PMF IAS Geograhy CA Compilation for UPSC CSE Prelims 2024

These are Prelims Specific Compilations that cover Current Affairs from July 2023 to February 2024.

Economic Geography and Human Geography......................................................................................... 1

{EG – Marine Resources} Deep Ocean Mission (DOM) ....................................................................................... 1
{EG – Mineral Resources} Discovery of Lithium Deposits ................................................................................... 1
{EG – Mineral Resources} First Strategic Natural Gas Reserves ......................................................................... 1
{EG – Mineral Resources} Graphene ................................................................................................................. 2
{EG – Mineral Resources} Lithium .................................................................................................................... 2
{EG – Mineral Resources} New Royalty Rates for Three Critical Minerals ........................................................... 2
{EG – Mineral Resources} Oil Sands .................................................................................................................. 2
{EG – Mineral Resources} Recycling of Rare Earth Metals ................................................................................. 2
{EG – Mineral Resources} Sapphire Mines ........................................................................................................ 2
{EG – Mineral Resources} Tantalum ................................................................................................................. 2
{EG – Water Resources} Composite Water Management Index ......................................................................... 2
{EG – Water Resources} Dynamic Groundwater Assessment Report .................................................................. 3
{EG – Water Resources} Interlinking of Rivers................................................................................................... 3
{HG – Community} Hatti Community ................................................................................................................ 3
{HG} OECD International Migration Outlook .................................................................................................... 3

Physical Geography ............................................................................................................................... 4

{PG – Biogeography} Biogeographical Boundary .............................................................................................. 4
{PG – Climatology} Atmospheric Rivers | Pineapple Express ............................................................................. 4
{PG – Climatology} Cyclone Michaung ............................................................................................................. 5
{PG – Climatology} Cyclone Midhili .................................................................................................................. 5
{PG – Climatology} Deforestation in Maritime Continent and ENSO .................................................................. 5
{PG – Climatology} Gulf Stream ....................................................................................................................... 6
{PG – Climatology} Medicane .......................................................................................................................... 6
{PG – Climatology} Pacific Decadal Oscillation ................................................................................................. 7
{PG – Climatology} Rip Currents ....................................................................................................................... 7
{PG – Climatology} Severe Drought in Amazon Rainforest ................................................................................ 7
{PG – Climatology} Twin Cyclones .................................................................................................................... 8
{PG – Climatology} Typhoon Doksuri ................................................................................................................ 8
{PG – Geomorphology} Almora Fault ............................................................................................................... 8
{PG – Geomorphology} Earthquake in Afghanistan .......................................................................................... 8
{PG – Geomorphology} Earthquakes Due to Cascade of Ruptures ..................................................................... 9
{PG – Geomorphology} E-Prime Layer .............................................................................................................. 9
{PG – Geomorphology} Glacial Lake Outburst Flood in Sikkim ........................................................................... 9

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 {PG – Geomorphology} Granite on the Moon ................................................................................................... 9
{PG – Geomorphology} Indian Ocean Geoid Low (IOGL) ...................................................................................10
{PG – Geomorphology} Morocco’s Most Powerful Earthquake .........................................................................10
{PG – Geomorphology} Pontus Tectonic Plate .................................................................................................11
{PG – Geomorphology} Sinking of Joshimath ...................................................................................................11
{PG – Geomorphology} Zealandia: The Eighth Continent .................................................................................12
{PG – IG} Delhi NCR Earthquake ......................................................................................................................12
{PG – IG} Lakshadweep: A Melting Pot ............................................................................................................13
{Solar System} Orionid and Eta Aquarid Meteor Shower ..................................................................................13
{Solar System} Super Blue Moon .....................................................................................................................14

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 Economic Geography and Human Geography

