Singapore–Cambridge General Certificate of Education

Advanced Level Higher 2 (2025)

Mathematics
(Syllabus 9758)

(First year of examination in 2025)

© MOE & UCLES 2023

 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

CONTENTS
Page
PREAMBLE 3
SYLLABUS AIMS 3
ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES (AO) 3
USE OF A GRAPHING CALCULATOR (GC) 4
LIST OF FORMULAE AND RESULTS 4
INTEGRATION AND APPLICATION 4
SCHEME OF EXAMINATION PAPERS 5
CONTENT OUTLINE 6
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE 14
MATHEMATICAL NOTATION 16

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

PREAMBLE
Mathematics is a basic and important discipline that contributes to the developments and understandings of
sciences and other disciplines. It is used by scientists, engineers, business analysts and psychologists, etc. to
model, understand and solve problems in their respective fields. A good foundation in mathematics and the
ability to reason mathematically are therefore essential for students to be successful in their pursuit of various
disciplines.

H2 Mathematics is designed to prepare students for a range of university courses, including mathematics,
sciences, engineering and related courses, where a good foundation in mathematics is required. It develops
mathematical thinking and reasoning skills that are essential for further learning of mathematics. Through
applications of mathematics, students also develop an appreciation of mathematics and its connections to other
disciplines and to the real world.

SYLLABUS AIMS
The aims of H2 Mathematics are to enable students to:

(a) acquire mathematical concepts and skills to prepare for their tertiary studies in mathematics, sciences,
engineering and other related disciplines

(b) develop thinking, reasoning, communication and modelling skills through a mathematical approach to
problem-solving

(c) connect ideas within mathematics and apply mathematics in the contexts of sciences, engineering and
other related disciplines

(d) experience and appreciate the nature and beauty of mathematics and its value in life and other disciplines.

ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES (AO)

The assessment will test candidates' abilities to:

AO1 Use mathematical techniques and procedures

• Recall facts, formulae and notation and use them directly.
• Read and use information from tables, graphs, diagrams and texts.
• Carry out straightforward mathematical procedures.

AO2 Formulate and solve problems including those in real-world contexts

• Select relevant mathematical concept or strategy to apply.
• Formulate problems into mathematical expressions or models.
• Integrate mathematical concepts to solve mathematical problems.
• Translate between equivalent forms of mathematical expressions or statements.
• Interpret results in the context of a given problem.

AO3 Reason and communicate mathematically

• Explain the choice of mathematical models or strategies.
• Make deductions, inferences and generalisations.
• Formulate conjectures and justify mathematical statements.
• Construct mathematical arguments and proofs.

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

Approximate weightings for the assessment objectives are as follows:

AO1 30%

AO2 60%

AO3 10%

USE OF A GRAPHING CALCULATOR (GC)

The use of an approved GC without computer algebra system will be expected. The examination papers will be
set with the assumption that candidates will have access to GC. As a general rule, unsupported answers
obtained from GC are allowed unless the question states otherwise. Where unsupported answers from GC are
not allowed, candidates must present the mathematical steps using mathematical notations and not calculator
commands. For questions where graphs are used to find a solution, candidates should sketch these graphs as
part of their answers. Incorrect answers without working will receive no marks. However, if there is written
evidence of using GC correctly, method marks may be awarded.

Candidates should be aware that there are limitations inherent in GC. For example, answers obtained by tracing
along a graph to find roots of an equation may not produce the required accuracy.

LIST OF FORMULAE AND RESULTS

Candidates will be provided in the examination with a list of formulae and results.

INTEGRATION AND APPLICATION

Notwithstanding the presentation of the topics in the syllabus document, it is envisaged that some examination
questions may integrate ideas from more than one topic, and that topics may be tested in the contexts of
problem solving and application of mathematics.

