Fae 12 Viren Man oy Job Gibson fed Bano Condon, 18 Fee 1-3, Moca owe by Le Coe Foe HUMAN leuRe ‘15th-century Italian, described the length of a man as equal to his \wicth with arms extended.* During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci created his famous drawing of the human figure, based on the \Vitruvian norm-man (Figure I-t). In the mid-19th century John Gibson ‘and J. Bonomi were also to reconstruct the Vitruvian figure (Figure 1-2), and later, more than 2000 years atter Vitruvius wrote his ten books on architecture, Le Corbusier was to revive interest in the \Vitruvian norm with his creation of Modular No. 1 (Figure |). No discussion of body size and proportion, however, would be com plete without mention of the so-called Golden Section, the name ‘ven in the 13th century to the proportion derived from the divisions of a line into what Euclid in 300 a.c. Greece called "extreme and ‘mean ratio."> According to Euclid, a line is cut in such a ratio only ‘when the "whole line isto the greater segment, so is the greater to the less Although three terms, atleast, are required for any propor- tion, what is unique about the Golden Section is thatthe third term of the proportion is equal to the sum of the other two. ‘So fascinating was this notion of the Golden Section that in the early Part ofthe 16th century, Luca Paccola close friend of Leonardo and Probably the most famous mathematician of the time, wrote a book ‘boutit called Divina Proportione® (divine proportion) in which he en ‘dowed the Golden Section with many varied mystical properties in both science and art. Ho contended, for example, that he could de- tect "an aesthetic principle which is found in architectural forms, in the human body, and even in the letters of the Latin alphabet.” ‘thas been claimed that the proportion ofthe so-called Goiden Sec- tion is far superior to all other proportions. Actual experiments areDeeree. Fe The en on said to indicate a preference, on the part of most people, for those proportions closest to Euclid’s extreme and mean rato, While it was ‘employed as a conscious element in architectural design during the Renaissance, the architecture of antiquity, as well as that of the Mid- dle Ages, may also have been designed according to the proportion ‘of the Golden Section. More recently, its most entiusiastic supporter was Le Corbusier, who in 1948 wrote a book dealing with proportions. based on it. ‘The most fascinating observation about the Golden Section, however, involves the human figure. If a horizontal line is drawn through the navel, three diferent body measurements are produced, as illustrated in Figure |4. One represents stature, or the distance from the top ofthe head tothe floor. Another represents the distance from the navel to the floor, while the third represents the distance from the top of the head to the navel. itis contended that if actual ‘measurements are substituted for the letters indicated, the rato of Stature fo the height of the navel above the floor usually approx mates 1818. The proportion of the three measurements conforms fairy closely to Euclid extreme and mean ratio. Despite Vitruvius’ attempts to relate the human body tothe system of measurements employed by the Greeks in the design of temples, humanity's basic concern with the human figure historically has been ‘more aesthetic than metrological, more involved with proportion than with absolute measurements and function. Over the last several dec- des, however, concern for human dimensions and body size, as critical factors in the design process, has steadily increased. No ‘where has this concer boen greater than in the field of human fac- ‘ors engineering, as iis called in the United States, or ergonomics, {as tis roferred to in Europe. It should be noted, however, that con: ‘comm for body size is only one of several arees of interest to the human factors engineer, or ergonomist, due to the extremely com> plex nature of those disciplines. According to one definition, “human fengineering (human factors engineering, ergonomics, biotechnol ogy) is not a single scientific discipline but a synthesis which inte- grates the biological sciences—psychology, anthropology, physiology, and medicine—with engineering.”* Ergonomics has been defined in one instance as “the technology of \work design” that “is based on the human biological sciences: anat- ‘omy, physiology and psychology.”® In another instance, itis defined more simply as “an interdiscipinary science which studies the rela- tionships between people and their environments.""