in schools, and
the allegation that controversial subject matter is often presented in colleges and universities is ways
that indoctrinate students. There are rich connections between these chapters and those by Bakhurst,
Elgin, Pritchard, Battaly, and Wheeler-Bell, as well as the three that follow in Part IV.
Sigal Ben-Porath and Dustin Webster devote the opening chapter to a fuller examination of the
controversy surrounding free and inclusive speech in education addressed by Armony and Cudd,
and they do so with reference to both schools and universities. They examine the legal history of
speech restrictions in schools, emphasizing the role of free inquiry and academic freedom. In higher
education, they argue that there are justified boundaries to open expression associated with respect
for evidentiary practices and enabling every member of an academic community to participate in the
development and dissemination of knowledge. Like all rights, the right to free speech has boundaries
and context matters. Focusing on schools and the controversy over teaching controversial subject
matter, Johannes Drerup affirms the civic educational value of students debating controversial issues.
There is public controversy, and a variety of philosophical theories, regarding which issues should
count as controversial. Should the reality of human-caused climate change be treated as controversial
in schools because many people are unaware of, or unmoved by, the existence of overwhelming
scientific consensus on this subject? Clearly not, but such debates are now highly polarized politically
and teachers are being subjected to criticism that may inhibit the kind of education that could foster
a more constructive civic culture. Drerup critiques two of the most influential criteria for what
would make a topic too controversial to teach and proposes an alternative.
Anthony Laden’s chapter is similar in reflecting the highly polarized civic climate in which
education in many countries now operates, but his focus is the allegation that higher education in
the United States is awash in left-wing indoctrination. He surveys the standard responses to this
allegation but draws on work in social epistemology to argue that the allegation is not fundamentally
about teachers changing their students’ beliefs in illegitimate ways. He argues that the underlying
source of anxiety about the changes observed in students is that they arise from the fact that the
epistemic networks into which college students are initiated are also trust networks that have a social
dimension. Initiating students into the most reliable epistemic networks that humanity has created is
a fundamental aspect of the education described by Bakhurst, Elgin, and others, but students who
were not already enculturated into the epistemic world of higher education before they began
college can be transformed by that enculturation in ways that may alienate them from their home
communities. Laden concludes with suggestions for how teachers can mitigate the potential for such
alienation.

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The next three chapters concern some of the most controversial topics taught – and not taught –
in schools today: climate, sex, and racism. There are strong arguments for teaching all of these topics,
but none of them is easy to teach well and they are all contested ground in culture wars waged on
the battlefield of education policy. In the case of climate change, there was an inflection point
around 2010, when it became clear to environmental educators that their task was more complicated
than overcoming information deficits. The limitations of science cognition and communication
became hot topics, but the political polarization of climate beliefs and massive funding of climate
misinformation present challenges related to those addressed by Battaly and Laden. It is in this
context that Matt Ferkany examines a widely discussed diagnosis of the causes of climate contra-
rianism and its implications for climate, science, and sustainability education. An important question
at stake is whether science teachers should deprioritize science knowledge and understanding and
focus more on enabling students to distinguish reliable science from disinformation. Ferkany argues
that resistance to consensus climate science has many causes, including confusion about the re-
lationship between values and scientific information. Teaching sustainability ethics and socio-
scientific reasoning might help, but curricula and sensible standards for this are nearly non-existent.
Ferkany concludes that implementing such standards and curricula should come first before we
conclude that science knowledge and understanding should be deprioritized.
Lauren Bialystok confronts a paradoxical aspect of the controversy surrounding sex education:
parental anxieties are fixated on the idea that teachers might teach sex in ways that increase their
children’s likelihood of having sex, yet sex is never taught in schools. ‘Sex education’ may not even
be an intelligible concept, since unlike every other school subject it literally involves no teaching of
the thing – the art – itself. Children learn sex outside of schools, so Bialystok’s question is how to
combine sex and education in the context of 21st-century Western schooling. Where and how do
young people learn about sex? What do we want from school-based sex education? What we teach
in schools is para- and meta-sex education, and Bialystok argues that this re-conceptualization can help
us see the limitations of our political discourse and design better curricula.
Winston Thompson’s chapter is thematically linked to Drerup’s, regarding what can be taught as
noncontroversial, Allen and Kidd’s, regarding identify formation, and Wheeler-Bell’s, regarding
education that is antiracist or promotes racial justice. It is methodically analytical in addressing
different conceptions of race, the complexity of racial identity formation as a pedagogical goal,
whether and how different approaches to teaching race might be mutually compatible, and argu-
ments for and against what is popularly known as antiracist education. Its civic-minded hope is that
further thoughtful analyses of race may contribute to more productive deliberations about the
teaching of race in the future.
The remaining chapters all pertain to managerial practices in education and their impact on teachers
and students, understanding the term “managerial” to include disciplinary and administrative practices
both within schools and pertaining to the management of schools more broadly. Disciplinary practices
and ability grouping are common features of schools, addressed by Bryan Warnick and Tammy Harel
Ben Shahar. Warnick’s chapter argues that there are very strong arguments against punishment in
schools, but punishment can still be justified as a way to initiate needed conversations. While pun-
ishment inherently involves moral disapproval, which can be appropriate, Warnick argues that specific
forms of punishment (such as corporal punishment and expulsions) and racial disparities in who is and is
not punished for the same offenses, may send unacceptable “secondary” messages. He concludes that
restorative justice is a promising approach to school punishment because it coheres with educational
ideals of reason, cooperation, personal responsibility, and mutual understanding. Grouping students of
similar perceived ability into different classes, tracks, or schools is another very common practice, and
Harel Ben Shahar argues that the concept of ability it relies upon is ambiguous. She examines both of
the possible conceptions of ‘ability’ involved and concludes that neither can justify the forms of ability
grouping that are widely used.