Possible list of H2 Mathematics applications and contexts:

Applications and contexts Some possible topics involved

Kinematics and dynamics (e.g. free fall, projectile Functions; Calculus; Vectors
motion, collisions)

Optimisation problems (e.g. maximising strength, Inequalities; System of linear equations; Calculus
minimising surface area)

Electrical circuits Complex numbers; Calculus

Population growth, radioactive decay, heating and Differential equations

cooling problems

Financial maths (e.g. banking, insurance) Sequences and series; Probability; Sampling
distributions

Standardised testing Normal distribution; Probability

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

Applications and contexts Some possible topics involved

Market research (e.g. consumer preferences, product Sampling distributions; Hypothesis testing;
claims) Correlation and regression

Clinical research (e.g. correlation studies) Sampling distributions; Hypothesis testing;

Correlation and regression

The list illustrates some types of contexts in which the mathematics learnt in the syllabus may be applied, and is
by no means exhaustive. While problems may be set based on these contexts, no assumptions will be made
about the knowledge of these contexts. All information will be self-contained within the problem.

SCHEME OF EXAMINATION PAPERS

For the examination in H2 Mathematics, there will be two 3-hour papers, each carrying 50% of the total mark,
and each marked out of 100, as follows:

PAPER 1 (3 hours)
A paper consisting of 10 to 12 questions of different lengths and marks based on the Pure Mathematics section
of the syllabus.

There will be one question on application of Mathematics in real-world contexts, including those from sciences
and engineering. This question will carry at least 12 marks and may require concepts and skills from more than
one topic.

Candidates will be expected to answer all questions.

PAPER 2 (3 hours)
A paper consisting of two sections, Sections A and B.

Section A (Pure Mathematics – 40 marks) will consist of 4 to 5 questions of different lengths and marks based
on the Pure Mathematics section of the syllabus.

Section B (Probability and Statistics – 60 marks) will consist of 6 to 8 questions of different lengths and marks
based on the Probability and Statistics section of the syllabus.

There will be one question in Section B on application of Mathematics in real-world contexts, including those
from sciences and engineering. This question will carry at least 12 marks and may require concepts and skills
from more than one topic.

Candidates will be expected to answer all questions.

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

CONTENT OUTLINE
Knowledge of the content of the O-Level Mathematics syllabus is assumed. The assumed knowledge for O-
Level Additional Mathematics is appended after this section.

Topic/Sub-topics Content

SECTION A: PURE MATHEMATICS

1 Functions and graphs

1.1 Functions Include:

• concepts of function, domain and range
• inverse functions and composite functions
• conditions for the existence of inverse functions
and composite functions
• domain restriction to obtain an inverse function
• relationship between graphs of a one-to-one
function and its inverse

Exclude the use of the relation (fg)-1 = g -1f -1 , and

restriction of domain to obtain a composite function.

1.2 Graphs and transformations Include:

• use of a graphing calculator or a graphing
software to graph a given function
• important characteristics of graphs such as
symmetry, intersections with the axes, turning
points and asymptotes of the following:
y 2 = ax ; x 2 = by
x2 y2
+ 1
=
a2 b2
x2 y2 y2 x2
2
− 2
1 ;
= 2
− 1
=
a b b a2
ax + b
y=
cx + d
ax 2 + bx + c
y=
dx + e
• equations of asymptotes, axes of symmetry, and
restrictions on the possible values of x and/or y
• effect of transformations on the graph of y = f ( x )
as represented by y = af ( x )=
, y f ( x) + a ,
y f ( x + a ) and y = f ( ax ) and combinations of
=
these transformations
• relating the graphs of y = f ( x ) , y = f ( x ) , and
1
y= to the graph of y = f ( x )
f ( x)
• simple parametric equations and their graphs

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Topic/Sub-topics Content

1.3 Equations and inequalities Include:

• formulating an equation, a system of linear
equations, or inequalities from a problem situation
• solving an equation exactly or approximately using
a graphing calculator or a graphing software
• solving a system of linear equations using a
graphing calculator or a graphing software
f ( x)
• solving inequalities of the form > 0 where
g ( x)
f ( x ) and g ( x ) are linear expressions or
quadratic expressions
• concept of x , and use of relations
x − a < b ⇔ a − b < x < a + b and
x − a > b ⇔ x a − b   or  x a + b
• solving inequalities by graphical methods

2 Sequences and series

2.1 Sequences and series Include:

• concepts of sequence and series for finite and
infinite cases
• sequence as function y = f ( n ) where n is a
positive integer
• relationship between un (the nth term) and Sn (the
sum to n terms)
• sequence given by a formula for the nth term
• sequence generated by the relation un +1 = f ( un ) ,
including the use of a graphing calculator or a
computer to generate the sequence
• sum and difference of two series
• convergence of a series and the sum to infinity
• formula for the nth term and the sum of a finite
arithmetic series
• formula for the nth term and the sum of a finite
geometric series
• condition for convergence of an infinite geometric
series
• formula for the sum to infinity of a convergent
geometric series

