CBSE Class 12 Biology

Revision Notes
CHAPTER-13
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS

Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the interactions among organisms and
Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation of different
between the organism and its physical (abiotic) environment . Study of ecology is important
kinds of habitats like tropical rain forest, deciduous forest, desert, sea coast etc.
to strike a balance between development and maintenance of natural environmental and
The habitat includes biotic components like pathogens, parasites, predators and
biotic communities, use and conservation of resources, solve local , regional and global
competitors of the organism with which they interact constantly.
environmental problems.

It is basically concerned with four levels of biological organisation – organisms, Major Abiotic Factors
populations, communities and biomes. a) Temperature- is the most important ecological factor to determine the bio-mass of a
Ecological hierarchy or ecological level of organization connected with ecological place. Average temperature on land varies seasonally and decreases progressively
grouping of organisms. from the equator towards the poles and from plains to mountain tops. Temperature
affects the kinetics of enzymes and basal metabolism along with physiological
functions of the organisms.

The organisms that can tolerate wide range of temperature are called
eurythermal ,for example cat , dogs , tigers etc.
The organism which have the ability to tolerate only a narrow range of
temperature are called stenothermal ,for example Penguin, fishes,crocodile.etc.

b) Water- life on earth is unsustainable without water. Productivity and distribution

Organism and its Environment
of plants is heavily dependent on water. For aquatic organisms the quality (chemical
The sum total of all biotic and abiotic factors, substances and conditions that
composition, pH) of water becomes important. The salt concentration (measured as
surround and potentially influence organisms without becoming their constituent
salinity in parts per thousand), is less than 5 in inland waters, 30-35 in the sea and >
part is called environment.
100 in some hypersaline lagoons

At organism level, physiological ecology tries to understand how different organisms

The organisms that can tolerate wide range of salinities are called euryhaline ,for
are adapted to their environment in terms of survival and reproduction. The
example salmon , hierring etc.
variation in the intensity and duration of temperature along with annual variations in
The organism which have the ability to tolerate only a narrow range of salinities are
precipitation results in formation of major biomes like desert, rain forest and tundra.
called stenohaline, for example goldfish ( freshwater ) and haddock ( marine

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water )etc. which brings down the body temperature. In winter we start to shiver, a kind of
exercise which produces heat and raises the body temperature.
c) Light- plants produce food through photosynthesis in presence of sunlight. Some Conform- most of animals and plants, their body temperature change with ambient
plants are adapted to low light conditions because they are overshadowed by tall temperature. In aquatic animals osmotic concentration of the body fluid change with
canopied trees. Flowering in some plants occurs only in presence of critical day light that of the ambient water osmotic concentration. These animals are called conformer.
called Photoperiodism. The availability of light and land is closely linked that of Conformer are not able to bear the energetic expenses to maintain the constant body
temperature as the sun is the source of both. UV component of sunlight is harmful to temperature.
plants and animals.
Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area. Since small animals have a larger
d) Soil- Types of soil depends upon climate, weathering process, whether soil is surface area relative to their volume, they tend to lose body heat very fast when it is
transported or sedimentary and how soil development occurred. Soil composition, cold outside; then they have to expend much energy to generate body heat through
grain size and aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity of metabolism. This is the main reason why very small animals are rarely found in polar
the soils along with pH, mineral, composition and topography determine the regions.
vegetation in any area. Migrate- the organism move away for time being from the stressful unfavorable
habitat to more suitable habitat and return back when stressful period is over. Many
Responses to Abiotic Factor : In the course of evolution, many species have evolved birds undertake long-distance to migrate to more hospitable areas. Siberia birds
constant internal environment to permits all biochemical reactions and physiological migrate to Keolado National park, Bharatpur, India.
functions to work with maximum efficiency to have over all fitness of species. Suspend- in microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and lower plants a thick walled
Organisms try to maintain the constancy of its internal environment spores is formed which help them to survive unfavorable conditions. These spores
(homeostasis)inspite of varying external environment. There are various ways to germinate on return of suitable conditions. In higher plants, seeds and some other
establish hemostasis- vegetative reproductive structures serves the means to tide over periods of stress and
help them in dispersal also. The metabolic activities are reduced to minimum during
this dormant period.

a)Hibernation - the condition or period of an animal or plant spending the winter in a

dormant state e.g bear
b)Aestivation - the condition or period of an animal or plant spending the summer to
avoid heat and dessication in a dormant state e.g snails .
Regulate- all birds and animals are capable of maintaining homeostasis by c)Diapause - a stage of suspended development in zooplankton species in lakes and
physiological means which ensures constant body temperature, constant osmotic ponds.
concentration etc. Thermoregulation and osmoregulation is the source of success of
mammals in all the environmental conditions. In summer, when outside temperature Adaptation is the attribute of organism morphological, physiological and behavioral changes

is more than our body temperature, we sweat oftenly, resulting evaporative cooling, that enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat.

