Cogent Engineering

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Techno-economic optimization of hybrid

renewable electrification systems for Malawi’s
rural villages

Clement Malanda, Augustine B. Makokha, Charles Nzila & Collen Zalengera |

To cite this article: Clement Malanda, Augustine B. Makokha, Charles Nzila &
Collen Zalengera | (2021) Techno-economic optimization of hybrid renewable
electrification systems for Malawi’s rural villages, Cogent Engineering, 8:1, 1910112, DOI:
10.1080/23311916.2021.1910112

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Techno-economic optimization of hybrid
renewable electrification systems for Malawi’s
rural villages
Clement Malanda, Augustine B. Makokha, Charles Nzila and Collen Zalengera

Cogent Engineering (2021), 8: 1910112

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Techno-economic optimization of hybrid
renewable electrification systems for Malawi’s
rural villages
Received: 25 May 2020 Clement Malanda1,2,3*, Augustine B. Makokha2,3, Charles Nzila3,4 and Collen Zalengera5
Accepted: 19 March 2021
Abstract: Renewable energy systems provide a resilient access pathway to
*Corresponding author: Clement
Malanda, Department of Mechanical, affordable and sustainable energy for millions of people in regions with no or
Production and Energy Engineering, undeserved grid. In this work, a multi-objective Hybrid Optimization Model for
Moi University,3900-30100, Eldoret,
Kenya Electric Renewables (HOMER) software has been applied to design and assess the
E-mail: clementhmalanda7@gmail.
com techno-economic feasibility of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) for
Malawi’s off-grid communities. The study targeted the use of decentralized photo­
Reviewing editor:
Peter Mitchel Quesada, Mechanical voltaic (PV), wind, diesel generator, and battery storage technologies to electrify
Engineering, University of Louisville,
Louisville, United States three villages of Chigunda, Mdyaka, and Kadzuwa, which had estimated daily
electrical energy peak demands of 14.53, 8.09, and 6.40 kW, respectively. Wind and
Additional information is available at
the end of the article solar resource data were used as inputs to generate multiple combinations of
energy systems in HOMER. The sensitivity of the output systems was tested by
varying the wind velocity and diesel pump prices. The optimization results showed
that for Chigunda, the optimal configuration comprised PV-wind-battery, while for
Mdyaka and Kadzuwa, the PV-battery combinations were ideal. In all the cases, the

ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Clement Malanda holds MSc in Energy Studies The energy industry is awash with energy sys­
(Renewable Energy) form Moi University, Kenya. tems’ sizing, design, and feasibility analysis tools,
His research interests concern techno-economic one of them being the HOMER software. This
modeling of energy systems. software has been facing major upgrades over
Augustine B. Makokha received his MEng and the years, and it considers multiple objectives
DEng from the University of Witwatersrand, when optimizing the energy systems’ technical,
South Africa. His research interests are; renew­ economic, and environmental performance.
able energy engineering and applied CFD model­ Renewable resources and electric load data,
ing. electrical components, and their cost parameters
Charles Nzila holds MEng and DEng from the and sensitivity parameters are used in feasibility
University of Ghent, Belgium. His research areas assessments of the outputs. The feasible system
are energy access enhancement and cleaner is supposed to meet the electricity demand at
energy production. the lowest Net Present Cost (NPC) and Cost of
Clement Malanda Collen Zalengera holds MEng and DEng in Energy (COE). The current work used this soft­
renewable energy from the University of ware to identify electrification alternatives for
Loughborough, UK. His research interest are; Malawi’s off-grid rural villages. By varying the
energy and sustainable livelihoods, energy sys­ wind velocity and diesel price, the results showed
tems techno-economic and financial modeling. that the optimal systems met the electricity
This research relates to wider issues or projects demand at the lowest capacity shortage, max­
by generating comprehensive results which will imum renewable penetration, and lowest NPC
inform policy formulation aimed at improving and COE. However, the systems were found to
energy access in marginalized areas. The produce electricity at a higher cost than the one
research also contributes to the current literature it were being sold for.
on maximization of energy production from
renewable sources while keeping emissions at
their lowest.

© 2021 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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optimal systems were more sensitive to changes in wind velocity. The systems were,
however, found to be infeasible economically as the costs of energy were higher
than the per kilowatt-hour cost of US$ 0.120 for electricity in Malawi.