® Most agree that both terms “human engineering” and “ergonomics” may be used in- terchangeably, and during the course of this book, both terms will be so used ‘The application of human factors engineering has been typically ‘associated with highly complex and limited technological problems in ‘machine and equipment design. The problems have usually involved {elatively sophisticated man-machine interface situations: the design of control centers, airratt cockpits, electranie consoles, and endless ‘numbers and types of military ar, round, and sea vehicles. Yet to- day human factors engineering relates tothe civiian sector as well, The design of consumer products, work environments, transporta- tion vehicles, to name a fow, all require human factors input.“The field was given enormous impetus during the Second World War due to the compelling need to reconcile human capabilities with the technological saphistication of military equipment. The possiblity of human error had to be eliminated. Equipment had to be operated at ‘maximum efficiency under the most trying of circumstances. Prob- Jems facing the ergonomist ranged in complexity from a simple con- 1uch as the push button, to complicated console designs for use ‘under battle conditions. More recently, the ergonomist has had to ‘cope with physiological, psychological, and anthropometric (the study of human body measurement, which will be thoroughly dis- ‘cussed in Part A) aspects of design problems inherent in space travel. Of greatest significance, however, was the basic realization ‘and acceptance of the idea that consideration of human factors con- stituted an integral part of the design process. ‘Among the most important of these human factors is body size and dimension as it relates to the so-called ergonomic fit, of the ergof ting, of the user to the environment—one aspect of the so-called ‘man-machine interface to which the ergonomist constantly alludes. ‘Most applications of human engineering have, in fact, been inthe in- ‘dustrial and miliary sectors, Unfortunately, the more mundane appli- cations, such as those found in the design of the intertor spaces ‘within our homes, offices, health faclties, schools, etc., have been relatively ignored. This is particulary ironic since much of the under Iying philosophy of hurman engineering is based on the premise that ‘everything is esigned for people. Where else can the concept of designing trom the man, out” make more sense than in the field of architecture and interior design? Wt is the purpose of this book, therefore, to focus on the an- thropometric aspects of ergonomics and to apply the related data to the design of interior spaces. The application will take the form of an- ‘hropometically oriented design reference standards structured to ensure a proper exgofiting of people to the interior environments in ‘which they may live, work, or play. These interior environments are all utlized by individuals of varying body sizes, weight, age, and ‘physical condition. On a global basis, users may also reflect a wide fange of races, cultures, and ethnic backgrounds. Despite the variables involved, however, the interface between the user and the designed interior environment, or ergofit, must ensure comfortable, safe, and efficient enjoyment ofthat environment. Work surface heights in a kitchen, office, or home workshop; allowances for seating around a dining of conference table; heights for shelves in {an apartment or library; corridor widths in a home or public building — all must reflect the human Taotor of body size. In certain situations, \w@ are, for @ number of reasons, required to design for alarge mixed User population. At the other extreme, we may be obligated to design for a single user. In sill other situations, the user may constitute a specific group—young children, elderly” people, college students, physically disabled people etc. tis obvious that if we are to respond responsibly and sensitvaly tothe design needs ofthe user, we must become more aware of the metrology of body size and its ergonomic Implications.A HUMAN DIMENSION/ ANTHROPOMETRICSANTHROPOMETRIC THEORY 1.1 ANTHROPOMETRY People's historic involvement with body size was discussed in the In- troduction. However, the science dealing specifically with the measurement of the human body to determine differences in indi- viduals, groups, oto. is termed anthropometry. Pioneering work in this field dates back to the Belgian mathematician, Quetlet, who in 1870 published his Anthropometrio and is credited not only with founding and formaiizing the science, but also with having created the term “anthropomety” itself. The origins of physical anthropology ‘can be traced even further back to the late 18th century and Linne, Button, and White, who first developed the science of comparative racial anthropometry. During the course of time, a significant amount of anthropometric ‘dala has been amassed. Unfortunately for the designer, however, the thrust of