{EG – Marine Resources} Deep Ocean Mission metal. Found as Pegmatitic minerals (igneous, never
(DOM) occurs freely in nature).
• Metallic lustre → Corrodes quickly in the air to dull
• India has identified 11 potential sites for the explora- silvery grey → black. Termed ‘white gold’ due to de-
tion of hydrogen sulfide as part of the DOM. mand for batteries.
• DOM is a multi-institutional mission launched to ex- • Top Producers of lithium: 1st Australia > 2nd Chile > 3rd
plore the deep ocean for resources and develop China > 4th Argentina > 5th Zimbabwe.
deep-sea technologies for sustainable use of ocean Salton Sea
resources in the Central Indian Ocean Basin.
• Aim of DOM is to help India achieve over Rs. 100 bil-
lion “Blue Economy” through its ocean resources.
• Nodal ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
Collaborated with ISRO, National Institute of Ocean
Technology (NIOT), Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
(VSSC), International Seabed Authority.
Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB)
• Part of the Indian Ocean between 25°S and 5°N and
70°E and 90°E.
• Northwest: Indian Peninsula, Southeast: Sunda Shelf,
Southwast: Mid-Indian Ridge.
• Part of Indian Ocean Triple Junction (Convergence of
Indian Plate, Australian Plate, Somali Plate).
• India was the first country to receive the status of a
‘Pioneer Investor‘ in 1987. • Shallow, saline lake in California desert formed out of
the spilt Colorado River in San Andreas Fault.
Samudrayan
• South: Agricultural Imperial Valley, West: Anza-
Borrego Desert State Park, North: Coachella Valley.
• Below sea level endorheic lake (no outlet to the
ocean) with salinity more than sea water.
{EG – Mineral Resources} First Strategic Natural
Gas Reserves

❖ GAIL is planning to build India’s first strategic natural

gas reserves by using old, depleted hydrocarbon
wells.
• Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) is India's largest
Natural Gas Company established in 1984. Maha-
ratna PSU under Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
Gas.
Natural Gas
{EG – Mineral Resources} Discovery of Lithium
• Fossil fuel consists of methane found near other solid
Deposits and liquid hydrocarbon beds.
• Lithium deposits were discovered beneath the Cali- • By-products extracted: Propane, ethane, butane, car-
fornia’s Salton Sea. bon dioxide, nitrogen etc.
• Also contains nonhydrocarbon gases, such as carbon
Lithium dioxide and water vapour.
• Non-ferrous, soft, silvery-white alkali metal, highly • Types of Natural Gas: Wet gas or Associated gas (with
reactive, flammable (needs inert storage), least dense crude oil), Dry gas or Non-associated gas (only gas and

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 no oil), Coalbed methane (coal deposits), Sour gas ⇨ Uban mining: Collecting rare metals from discarded
(contains hydrogen sulfide), Sweet gas (Coalbed me- appliances and electronic devices.
thane, lacks hydrogen sulfide), Shale gas or Tight gas
India & Rare Earth Metals
(In shale, sandstone, and other sedimentary rocks).
• Deposits: Fifth largest with 6 per cent of world. Mostly
{EG – Mineral Resources} Graphene Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE), with non-
extractable quantities of Heavy Rare Earth Elements
• Single layer (monolayer, one atom thick) 2-
(HREE).
dimensional allotrope of carbon with hexagonal hon-
• Only Neodymium and Praseodymium (used in wind
eycomb lattice made from Graphite (3D crystalline).
turbines): Being extracted up to 99.9 % purity.
• Properties: Thinnest and strongest (more than steel)
• Indian Rare Earth Limited (IREL), a Mini Ratna Com-
compound, lightest and harder than diamond, excel- pany-Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and KMML,
lent electric and thermal conductivity, impermeable, a Kerala State Govt. Undertaking processes beach
transparent, flexible. sand minerals from placer deposits.
{EG – Mineral Resources} Lithium • IREL is the only entity processing monazite to produce
Rare Earth (RE) compounds.
❖ An extinct supervolcano in the US, McDermitt Caldera, • Monazite sand: Principal source of rare earths and
is believed to contain 20-40 million tonnes of lithium, thorium.
more than double the concentration found anywhere
else in the world. {EG – Mineral Resources} Sapphire Mines