Subjects: Mechanical Engineering; Power & Energy; Engineering Economics

Keywords: HOMER; Optimization; Simulation; Net Present Cost; Cost of Energy; Sensitivity
Analysis

1. Introduction
The nexus between affordable energy and sustainable development cannot be overemphasized.
The preponderance of evidence has hinted at the positive contribution of energy to the sustenance
of almost all human activities (Feron, 2016; UNDP, 2015). Arguably, energy is at the core of
mankind’s improved quality of life through provision of efficient lighting, heating, cooking, and
mechanical power services (Feron, 2016). Though energy invariably brings about socio-economic
transformation, there is a global shortage of clean and affordable energy supply. As of 2017, on
the global scale, 840 million people did not have access to electricity and 2.90 billion people lacked
clean cooking means in terms of fuels and improved stoves (IEA, IRENA, UNSD, W. & W, 2019).
Third world countries, especially those in the Asian and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) regions, are the
hardest hit with these challenges. In SSA alone, 573 and 620 million people do not have access to
electricity and clean cooking means, respectively (IEA, IRENA, UNSD, W. & W, 2019; WHO, 2009).
Although the Asian region has recorded tremendous improvements in electricity access from 2010
to 2017, at least 1.1 billion people are still dependent on solid fuels for cooking (IEA, IRENA, UNSD,
W. & W, 2019; WHO, 2009).

Malawi registers itself as a country with one of the lowest energy access rates in SSA as 85% of
the population still relies on solid biomass and kerosene for fuel (Taulo et al., 2015). Electricity
access is limited to only 11% of the population, of which 4% is for the rural areas (World Bank.,
2019). Largely, these electrification rates are attributed to low generation capacities of the existing
power plants which restrict grid expansion, energy demand increases due to the burgeoning
population, and minimal penetration of the private sector into the power generation pool (Taulo
et al., 2015). The status quo is thus providing very few options to the people and as a result, the
energy substitutes, which are at the people’s disposal, are costly. Continued burning of dirty fuels
for energy is also affecting the people’s health through indoor air pollution. Clearance of forest
cover for fuel is also negatively affecting the environment and the frequency of natural disasters is
increasing. For the case of electricity, its inadequate supply is impeding development through
paralysis of service delivery and industrial production mechanisms. Worse still, there is also
a derailment of foreign investment.

At the time when harnessing of fossil fuels for energy is losing popularity in majority of countries,
there seems to be substantial headway in photovoltaic (PV) and wind technology development and
deployment. This can be attributed to the dropping cost, technological advancement, and envir­
onmental benefits of these technologies. Capitalizing on this development, employing Renewable
Energy (RE) electrification systems based on PV and wind for Malawi’s remote areas can help ease
the electricity access situation. Due to the absence of the electricity grid in most rural areas, off-
grid electrification modes still offer some leverage. Much as the overall intent for deploying stand-
alone PV and wind energy supply systems hinges on making electricity accessible to many, taking
heed to sustainable design aspects plays a monumental role in ensuring continuity of the energy
service. A new wave of research activity in this field currently places emphasis on designing the
energy supply systems in such a way that maintains a balance between the technical and
economic performances (Diaf et al., 2008; Olatomiwa et al., 2015; Sandeep & Atul, 2012;
Zalengera, 2015). This has been made possible with objective design tools, and the Hybrid

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Optimization Model for Electric Renewables (HOMER) has shown great potential in the achievement
of this task.

1.1. Summary of key literature on techno-economic designing using HOMER

Table 1 presents a summary of the key literature on the use of HOMER to perform techno-
economic analyses of hybrid renewable energy systems. The feasibility of an energy system is
based on its ability to meet the indispensable precondition of satisfying the electrical load at the
lowest Net Present Cost (NPC) and Cost of Energy (COE) (Lambert et al., 2006).

1.2. The study locations

The study targeted the villages of Chigunda, Kadzuwa, and Mdyaka. These were representative
villages selected from each of the three geopolitical regions of Malawi (Malanda et al., 2020).
Refer to Figure 1, which highlights the locations of the three villages. In terms of geographical
location, Chigunda is found along 12° 25ʹ 34.7” S and 034° 01ʹ 06.7” E. Mdyaka is located within
11°47ʹ 09.5” S and 034° 13ʹ 39.0” E, while Kadzuwa lies along 15° 59ʹ 48.4” S and 035° 15ʹ 0.15”
(Malanda et al., 2020). Like the majority of the areas in Malawi, the main activity which takes
place in these areas is agriculture (rain-fed and irrigation) although fishing is also prevalent in
Mdayaka and Chigunda.