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 Kangaroo rat in North American deserts fulfill the water requirement by internal age distribution is plotted for the population, the resulting structure is called age
oxidation of fat in absence of water.It also has the ability to concentrate its urine so pyramids. The shape of pyramids reflects the shape of growth status of population.
that minimal volume of water is used to remove excretory products. Which may be
Thick cuticle in many plants also prevents loss of water. CAM plants open their (i) Expending
stomata during night to reduce the loss of water during photosynthesis. (ii) Stable
(iii) Declining
Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to minimize heat loss.
This is called Allen’s Rule.
In polar seas aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat called blubber,
below their skin that acts as an insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
Altitude sickness is observed at higher altitude that includes symptoms like nausea, § Population size or population density (N) is measured in terms of number but it may
fatigue, heart palpitations due to less oxygen and atmospheric pressure. The person sometime not appropriate.
gradually get acclimatized and stop experiencing altitude sickness. This is type of
Population Growth : The size of population is not static. It keeps changing with time,
physiological adaptation.
depending upon food availability, predation pressure and reduces weather. The main factors
A number of marine invertebrate and fish live in temperature always less than zero
that determine the population growth are-
and some lives in greatdepth in ocean where pressure is very high by array of
biochemical adaptations. o Natality (number of birth during a given period in the population)
Some organisms like desert lizard lack the physiological ability that mammals have
but deal with high temperature of their habitat by behavioral means. They bask in the o Mortality ( number of death during a given period in the population)

sun and absorb heat and when their body temperature drops below the comfort zone, o Immigration (individual of same species that have come into the habitat)
but moves in shade when the ambient temperature starts increasing.
o Emigration ( individual of population that have left the habitat )
Populations : Individuals of any species live in groups in well-defined geographical area,
share or compete for similar resources, potentially interbreed and constitute a population.

Population Attributes : A population has certain attributes that an individual organism

does not such as an individual may have births and deaths, but a population has birth rates
and death rates.

The birth and death rates are referred as per capita births or deaths respectively,
which is increase and decrease with respect to members of the population.
If ‘N’ is the population density at a time‘t’, then its density at time t+1 is
Sex ratio is another attributes of population. An individual may be male or female but
population has sex ratio. Nt + 1 Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]

Population density will increase if the number of births plus the number of immigrants (B +
A population at given time composed of different individual of different ages. If the

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I) is more than the number of deaths plus the number of emigrants (D + E), otherwise it will K = Carrying capacity
decrease. Since resources for growth for populations are finite and become limiting , the logistic
growth model is considered a more realistic one.
Growth model
Population interaction
Growth of population takes place according to availability of food, habit condition and
presence of other biotic and abiotic factors. There are two main types of models- All animals, plants and microbes in a biological community interact
i. Exponential Growth- in this kinds of growth occurs when food and space is available in
with each other. These interactions may be beneficial, detrimental or
sufficient amount. When resources in the habitat are unlimited, each species has the ability
neutral to one of species or both. Following types of interaction is
to realise fully its innate potential to grow in number .The population grows in an seen-
exponential or geometric fashion. If in a population of size N, the birth rates as represented
a. Predation
as ‘b’ and death rate as ‘d’. Then increase and decrease in N during unit period time ‘t’ will be
b. Competition
dN / dt = (b – d) × N
c. Parasitism
Let (b – d) = r, then
d. Commensalism
dN / dt = rN
e. Mutualism
Then, the r in this equation is called ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’.

PREDATION : It is an Interspecific Interaction where one animal kills and consumes the
ii. Logistic Growth- there is a competition between the individuals of a population for food
other weaker animal.
and space. The fittest organism survives and reproduces. In this types of growth initially
Roles of Predators
shows a leg phase followed by phases of acceleration and de-acceleration.
Transfer energy from plants to higher trophic levels (position of organism in food
chain)
Control Prey population – Prickly pear cactus- moth
Where N = Population density at time t
Biological control of Agricultural pest
R = Intrinsic rate of natural increase Maintain species diversity by reducing intensity of competition among competing
prey species

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 Over exploitation of prey by the predators results in extinction of prey and predator. Parasites and host self-evolve.
Defense to lessen impact of predation Adaptations of parasites
a)Insects and frog – camouflage
- Loss of unnecessary sense organs
b)Monarch butterfly – poisonous
- Hooks and sucker
PLANTS MORPHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL DEFENCES - Loss of digestive system
- High Reproductive capacity
Thorns- cactus and Acacia
Produce and store chemical – Calotropis Parasites-
Nicotine, Caffeine, Quinin, Strychnine, opium – against grazers & browsers
(i) Reduce the survival of host
COMPETITION (ii) Growth and reproductive rate are reduced
Interaction either among individuals of same species or between individuals of different (iii) Render the host vulnerable to its predators by making them weak
species.
Occurs among closely related species but not always true Types of parasite