McDermitt Caldera • Sapphire is a type of mineral called “Corundum”,

• Location: United States. Formed by a massive volcanic which is composed of aluminium oxide.
eruption about 16 million years ago. • Sri Lanka remains a major source of natural sapphire.
 A caldera is a large, cauldron-shaped depression • Estimated reserves/resources of Sapphire in India are
formed when a volcano erupts and collapses. 450 kg in J&K.
• Uses: LEDs, Optical and Radio Frequency Integrated
11BSupervolcano Circuits.
• Volcanic centre with an eruption of magnitude 8 on Kashmir sapphire
the Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI), meaning that at
one point in time, it erupted more than 1,000 km3 of • Exceptional quality, rarity, and beauty. Usually un-
treated.
material.
• Known to produce asterism or a star effect when cut
{EG – Mineral Resources} New Royalty Rates for as a cabochon.
Three Critical Minerals {EG – Mineral Resources} Tantalum
• Amendment in the Mines and Minerals (Development ❖ Tantalum, a rare metal, is found in the Sutlej River
and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act 1957) → Reduc- sand in Punjab.
tion in royalty rates of Lithium, Niobium, and Rare • Grey, heavy, hard, ductile, and corrosion-resistant
Earth Elements (REEs). (Formation of a stubborn oxide layer) metal.
Six critical minerals removed from India’s atomic minerals • Highly resistant to chemical attack below 150°C and
lists are lithium, titanium, beryllium, zirconium, niobium, only susceptible to acidic solutions with fluoride ions
and tantalum → Allows private players to mine. and free sulfur trioxide.
• Extremely high melting point, surpassed only by tung-
{EG – Mineral Resources} Oil Sands
sten and rhenium.
• Oil sands/Tar sands: Natural petrochemical mixture Uses of Tantalum
of sand, clay, water, and bitumen, can be refined to
• Capacitors of tantalum can store more electricity in
produce gasoline and diesel production, but results in
smaller sizes without much leakage.
hazardous byproduct petroleum coke.
• Biocompatible metal → Medical implants.
• Deposits: Alberta (Canada) and Venezuela.
• Substitute of platinum (which is more expensive) due
• Causes more global warming than conventional crude,
to its high melting point.
releases GHGs and pollutants NOx and SOx.
{EG – Water Resources} Composite Water Man-
{EG – Mineral Resources} Recycling of Rare Earth
agement Index
Metals

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 • Launched in 2018 as pan-India water management • Family migration remained the primary category of
metrics. entry for new permanent-type migrants.
• It offered actionable guidance to states, highlighting • The employment rate of migrants improved in all
their strengths and areas requiring attention. OECD countries except Poland.
• NITI Aayog releases it with the Ministries of Jal Shakti Organization for Economic Co-operation and
and Rural Development.
Development (OECD)
• CWMI is not widely utilised by public or private stake-
holders → plan to discontinue. • Intergovernmental economic organization of 38
• India is the world's largest groundwater extractor, countries, founded in 1961.
surpassing China and the US combined. • HQ: Paris, France. Most members are high income and
developed nations.
Falkenmark Water Index
 Globally most used index for measuring water scarci-
ty.Water scarce if availability below 1,700 m3.

{EG – Water Resources} Dynamic Groundwater

Assessment Report

• By Minister for Jal Shakti assessed Central Ground

Water Board (CGWB) and states/UTs.
⇨ CGWB: under the Ministry of Jal Shakti established in 1970.
• Report observed increase in groundwater recharge,
improvement in groundwater conditions.
{EG – Water Resources} Interlinking of Rivers

• Identified by: National Water Development Agency {HG – Community} Hatti Community
(NWDA) under National Perspective Plan (NPP).
• The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order (Second
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Jal Shakti. Components:
Amendment) Act, 2023, granted ST status to the
Himalayan Rivers, Peninsular Rivers.
Hattis of the Trans-Giri region of HP’s Sirmaur dis-
National Perspective Plan trict.
• By the then Ministry of Irrigation (now Ministry of Jal • Location: HP and Uttarakhand near Giri & Tons river
Shakti) in 1980. basin (tributaries of the Yamuna River).
• Objective: Inter-basin transfer from water surplus ba- ⇨ Tons River marks the border between the HP and Ut-
sins to water-deficit basins. tarakhand.
• Traditional Occupation: Selling at small-town markets
{HG} OECD International Migration Outlook (haats).
• Special features: Ceremonial white headgear, rigid
Highlights of the Report
caste system, traditional council called ‘Khumbli’, Pol-
• Germany, Poland, & the US host the highest number yandry, similar clan groups (Trans-Giri (HP) and Jaun-
of refugees from Ukraine in absolute terms. sar Bawar (Uttarakhand)).
• In 2022, India was the largest migration source to
OECD countries.

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 Physical Geography

{PG – Biogeography} Biogeographical Boundary  Ecozones (ecological zones or ecoregions) are large
geographic areas characterized by similar ecological
• Refers to a line or region that demarcates distinct bi- conditions, climate, and vegetation.
ogeographical areas, which are defined by differences
in the distribution of plant and animal species, and Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) / Clipperton
ecological and environmental factors that influence Fracture Zone
their distribution. • Vast abyssal plain and fracture zone between Mexico
• A biogeographical boundary at the bottom of the and Kiribati in the northern Pacific Ocean.
North Pacific Ocean divides two distinct biological ar- • Habitat for cetaceans, including blue whales (EN), ba-
eas across the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). leen, and toothed whales.
• similar to the Wallace Line boundary between the
Oriental and Australian ecozones.
 Cetaceans: Infraorder of aquatic mammals, including whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Key characteristics: fully
aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, large size and exclusively carnivorous diet.
Wallace Line
• Extends from the Indian Ocean through the Lombok Strait (between the islands of Bali and Lombok), northward
through the Makassar Strait (between Borneo and Celebes), and eastward, south of Mindanao, into the Philippine
Sea.