1.3. The paper’s contributions to knowledge

This paper offers novel insights into the design and techno-economic analysis of HRESs in
the following ways:
(1) The possibility of identifying a single energy system configuration to electrify multiple sites is
explored.
(2) It attempts to design energy supply systems while maintaining the quality and cost trade-
off, a condition, which remains a black box to energy researchers.
(3) Identification of HRESs with minimized COE and NPC for remote deployment is investigated.
(4) It strives to identify the best way of electrifying rural communities at the minimal environ­
mental cost.
(5) Rather than placing emphasis on the design of a single energy supply system, the study offers
flexibility by suggesting numerous electrification options and allowing the elimination criteria to
decide the optimal alternative.

Table 1. Key literature on energy systems techno-economic designing

S/N Author(s) Study Conducted Key Findings

1 Mandal et al. (2018) Techno-economic Indicative optimal sizes
feasibility of a PV-wind- for the ideal system
diesel-battery system for configuration comprised
off-grid applications for 57-kW PV, 57-kW DG,
a remote location 387-kWh battery bank,
and 28-kW inverter. This
configuration had the
lowest NPC and COE
values of US$ 357,284
and US$ 0.374,
respectively.

2 Vendoti et al. (2020) Sustainable design of This optimal system had

HRES for electrifying a COE value of US$ 0.214.
a rural village based on
PV-wind-biogas-biomass-
fuel cell-battery bank
system

(Continued)

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S/N Author(s) Study Conducted Key Findings

3 Krishan & Sathans (2018) Designing an HRES for The study established
electrification purposes that the PV-wind-hydro-
using PV, wind, hydro, DG, battery system
and battery technologies was favourable. It had
the lowest NPC and COE
values of US$ 899,186
and US$ 0.046,
individually.
4 Murugaperumal & Vimal Simulation and Through hybridization
(2019) optimization of an HRES with PV, the study saw
to power an overly a decline in the COE to US
isolated island that solely $ 0.3556 from the initial
depended on DG as US$ 1.21.
a source of electricity
5 Muh & Tabet (2019) Techno-economic The PV-DG-micro hydro-
comparative evaluation battery system was
of energy system economically viable with
solutions derived from PV, a COE value of US$ 0.443.
wind, micro-hydro, DG,
and battery components
6 Hossain et al. (2017) Techno-economic The optimization results
performance assessment indicated that in order to
of an HRES based on PV, meet the demand, 700-
wind, DG, and battery kW PV, 1250-kW wind,
technologies for usage in 240 battery units, and
the tourism sector. 600-kW converter
systems were to be
deployed. This
combination had the
least NPC and COE values
of US$ 17.15 m and US$
0.279, respectively.
7 Al-Sharafi et al. (2017) An investigation into the With COE of US$ 0.609,
design, simulation, the combination
optimization, and comprising PV-wind-
sensitivity analysis of an battery was desirable.
HRES based on PV and
wind for electricity
generation and hydrogen
extraction at the
household level
8 Das et al. (2017) Techno-economic The feasible sizes that
suitability of an HRES befitted satisfaction of
having PV, biogas, DG, the electric load at the
wind, and battery as the lowest cost were 10-kW
energy generation PV, 9-kW biogas, 20-kW
systems DG, 72 batteries of 319
Ah rating, and 15 kW
inverter. This
configuration could
generate power at the
least NPC and COE values
of US$ 612,280 and US$
0.28, respectively.
9 Basir Khan et al. (2015) Comparative analysis of The hydro-PV-DG was
multiple electrification most suited to meet the
options for a remote technical and economic
island using PV, wind, DG, requirements at NPC and
and hydro technologies COE values of US$
31,910,944 and US$
0.142, respectively.