1. Unrelated species also compete- flamingo & fish compete for zooplankton ECTOPARASITES-depend on external surface of host
2. Feeding efficiency of a species reduce due to other species even if resources are plenty – Example - head lice on humans, ticks on dogs
Abingdon tortoise.
ENDOPARASITES-take shelter within the body of the host organism
Evidence for competition Example - Liverfluke, Plasmodium
Competitive release – species distribution restricted to small areas due to competitively
superior species. MUTUALISM
It is interaction in which both the interacting species are benefited
GAUSE’S COMPETITION EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE Examples
“Two closely related species competing for same resources cannot coexist as the 1. Lichen – fungi and algae
competitively inferior one will be eliminated.” 2. Mycorrhizae - fungi and roots of higher plants
3. Pollination of plants by insects
Resource partition- Two competing species avoid competition by diff. feeding and foraging 4. Mediterranean orchid- sexual deceit for pollination- appears as female bee
patterns-Mc Arthur (warblers foraging activities)
AMENSALISM: Interaction between two different species, in which one species is harmed
PARASITISM and the other species is neither harmed nor benefited. Example. Bacterial culture, after few
It is the interaction where one species (parasite) depends on the other species (host) for food days fungus growth will be there on it like Pencillium, and its secretions of chemical will kill
and shelter, host is harmed. bacteria, but no benefits to fungi.

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 the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis and NPP is the remaining
CBSE Class 12 Biology
biomass after respiration (R).
Revision Notes
CHAPTER- 14 GPP –R = NPP
ECOSYSTEM
NPP is the available biomass for consumption to heterotrophs. Secondary productivity is
defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Ecosystem is the functional unit of nature where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surroundings physical environment. Decomposition- breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients is called decomposition. Dead plants remains like leaves, bark,
Ecosystem- Structure and Functions
flowers and dead remains of animals constitute detritus. Decomposition involves following

Ecosystem : There are two basic categories of ecosystem , namely the terrestrial and the steps- fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralization.

aquatic.
1. Fragmentation of Detritus: Detritivores feed on detritus ---breakdown --- increases the

Terrestrial ecosystem – forest, grassland , desert etc. surface area of detritus particles for microbial action.
2. Leaching: Soluble inorganic nutrients dissolve in water -– percolate through the soil ---
Aquatic ecosystem – ponds, lake, river estuary etc. removed due to leaching action.
3. Catabolism: Decomposers (bacteria, fungi) release enzymes --- decompose detritus ---
The biotic and abiotic factors of ecosystem work in integrated manner for flow of energy
simpler inorganic compounds.
within the components of ecosystem. Interaction of biotic and abiotic components results in
4. Humification: Simplified detritus--- converted to humus
a physical structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem. The vertical distribution
of different species occupying different levels is called stratification.For example, trees - Humus is a Dark, Amorphous substance.
occupy top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses - Highly resistant to Microbial Action
occupy the bottom layers. - Undergoes Decomposition very Slowly.
- Reservoir of nutrients (due to colloidal nature)
The components of ecosystem that are seen as functional unit are

(i) Productivity 5. Mineralisation: Humus is degraded – releases inorganic substances

(ii) Decomposition
( CO2, H2O etc) and nutrients (Ca2+, Mg2+,K+ etc)
(iii) Energy flow
(iv) Nutrient cycling. Factors affecting rate of Decomposition:

· Productivity- Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter 1. Chemical composition - decomposition rate will be slow when detritus is rich in lignin and
produced per unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in chitin and rate increases when detritus is rich in nitrogen and water soluble substances like
terms of weight (g –2 ) or energy (kcal m–2 ).The rate of biomass production is called sugars.
productivity. It is expressed in terms of g –2 yr –1 or (kcal m–2 ) yr –1. It can be divided into
2. Climatic conditions – warm and moist environment favour decomposition and low
gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). GPP of an ecosystem is

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temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition. Each tropic level has a certain mass of living material at particular time called as standing
crop. It is measured as biomass of living organism or number in unit area.
Energy Flow- All living organisms are dependent for their food on producers, directly or
indirectly. There is a unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers and then to The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is limited as the transfer of energy
consumers. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is responsible for synthesis of food by follows 10 percent law that is only 10 percent of the energy is transferred to each trophic
plants. Animals obtain their food from plants, so they are called consumers. The process of level from the lower trophic level. In GFC, following trophic levels are possible- producer,
eating and being eaten is called food chain in which energy flow from producers to herbivore, primary carnivore, secondary carnivore.
consumers. In Grazing food chain (GFC)-
Ecological Pyramids

Ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of an ecological parameter (number,

biomass, energy) sequence wise in various trophic levels of a food chain with producers at
The detritus food chain begins (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of
the base and herbivores in the middle and carnivores at the top tiers. It can be upright,
decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms (fungi and bacteria). These are also known
inverted, or spindle shaped.
as saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that
breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic materials, which are
subsequently absorbed by them.Natural interconnection of food chain forms the food web.