much of the efforts in this area was for taxonomic pur- poses, physiological studies, etc., and not primarily for the fergonomic implications of body size. I was not until the 1940s that the need for anthropomettic data, generated in a variety of industrial fialds, but primarily In the aircraft industry, began to develop and in- crease. The Second World War naturally provided much of the impe~ tus, and even today itis inthe miltary-ndustrial sector that much of the anthropometric research is generated. Although the ciscipfine has fallen within the purview of the anthropomettist, anatomist. or fergonomist, itis time for the architect and interior designer to be~ ‘come more aware of the data available and its applicabily tothe de- ‘sigh of interior spaces. I anthropometry is viewed mainly as exercises in simple measure- ‘ment and nothing more, one might conclude that the cimensional dala could be gathered simply and effortlessly. Nothing. however, ‘could be further from the truth. There are many complicating factors and difficulties involved. One such factor is tha! body sizes vary with ‘age, 8ex, aoe, and even occupational group. For examplo, Chart 1-1 shows statistics on the statures (body height) of samples from vari ‘us national groups. The variation in stature is quite significant, rang- Ing tom 160.5 cm, or 63.2 in, for ho Vietnamese to a high of 179.9 ‘am, oF 70.8 n, or the Belgian—a range of 19.4 om, or slightly more than 7.5 in.Fey ee sn ase time Fan ste of Teg ageGece snoW ONS S= Qos HUME TIP REACH =: ee 2925 SUNS NULLS eee 4NOIH 343 AEDS /BUTTOCK-TOE LENGTH 1 BUTTOCK-LEG LENGTH =e) Ko won of [gece acon anirnencuarescn Pl “wwalrtdod sonvuva79 WOIKL Fue 17. Rady menurments cl mos use othe design of ner spaces.‘Simiaty,“interpupilary diameter,” the distance between the centers of the pupils, willbe of far more value tothe designer of optical equip- ment than to an architec. Damon et al, contend that “if one wishes to describe a group for human enginaering purposes, the ten most important dimensions to ‘obtain ar in order: height; weight; siting height; Duttock-knee and buttock popliteal lengths; breadtns across elbows and hips, seated! knee and popiteal heights; and thigh clearance height.”” These ten ‘measurements are equally essential to the design of interiors. Figure 1-7 indicates all those body measurements that are of the ‘most significance to the architec, interior designer, or industrial de- signer. The necessary data for these measurements are developed inthe various tables in Part B of this book. Table 1 in Part 8, entitled ‘Metrological Analysis,” defines the terms and discusses the appl- cation and design implication ofthe data, 14 PRESENTATION OF DATA Generally, anthropomeitic data for use by the designer may be pre~ sented in graphic form, as in the well-known Dreytuss figure (Figure 1-8), orn a tabular form (Figuee 1-9). When data are initially record- £6, however, their form, of necessity, is statistically disorganized, Figure 1-10 is an example ofa form used to record initial data. Subse- ‘quently, the data are then reorganized in a more orderly and logical ‘manner. With regard to anthropometric data, iti usually restructured to indicate frequency, as illustrated in Figure 1-11. Since individual body sizes and measurements vary greatly within any population, it isnot practical to design for tho entire group. Consequentiy,statist- ‘al distribution of body sizes is of great interest to the designer in establishing design standards and making design decisions. ‘The restructured array of data in the form of a frequency table, as shown on Figure 1-11, begins to suggest the pattern of distribution. ‘The array of data lists, in order of magnitude from smallest o largest, certain height intervals in inches for army aviators and the corre- ‘sponding number of instances in which such measurements were ose +8. fctrepanetic date 8 _chgerved. Certain information can be immediately nated. The smal- ae ce erg, __estheigh interval is trom 158.8 to 160.5 om, or 62.5 t0 63.2, while wre the tallest intervals between 191.3 and 193 cm, o° 75.3 and 78.0 in. broach da poset in aul om wh accompanying daar of human tue f expan measue Pen Dapam ara ate tom van Cot and Kuala Maman Engnseing Gus fo Equant Design 372 p 8071.5 PERCENTILES Due to the significant variations in individual body size, “averages” ‘are obviously of little use to the designer and itis necessary, instead, {o.deal with range. Statistically, it has been shown that human body ‘measurements in any given population willbe distriouted so that they wl fall somewhere in the middle, while a small number of extreme measurements may fall al ether end of the spectrum. Since is im practical to design forthe entire population, itis necessary to select a ‘Segment from the middle portion. Accordingly, its fairy common to- {ay o omit the extremes at both ends and to deal with 90 percent of the population group. Most anthropometric data, therefore, are quite often expressed in terms of percentiles. The population is divided, for study purposes, into 100 percentage catagories, ranked trom least to greatest. with respect to some speciic ype of body measurement. The first per- centile in stature or height, for example, indicates that 99 percent of the study population would have heights of greater dimension. Sim- liar, a 95th percentie height would indicate that only 5 percent of the study population would have heights greater and that $5 percent ‘of the study population would have the same or lesser heights. Per~ ‘centles “indioate the percentago of porsons within the population who have a body dimension of a certain size (or smaller)."* The An- thropometric Source Book published by the National Aeronautics, ‘and Space Adminisation (NASA) defines percentiles in the follow- ing manner ‘The definton ofthe percent is tary simple. For any set of data—the vwoighs of a group of pits, for example fst percentile is value \abichis, onthe one hand, rester nan the weighs of each of te lghtest ‘fe of he plots and i, onthe other hand, less than the weights of each cof te heaviest 99% Of these men. Sina the second percentile is ‘greater than each ofthe bghtest 2% and less than each ofthe heaviest ‘98%, Whatever the value of K—from 1 to 88—the K-th percentile is & value greater than each of the smallest kof the weighis and less than ‘the lgest (100 KJ. The 50th percentile, which we encountered among the averages as the median, is a valve dviging a set of data ino two ‘'0ups containing the smallest and largest 50%» of the values.® A 50th percentile rating reprosents fairly closely the average value of ‘a dimension for a certain group, but under no circumstances should bbe misinterpreted as suggesting that the “average man’ hes the body dimension indicated. This fallacy of the “average man” will be amplified later in Section 2.2 ‘When dealing with percentiles, two important factors should be kept in mind, First, anthropometric percentiles on actual individuals refer to.enly one body dimension. This may be stature or sitting height, for ‘example, Secondly, there is no such thing as a 95th percentile or 90th percentile or 5 percentie person. These are mythical figures. An indivicual having @ 0th percentile stature dimension might have a 40th percentile Knee height or a 60th percentile hand length, as sug- {gested in Figure 1-14. The graph in Figure 1-15, representing actual data of three individuals, reinforces the mythical aspect of percentile poopie with respect to all body dimensions. Examination ofthe graph ‘and is very pronounced angular and uneven path clearly indicatessrononlinnconond Fw 1-4. Humans are tn ‘oral seus no body nan ‘Sore A th ihaeaon nde ssh Sa wemenenescoseicecse cmesascom age 18 Aone nga ep, ya JNTHROPOUETRE THEORY 35gre 116) The pra nests net, enue 2 gaup oe gereayae an ‘Toman a gu ant ate nigh ot ge From Nona Hea Suave.) ‘We gan nse at nen ane gap ttn ayant of than a eon osin Suey that each ofthe three individuals has a difering percentile ranking for each of the body dimensions shown. 1.8 VARIABILITY AND RELIABILITY {As discussed earlier in his section, a number of factors can cause significant variations in human body size. Indwviduals from one part of the country may be tallat and heavier than those from another part. A socioeconomic study has indicated a significant diferonce in stature ‘between people having diferent cocupations. A comparison in stat Ure between truck drivers and research workers, for example, indi- cated that the latter, as a group, were taller than the former. The military. as e group, difers anthropometrcally from the civilian popu- lation.*° Men within the same group are usually taller and heavier than the women within that group, and elderly people differ in body size from the middle-aged (Figure 1-16). Moreover, measurements of ‘general body sizes within a country may change over @ period of time. American soldiers in the Second World War were proven to be taller and heavier than soldiers of the First World War (Figure 1-17). It hhas been demonstrated that ethnicity is also an extremely significant factor in bady size. This has been an area of such growing concern ‘and interest fo ergonomists the world over that in 1972 the first inter- national symposium on “natural and cultural variabies in human fac- tors engineering” was held in The Netherlands under the auspices of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Body size was one o ve top- ics discussed. Papers delivered at that symposium revealed some very substantial