(Continued)

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Table 1. (Continued)

S/N Author(s) Study Conducted Key Findings

10 Baneshi & Hadianfard Feasibility analysis of an For the off-grid case, the
(2016) HRES based on PV-DG- PV-wind-battery system
wind-battery under satisfied the load at the
technical, economic, and lowest COE range of
environmental attributes 0.220 × 10−3 to US$
for both grid-dependent 0.229 × 10−3. For the on-
and off-grid schemes grid case, the PV-wind
battery system met the
criteria as it had the
lowest COE value of US
$0:135 � 10 3 .
11 Diab et al. (2016) Optimization of an hybrid It produced electricity at
PV-wind-DG-battery the minimal NPC and COE
system for the industrial of US$1,684,118 and US$
sector 0.190, respectively.
12 Olatomiwa et al. (2015) Comparative analysis of The techno-economically
PV-DG-battery, PV-DG- attractive system was the
wind-battery, and DG PV-DG-battery with NPC
only systems for of US$ 69,811 and COE of
applications in the US$ 0.409.
telecommunication
industry
13 Bogaraj et al. (2015) Determination of the The optimal systems
optimal sizes for PV-wind were PV-wind-battery-
system having fuel cell fuel cell system with NPC
and battery bank as of US$ 2,070,352 and COE
energy storage of US$ 0.357 and PV-wind
frameworks -battery system with NPC
of US$ 1,503,129 and COE
is US$ 0.344.
14 Ataei et al. (2015) Assessing the viability of The simulation results
energy supply systems suggested that the
for a commercial building optimum architecture
suitable for deployment
was the PV-wind-battery
with NPC and COE of US$
70,358 and US$ 2.693.

(6) On a wider scope, this study also fosters our understanding of the scientific theory under­
pinning the existence of differences in HOMER systems’ output under varied climatic
conditions.

2. Methodology

2.1. System modeling and analysis

HOMER software was utilized in the design and optimization of the HRESs. HOMER is an energy
system design tool that aids in the simulation, optimization, and sensitivity analysis of off-grid,
grid-tied, and distributed micro-power systems (Lambert et al., 2006). During simulation, the
hourly performance of a single micro-power system is modeled with the aim of establishing its
technical and economic capabilities throughout the year. In the optimization stage, HOMER uses
energy balance calculations to deduce and rank possible system combinations capable of meeting
the electrical load (Lambert et al., 2006). Sensitivity analysis is concerned with identifying and
specifying variables, which can bring about technical and economic bottlenecks during operation
of the systems. As previously stated, the techno-economic feasibility of an energy system is based
on its ability to meet the indispensable precondition of satisfying the electrical load at the lowest
Net Present Cost (NPC) and Cost of Energy (COE) (Lambert et al., 2006). The determination of NPC
and COE values in HOMER is consistent with equations 1 and 2, respectively (Krishan & Sathans,
2018; Lambert et al., 2006):

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Figure 1. Map of Malawi high­

lighting the study locations.

NPC ¼ ∑Tt¼0 Cc;t þ Com;t þ Cr;t þ Cf ;t Rs;t (1)

where Cc;t is the capital costs, Com;t is the O&M costs, Cr;t is the replacement costs, Cf ;t stands for the
fuel cost, and Rs;t is the salvage value.

Ctot
COE ¼ (2)
Ep;ACþEp;DC þEd þEg

where Ctot is the sum of investment, installation, replacement, and O&M costs, Ep;AC represents the
alternating current (AC) primary load demand, Ep;DC stands for Direct Current (DC) primary load
demand, Ed is the deferrable load electricity demand, and Eg is electricity sold to the grid.

2.2. Techno-economic analysis

2.2.1. Solar PV
HOMER models the hourly energy output for a mono-crystalline PV module using equation (3)
(Belmili et al., 2014)

EPV ðtÞ ¼ NPV � APV � ηPV � IðtÞ (3)

In this equation, EPV is the hourly energy production measured in Watt-hours (Wh), APV measures
the surface area of PV modules in (m2), NPV indicates the quantity of PV modules used, ηPV denotes
the PV modules’ efficiency, and I(t) is the hourly radiation reaching the modules surface and is

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recorded in W/m2. The efficiency of the PV modules is temperature-variant and is dependent on

the PV cell temperature, which is in turn a function of ambient temperature. The mathematical
relationships connecting the efficiency and cell and ambient temperatures feature in equations 4
and 5 (Belmili et al., 2014)

ηPV ¼ ηr ½1 ðTc Tr Þ� (4)

� �
NOCT Ta ; NOCT
Tc ¼ Ta þ � IðtÞ (5)
INOCT

In equation 4, ηr represents the PV’s rated efficiency, βT stands for the temperature coefficient of
the PV cell, and Tc and Tr are cell and rated temperatures of the PV module in oC, respectively. In
(5), NOCT and Ta are the nominal cell operating temperature and ambient temperature, respec­
tively, reported in oC, and INOCT is the oncoming solar irradiation at NOCT in W/m2.