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High stakes testing and its corrupting and demoralizing impact on schools, students, and teachers has
been a matter of widespread concern, and Yuli Tamir addresses it from the perspective of a former
Minister of Education. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) of the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has promoted a cycle of global
testing in math, science, and reading and rankings of educational systems, claiming that better edu-
cational outcomes in these subjects will reliably yield economic growth. Tamir addresses the damaging
effects of PISA accountability and argues that the claim on which it is premised is false. While PISA
results reflect the social and economic background of the children tested, she concludes that increasing
a country’s level of education often has no effect on economic growth. PISA fosters the illusion that
education can be improved and poverty alleviated without major social change to close social and
economic gaps and make societies more just and inclusive. PISA accountability has meanwhile had a
corrupting effect on education, dictating the essence of educational practice, impoverishing classrooms,
increasing the already high level of stress in schools, and making educators the scapegoats for society’s
failures. Doris Santoro’s research has documented the impacts of such pressures on teachers, arguing
that what is typically referred to as ‘burnout’ or job dissatisfaction is often the more ethically troubling
phenomenon of demoralization, in which the conditions of teachers’ work thwart their access to the
inherent moral rewards of their work. Her chapter presents an analysis of forms of this phenomenon
involving racialized failures to recognize and validate teachers as having legitimate moral perspectives,
judgments, and aspirations that animate their work. Santoro’s chapter and my own agree in regarding
the intrinsic satisfactions of teachers’ moral aspirations as important both to their own professional well-
being and to their students’ well-being and academic progress.

Notes
1 The reference to eight other earth systems relies on a nine-factor “planetary boundaries” model of sustainable
human burdens on earth systems. For an overview and links to current findings on specific boundaries that
humanity has crossed and is at risk of crossing, see the website of the Stockholm Resilience Centre: https://
www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries.html. At the time of this writing, there is
growing evidence that four of these boundaries have been crossed, putting planetary systems on which we
depend at risk. See Persson et al. (2022).
2 See, e.g., Curren & Metzger (2017): ch. 6; Curren & Dorn (2018): ch. 6.
3 These contentious disagreements have been shaped in the United States in recent years by assertions of an
unlimited and exclusive right of parents to control their children’s education, and they notably included (for
some years) a debate over homeschooling. Public educational authority in the United States. has been
weakened by a series of high court decisions beginning with Wisconsin v. Yoder, et al. 406 U.S. 205 (1972),
and by a widespread collapse of regulatory oversight of homeschooling. It is meanwhile not a coincidence
that the United States is presently the only country in the world that has not ratified the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child (https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx).
On the legal context, see Blokhuis et al. (2021); Blokhuis & Curren (2021). On the history and philosophical
issues, see Dwyer & Peters (2019). On current efforts to advance children’s rights, see http://www.
responsiblehomeschooling.org; https://childrenfirstcanada.org/.
4 See https://www.unhcr.org/ph/figures-at-a-glance

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How Should Evidence Inform Education Policy?