{PG – Climatology} Atmospheric Rivers | Pineap- Pineapple Express

ple Express
• Strong atmospheric river originating in tropical Pacific
Atmospheric River near Hawaii, when it reaches West Coast, it can bring
intense rainfall.
• Long, relatively narrow band of water vapour forms • It is named for its moisture trail extending to Hawaii's
over an ocean and flows through the sky, transporting
pineapple region.
moisture from the tropics to northern latitudes.
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 • Six RSMCs, including the India Meteorological De-
partment (IMD), and five TCWCs.
• IMD names cyclones developing over north Indian
Ocean ( Including Bay of Bengal & Arabian Sea) from
the list of names proposed by 13 member countries of
the region.
• Issues advisories to 13 countries including Bangladesh,
India, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qa-
tar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, UAE, and Yem-
en.
Guidelines to naming Cyclones
❖ Name should be neutral, not hurting the sentiments
of any group. Will not be repeated.
❖ Should not be rude/cruel in nature. Maximum length
should be eight letters.
For more information on Tropical Cyclones > PMF IAS
Physical Geography 1st Edition
{PG – Climatology} Deforestation in Maritime
California Continent and ENSO
• Located on west coast of United States. One of largest
economies (has Silicon Valley) in world. Maritime Continent (MC)
• Borders with Oregon (north), Nevada (east), and Ari-
zona (southeast).

{PG – Climatology} Cyclone Michaung

• Super-cyclonic storm over Bay of Bengal named by

Myanmar. Landfall: TN and AP.
• Next five cyclones: ‘Remal’ (Oman), ‘Asna’ (Pakistan),
‘Dana’ (Qatar), ‘Fengal’ (Saudi Arabia), ‘Shakhti’ (Sri
Lanka).
• Due to more time over warm waters, unusual warm
sea surface temperatures, low wind shear, active
phase of Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) led to in-
tensification.
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
• Eastward moving trough (series of thunderstorms) in • Southeast Asian region between the Indian and Pacific
the tropics that recurs every 30 to 60 days. Oceans including archipelagos of Indonesia, Borneo,
• It consists of enhanced rainfall convective phase and New Guinea, the Philippine Islands, the Malay Penin-
suppressed rainfall convective phase. sula, and the surrounding seas.
For details on Tropical Cyclones > PMF IAS Physical Geog- El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
raphy
• Cyclical climate pattern of temperature fluctuations in
For details on the naming of cyclones > Cyclone Midhili
central & eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
{PG – Climatology} Cyclone Midhili • El Niño (warm event) and La Niña (cold event) are the
extreme phases of the ENSO cycle; and middle third
• Name by Maldives), Location: Over Bay of Bengal, phase called ENSO-neutral (neither El Niño nor La Ni-
expected landfall in Bangladesh. ña).
Naming of Cyclones • During El Niño, the central and eastern tropical Pacific
Ocean warms up.
• By Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres • During La Niña, the central and eastern tropical Pacific
(RSMCs) & Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs). Ocean cools down.

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What is Super El Nino? {PG – Climatology} Gulf Stream
• Average sea-surface temperatures surpass 1.5°C in
the central-eastern Pacific Ocean region. It is a rare • Warm ocean current (Gulf of Mexico 🡪 Atlantic
event and will accentuate El Nino's implications. Ocean) upto eastern coast of United States & Canada
formed with the convergence of the North Atlantic
Equatorial Current and the Florida Current.

• The main portion of the Gulf Stream continues north, • In the east, the Gulf Stream merges into the Sargasso
veering more to the east and passing close to the Sea.
Grand Banks, south of Newfoundland, where it breaks • It is a small part of 'thermohaline circulation' or 'At-
up into swirling currents. lantic Meridional Overturning Circulation'.
• Some of these eddies flow toward the British Isles and • Fastest current in the world ocean.
the Norwegian seas and form the North Atlantic Cur-
rent (or Drift). {PG – Climatology} Medicane