2.2.2. Wind energy generator

Quantification of the energy generated by a wind energy conversion device follows the application
of (6) (Hosseinalizadeh et al., 2016; Lim, 2012).

1
PW ¼ � Cp � ρ � A � ν3 (6)
2

where PW is the generated energy in W, Cp is the dimensionless power coefficient of the wind
machine, ρ stands for the air density in kg/m3, A represents the rotor blades’ swept area measured
in m2, and v is the wind velocity at a specified anemometer height measured in m/s. The
uncertainty in the wind velocity at a particular height given the readings at one height and the
new height is averted by extrapolation using equation (7) (Hosseinalizadeh et al., 2016)

� �α
z
vz ¼ v0 (7)
z0

where vz is the predicted wind velocity reading at a known height z, and vo is the wind velocity at
an initially specified height zo.

2.2.3. Diesel generator

The DG, which in most cases acts as an ancillary component during energy system design, uses
fuel to produce electricity and dissipate heat. An important property of any DG is its fuel curve,
which correlates the amount of fuel consumed and the electrical power generated. With a bold
assumption that the DG has a linear fuel curve with the y-intercept, HOMER models the fuel
consumption using equation (8) (Diab et al., 2016; Lambert et al., 2006).

F ¼ F0 Ygen þ F1 Pgen (8)

From equation (8), F0 stands for the fuel curve intercept coefficient, F1 is the curve gradient, Ygen is
the generator’s rated capacity, and Pgen is the power output of the generator in kW. The measure­
ment units of F are specified in L/hr, m3/hr, or kg/hr.

In determining the lifetime of a DG, which is recorded in hours of operation, equation (9) is
employed (Diab et al., 2016)

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GL;h
GL;Y ¼ (9)
Nhg

where GL,Y represents the expected lifetime in years, GL,h is the actual lifetime in hours, and Nhg is
the total number of operational hours in a year for the DG (hours/year).

When performing simulations, HOMER calculates and considers the fixed and marginal COE.
The fixed COE refers to the hourly costs associated with running the DG without necessarily
producing electrical energy. The marginal COE, however, includes the additional cost for
producing one kilowatt-hour of electricity (Lambert et al., 2006). Equation (10) determines
the fixed COE.

Crep;gen
Cgen;fixed ¼ Com;gen þ þ F0 � Ygen � Cfuel;eff (10)
Rgen

where com,gen is the hourly O&M cost in US$, crep,gen stands for the replacement cost in US$, Rgen
is the generator’s lifetime in hours, and cfuel,eff is the cost of fuel in US$/specified quantity of fuels.
The calculation of the marginal COE follows the application of equation (11):

Cgen;mar ¼ F1 � Cfuel;eff (11)

In equation (11), F1 is the fuel curve gradient in quantity per kilowatt-hour and cfuel,eff is the
effective fuel price including emission penalties.

2.2.4. Battery energy storage system

The Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) is the most sensitive among all the components used in
energy systems design. Depending on whether we are drawing or supplying power to the BESS, its
state changes between any two instants t and t – 1. As Kanase-Patil et al. (2011) suggest, the
mathematical model, which undergirds the determination of the available electrical power in the
BESS, is given as

EBatt ðtÞ ¼ EBatt ðt 1Þ þ EEE ðtÞ � ηCC � ηCHG (12)

where EBatt(t) is the stored energy, EEE(t) is the excess energy resulting from all the systems, ηCC is
the charge controller efficiency, and ηCHG is the efficiency associated with battery charging.

2.3. Systems design parameters

2.3.1. Renewable Energy Resources

The study considered wind speed and solar Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) as input data in
HOMER. The Department of Climate Change and Meteorological Services, Malawi, provided the
data. These data were monthly averages and spanned from 2000 to 2015. The wind velocity
readings were taken at an anemometer height of 2 m, while the wind turbine had a hub height of
17 m. Therefore, prediction of the wind velocity at 17 m was governed by equation (7). Refer to
Figures 2 and 3, which provide details of renewable energy resources used in HOMER.

