Academic vocabulary
To read and write academic texts effectively students need to be familiar with the rather formal
vocabulary widely used in this area.
Adjectives, nouns and verbs
The table below shows examples of some of the more common items.
Exercise 1. Choose the most suitable word ending in each case.
1. In the 1950s nuclear power was pred__________ to be cheap and clean.
2. A signif__________ number of students have chosen to do that project.
3. The rate of increase var__________ between 5 per cent and 8 per cent during the 1990s.
4. The first computer was creat__________ during the second world war.
5. Researchers frequently need to ask hypoth__________ questions.
6. She invest__________ all her capital in the business.
7. The company puts emph__________ on the reliab__________ of its products.
8. The essays were evaluat__________ in terms of content and accuracy.
9. Nylon was one of the first syn__________ fabrics in common use.
10. Gandhi made a significant cont__________ to Indian history.
Adjective Noun Verb
achievable achievement achieve
acquired acquisition acquire
analytical analysis analyse
contributory contribution/ contributor contribute
creative creation create
definitive definition define
derived derivation derive
distributive distribution/ distributor distribute
emphatic emphasis emphasise
evaluative evaluation evaluate
hypothetical hypothesis hypothesise
indicative indication/ indicator indicate
interpretative interpretation interpret
invested investment invest
predictive prediction/ predictor predict
reliable reliability rely
responsive response respond
significant significance signify
synthetic synthesis synthesise
variable variation/ variable vary
Exercise 2. Complete each sentence with a suitable word from the table above.
1. The experiment's results were confusing; each researcher had her own __________.
2. The word 'algebra' is __________ from Arabic.
3. They received the Nobel Prize for their __________ in developing a new vaccine.
4. Dr Wagner published the __________ work on South Asian snakes last year.
5. Over 3,500 questionnaires were __________ in terms of social class.
6. Three __________ need to be considered when forecasting an economic upturn.
Academic adjectives
The following adjectives are best understood and learnt as opposites:
absolute relative
abstract concrete
logical illogical
metaphorical literal
precise vague/ approximate/ rough
rational irrational
relevant irrelevant
subjective objective
theoretical practical/ empirical/ pragmatic
Inflation is an abstract concept.
The metaphorical use of the word 'key' is probably more common than its literal one.
The study of engineering is very relevant to architecture.
Her study of women in education was criticised for being too subjective.
In Europe, empirical research began in the sixteenth century.
Exercise 3. Complete each sentence with a suitable adjective from the table above.
1. The teacher complained that the quotes were __________ to the title.
2. His __________ approach led him to ignore some inconvenient facts.
3. __________ examples are needed to make the argument clear.
4. It is sufficient to give __________ figures for national populations.
5. Poverty is usually regarded as a __________ concept.
6. They approached the task in a __________ way by first analysing the title.
7. The students preferred examining case studies to __________ discussion.
Formality in verbs
Academic writing tends to use rather formal verbs to express the writer's meaning accurately:
e.g. In the last decade the pace of change accelerated.
e.g. Could Darwin have envisaged the controversy his work has caused?
In spoken English we are more likely to use 'speed up' and 'imagined'.
Exercise 4. Study the list below and find a synonym in each case.
(Some of these verbs e.g. 'bold' are used in academic writing with a special meaning.)
Verb Example of use
to adapt/ the health system has been adapted from France
to arise/ a similar situation arises when we look at younger children
to conduct/ the largest study was conducted in Finland
to characterise/ developing countries are characterised by ...
to clarify/ the project was designed to clarify these contradictions
to concentrate on/ that study concentrated on older children
to be concerned with/ the programme is concerned primarily with ...
to demonstrate/ further research has demonstrated that few factors ...
to determine/ the water content was experimentally determined
to discriminate/ a failure to discriminate between the two species
to establish/ the northern boundary was established first
to exhibit/ half of the patients exhibited signs of improvement
to focus on/ her work focused on female managers
to generate/ a question which has generated a range of responses
to hold/ Newton's second Law, F=ma, holds everywhere
to identify/ three main areas have been identified
to imply/ his absence implies a lack of interest
to interact/ understand how the two systems interact
to interpret/ the result can be interpreted as a limited success
to manifest/ as manifested in anti-social behaviour
to overcome/ both difficulties were overcome in the first week
to propose/ they propose that social class is the main factor
to prove/ the use of solar power is proving successful
to recognise/ he is now recognised as a leading expert
to relate to/ the pattern was related to both social and physical factors
to supplement/ the diet was supplemented with calcium and iodine
to undergo/ the system underwent major changes in the 1980s
to yield/ both surveys yielded mixed results
Adjectives and nouns. Which is more formal?
e.g. The efficiency of the machine depends on the precision of its construction.
e.g. Precise construction results in an efficient machine.
The first sentence uses the nouns 'efficiency' and 'precision'. The second uses adjectives: 'precise' and
'efficient'. Although the meaning is similar the first sentence is more formal. Effective academic writing
requires accurate use of both nouns and adjectives.
Exercise 5. Underline the adjective in each sentence and write the related noun in brackets.
e.g. Several steel producers are likely to shut down next year. (likelihood)
1. The HR team have just completed a strategic review of pay. (________________________________)
2. Dr Lee adopted an analytical approach to the inquiry. (________________________________)
3. Nylon was one of the earliest synthetic fibres. (________________________________)
4. Her major contribution to the research was her study of antenatal care.
(________________________________)
5. All advertising must respect cultural differences. (________________________________)
6. Some progress was made in the theoretical area. (________________________________)
7. A frequent complaint is that too much reading is expected. (________________________________)
8. We took a more critical approach to marketing theory. (________________________________)
9. The Department of Social Policy is offering three courses this year. (________________________________)
10. Finally, the practical implications of my findings will be examined. (________________________________)
Exercise 6. Complete the gaps in the table below.
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective
approximation approximate particular
superiority reason
strategic synthetic
politics economy
industrial cultural
exterior average
high reliable
heat strength
confident true
width probability
necessary long
danger relevance
Abstract nouns
A range of nouns is used to express common ideas in academic writing:
e.g. Political geography is an interesting field.
e.g. The concept of class was first discussed in the eighteenth century.
e.g. Drucker developed a new approach in his second book.
Exercise 7. Read the following and find a synonym for each word in bold from the box below (there are
more words than sentences).
1. The second factor in the recession was the loss of confidence.
2. Smith's concept of the division of labour was first presented in 1776.
3. Snow is a rare phenomenon in Rome.
4. The President's resignation gave a new aspect to the national crisis.
5. A barcode scanner is a device used at supermarket checkouts.
6. Her field is integrating content and language learning.
7. The World Bank is a body created to support developing countries.
8. Mendel's work on genetics provided new perspectives for agronomists.
9. Their main concern is to prevent a further increase in crime.
10. The new system allows errors to be detected in 12 seconds.
11. The survey identified three categories of voluntary workers.
12. The most serious issue raised at the meeting was student accommodation.
process organisation machine theory event types worry
answer area views cause feature problem