Three common ecological pyramids are

Based on source of food, organism occupies a specific place in food chain that is known as
trophic level. a) Pyramids of number- employs the number of individuals per unit area at various trophic
levels with producer at base and various consumers at successively higher levels. It is
generally upright.

A pyramid of number in case of a big tree is generally inverted because number of

insects feeding on that tree generally exceeds in number.

b) Pyramids of biomass- represent the biomass in various trophic levels. A pyramid of mass
is upright except in aquatic food chain involving short lived plankton.

A pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because biomass of fishes generally

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exceeds that of phytoplankton. o Hydrach succession takes place in wetter area and the successional series progress from
hydric to the mesic conditions.

o Xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and series progress from xeric to mesic
conditions.

c) Pyramids of energy- that give s graphic representation of amount of energy trapped by

different trophic levels per unit area. Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be
inverted, because when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic level,
some energy is always lost as heat at each step e.g in feeding, digestion, assimilation and
respiration.
· The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species. In primary succession on

Ecological Succession rocks lichens are pioneer species that secrete acids to dissolve the rock for weathering to
form soil.
The gradual and fairly predictable change in species composition of a given area is called
ecological succession. During succession some species colonise an area and their population · In primary succession in water, the pioneer species are the small phytoplanktons that are
becomes more numerous whereas population of other species decline and even disappear. replaced by free floating angiosperms.

· Orderly and sequential change that leads to a community that is near equilibrium is called · Primary succession is slow process as soil is not available for pioneer species but secondary

climax community. succession is comparatively faster due to availability of soil or other nutrients. A climax
community is reached much faster in case of secondary succession.
· The entire sequence of communities that successively changes in a given area is called sere
and individual transitional communities are termed seral stage or seral communities.

Ecoloical Succession : Primary sucsesion, Secondary Succession

· Primary succession starts where no organism are there. For example bare rocks, cooled
volcano etc. Secondary succession occurs in the area where the living organisms have lost
due to certain regions like forest fire. Earthquake etc.

Succession of Plants

On the basis of nature of habitat, succession of plants can be grouped as-

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Nutrient Cycling

The movement of nutrients elements through the various components of an ecosystem is

called nutrient cycling. It is also called as biogeochemical cycles. There are two types of
nutrient cycles-

· Gaseous – exist in atmosphere.

Phosphorus Cycle
· Sedimentary- exists in earth crust.

Ecosystem Services
Environmental factors like soil, moisture, pH, temperature regulate the rate of release of
nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of reservoir is to meet with the deficit which The products of ecosystem processes are called ecosystem services. It includes-
occurs due to imbalance in the rate fo influx and efflux.
· The healthy forest ecosystem purify air and water
Carbon Cycle
· Mitigates floods and droughts
Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms.
Most of carbon is fixed by plants during the process of photosynthesis and returns to · Cycle nutrients

atmosphere in form of CO2 during respiration. Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion · Generate fertile soil
of organic matter, fossil fuel, and volcanic activity are other sources of releasing CO2 in the
atmosphere. · Provide wildlife habitat

· Maintain biodiversity etc.

Researchers have put an average price tag of US $33 trillion a year on these fundamental
ecosystems services which are taken granted because they are free although its value is twice
the total global gross national product (GNP).

Phosphorus Cycle

The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock which contains phosphorus in the form of
phosphates. On weathering, minute amount of phosphates dissolve in soil solution and
absorbed by the roots of the plants. The waste products of dead organisms are decomposed
by bacteria to release phosphorus. Gaseous exchange between organism and environment is
negligible as compared to carbon.

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 Biodiversity and its conservation are vital environmental issues of international concern as
CBSE Class 12 Biology
more and more people around the world begin to realize the critical importance of
Revision Notes
biodiversity for survival and well-being on this planet.
CHAPTER- 15
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION · According to the IUCN, the total number of plant and animal species described so far is
about 1.5 million but still many species are yet to discovered and described.