2.3.2. Electric Load

The households’ daily electrical energy needs were estimated using the appliance usage method
(Diemuodeke et al., 2017, 2019). For Chigunda, the estimated daily primary load was 90.27 kWh
and peak demand was 14.53 kW. For Mdyaka, the primary load was 47.10 kWh and the peak
demand was 8.09 kW. Finally, for Kadzuwa, a primary load of 44.52 kWh and a peak demand of
6.40 kWh were established. The presentation of the load data in HOMER entailed specification of
hourly electrical energy consumption. The loads were deemed synthetic in nature, and therefore,

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Figure 2. Monthly solar radia­ Average Monthly Solar Irradiation for Study Areas
tion variation for the study
areas.

Solar Irradiation (kWh/m2/day

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month

CHIGUNDA MDYAKA KADZUWA

Figure 3. Wind velocity profiles Average Monthly Wind Velocity Variation for Study Areas
for the study areas.
5
4.5
4
Wind Velocity (m/s)

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Month
CHIGUNDA MDYAKA KADZUWA

only one month’s loads were specified. Day-to-day and time-step variability of 10% was added to
the loads to account for the fluctuations of the load in the course of the day and year.

2.3.3. Electrical Components

The PV, wind turbines, diesel generator, battery energy storage, converter, and control input
systems were central to the design and analysis of these systems. These components were
obtained from the HOMER repository but the technical and economic characteristics were based
on a market survey. The subsequent section provides details of each component based on its
technical and economic parameters.

2.3.3.1. PV Array. The study considered Generic flat-plate PV, abbreviated as PV in the model. This
is a monocrystalline module with a nominal capacity of 1 kW. In order to maximize the size, the
search space was optimized in such a way that HOMER considered system sizes ranging from 0 to
100 kW in 10 kW intervals. The 1-kW PV system had a capital cost of US$ 2500, a replacement cost
of US$ 2150, and O&M cost of US$ 10/year. This PV component also had a life span of 25 years.

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2.3.3.2. Wind Energy Conversion Device. The Generic 3 kW wind turbine (G3) was chosen for this
study. This is a wind turbine with a rotor diameter of 4.0 m, a cut-in wind speed of 4 m/s, a cut-out
wind speed of 50 m/s, and a hub height of 17 m. To provide a range of options for the system sizes,
the search space was optimized so that HOMER considered turbine numbers from 0 to 6. The
capital, replacement, and O&M costs were US$18,000, US$ 14,500, and US$ 180 per year, indivi­
dually. This G3 component had a life-time of 20 years. Refer to Figure 4 which depicts the power
curve of this wind turbine as presented in HOMER.

2.3.3.3. Diesel Generator. To guard against the unpredictability of RE resources, a diesel generator
(DG) was incorporated as a back-up energy generation component. This DG component in question
was a Generic 25 kW Fixed Capacity system (Gen25). This component had a fuel curve intercept of
0.825 L/hr. The capital, replacement, and O&M costs were US$ 12,500, US$ 10,500, and 0.75/hr,
respectively. The component had a lifetime of 15 years.

2.3.3.4. Battery Energy Storage. The Generic 1-kWh Lead Acid Battery (1 kWh LA) was placed
under consideration. This is a 1-kWh battery with a nominal voltage of 12 V and an amperage of
219 Ah. The capital cost for one battery was specified to be US$ 300. While the replacement cost
for a single battery was US$ 300, the O&M cost stood at US$ 10/year. The life-time for this
component was 5 years.

2.3.3.5. System Converter. To enable interconversion between the Alternating Current (AC) and
Direct Current (DC) voltage operation cycles, a system converter is necessary. In this study, the
Leonics MTP-413 F 25 kW (Leon25) was employed. This is a 25 kW/240 V bidirectional converter
with an inverter efficiency of 96% and rectifier efficiency of 94% (Leonics, 2018). The component
has capital and replacement costs of US$ 600/kW. The O&M costs had a value of US$ 0/year.

