Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

CHAPTER TWO
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE SELECTION
2.1. Introduction

Transportation is the key infrastructure of the country; because a country’s economy depends on
how well served the country by its roads, railways, airports and shipping. The country’s
economic growth is very closely linked directly with the transport sector growth.

In transportation engineering, a high way is a science of design and construction of highway

infrastructure to connect peoples at different locations, minimize the time for movement of
people and goods, exploitation of natural resources, transport and urbanization.

In general, Highway engineering is a science of design and construction of road way

transportation facilities satisfactorily throughout its design life. In doing so high way should be
designed and constructed with regard to its safety and economy. For this purpose, high way
should be designed geometrically and structurally safe, economical and durable.

Important components of Transportation are:

 Highway Transportation
 Airway Transportation
 Railway Transportation
 Waterway Transportation
 Pipeline Transportation

In this course mainly the Geometric Design of Highway will be discussed.

 Geometric design: - design of visible dimension on such features as curves, cross

section, sight distance, bicycle and pedestrian facilities and interaction with safe, efficient
and economic traffic operation while maintaining aesthetic and environmental quality.

2.2. Route selection

Projects are planned and carried out using a sequence of activities known as the “Project Cycle”.
The cycle is composed of the following steps: identification, feasibility, design commitment and
negotiation, operation, and evaluation. Route corridor selection comprises of portion of the first
three of these activities.

1 Jimma University, JiT. 2023

 Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

Basic principle: Balance user costs and highway costs

Procedures:
Identification
 Study of existing information
 Conduct reconnaissance survey
Feasibility study
 Determine route alternatives (Preliminary alignment 1, 2, 3, …)
 Evaluate route alternatives
Preliminary design stage
 Final location survey
Identification (Pre‐feasibility study)

The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. This is sometimes known is the “pre-
feasibility” stage. There are many sources from which suggestions may come, including well-
informed technical specialists, local leaders, proposals to extend existing programs or projects,
and from operating agencies responsible for project implementation. The decision to proceed to
the feasibility stage arouses expectations for the project. Dubious projects shall therefore be
rejected at the identification stage. It becomes increasingly difficult to stop a project at the later
stages of the cycle.
2 Jimma University, JiT. 2023
 Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

1) Study existing information (Desk study)

Road Design, Construction and Maintenance require an approach depending on the terrain.

The shortest road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or most economical option for
construction and maintenance. Frequently, topography, slope stability, flood hazard and erosion
potential are likely to be the most significant controls in the choice of the most suitable
alignment and design of cross-section.

 Conducted in office prior to any field investigation

 Obtained from existing reports, maps etc.
 Collect & evaluate all available information of the area
 Technical or Engineering‐related (topography, geology, climate, ADT)
 Social & demographic (land use, zoning)
 Environmental: – wildlife, historic, archeological, recreational
– Pollution (air, noise, water)
 Economic: – construction, maintenance & operational costs
–Trends in area economic activities
2) Conduct reconnaissance survey
 Identify several feasible routes
 Aerial photography is used, get more information from
 Satellite images
 Topographical map
 Geological map, agricultural soil maps, natural resource maps
 Factors considered:
 Terrain & soil conditions
 Availability of construction materials, water
 serviceability to industrial & population areas
 Intersections with other transportation facilities such as
rivers, railroads, other highway.
 Directness of route
 Establish control points, if any
 A team consisting of the following personnel should make a site inspection visit
 Highway Engineer  Bridge/Structures Engineer
 Soils & Materials Engineer  Environmentalist/Sociologist, and
 Hydrologist  Local Administrative Personnel
 Chief Surveyor

3 Jimma University, JiT. 2023

 Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

 During the reconnaissance survey, the following information should be determined:

 Terrain classification;
 The location of topographical constrains, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, rock out
crops, and any other features not identified by the desk study;
 Slope steepness and limiting slope angles identified from natural and artificial slopes
(cutting for paths, agricultural terraces and existing roads in the region);
 Slope stability and the location of pre-existing landslides;
 Rock types, geological structures, dip orientations, rock strength and rip ability;
 Percentage of rock in excavations;
 Materials sources, presence and distribution;
 Water sources;
 Soil types and depth (a simple classification between residual soil and colluvium is
useful at this stage);
 Soil erosion and soil erodibility;
 Slope drainage and groundwater conditions;
 Drainage stability and the location of shifting channels and bank erosion;
 Land use and its likely effect on drainage, especially through irrigation;
 Likely foundation conditions for major structures;
 Approximate bridge spans and the sizing and frequency of culverts;
 Flood levels and river training/protection requirements;
 Environmental considerations, including forest resources, land use impacts and socio-
economic considerations;
 Verify the accuracy of the information collected during the desk study;
 The possibility of using any existing road alignments including local realignment
 Improvements; and
 Information on the physical accessibility to bridge sites and the proposed corridors,
including the geomorphology of drainage basins, soil characteristics slopes,
vegetation, erosion and scouring.

During the site inspection the team should examine all alternatives. This information can be
combined with the results of the desk study to determine the most appropriate alignment
alternative.

Feasibility study

The feasibility study will provide sufficient information to decide whether to proceed to a more
advanced stage of planning. The level of detail of this study will depend on the complexity of the
project and how much is already known about the proposal. The feasibility study shall define the
objectives of the project. It shall consider alternative ways of achieving these and eliminating

4 Jimma University, JiT. 2023

 Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

poor alternatives. The study provides the opportunity to mould the project to fit its physical and
social environment to maximize the return on the investment.

Once the feasibility study has indicated which project is likely to be the most worthwhile,
detailed planning and analysis can begin. Less promising projects will have been eliminated by
this time, and the selected project may be redefined and modified as more detailed information
becomes available. At this stage, studies of traffic, geotechnics and design will be carried out to
refine the prediction of costs and benefits and to enable an economic analysis to be carried out.

1) Determine route alternatives

5 Jimma University, JiT. 2023

 Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

3D of alternative routes

2) Evaluating route alternatives

The possible alternatives are next evaluated by the following criteria:

 What are the relative lengths of the alternatives? Normally the shortest distance is
preferable.
 What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally the least
severe grade alternative is preferred. However, the relation of minimum grade may be
the inverse to the shortest length route.
 Which alternative more closely follows an existing road or track? This makes survey
and construction easier and may indicate the route of least earthworks.

6 Jimma University, JiT. 2023

 Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

 Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? An alignment through, for
instance, rolling terrain should be less costly to construct, have lower vehicle
operating costs and maintenance costs, and less severe horizontal curves than a route
through mountainous terrain.
 Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an
alignment minimizes the need for drainage structures. Which alignment minimizes
the need for land acquisition? Which alignment minimizes the need to demolish
buildings and houses?
 What is the total number of bridges required for each alternative? What is the total
aggregate length of these bridges?
 Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to the surrounding area?
 Which route has the least overall project cost, including both design and
construction?
 Use preliminary alignments to perform
 Economic evaluation
 Environmental evaluation
 At this stage, environmental impact studies are conducted for each alternative, when requ
ired.
 Select the best alternative as preliminary alignment

Preliminary design stage

Preliminary design and feasibility are often simultaneous, but detailed design, which can be very
costly (up to 15 percent of project costs), usually follows a provisional commitment to the
project. Numerous decisions, which will affect economic performance, are taken throughout
design; and economic appraisal often results in redesign.

1) Final location survey

 Involves detailed layout of selected route
 Establishes final horizontal & vertical alignments
 Establishes final positions of structures & drainage channels
 Establish special requirements (recreational areas, schools)
2) Survey techniques
 Remote sensing aerial photos
 Computer graphics – GIS (Geographic Information System) and others
 Ground survey ‐ transit and level and EDM (Total station)
[EDM = Electromagnetic Distance Measurement]

7 Jimma University, JiT. 2023

 Highway Engineering, I (Geometric Design of Highways and Streets) Lecture Note, 2023

3) The design process

 Draw typical section to define the transverse limits of the road
 Define horizontal alignment
 Determine existing ground profile
 Determine plan grade
 Draw X‐sections at selected stations
 Determine earthwork
 Repeat
4) Earthwork
 A major component of any road construction project. On most jobs it is desirable to
minimize earthwork to lower the cost of the project.

To do this consider the following

 Horizontal alignment-
Avoid major terrain problems and use some of the tips provided in Design guides.
 Vertical alignment
 Follow the terrain
 Balance earthwork
 Meet existing controls
 Other considerations such as depressed or elevated roads

8 Jimma University, JiT. 2023