3 Vectors

3.1 Basic properties of vectors in two and three Include:

dimensions • addition and subtraction of vectors, multiplication
of a vector by a scalar, and their geometrical
interpretations
• position vectors, displacement vectors and
direction vectors
• magnitude of a vector
• unit vectors
• distance between two points
• collinearity

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

Topic/Sub-topics Content

• use of the ratio theorem in geometrical

applications

3.2 Scalar and vector products in vectors Include:

• concepts of scalar product and vector product of
vectors and their properties
• angle between two vectors
• geometrical meanings of a ⋅ nˆ and a × nˆ , where
n̂ is a unit vector

Exclude triple products a ⋅ b × c and a × b × c .

3.3 Three-dimensional vector geometry Include:

• vector and cartesian equations of lines and planes
• foot of the perpendicular and distance from a point
to a line or to a plane
• angle between two lines, between a line and a
plane, or between two planes
• relationships between
(i) two lines (coplanar or skew)
(ii) a line and a plane
(iii) two planes

Exclude:
• shortest distance between two skew lines
• common perpendicular to two skew lines

4 Introduction to Complex numbers

4.1 Complex numbers expressed in cartesian Include:

form and Argand diagrams • extension of the number system from real
numbers to complex numbers
• complex roots of quadratic equations
• modulus, argument and conjugate of a complex
number
• four operations of complex numbers
• equality of complex numbers
• conjugate roots of a polynomial equation with real
coefficients
• representation of complex numbers in the Argand
diagram
• geometrical effects of conjugation, negation,
addition, subtraction, and multiplication by i

Exclude complex numbers expressed in polar (or

modulus-argument) form and exponential form.

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

Topic/Sub-topics Content

5 Calculus

5.1 Differentiation Include:

• graphical interpretation of
(i) f ' ( x ) > 0, f ' ( x ) = 0 and f ' ( x ) < 0
(ii) f '' ( x ) > 0 and f '' ( x ) < 0
• relating the graph of y = f ' ( x ) to the graph of
y = f ( x)
• differentiation of simple functions defined implicitly
or parametrically
• determining the nature of the stationary points
(local maximum and minimum points and points of
inflexion) analytically, in simple cases, using the
first derivative test or the second derivative test
• locating maximum and minimum points using a
graphing calculator or a graphing software
• finding the approximate value of a derivative at a
given point using a graphing calculator or a
graphing software
• problems involving tangents and normals to
curves, including cases where the curve is defined
implicitly or parametrically
• local maxima and minima problems
• connected rates of change problems

Exclude non-stationary points of inflexion and finding

second derivative of functions defined parametrically.

5.2 Maclaurin series Include:

• standard series expansion of (1 + x) n for any
rational n , e x , sin x, cosx and ln (1+ x )
• derivation of the first few terms of the Maclaurin
series by
- repeated differentiation, e.g. secx
- repeated implicit differentiation, e.g.
y3 + y 2 + y = x2 − 2 x
x
- using standard series, e.g. e cos 2 x ,
1+ x 
ln  
 1− x 
• range of values of x for which a standard series
converges
• concept of Maclaurin’s series as an approximation
of a function
• small angle approximations: sin x ≈ x,
cos x ≈ 1 − 12 x 2 , tan x ≈ x

Exclude problems involving derivation of the general

term of a series.

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

Topic/Sub-topics Content

5.3 Integration techniques Include:

• integration of
n
f ' ( x ) f ( x )  (including n = −1 ), f ' ( x ) ef ( x )
sin 2 x, cos 2 x, tan 2 x
1 1 1 1
2 2
, ,   and  
2 2
a +x a −x a −x
2 2 x − a2
2

• integration by a given substitution

• integration by parts

Exclude reduction formulae.

5.4 Definite integrals Include:

• concept of definite integral as a limit of sum
• definite integral as the area under a curve
• evaluation of definite integrals
• area of a region bounded by a curve and lines
parallel to the coordinate axes, between a curve
and a line, or between two curves
• area below the x-axis
• volume of revolution about the x- or y-axis
• finding the approximate value of a definite integral
using a graphing calculator or a graphing software

Exclude area and volume of revolution about the x-axis

or y-axis where curve is defined parametrically.