2.3.3.6. System Controller. The inclusion of the DG as one of the energy generation devices
prompted the incorporation of auto-starting means. A DG generally has two operation strategies,
namely, Load Following (LF) and Cycle Charging (CC). In the LF dispatch strategy, the DG is in
restricted mode, only supplying power in times of deficiency. On the contrary, the CC strategy
involves maximum operation of the generator while using the excess energy to feed the battery
bank. The LF mode is however uneconomical as it leads to a decrease in the load factor of the DG.
This culminates into the reduction of its operational efficiency. This study therefore adopted the CC
strategy in its quest of solving the optimization problem.
2.4. Systems’ sensitivity variables
The study considered prices of fuel (diesel) per litre and monthly wind velocity variations in the
course of the project’s lifetime as sensitivity variables. Considering these optimization constraints
allowed HOMER to determine the sensitivity of the output systems’ NPC to changes in these
variables (Rozlan et al., 2011). In response to this, the study considered the worst-case scenario

Figure 4. Generic 3-kW wind

turbine pPower curve.

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Figure 5. Sensitivity variables Sensitivity Variables' Plot

plot for the study villages.
6

Wind Speed Uncertainty (m/s)

4

0
1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5
Diesel Price Uncertainty (US$/L)
Chigunda Mdyaka Kadzuwa

for the fuel price (increase in the price) and the best-case scenario for the wind velocity (improve­
ment in the wind velocity profile). As Figure 5 indicates, for Chigunda, the wind velocity readings
were allowed to vary between 3.60 and 5.60 m/s. For Mdyaka, the same varied between 2.33 and
5.68 m/s, and for Kadzuwa, the wind velocity varied between 1.54 and 4.0 m/s. For the case of
diesel pump price, the study considered the variations to be the same for all cases, and the
variation scale was from 1.25 to US$ 2.5/L.

2.5. Generalized systems design schematic

Consolidation of the various components described above led to the formulation of the general
energy simulation model outlined in Figure 6. Its architecture comprises PV system, wind system,
diesel generators, storage system, energy system converter, and load. The PV system is DC
coupled, while the wind and DG systems are AC coupled. This enables the electricity produced by
the DC component (PV) to be converted to AC and minimize production by the DG component. This
has an overall impact on the life cycle costs through reduction of fuel consumption (Justo et al.,
2013). The assembly of this model is premised on the fact that the PV and G3 are the main power

Figure 6. Systems’ design

architecture.

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generation components while the DG plays an auxiliary role. Using the solar resource, the PV
component will be producing electrical power which, based on the available demand, will be
converted using the converter which during this cycle will be operating in the DC-AC mode. The
excess energy will be stored in the battery by taking advantage of the DC-DC operation cycle of the
converter. In the same vein, using the wind resource, the G3 component will also be producing
electrical power which will be fed to the AC bus in order to supply the load. In times of excess
production, the Leon25 converter will be using the AC-DC operation to deposit the excess energy to
the battery. In times of deficit, as dictated by the CC dispatch strategy, the DG will be operated at
its maximum, say, 25 kW, and as a result, it will satisfy the load while at the same time use the
excess energy to charge the battery. In making all these determinations, HOMER will be performing
calculations to assess the contribution arising from renewable power and comparing it to the
electric load. This will help in deciding on how to manage the excess renewable power or how to
deal with any deficiencies in renewable power production. It is through the same calculations that
HOMER will determine the optimal solution (types, numbers, and sizes of components) that will
meet the demand for each village at the minimal cost while paying attention to the physical
constraints specified.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Simulation and optimization results

As alluded to in the previous sections, the study used the HOMER software to design power
generation systems for electrifying three remote villages, Chigunda, Mdyaka, and Kadzuwa,
located in Malawi. The systems were to assist in improving electricity access in these communities.
The HOMER software strived to determine the optimal components’ combination capable of
satisfying the electricity demand at minimum cost through simulation and optimization. The
basis for this task was derived from the specified system components, their sizes, and costs.
Through simulation, HOMER determined the optimal components’ combination to meet the elec­
trical load and ranked the results in increasing NPC and COE values. Table 2–4 present the
optimization results for the target villages which were extracted from the HOMER output. In
these tables, the uppermost row represents the characteristics of the systems in terms of compo­
nents type, dispatch strategy, and the economic parameters. Each of the subsequent rows is
treated as a case of an energy system to be considered for electrification and is determined
through simulation. The system in the top row of the subsequent rows for each village is the
optimal one.