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• Torrential rains by medicane Daniel caused the devas- ❖ Project by Indian National Centre for Ocean Infor-
tating flood in Derna, Libya. mation Services (INCOIS) and ISRO to monitor and is-
• Medicanes (Mediterranean Hurricanes; extra tropical sue operational forecast alerts of rip currents.
cyclones in the Mediterranean) are tropical-like cy- • Rip current: Narrow, powerful current of water run-
clones in the Mediterranean Sea. ning perpendicular to beach, out into the ocean.
Characteristics of Medicane • Typically extend from near the shoreline, through the
surf zone and past the line of breaking waves.
• Formation: Autumn and winter months with warm • Rip currents move along the surface of the water,
sea surface temperatures (SST). pulling one straight out into the ocean.
• Relatively rare. Generally, Weak storms, do not last  Surf zone is the area between the high tide level on the
long. Strong if unusually warm SSTs. beach to the seaward side of breaking waves.
• Cold waters: Occur more in colder waters than tropi-
cal cyclones. Hence, the cores of these storms are How do rip currents form?
colder, as compared to the warm cores of tropical cy- • Caused by the shape of the shoreline itself and may
clones. be sudden and unexpected.
• Shape: Like tropical storms, medicanes have a sym- • In both hard-bottom (rocky) or soft-bottom (sand or
metric structure, a warm core (relatively colder than silt) beach topography.
the tropical cyclones), a clearly visible eye, and winds • Form when waves break near shoreline, piling up wa-
of at least tropical-storm strength. ter between breaking waves & beach.
• Size: Medicanes are typically smaller in diameter and
have lower wind speeds than tropical cyclones.
{PG – Climatology} Pacific Decadal Oscillation

• Long-term (every 20 to 30 years) ocean fluctuation of

the Pacific Ocean with no certain causes.
Phases of PDO
Positive Phase of PDO
• Eastern Pacific Ocean is warmer than average and the
western Pacific Ocean is cooler than average.
• Impacts: El Nino-like conditions, Less tropical cyclones
post-monsoon originating near equator. • Can be as narrow as 10 or 20 feet in width though
they may be up to ten times wider.
Negative Phase of PDO
• Rip currents begin to slow down as they move off-
• Eastern Pacific Ocean is cooler than average and the shore, can extend several feet also.
western Pacific Ocean is warmer than average.
• Impacts: La Nina-like conditions, More tropical cy- {PG – Climatology} Severe Drought in Amazon
clones post-monsoon originating near the equator. Rainforest
Comparison Between PDO and El Nino-Southern
Amazon Rainforests
Oscillation (ENSO)
• South American Tropical forests in the Amazon River
PDO ENSO
basin.
PDO cycles last for 20 to 30 ENSO cycles last for 6 to 18
• Across Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador,
years months
Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana.
Two phases: Positive Two phases: El Nino (Warm)
• North: Guiana Highlands, West: Andes Mountains,
(Warm) and Negative (Cool) and La Nina (Cool)
South: Brazilian Central Plateau, East: Atlantic.
Most visible in the North Effects of ENSO are most
Pacific/North America visible in the Tropics Amazon River
PDO can intensify or dimin- ENSO can intensify or di- • Largest drainage system in terms of volume of its flow
ish the impacts of ENSO minish the impacts of PDO and area of its basin.
In India, El Nino with a positive PDO brings less rain, but • Second-longest river in the world. Origin: Peruvian
with a negative PDO, brings more rain. Andes. Drains into Atlantic Ocean.
• Located in South America, it traverses Brazil, Peru,
{PG – Climatology} Rip Currents Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Guyana.

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{PG – Climatology} Twin Cyclones same ocean region.
❖ Distance between the centres (or eyes) = less
• Tej (over Arabian Sea) and Hamoon (over Bay of Ben- than 1,400 km.
gal). ❖ Intensity between a depression and a super ty-
• Twin cyclones are two tropical cyclones that develop phoon.
simultaneously in the same region. For details on Fujiwhara Effect > PMF IAS August, 2023 CA
Reasons for Formation of Twin Cyclones
{PG – Climatology} Typhoon Doksuri
Equatorial Rossby Waves
• Thousands of people evacuated from Beijing because
• Oceanic and atmospheric rossby waves (or Planetary
of Typhoon Doksuri.
waves) occur due to the Earth's rotation (Coriolis
Name Region
Force). These waves occur in rotating fluids.
Hurricanes Atlantic and Eastern Pacific
• System consists of vortex in northern hemisphere and
Typhoons North Pacific, Southeast Asia and China
corresponding southern vortex.
Cyclones South Pacific and Indian Ocean region
• Northern vortex → counterclockwise, positive spin.
Willy-willies Australia
Southern vortex → clockwise negative spin.
Madden-Julian Oscillation {PG – Geomorphology} Almora Fault
• Eastward moving trough (series of thunderstorms) in • Increased earthquake activity in 2023 is attributed to
the tropics that recurs every 30 to 60 days. activation of Almora fault (Western Nepal).
• Consists of enhanced rainfall convective phase and
 Fault is a fracture in the Earth's crust where two blocks
suppressed rainfall convective phase.
of rock move relative to each other. Movement of tec-
• Enhanced phase → increased cloud cover → Reduces tonic plates → fault activation → rapidly release en-
solar radiation on ocean surface → cooling. ergy → Earthquakes.
• Suppressed phase → Reduced cloud cover → More
• Aftershocks: Smaller in magnitude than mainshock,
solar radiation → Warming of SSTs.
same fault zone with no specific time limit.
Fujiwhara Effect
{PG – Geomorphology} Earthquake in Afghani-
• When two tropical cyclones (or hurricanes) come in
stan
close proximity, they begin to rotate around a com-
mon midpoint (which looks like a dance). It is called Cause of the First Earthquake
the Fujiwhara Effect.
• Conditions: • Active interactions between three tectonic plates, i.e.,
❖ Two tropical cyclones → Around same time in Arabian, Eurasian, and Indian plates.