5.5 Differential equations Include:

• solving for the general solutions and particular
solutions of differential equations of the form
dy
= f ( x ) g ( y ) , including reducing a given
dx
differential equation to this form by means of a
given substitution
• formulating a differential equation from a problem
situation
• interpreting a differential equation and its solution
in terms of a problem situation

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

Topic/Sub-topics Content

SECTION B: PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

6 Probability and Statistics

6.1 Probability Include:

• addition and multiplication principles for counting
• concepts of permutation ( n Pr ) and combination
( n Cr )
• arrangements of objects in a line or in a circle,
including cases involving repetition and restriction
• addition and multiplication of probabilities
• mutually exclusive events and independent events
• use of tables of outcomes, Venn diagrams, tree
diagrams, and permutations and combinations
techniques to calculate probabilities
• calculation of conditional probabilities in simple
cases
• use of:
P ( A ') = 1 − P ( A)
P ( A ∪ B )= P ( A ) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )
P ( A ∩B )
P ( A|B ) =
P ( B)

6.2 Discrete random variables Include:

• concept of discrete random variables, probability
distributions, expectations and variances
• concept of binomial distribution B ( n, p ) as an
example of a discrete probability distribution and
use of B ( n, p ) as a probability model, including
conditions under which the binomial distribution is
a suitable model
• use of mean and variance of binomial distribution
(without proof)

Exclude finding cumulative distribution function of a

discrete random variable.

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Topic/Sub-topics Content

6.3 Normal distribution Include:

• concept of continuous random variables*
• concept of a normal distribution as an example of
a continuous probability model and its mean and
(
variance; use of N µ , σ
2
) as a probability model
• standard normal distribution
• finding the value of P ( X < x1 ) or a related
probability, given the values of x1 ,  µ ,  σ
• symmetry of the normal curve and its properties
• finding a relationship between x1 ,  µ ,  σ given the
value of P ( X < x1 ) or a related probability
• solving problems involving the use of E ( aX + b )
and Var ( aX + b )
• solving problems involving the use of E ( aX + bY )
and Var ( aX + bY ) , where X and Y are
independent

Exclude normal approximation to binomial distribution.

6.4 Sampling Include:

• concepts of population and simple random sample
• concept of the sample mean X as a random
σ2
variable with E ( X ) = µ and Var ( X ) =
n
• distribution of sample mean from a normal
population
• use of the Central Limit Theorem to treat sample
mean as having normal distribution when the
sample size is sufficiently large (e.g. n ≥ 30 )
• use of unbiased estimates of the population mean
and variance from a sample, including cases
where the data are given in summarised form ∑ x
2
and ∑ x , or ∑ ( x − a ) and ∑ ( x − a )2

* For teaching and learning only.

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Topic/Sub-topics Content

6.5 Hypothesis testing Include:

• concepts of null hypothesis ( H 0 ) and alternative
hypotheses ( H1 ) , test statistic, critical region,
critical value, level of significance, and p-value
• formulation of hypotheses and testing for a
population mean based on
- a sample from a normal population of known
variance
- a large sample from any population
• 1-tail and 2-tail tests
• interpretation of the results of a hypothesis test in
the context of the problem

Exclude the use of the term ‘Type I error’, concept of

Type II error and testing the difference between two
population means.

6.6 Correlation and linear regression Include:

• use of scatter diagram to judge if there is a
plausible linear relationship between the two
variables
• correlation coefficient as a measure of the fit of a
linear model to the scatter diagram
• interpreting the product moment correlation
coefficient (in particular, values close to −1, 0 and
1)
• concepts of linear regression and method of least
squares to find the equation of the regression line
• concepts of interpolation and extrapolation
• use of the appropriate regression line to make
prediction or estimate a value in practical
situations, including explaining how well the
situation is modelled by the linear regression
model
• use of a square, reciprocal or logarithmic
transformation to achieve linearity

Exclude:
• problems involving derivation of formulae
relationship r = b1b2 , where b1 and b2 are
2
•
regression coefficients
• hypothesis tests

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE

Content from O-Level Additional Mathematics

ALGEBRA

A1 Quadratic functions; Equations and inequalities

• Finding the maximum or minimum value of a quadratic function using the method of completing
the square
• Conditions for a quadratic equation to have:
(i) two real roots
(ii) two equal roots
(iii) no real roots
• Conditions for ax2 + bx + c to be always positive (or always negative)
• Solving simultaneous equations in two variables by substitution, with one of the equations being a
linear equation

A2 Surds
• Four operations on surds, including rationalising the denominator
• Solving equations involving surds.