Biodiversity or biological diversity is the occurrence of different types of ecosystems,

· More than 70% of all the species recorded are animals while rest are plants including algae,
different species of organisms and their variant like biotypes, ecotypes and gene adapted to
fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. Among animals, 70% of total are insects.
different climates and environments of different regions including their interactions and
processes.This term was coined by Edward Wilson.The vast array of species of micro- · The number of fungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the species of
organisms, algae, fungi, plants and animals occurring on the earth either in the terrestrial or fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
aquatic habitats and the ecological complexes of which they are a part comprises
BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA
biodiversity . Diversity ranges from macromolecules to biomes.
• India is one of the twelve mega biodiversity countries of the world.
The important diversity at the levels of biological organization are- • India has only 2.4% of the land area of the world, it has 8.1% of the global species
biodiversity.
I. Genetic Diversity- a single species might show high diversity at the genetic level over its
• There are about 45,000 species of plants and about 90,000-1,00,000 species of animals.
distributional range. Rauwolfia vomitoria shows genetic variation in terms of concentration
• New species are yet to be discovered and named.
and potency of chemical reserpine India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of
• Applying Robert May’s global estimate, only 22% of the total species have been recorded,
rice and 1000 varieties of mango.
India has probably more than 1,00,000 species of plants and 3,00,000 species of animals to be

II. Species Diversity- diversity at species level for example, the Western Ghats have more discovered and described

amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.

Patterns of Biodiversity

III. Ecological Diversity- deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries and
a) Latitudinal gradients- the diversity of plants and animals is not uniform throughout the
alpine meadows are types of ecological diversity.
world and shows uneven distribution. This distribution pattern is along the latitudinal
gradient in diversity. Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards
the poles. Tropics harbor more species than temperate or polar areas.Amazonian Rainforest
has the greatest biodiversity on earth. It has more than 40000 species of plants, 1,25,000
species of insects, 300 species of fish, 427 of amphibian and 378 of reptiles, 1300 species of
birds and 427 of mammals. Various hypothesis has been proposed regarding this such as-

a) Speciation is a function of time unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciation

in past, tropical latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and
thus had long evolutionary time for species diversification.

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b) Tropical environments unlike temperate ones are less seasonal and more constant and joined together using thousands of rivets (species). If every passenger travelling in it starts
predictable which promote niche specialization and lead to a greater species diversity. popping a rivet to take home (causing a species to become extinct), it may not affect flight
safety (proper functioning of the ecosystem) initially, but as more and more rivets are
c)There is more solar energy available in the tropics which contribute to higher productivity
removed, the plane becomes dangerously weak over a period of time. Furthermore, which
this in turn contribute indirectly to greater diversity.
rivet is removed may also be critical. Loss of rivets on the wings (key species that drive major

b) Species-Area relationships ecosystem functions) is obviously a more serious threat to flight safety than loss of a few
rivets on the seats or windows inside the plane
• Alexander Von Humboldt has observed that within a region, species richness gets increased
when explored area is increased, but only up to a limit. Loss of Biodiversity
• The relationship between species richness and area for a number of taxa like angiospermic
The biological wealth of our planets have been declining rapidly due to three factors -
plants, fresh water fishes and birds is found to be a rectangular hyperbola.
Population, Urbanisation and Industrialisation.The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the
extinction of 784 species (including 338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in the
last 500 years. Some examples of recent extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius), quagga
(Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Javan,
Caspian) of tiger. In last 20 years, 27 species have been disappeared. In general, loss of
biodiversity in a region may lead to

a. Decline in plant production

On logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described by the equation-

b. Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations, drought, and flood.

log S = log C + Z log A.

c. Increased variability in ecosystem processes such as productivity, water use, and pest and

Where, S= species, A= Area, Z= slope of the line, C =Y- intercept. disease cycles.

Ecologists have discovered that the value of Z lies in range of 0.1 to 0.2 regardless of Causes of biodiversity losses
taxonomic group of the region.
Faster rates of species extinctions are largely due to human activities. The four major causes
In very large area like continents, Z value ranges between 0.6 & 1.2.
are called ‘The Evil Quartet’.

The importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem

1) Habitat loss and fragmentation- is the most important cause of animals and plants
The communities with more species are generally more stable than those with less species. A
extinction. The amazon rain forest (lungs of the planet) having millions of species is being
stable community should not be show too much variation in productivity from year to year.
cut and cleared for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to grasslands. When large
habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human activities, mammals are
Rich biodiversity is essential for ecosystem health and imperative for the very survival of
birds requiring large territories migrate and badly affected.
human race on this planet.
2) Over-exploitation- When biological system is over exploited by man for the natural
Rivet popper hypothesis - given by Paul Ehrlich. In an airplane (ecosystem) all parts are

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resources ,it results in degradation and extinction of the resources , e.g Steller’s sea cow, In situ ( on site) conservation- conservationists have identified for maximum protection
passenger pigeon etc. Many marine fish population are over harvested, endangering the certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels of species richness and high
continued existence of some important species. degree of endemism, species found in that region and not found anywhere else. There are 34
biodiversity hot spots in the world. These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat
3) Alien species invasions- when alien species enters intentionally or unintentionally, some
loss. India has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
of them turn invasive and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.The Nile perch
introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led eventually to the extinction of an ecologically Ex situ (off site) conservation- in this method, threatened animals and plants are taken out
unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake. Invasive weeds from their natural habitat and placed in special setting when they be protected and given
species like carrot grass (parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth causing threats to special care . Zoological parks, Botanical Gardens and wildlife safari parks are used for this
indigenous species. purpose. Now gemetes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition
for long periods of time using cryopreservation technique. Eggs can be fertilized in vitro and
4) Co-extinctions- when a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated
plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods.
with it also become extinct. When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage
of parasites also becomes extinct.