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Free Speech and Education

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Democratic Education and the Controversy over Controversial Issues

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College Teaching, Indoctrination, and Trust

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Climate, Science, and Sustainability Education

Ballew, M. T. , Leiserowitz, A. , Roser-Renauf, C. , Rosenthal, S. A. , Kotcher, J. E. , Marlon, J. R. , Lyon, E. ,
Goldberg, M. H. & Maibach, E. W. (2019) Climate Change in the American Mind: Data, Tools, and Trends,
Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 61(3): 4–18.
Bardon, A. (2019) The Truth About Denial. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Barzilai, S. & Chinn, C. A. (2020) A Review of Educational Responses to the “Post-truth” Condition: Four
Lenses on “Post-truth” Problems, Educational Psychologist 55(3): 107–119.
Bedford, D. (2016) Does Climate Literacy Matter? A Case Study of U.S. Students' Level of Concern about
Anthropogenic Global Warming, Journal of Geography 115(5): 187–197.
Bialystok, L. , Norris, T. & Pinto, L. E. (2019) Teaching and Learning Philosophy in Ontario High Schools,
Journal of Curriculum Studies 51(5): 678–697.
Colston, N. , & Ivey, T. (2015) (un)Doing the Next Generation Science Standards: Climate Change Education
Actor-networks in Oklahoma, Journal of Education Policy 30(6): 773–795.
Curren, R. & Metzger, E. (2017) Living Well Now and in the Future: Why Sustainability Matters. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Elgin, C. (2011) Science, Ethics, and Education, Theory and Research in Education 9(3): 251–263.
Elliott, K. C. (2017) A Tapestry of Values: An Introduction to Values in Science. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Feinstein, N. W. & Waddington, D. I. (2020) Individual Truth Judgments or Purposeful, Collective
Sensemaking? Rethinking Science Education's Response to the Post-truth Era, Educational Psychologist
55(3): 155–166.
Foss, A. W. & Ko, Y. (2019) Barriers and Opportunities for Climate Change Education: The Case of Dallas-Fort
Worth in Texas, The Journal of Environmental Education 50(3): 145–159.
Haidt, J. (2013) The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion. New York:
Random House.
Hamilton, L. (2012) Did the Arctic Ice Recover? Demographics of True and False Climate Facts, Weather,
Climate, and Society 4(4): 236–249.
Hart, P. S. & Nisbet, E. C. (2012) Boomerang Effects in Science Communication: How Motivated Reasoning
and Identity Cues Amplify Opinion Polarization About Climate Mitigation Policies, Communication Research
39(6): 701–723.
Hicks, D. J. (2017) Scientific Controversies as Proxy Politics, Issues in Science and Technology 23 January.
Available at: https://issues.org/scientific-controversies-as-proxy-politics/ (Accessed: 5 July 2021).
Holland, C. T. (2020) The Implementation of the Next Generation Science Standards and the Tumultuous Fight
to Implement Climate Change Awareness in Science Curricula, Brock Education Journal 29(1): 35–35.
Jost, J. T. (2017) Ideological Asymmetries and the Essence of Political Psychology, Political Psychology 38(2):
67–208.
Kahan, D. M. et al. (2012) The Polarizing Impact of Science Literacy and Numeracy on Perceived Climate
Change Risks, Nature Climate Change 2(10): 732–735.
Kahan, D. M. (2017) On the Sources of Ordinary Science Knowledge and Extraordinary Science Ignorance, in
K. H. Jamieson , D. Kahan , & D. A. Scheufele (eds) The Oxford Handbook of the Science of Science
Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 35–50.
Kahneman, D. (2011) Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux.