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• Fault → Fracture in Earth's crust where two blocks of change direction or have a little gap.
rock move relatively. Faultline → line on a rock sur- • Normally, fault bends and step-overs act as barriers to
face or the ground that traces a geological fault. the propagation of an earthquake.
• If the rock blocks move rapidly → Releases energy → Cascade of Ruptures
Earthquakes.
• 1st earthquake due to thrust faulting / reverse fault- • It is a sequence of earthquakes that occur in rapid suc-
ing(Upper block moves up and over lower block). cession, each one triggered by the previous one.

Triggerinf of the Second Earthquake {PG – Geomorphology} E-Prime Layer

• Release of stress in one fault results in the loading of ❖ New layer, the E-Prime layer, in the outermost part of
stress at another fault. the Earth’s Core.
• The loading of stress can trigger another earthquake • Formation due to "surface water penetrating deep
of same or higher magnitude. into the planet.”
Why is Afghanistan Prone to Earthquakes? • Tectonic plates carrying surface water may have
Location in Alpide Belt (or Alpine-Himalayan transported it deep into the Earth.
Orogenic Belt) • At core-mantle boundary, water initiated significant
chemical changes, influencing core's structure.
• Hindu Kush region, part of the Alpide belt: Second
• This chemical interplay results in the creation of a hy-
most seismically active region globally, after the cir-
drogen-rich, silica-depleted top core layer.
cum-Pacific belt.
• Formed due to collision of Tethys Ocean with African, {PG – Geomorphology} Glacial Lake Outburst
Arabian, Indian Plates with Eurasian Plate. Flood in Sikkim
• The collision of the plates along the convergent plate
boundary results in frequent seismic activities. • Glacial South Lhonak Lake outburst → Flash floods in
Sikkim → Breached Chungthang Dam.
{PG – Geomorphology} Earthquakes Due to Cas-
cade of Ruptures Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
• Depression created due to land erosion by glacier is
• The interaction between the faultlines made the Tur- filled by glacial meltwater → Glacial lakes.
key-Syria quakes more deadly. • Larger glacial lakes are dammed by unstable ice or
• The earthquakes in Turkey occurred along the East sediment → Dangerous.
and North Anatolian Fault Lines.
• Triggers (Earthquakes, heavy rains and ice avalanches)
→ Boundary breach → Catastrophic floods down-
stream. → Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF).
What is a Cloudburst?
• Localised intense (about 10% of its annual rainfall
within an hour) rainfall activity.
• Rainfall of 10 cm or more in an hour over a roughly 10
km x 10 km area is classified as a cloudburst.
 Chungthang Dam: Largest hydropower project in Sik-
kim. Part of Teesta Stage III HEP.

{PG – Geomorphology} Granite on the Moon

• Due to stress interaction of the East and North Anato-
• Large granite formation has been discovered on the
lian Faults during the quakes, cascade of ruptures
moon's surface called Compton-Belkovich.
broke through fault bends and step-overs.
• The discovery of this batholith proves the existence of
• During the quakes, both faults were heavily stressed.
ancient volcanic activity on the lunar surface.
They exerted increasing stress on each other.
• Batholith is a large, intrusive igneous rock formation
Fault Bends and Step-overs that forms from the solidification of magma deep
• Fault bends and step-overs are like curves and gaps in within the crust of Earth’s and celestial bodies.
a road. • Typically comprises granite or granodiorite and can
• For earthquakes, they are places where fault lines cover extensive areas.