anthropometric differences among the various popu- lations of the world. figee 17 Te gop canes ene sn ot eg US mae win ibe yar ‘statue of US. males rom generation fo generation. A publication of ho National Center fore Saistes Hams os, 197 howe, concides at ne secur grow tnd apps o ve Hoppin arson emaren bom ar fs vos, rash antec tom NASA, Ardwopamene Source Boat vaANTHROPOMETRIC DATA/ APPLICATION 2.1 APPROPRIATENESS itis essential, due to the many variables involved, that the data se- lected be appropriate to the user of the space or furniture to be ‘designed. It becomes necessary, therefore, for the intended user [Population to be properly defined in terms of such factors as age, ‘sex, occupation, and ethnicity. If the user is an individual, or con: situtes a very small group, it may, in certain situations, be feasible to {develop your own primary anthropometric data by actually having n= dividual body measurements taken. Surely fone is propared to take the time to be fitted for a dress or a suit, one should be willing to ‘spend the time to be fitted for an interior environment or components ofthat environment, particulary since, in mast cases, the later will reflect a far greater fnancial investment. The measurements, in the ‘event individual data are generated, should, however, be taken with proper instruments by a trained cbserver. In situations where specitic body dimensions or other data for a particular user population are Unavailable, and both time and funds prevent undertaking sophist cated studies, an engineering anthropometist can be consulted to discuss the statistical methods of obtaining the necessary informa- tion, 2.2 “AVERAGE MAN" FALLACY ‘As suggested previously, a very serious error in the application of dita is to assume that the 50th percentile dimensions represent the ‘measurements of an “average man” and to create a design to ac- commodate 50th percentile data. The fallacy in such an assumption is that by prior definition 50 percent of ine group may suffer. There simply is no “average man.” Depending on the nature of the design problem, the design should usually be conceived to aecommadate ‘the Sth or the 95th percentile, s0 that the groatest portion of the pop- Ulation is served. Dr. H. T. E. Hertzberg, one of the country's most distinguished re- ‘search physical anthropologists, in discussing the so-called average ‘man, indicated, "there is really no such thing as an ‘average’ man or woman. There are men who are average in weight, orin stature, or ingo 21. Poop ema: boy Shorctor sre conesponanay, he lorare prea aa a ‘each ene catering fcr 1) Litpersze people an: coreapordnghy, the igh scat rang dase ‘sea in esting eararce omen sitting height, but the men who are average in two dimensions con- sttute only about 7 percent of the population; those in three, oniy ‘about 3 percent; those in four, less than 2 percent. There are no men average in as few as 10 dimensions. Therefore, the concept of the ‘average’ man is fundamentally incorrect, because no such creature ‘exists, Work places to be efficient should be designed according 10 the measured range of body size."" 23 REACH, CLEARANCE, AND ADJUSTABILITY ‘The selection of appropriate anthropometric datas based on the na- ture of the particular design problem under consideration. If the ‘design requires the user to reach from a seated or standing position, the 5th percentie data should be utilized. Such data for arm reach indicates that § percent ofthe population would have an arm reach of shor (or shorter) dimension, while 95 percent ofthe population, the overwhelming majority, would have longer arm reaches. ifthe design ina reach situation can accommodate the user withthe shortest arm reach, obvicusly it will function forthe users with longer reaches as wal; itis equally obvious that the opposite is not true, as shown in Figure 2.ta In designs where clearance is the primary consideration, the larger (0 95th percentile data should be used. The logics simple. If the de- sign wil allow adequate clearance for the users with the largest body size, it would also allow clearance for those users with smaller body size, Here, too, it can be seen trom Figure 2-10 that the opposite Is ot true. In other situations it may be desirable to provide the design with a builtin adjustment capabilty. Certain chair types, adjustable shelves, ec., are examples of such. The range of adjustment should ‘be based on the anthropometric of the user, the nature ofthe task, ‘and the physical or mechanical limitations involved. The range should allow the design to accommodate at least 90 percent of the ser population involved, or more It should be noted that all the foregoing examples were used pri- ‘marly to illustrate the basic logic underiying the selection of the body