A3 Polynomials and partial fractions

• Multiplication and division of polynomials
• Use of remainder and factor theorems
• Partial fractions with cases where the denominator is not more complicated than:
- (ax + b)(cx + d)
- (ax + b)(cx + d)2
- (ax + b)(x2 + c2)

A4 Exponential and logarithmic functions

• Exponential and logarithmic functions ax , ex , loga x , ln x and their graphs, including:
- laws of logarithms
- equivalence of y = ax and x = loga y
- change of base of logarithms
• Simplifying expressions and solving simple equations involving exponential and logarithmic
functions

GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY

B5 Coordinate geometry in two dimensions

• Coordinate geometry of the circle with the equation in the form
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r 2 or x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

B6 Trigonometric functions, identities and equations

• Six trigonometric functions, and principal values of the inverses of sine, cosine and tangent
• Trigonometric equations and identities (see List of Formulae)
• Expression of a cos θ + b sin θ in the forms R sin(θ ± α) and R cos(θ ± α)

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

Content from O-Level Additional Mathematics

CALCULUS

C7 Differentiation and integration

• Derivative of f(x) as the gradient of the tangent to the graph of y = f(x) at a point
• Derivative as rate of change
• Derivatives of xn for any rational n, sin x, cos x, tan x, ex and In x, together with constant multiples,
sums and differences
• Use of Chain Rule
• Derivatives of products and quotients of functions
• Increasing and decreasing functions
• Stationary points (maximum and minimum turning points and points of inflexion)
• Use of second derivative test to discriminate between maxima and minima
• Connected rates of change
• Maxima and minima problems
• Integration as the reverse of differentiation
• Integration of xn for any rational n, ex, sin x, cos x, sec2 x and their constant multiples, sums and
differences
• Integration of (ax + b)n for any rational n, sin(ax + b), cos(ax + b) and eax + b

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MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
The list which follows summarises the notation used in Singapore–Cambridge Mathematics examinations.
Although primarily directed towards A-Level, the list also applies, where relevant, to examinations at all other
levels.

1. Set Notation
∈ is an element of
∉ is not an element of
{x1, x2, …} the set with elements x1, x2, …
{x: …} the set of all x such that
n(A) the number of elements in set A
∅ the empty set
universal set
A′ the complement of the set A

ℤ the set of integers, {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …}

ℤ+ the set of positive integers, {1, 2, 3, …}
ℚ the set of rational numbers

ℚ+ the set of positive rational numbers, {x ∈ ℚ: x > 0}

ℚ 0+ the set of positive rational numbers and zero, {x ∈ ℚ: x ⩾ 0}

ℝ the set of real numbers

ℝ+ the set of positive real numbers, {x ∈ ℝ: x > 0}

ℝ 0+ the set of positive real numbers and zero, {x ∈ ℝ: x ⩾ 0}

ℝn the real n-tuples

ℂ the set of complex numbers
⊆ is a subset of
⊂ is a proper subset of
⊈ is not a subset of
⊄ is not a proper subset of
∪ union
∩ intersection

[a, b] the closed interval {x ∈ℝ: a ⩽ x ⩽ b}

[a, b) the interval {x ∈ℝ: a ⩽ x < b}

(a, b] the interval {x ∈ℝ: a < x ⩽ b}

(a, b) the open interval {x ∈ℝ: a < x < b}

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

2. Miscellaneous Symbols

= is equal to

≠ is not equal to

≡ is identical to or is congruent to

≈ is approximately equal to

∝ is proportional to

< is less than

⩽; ≯ is less than or equal to; is not greater than

> is greater than

⩾; ≮ is greater than or equal to; is not less than

∞ infinity

3. Operations
n

∑a
i =1
i a1 + a2 + ... + an

n
a the nth root of the real number a
a the modulus of the real number a

n! n factorial for n ∈ ℤ+ ∪ {0}, (0! = 1)

n n!
  the binomial coefficient , for n, r ∈ ℤ+ ∪ {0}, 0 ⩽ r ⩽ n
r r! (n − r )!
n(n − 1)...(n − r + 1)
, for n ∈ ℚ, r ∈ ℤ+∪ {0}
r!