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• Discovered using data gathered by two Chinese lunar • Leads to sea level over the IOGL is 106 m lower than
orbiters, Chang'E-1 & Chang'E-2. the global average.
Granite Why IOGL Exists?
• Granite is a type of coarse to medium-grained intru- • Attributed to African blob (large low-shear velocity
sive igneous rock. province (LLSVP) underneath African continent).
• It is composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and mica • The hot, low-density material coming from the Afri-
minerals. can LLSVP is sitting underneath the Indian Ocean and
More information on Volcanism > PMF IAS Physical Geog- creating Indian Ocean Geoid Low (IOGL).
raphy 1st Edition • The African blob is formed by Tethyan slabs. These
slabs are ancient remnants of the Tethys Ocean’s sea-
{PG – Geomorphology} Indian Ocean Geoid Low
floor, located between the supercontinents of Laura-
(IOGL) sia and Gondwana more than 200 mya.
• Earth’s gravitational pull is weakest at the Indian {PG – Geomorphology} Morocco’s Most Power-
Ocean Geoid Low (IOGL). ful Earthquake
• IOGL is a pronounced dip in the geoid as less mass
under that spot makes gravitational pull weakest. • Epicentre: Al-Haouz province, in the Atlas Mountains
• IOGL is about 1,200 km southwest of the southern tip of the historic city of Marrakech.
of India.

16BTerms Related to Earthquake

• Focus or Hypocentre: The point where energy is re-

leased and where the earthquake originates.
• Epicentre: It is the point on the surface directly above
the focus.
❖ It is the first surface point to experience the
earthquake waves.

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• Richter Magnitude Scale: It is a measure of the • Pontus Plate: Once underpinned the South China Sea
magnitude of an earthquake. and it is 1/4th of Pacific Ocean in size.
❖ The range of the scale is 1 to 10. How the Pontus Plate Got Subducted
❖ It is a logarithmic scale (means each level is • 120 million years ago, Pontus Ocean existed between
10 times stronger than the previous level). Eurasia and Australia, which had been tethered to
• Mercalli Scale: It is a measure of the intensity Antarctica as part of the supercontinent Pangaea.
of an earthquake. • As Pangaea broke apart, the Pontus plate underlying
❖ The intensity scale considers the visible the Pontus Ocean was swallowed up slowly by insur-
gent plates carrying Borneo and the Philippines into
damage caused by the event.
their present-day positions.
❖ The range of intensity scale is 1 to 12. For details on Plate Tectonics > PMF IAS Physical Geogra-
• Isoseismic Line: A line connecting all points on phy
the surface where the intensity is the same.

• Oblique-reverse faulting within Atlas Mountain due to {PG – Geomorphology} Sinking of Joshimath
convergence of the African plate and the Eurasian
plate has caused Morocco’s most powerful earth- • Joshimath is sinking due to land subsidence.
quake.
Joshimath
2BMorocco
• Hilly town in the Chamoli district (Uttarakhand).
• Location: North Africa. Bordered by: Atlantic Ocean on
the west, Mediterranean Sea on the north, Algeria to
the east, disputed territory of Western Sahara to the
south.
17BMarrakesh
• Former capital of Morocco, known for its medina (old
city), which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
18BAtlas Mountains
• In Northwestern Africa, formed by the convergence
of the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate.
• It runs through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
• It separates the Sahara Desert from the Mediterrane-
an Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