Biodiversity Conservation

We should conserve the biodiversity due to following groups of regions-

I. The narrowly utilitarian- human obtain countless direct economic benefits from nature
like food, firewood, fibres, construction material, medicinal plants and industrial products.
With increasing resources put into ‘bio-prospecting’ nations endowed with rich biodiversity
can expect to reap enormous benefits.

II. The Broadly Utilitarian- biodiversity plays a major role in ecosystem services that nature
provides. Productions of Oxygen during photosynthesis, pollination without natural The historic convention on Biological Diversity (The Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro in
pollinator, pleasure from nature are priceless.
1992,called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity

III. Ethical- for conserving biodiversity relates to what we own to millions of plants, animals and the World Summit on sustainable development held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South

and microbes species with whom we share this planet. Every species has an intrinsic value Africa, 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in

although it may not be of current or any economic value to us. It is our moral duty to care for the current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.

their well-being and pass on our biological legacy in good order to future generations.

How do we conserve Biodiversity?

When whole ecosystem is conserved, all its biodiversity is also protected. There are two ways
of conservation of biodiversity-

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 CBSE Class 12 Biology
Revision Notes
CHAPTER- 16
ENVIROMENTAL ISSUES

With increase in human population, demands for food, shelter, water, electricity, roads, and
automobiles are increasing rapidly and exerting pressure on environment and altering the
natural health of ecosystem. All across the world, people are facing a wealth of new and It has electrode wires that are maintained at several thousand volts to produce a corona that
challenging environmental problems every day. Some of them are- pollution, greenhouse releases electrons. These electrons attach to dust particles giving them a net negative charge.
effect, ozone depletion, deforestation etc. The collecting plates are grounded and attract the charged dust particles to that clean air can
pass through electrostatic precipitator.
Pollution is undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological properties of air, land,
water or soil. The agents which cause undesirable change are called pollutants. A scrubber can remove gases like sulpher dioxide. The exhaust is passed through spray of
water or lime.
Air Pollution and its Control
According to CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) particulate size less 2.5
Air is essential for respiration in all living organisms. Pollutants reduce growth and
micrometers or less in diameter (PM 2.5)cause greatest harm to human health.
production of crops as well as premature death of plants. The harmful effect of pollution on
The fine particles can be inhaled deep into the lungs and can cause breathing and
all the living organisms depends upon-
respiratory symptoms, irritation, inflammations and damage to lungs and premature

Concentration of pollutants. death.

Duration of exposure. Automobiles are main cause of atmospheric pollution in metro cities. Proper

Organisms involved. maintenance of automobiles along with use of lead-free petrol or diesel can reduce
the pollutants they emit.
Thermal power plants, smelters and other industries release particulate and gaseous air Catalytic converters contain platinum-palladium and rhodium as the catalyst, are
pollutants along with harmless gases such as nitrogen, oxygen etc. These pollutants should fitted into automobiles for reducing emission of poisonous gases. As the exhaust
be filtered out before releasing the harmless gases into the atmosphere. There are many passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into
methods of removing particulate matter; the most widely used is the electrostatic carbon dioxide and waterand carbon monoxide and nitric oxide are changed to
precipitator. carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas . The vehicles fitted with catalytic converter should
use unleaded petrol because lead in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
Electrostatic Precipitator- can remove over 99% of particulate matter present in the
In Delhi, entire fleet of public transport was converted to compressed natural gas
exhaust from thermal power plant.
(CNG) mode to reduce the fast increasing pollution level of metro. CNG is better than
diesel because it is cheaper than petrol and diesel, burn completely with leaving any
residue and cannot be adulterated like petrol and diesel. But the main problem with

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 switching over to CNG is the difficulty of laying down pipelines to deliver CNG impurities make domestic sewage unfit for human use. Solid wastes are relatively easy to
through distribution points/pumps and ensuring uninterrupted supply. remove but dissolved salts as nitrates, phosphates and other nutrients and toxic metal ions
Auto Fuel Policy : The Government of India has laid out a road map to cut down the and organic compounds present in domestic wastes are comparatively difficult to remove.
vehicular air pollution in many cities of India. The goal of this policy is to reduce
Domestic sewage mainly contains biodegradable organic matter, which can be easily
Sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol and diesel and reduce levels of aromatic hydrocarbons to
decomposed by microbes like bacteria and fungi. They use organic wastes as nutrients.
35% of the fuel. The Bharat Stage II will be applicable to all automobiles in all cities
April, 1, 2005. The cities (like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata etc.) will have to meet Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Euro III emission norms from April 1, 2005 and Euro IV Emission norms from April 1,
2010 The microbes that decompose organic wastes in water bodies consume a lot of oxygen that
result into sharp decline in dissolved oxygen downstream from the point of sewage
In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came into force in 1981
and was amended in 1987 to include noise as an air pollutant.Noise is undesired discharge. This causes mortality of fish and other aquatic creatures.