Leiserowitz, A. & Smith, N. (2010) Knowledge of Climate Change Across Global Warming's Six Americas. New
Haven, CT: Yale Project on Climate Change Communication.
Libarkin, J. C. , Miller, H. & Thomas, S. R. (2013) Scientists’ Internal Models of the Greenhouse Effect,
American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2013, abstract id. ED32A-05.
Linden, S. van der . (2016) A Conceptual Critique of the Cultural Cognition Thesis, Science Communication
38(1): 128–138.
Linden, S. van der , Leiserowitz, A. , Rosenthal, S. & Maibach, E. (2017) Inoculating the Public against
Misinformation About Climate Change, Global Challenges 1(2): 1600008.
Matthews, M. R. (2014) Science Teaching: The Contribution of History and Philosophy of Science. 2nd edn.
New York: Routledge.
May, J. (2018) Regard for Reason in the Moral Mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
McCaffrey, M. & Rosenau, J. (2012) Science Literacy Still Matters, Nature Climate Change 2(9): 636–636.
McCright, A. M. & Dunlap, R. E. (2011) Cool Dudes: The Denial of Climate Change among Conservative White
Males in the United States [electronic resource], Global Environmental Change 21(4): 1163–1172.
Mercier, H. & Sperber, D. (2019) The Enigma of Reason. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Michigan State Board of Education (2015) Michigan K-12 Science Standards, Michigan Department of
Education.
NCSS (2013.) College, Career, & Civic Life C3 Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for
Enhancing the Rigor of K-12 Civics, Economics, Geography, and History. Silver Spring, MD: National Council
for the Social Studies.
NCSE (2020) Making the Grade: How State Public School Science Standards Address Climate Change.
National Center for Science Education and Texas Freedom Network Education Fund. Available at:
https://climategrades.org/MakingTheGradeReport.pdf.
NGSS Lead States (2013) Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Available at:
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Nisbet, M. C. , & Mooney, C. (2007) Science and Society. Framing Science, Science 316(5821): 56.
Odenbaugh, J. (2017) On the Contrary: How to Think About Climate Skepticism, unpublished manuscript.
Oreskes, N. & Conway, E. (2011) Merchants of Doubt. New York: Bloomsbury Press.
Pennock, R. (2019) An Instinct for Truth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Plutzer, E. et al. (2016) Climate Confusion Among U.S. Teachers, Science 351(6274): 664–665.
Priest, S. (2013) Critical Science Literacy: What Citizens and Journalists Need to Know to Make Sense of
Science, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 33(5–6): 138–145.
Ranney, M. A. & Clark, D. (2016) Climate Change Conceptual Change: Scientific Information Can Transform
Attitudes, Topics in Cognitive Science 8(1): 49–75.
Sadowski, J. , Seager, T. , Selinger, E. , Spierre, S. , & Whyte, K. P. (2013) An Experiential, Game-Theoretic
Pedagogy for Sustainability Ethics, Science and Engineering Ethics 19(3): 1323–1339.
Sarewitz, D. (2011) Does Climate Change Knowledge really Matter?, WIREs Climate Change 2(4): 475–481.
Shtulman, A. (2015) How Lay Cognition Constrains Scientific Cognition, Philosophy Compass 10(11): 785–798.
Suldovsky, B. S. (2018) The Information Deficit Model and Climate Change Communication, in The Oxford
Encyclopedia of Climate Change Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tytler, R. (2007) Re-imagining Science Education. Camberwell, Victoria: Australian Council for Educational
Research.
USGCRP (2009) Climate Literacy: The Essential Principles of Climate Science. Washington, DC: U.S. Global
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Wheatley, T. , & Haidt, J. (2005) Hypnotic Disgust Makes Moral Judgments More Severe, Psychological
Science 16(10): 780–784.