{PG – Geomorphology} Pontus Tectonic Plate

• Located on the Rishikesh-Badrinath National Highway

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 (NH-7). ❖ Eighth continent that had been missing for 375 years,
• Lies on the path to Badrinath, Kedarnath, Valley of called Zealandia or Te Riu-a-Maui (in Mauri).
Flowers, Hemkund Sahib, and Auli. • Long, narrow landmass primarily submerged in the
• Vishnuprayag (confluence of Alaknanda and South Pacific Ocean.
Dhauliganga Rivers) is located near Joshimath. • It is 94% underwater, while the remaining 6% com-
• After the 1962 India-China war, Joshimath emerged as prises New Zealand and surrounding islands.
a place of strategic importance. • World's smallest, thinnest, and youngest continent.
• Leads to villages along the India-China border and to Extends from south of New Zealand northward to New
Barahoti, a disputed territory. Caledonia and west to the Kenn Plateau off Australia’s
east.
Land Subsidence
Formation of Zealandia
• Gradual or sudden sinking of the ground because of
underground material movement. • Originally part of the ancient supercontinent of
• Natural causes include faulting (plate slipping), earth- Gondwana.
quakes, soil compaction, glacial isostatic adjustment, • Around 105 million years ago, due to unknown rea-
sinkholes, etc. Human-made causes include removing sons, Zealandia started to be pulled away.
water, or minerals by pumping/mining. • Zealandia is thought to have formed around 83 million
years ago, during the Late Cretaceous.
Reasons of Land Subsidence in Joshimath
Submergence of Zealandia
• Lies on a deposit of sand and stone, it is not on the
main rock and in the high-risk seismic Zone-V. • But then, around 25 million years ago, it disappeared
• Large-scale constructions without any regard for the beneath the ocean because the earth’s crust under-
load-bearing capacity. Example: Helang-Marwari by- went significant thinning, ultimately leading to the
pass (Char Dham highway expansion project by the continent's sinking (probably caused by the crust be-
Border Roads Organisation). ing stretched in different directions).
• A series of run-of-the-river (RoR) hydropower pro- {PG – IG} Delhi NCR Earthquake
jects have been taken up nearby.
• The NTPC Tapovan Vishnugad Hydro plant has done Earthquake Zones of India
more damage to Joshimath’s foundations.
• North-East, J&K, Uttarakhand and parts of Himachal
{PG – Geomorphology} Zealandia: The Eighth Pradesh fall under Zone 5.
Continent • Delhi: Zone 4, Central India: Zone 3, Most of the south:
Zone 2.

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 Bureau of Indian Standards is the official agency for
publishing seismic hazard maps and codes.
• Geological location of Delhi is near the Himalayan re-
gion, where the Indian plate collides (and continue to
move) with the Eurasian plate is responsible for most
of seismic activity in the region.
 Drier aquifers make the faults more prone to earth-
quakes
For detailed study on Earthquake, Plate Movement, &
Faults > PMF IAS Physical Geography | Earthquakes in
Delhi NCR Region, Earthquake Microzoning
{PG – IG} Lakshadweep: A Melting Pot

Location and Geography

• Means: “a hundred thousand islands”. Island of coral
origin (atoll) surrounded by the Arabian Sea.
• Amindivi Islands (northernmost), Laccadive Islands,
Minicoy Islands (southernmost,largest).
Social organisation
• Capital: Kavaratti; High court: Kerala | Very low sea
level, flat terrain, Absence of hills, valleys etc. • Unique Islamic matrilineal society with Hindu caste
History of Lakshadweep structure.
• Evidence for pre-Islamic Hindu society: Ancient Mal-
• First settlers: Malabari sailors (possibly castaways). ayalam script Vattelutu, Buried idols (probably Hindu
Later immigrants Malabari Hindus (Nambudiri Brah- origins), songs praising Ram, snake worship.
mins, Nairs, Tiyyars, Mukkuvans) caused Marumak- • Languages: Malayalam (official language), Jazari and
kathayam matrilineal inheritance system and existing Mahl.
caste system.
• Matrilineal Arakkals of Kannur (Only Muslim dynasty {Solar System} Orionid and Eta Aquarid Meteor
of Kerala) ruled it till 1908. Shower
• It was a district of Kerala before reorganisation (1956)
as India's smallest Union Territory.

Orionid Meteor Shower • Halley's Comet orbits around the sun roughly every
76 years, leaving a trail of debris.
• Annual meteor shower in October, seen in Northern
Eta Aquarid Meteor Shower
& Southern hemispheres.
• Formed when Earth travels through the remnants left • Annual celestial event. Earth passes through the de-
by Halley's Comet, also known as 1P/Halley. bris left behind by Halley’s Comet.
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For more info: CH.2 The Solar System PMF IAS Physical • Happens due to the coincidence of two types of full
Geography moon: Super moon, Blue moon.
 Full moon: It occurs when the Moon is on the opposite
{Solar System} Super Blue Moon
side of Earth from the Sun, and thus entire round illu-
minated face of the Moon is visible from Earth.
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Super Moon • Super moon occurs when the Moon is at the perigee
and at the same time it is also a full moon.
• Moon revolves around the Earth in an elliptical orbit • It appears larger, fuller, and brighter than regular full
and it takes 27.3 days to orbit the Earth. moons.

Blue Moon • This gap results in a full moon happening at the be-
ginning of a month with enough days still remaining
• Blue moon is the term used for the situation when the for another full cycle and so, a second full moon in the
full moon is seen twice in a single month. same month.
• During blue moon, the Moon does not appear blue.  New moon: Occurs when the Moon is on the same side
Why Blue Moon Occurs? of the Earth as the Sun.
• Moon's cycle is 29.5 days, a bit shorter than the aver-
age length of a calendar month.

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