high level of sound. High sound level greater than 150 dB or more generated by
BOD refer to the amount of oxygen that would be consumed if all the organic matter is one
takeoff or a jet plane or rocket may damage ear drums thus permanently impairing litre of water were oxidized by bacteria. The BOD test measures the rate of uptake of oxygen
hearing ability.
by micro-organisms in a sample of water. Indirectly BOD is a measure of the organic matter
Noise also causes sleeplessness, increased heart beating, altered breathing pattern, present in the water. The greater the BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential.
thus considerably stressing humans.
Reduction of noise in industries can be affected by use of sound absorbent materials
or by muffling noise.

Water Pollution and it Control

Water bodies are lifeline of human beings as well as other animals. Due to disposal of all
kinds of waste and other anthropogenic actions the ponds, lakes ,stream, river, estuaries and
oceans are becoming polluted in several parts of world. The Government of India has passed
the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to protect the water resources.

Algal Bloom

Presence of large amount of organic nutrients in water causes excessive growth of

planktonic or free floating algae called algal bloom. Due to this colour of water bodies get
changed. This may cause deterioration of the water quality and fish mortality.

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is the world’s most problematic aquatic weed.
Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents-
They are introduced into India for their beautiful flowers that have caused havoc by their

The sewage that comes out from house and office makes the domestic sewage. A mere 0.1% excessive growth by causing blocks in our water bodies. This weed is commonly known

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as ‘Terror of Bengal’. Eutrophication. Main contaminants include nitrates, phosphates that act as plant
nutrients.They increase the growth of algae, causing unsightly scum and unpleasant odors,
Biomagnification or Biological Magnification
and depleting the dissolved oxygen of water which is important for other aquatic life.

Toxic wastes present in industrial wastes and water from farmhouse containing pesticides
Integrated Waste Water Treatment
and weedicides enters the food chain of aquatic organisms. The increase in concentration of
toxicant at each successive trophic levels is called biological magnification. The most Wastewater including sewage can be treated in an integrated way, by combining artificial
common toxicant that get accumulated at successive trophic levels includes DDT and and natural processes. An example of such an initiative is the town of Arcata, situated along
Mercury. High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which causes the northern coast of California .The native people in collabaration with Humboldt State
thinning of eggshell and their premature breaking, eventually causing decline in bird University created an integrated waste water treatment process within a natural system. The
populations. cleaning occurs in two stages –

(a) the conventional sedimentation, filtering and chlorine treatments are given.

(b) To combat with pollutants like dissolved heavy metals , the biologists developed a series
of six connected marshes over 60 hectares of marshland where plants, algae, fungi and
bacteria were seeded which neutralise, absorb and assimilate the pollutants.

As the water flows through the marshes, it gets purified naturally. The marshes also
constitute a sanctuary, which is highly diverse in the form of fishes, animals and birds that
now reside there.

A citizens group called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) are responsible for the safety
of this project.

Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for managing human excreta, using dry

Eutrophication composting toilets. This is a practical, hygienic, efficient and cost-effective solution to human
waste disposal. The important part is that with this composting method, human excreta can
It is the natural aging of a lake by biological enrichment of its water. Due to addition of be recycled into natural fertiliser. There are working ‘EcoSan’ toilets in many areas of Kerala
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus that encourage the growth of aquatic organism and Sri Lanka
the accumulation of organic remains in course of time leads to shall lowing of lake. Over the
centuries the silt and organic debris piles up at the bottom of lake and encourage the growth Solid Wastes

of marsh plants in the shallow and begin to fill in the original lake basin. Eventually large
Municipal solid wastes are wastes from home, offices, stores, schools, hospitals etc. that are
masses of floating plants grows and finally converting into land.
collected and disposed by the municipality. It consists of paper, food wastes, plastics, glass,

The pollutants from man’s activities such as effluents from the industries and homes metals, rubber, leather, textile etc.Burning reduces the volume of the wastes but the waste

radically accelerate the aging of lake. This phenomenon is called Cultural or Accelerated generally not burnt to irts completion and open dumps often serve as the breeding ground