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

4. Functions
f the function f
f(x) the value of the function f at x
f: A →B f is a function under which each element of set A has an image in set B
f: x ↦y the function f maps the element x to the element y

f –1 the inverse of the function f

gf the composite function of f and g which is defined by gf(x) = g(f(x))

lim f(x) the limit of f(x) as x tends to a

x→a

Δx ; δ x an increment of x

dy
the derivative of y with respect to x
dx

dn y the nth derivative of y with respect to x

dx n
f'(x), f''(x), …, f (n)(x) the first, second, … nth derivatives of f(x) with respect to x

∫ y dx indefinite integral of y with respect to x

b
∫ a
y dx the definite integral of y with respect to x for values of x between a and b

 , 
x x,… the first, second, …derivatives of x with respect to time
∂z
the partial derivative of z with respect to x
∂x
∂2 z
the partial derivative of z with respect to x then with respect to y
∂y∂x

fx the partial derivative of f with respect to x

fxy the partial derivative of f with respect to x then with respect to y

5. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

e base of natural logarithms
ex, exp x exponential function of x

log a x logarithm to the base a of x

ln x natural logarithm of x

lg x logarithm of x to base 10

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

6. Circular Functions and Relations

sin, cos, tan, 
cosec, sec, cot  the circular functions

sin–1, cos–1, tan–1 
cosec–1, sec–1, cot–1  the inverse circular functions


7. Complex Numbers
i the square root of –1
z a complex number, z = x + iy

= r(cos θ + i sin θ ), r ∈ℝ +

= reiθ, r ∈ℝ +

Re z the real part of z, Re (x + iy) = x

Im z the imaginary part of z, Im (x + iy) = y

z the modulus of z, x + iy = x 2 + y 2 , r (cosθ + i sinθ ) = r

arg z the argument of z, arg(r(cos θ + i sin θ )) = θ , –π < θ ⩽ π

z* the complex conjugate of z, (x + iy)* = x – iy

8. Matrices
M a matrix M
M–1 the inverse of the square matrix M
MT the transpose of the matrix M
det M the determinant of the square matrix M

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 9758 MATHEMATICS GCE ADVANCED LEVEL H2 SYLLABUS

9. Vectors
 x
  a column vector in xy-plane
 y

 x
  a column vector in xyz-space
 y
z
 
a the vector a

AB the vector represented in magnitude and direction by the directed line segment AB

â a unit vector in the direction of the vector a

i, j, k unit vectors in the directions of the cartesian coordinate axes

a the magnitude of a
 
AB the magnitude of AB

a.b the scalar product of a and b

a×b the vector product of a and b

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10. Probability and Statistics

A, B, C, etc. events
A∪B union of events A and B
A∩B intersection of the events A and B
P(A) probability of the event A

A' complement of the event A, the event ‘not A’

P(A | B) probability of the event A given the event B

X, Y, R, etc. random variables
x, y, r, etc. value of the random variables X, Y, R, etc.

x1, x2, … observations

f1, f2,… frequencies with which the observations, x1, x2, …occur

p(x) the value of the probability function P(X = x) of the discrete random variable X

p1, p2,… probabilities of the values x1, x2, …of the discrete random variable X
f(x), g(x)… the value of the probability density function of the continuous random variable X
F(x), G(x)… the value of the (cumulative) distribution function P(X ⩽ x) of the random variable X

E(X) expectation of the random variable X

E[g(X)] expectation of g(X)

Var(X) variance of the random variable X

B(n, p) binomial distribution, parameters n and p

Po(μ) Poisson distribution, mean μ
1
Geo(p) Geometric distribution, mean
p

N(μ, σ2) normal distribution, mean μ and variance σ2

μ population mean
σ2 population variance
σ population standard deviation
x sample mean
2
s unbiased estimate of population variance from a sample

r linear product-moment correlation coefficient for a sample

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