Is “Sex Education” an Intelligible Concept?

Allen, L. (2005) Sexual Subjects: Young People, Sexuality and Education. Houndsmills & New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Andersen, L. & Bialystok, L. (forthcoming) Assessing a Touchy Subject.
Archard, D. (1998) How Should We Teach Sex? Journal of Philosophy of Education 32(3): 437–449.
Archard, D. (2000) Sex Education . Impact 7. London: Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain.
Bialystok, L. (2017) Authenticity in Education in G. Noblit (ed.) The Oxford Research Encyclopedia of
Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Bialystok, L. (2018) My Child, My Choice? Mandatory Curriculum, Sex, and the Conscience of Parents,
Educational Theory 68(1): 11–29.
Bialystok, L. & Andersen, L. (2022) Touchy Subject: The History and Philosophy of Sex Education. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Bridges, A. J. , Wosnitzer, R. , Scharrer, E. , Sun, C. , & Liberman, R. (2010) Aggression and Sexual Behavior
in Best-Selling Pornography Videos: A Content Analysis Update, Violence Against Women 16(10): 1065–1085.
Connelly, F. M. & Connelly, G. (2010) Curriculum Policy, in C. A. Kridel (ed.) Encyclopedia of Curriculum
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Corngold, J. (2013) Moral Pluralism and Sex Education, Educational Theory 63(5): 461–482.
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 63: 1–7.
Fields, J. (2008) Risky Lessons: Sex Education and Social Inequality. New York: Rutgers University Press.
Fields, J. , Gilbert, J. , & Miller, M. (2015) Sexuality and Education: Toward the Promise of Ambiguity, in J.
DeLamater & R. F. Plante (eds.) Handbook of the Sociology of Sexualities. New York: Springer, 371–387.
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Goldsmith, K. , Dunkley, C. , Dang, S. , & Gorzalka, B. (2017) Pornography Consumption and its Association
with Sexual Concerns and Expectations among Young Men and Women, The Canadian Journal of Human
Sexuality 26(2): 151–162.
Gutmann, A. (1987) Democratic Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Halstead, M. & Reiss, M. (2003) Values in Sex Education: From Principles to Practice. London; New York:
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Education 5(1): 69–86.
Harris, A. (1971) What Does ‘Sex Education’ Mean? Journal of Moral Education 1(1): 7–11.
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Rapid Evidence Assessment on the Effects that Access and Exposure to Pornography Has on Children and
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Jones, M. (2018) What Teenagers Are Learning from Online Porn, The New York Times Magazine Feb. 7.
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Kendall, N. (2013) The Sex Education Debates. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lamb, S. (2010) Toward a Sexual Ethics Curriculum: Bringing Philosophy and Society to Bear on Individual
Development, Harvard Educational Review 80(1): 81–105.
Lamb, S. (2013) Just the Facts? The Separation of Sex Education from Moral Education, Educational Theory
63(5): 443–460.
Layden, M. A. (2010) Pornography and Violence: A New Look at the Research in J. Stoner & D. Hughes (eds.)
The Social Costs of Pornography: A Collection of Papers. Princeton, NJ: Witherspoon Institute, 57–68.
Malone, P. & Rodriguez, M. (2011) Comprehensive Sex Education vs. Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage
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McAvoy, P. (2013) The Aims of Sex Education: Demoting Autonomy and Promoting Mutuality, Educational
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Naezer, M. (2018) From Risky Behaviour to Sexy Adventures: Reconceptualising Young People's Online
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California Press.
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whocc.de/fileadmin/user_upload/WHO_BZgA_Standards_English.pdf

Racial Identity Formation and Antiracist Education

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the United States. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield.
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Douthat, R. (2021) The Excesses of Antiracist Education, The New York Times July 6.
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Argument for Avoiding unchecked Apprehension of Moral Indoctrination, Journal of Curriculum Studies, DOI:
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the Occasion of Negro History Week, 1926–1950, American Educational Research Journal 56(4): 1457–1494.
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Gooding-Williams, R. (2006) Look, A Negro!: Philosophical Essays on Race, Culture, and Politics, New York
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Haslanger, S. (2000) Gender and Race: (What) Are They? (What) Do We Want Them to Be?, Noûs 34: 31–55.
Haslanger, S. (2005) You Mixed? Racial Identity Without Biology, in S. Haslanger & C. Witt (eds.) Adoption
Matters: Philosophical and Feminist Essays, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 265–289.
Haslanger, S. (2019) Tracing the Sociopolitical Reality of Race in J. Glasgow , S. Haslanger , C. Jeffers , & Q.
Spencer (eds.) What is Race? Four Philosophical Views. New York: Oxford University Press, 4–37.
Hill, J. (2017) Is It Moral to Hold a Racial Identity? A Cosmopolitan Response, in N. Zack (ed.) Oxford
Handbook of Philosophy and Race, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 402–410.
Jeffers, C. (2019) Cultural Constructionism in J. Glasgow , S. Haslanger , C. Jeffers , & Q. Spencer (ed.) What
is Race? Four Philosophical Views. New York: Oxford University Press, 38–72.
Kendi, I. X. (2019) How to Be an Antiracist. New York City, NY: Random House.
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Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: A Theoretical and Practical Anthology. New York: New York
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Discipline and Punishment in Schools
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Juvenile Offenders, Journal of Criminal Justice 35(4): 433–451.
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Duff, A. (2001) Punishment, Communication, and Community. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Use, and Status in State and Federal Policy, Social Policy Report 30(1): 1–26.
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Innocence: Consequences of Dehumanizing Black Children, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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of the Same Coin? Educational Researcher 39(1): 59–68.
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Punishment, and Violence Among Adolescents Who Score Positive on a Psychosocial Screening Test in
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Psychological Science 26(5): 617–624.
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Juvenile Recidivism, Crime & Delinquency 53(3): 355–379.
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