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for rodents and flies. Sanitary landfills were used as substitute for open burning dumps Integrated organic farming is a cyclic, zero-waste procedure in which waste products from
where wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction and covered with dirt one process are cycled in as nutrients for other processes to allow the maximum utilization
every day. There is a danger of seepage of chemicals from these landfills polluting the of resource and increase the efficiency of production. It includes bee-keeping, dairy
underground water resources. management, water harvesting, composting and agriculture in a chain of processes which
support each other and allow an extremely economical and sustainable venture. No
Municipal wastes : Bio-degradable wastes, Recyclable wastes, Non-biodegradable waste
chemical fertilizer is used in this process.
The biodegradable materials can be put into deep pits in the ground and be left for
Radioactive Wastes
natural breakdown.
Kabadiwallahs and rag-pickers do a great job of separation of materials for recycling Nuclear energy has two very serious problems-
of different kinds of wastes.
Accidental leakage
Polyblend - Polyblend is the best way to combat with ever-increasing problem of
Safe disposal of radioactive wastes
accumulating plastic waste .It is a fine powder of recycled modified plastic which is
mixed with the bitumen .Polyblend and bitumen, when used to lay roads, enhanced The radiation released from nuclear wastes is extremely damaging to biological organisms as
the bitumen’s water repellant properties, and helped to increase road life by a factor it causes mutations to occur at very high rate. It has been recommended that storage of
of three. nuclear wastes after sufficient pre-treatment should be done in suitably shielded containers
Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and other chemicals and buried within the rock about 500m deep below the earth surface.
and alos pathogenic micro-organisms. Such wastes need careful treatment and
disposal. Incinators are used for disposal of hospital wastes. Green House Effect and Global Warming

Electronic wastes- Unrepairable computers and other electronic goods are known as The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is responsible for heating of

electronic wastes (e-wastes). E-wastes are buried in landfills or incinerated. Over half of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere due to increase in concentration of carbon dioxide and

e-wastes generated in the developed world are exported to developing countries, mainly to methane gas. Clouds and gases reflect about one-fourth of the incoming solar radiation and

China, India and Pakistan, where metals like copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are absorb some of it but almost half of incoming solar radiation falls on Earth’s surface heating

recovered during recycling process. Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e- it, while a small proportion is reflected back. The surface of earth re- emits heat in the form
of infrared radiation but part of this does not reflected back due to greenhouse gases that
wastes provided it is carried out in an environment-friendly manner
leads to heating of earth atmosphere. Global warming is caused due to greenhouse effect.
Agro-chemicals and other effects
Scientists believe that this rise in temperature is leading to harmful changes in the
Use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides has been increased many fold due to green environment and resulting in odd climatic changes (e.g. El Nino effect) , thus leading to
revolution for enhancing crop production. The pesticides and insecticides are toxic to non- increased melting of polar ice caps.
target organisms that are important components of the soil ecosystem. They are
biomagnified in the terrestrial ecosystem and also causes eutrophication in aquatic
ecosystems .

Organic Farming

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 leads to depletion of ozone in the stratosphere.

Deforestation

It is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones due to human activities like slash
and burn agriculture also called Jhum cultivation where farmers cut down trees and burn
the plant remains. Ash is used as a fertiliser and the land is then used for farming or cattle
grazing ;use of fertilizers and cutting of trees for industries and residential use. Main
consequence of deforestation includes-

Global warming can be controlled by Enhanced carbon dioxide concentration

Loss of biodiversity
Cutting down use of fossil fuel
Disturbed hydrologic cycles
Improving efficiency of energy usage
Soil erosion
Reducing deforestation
Desertification etc.
Planting tree
Slowing down the growth of human population. Reforestation : Process of restoring a forest that was removed at some point of time in the
past.
Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere
The Government of India has recently started the Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection
Ozone found in the upper part of the atmosphere called stratosphere acts as a shield
Award for individuals or communities from rural areas that have shown extraordinary
absorbing ultraviolet radiation form the sun. UV rays are highly injurious to living
courage and dedication in protecting wildlife.
organisms.
Chipko Movement - In 1974, local women of Garhwal Himalayas showed tremendous
The thickness of the ozone-layer in a column of air from the ground to the top of the
courage in protecting trees from the axe of contractors by hugging them. People all over the
atmosphere is measured in tems of Dobson units (DU). Ozone layer absorbs the harmful UV-
world have appreciated the Chipko movement.
rays. It causes aging of skin, damage to skin cells and various types of skin cancers. In human
eye, cornea absorbs UV-B radiation, and a high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of cornea, Realising the importance of participation by local communities, the Government of India in
called snow-blindness cataract, etc. Such exposure may permanently damage the cornea. 1980s has introduced the concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM) so as to work closely
with the local communities for protecting and managing forests.
Chlorofluro Carbons deplete the ozone layer. The part of atmosphere with lesser
concentration of ozone is called ozone hole.

Steps leading to ozone depletion :

UV-rays split CFCs and release atomic chlorine (Cl)

UV-rays also split ozone into oxygen.
Chlorine atoms trap oxygen atoms and ozone is not formed again from oxygen. This

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