With reference to Table 2, based on the criteria established beforehand, it is clear that the
optimal system configuration for Chigunda comprises a 60-kW PV, a 3-kW wind, 100 LA batteries,
and one Leon25 converter with the cycle charging strategy. This optimal combination has NPC and
COE values of US$ 325,509 and US$ 0.635, respectively. Table 3 reveals that for Mdyaka, the most
feasible system consists of a 30-kW PV, 100 LA batteries, and one Leon25 system converter. This
system having NPC of US$ 167,213 and COE of US$ 0.625 also subscribes to the cycle charging

Table 2. Categorized optimization results for Chigunda

PV G3 Gen25 1 kWh Converter Dispatch NPC COE Operating Initial
(kW) (kW) LA (kW) Strategy (US$) (US$) Cost (US$) Capital
(US$)
60 1 150 25.0 CC 325,509 0.635 6,219 228,700
150 25.0 CC 332,737 0.649 6,233 235,700
25.0 100 25.0 CC 2.53 M 4.93 153,822 133,200
1 25.0 100 25.0 CC 2.54 M 4.95 154,970 126,200
3 25.0 50 25.0 CC 2.74 M 5.35 170,022 97,200

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Table 3. Categorized optimization results for Mdyaka

PV G3 Gen25 1 kWh Converter Dispatch NPC (US COE Operating Initial
(kW) (kW) LA (kW) Strategy $) (US$) Cost (US$) Capital (US
$)
30 100 25.0 CC 167,213 0.625 3,470 113,200
30 1 100 25.0 CC 190,544 0.712 3,812 131,200
20 25.0 50 25.0 CC 2.51 M 9.39 155,871 85,700
20 1 25.0 50 25.0 CC 2.53 M 9.47 156,121 103,700
25.0 100 25.0 CC 2.68 M 10.09 168,049 50,700

dispatch strategy. Finally, for Kadzuwa (Table 4), the most favorable energy system option based
on the specified conditions seems to be a combination of 30 kW PV, 100 LA batteries and one
Leon25 system converter. As Table 4 shows, the indicative NPC and COE values for this system are
US$ 185,611 and US$ 0.743, respectively. Although we have generated these results in HOMER, it is
imperative that we compare them to the real conditions on the ground. In Malawi, electricity
presently sells at US$ 0.12/kWh (Egenco, 2018). There is, therefore, a huge disparity between the
COE that results from the designed systems and the actual market value for the electricity. This
casts some doubt on the economic feasibility of the systems. Let us now consider the worst-case
electrification scenario whereby the DG-battery system is considered for deployment. Table 2 tells
us that by using the optimal system, we reduce the NPC by approximately 800%. Tables 4 and 5
also report a reduction in NPC by 1500% and 1300%, respectively, when the optimal system is
given consideration, unlike DG. Pertinent to the NPC are the contributions of each component to
the overall value. Figure 7 illustrates this phenomenon by graphically presenting the cost shares for

Table 4. Categorized optimization results for Kadzuwa

PV (kW) G3 Gen25 1 kWh Converter Dispatch NPC (US COE Operating Initial
(kW) LA (kW) Strategy $) (US$) Cost (US$) Capital
(US$)
30 100 25.0 CC 185,611 0.734 4,170 120,700
30 1 100 25.0 CC 208,942 0.826 4,512 138,700
20 25.0 50 25.0 CC 2.43 M 9.59 149,898 93,200
20 1 25.0 50 25.0 CC 2.45 M 9.68 150,212 111,200
25.0 100 25.0 CC 2.59 M 10.23 162,517 58,200

Figure 7. Components’ cost Components Contribution to NPC in (US$)

contribution to NPC by village. 1,80,000.00
Component Contribution (US$)

1,60,000.00
1,40,000.00
1,20,000.00
1,00,000.00
80,000.00
60,000.00
40,000.00
20,000.00
0.00
PV G3 Leon25 1 kWh LA Cycle Charging
System Component

Chigunda Mdyaka Kadzuwa

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each component. Dwelling on these graphs, it is apparent that in all the scenarios, the greatest
contributors to the NPC value over the lifetime of the project are the PV and LA batteries.
Consequently, this implies that a huge part of the O&M and replacement costs will be incurred
in keeping these two components at bay.

3.2. Electrical analysis

Another critical consideration pertains to the electrical properties of the optimal system config­
urations. Figure 8–10.elucidate this point further. A keen scrutiny of these details divulges some
relevant information as well. In general, the systems in all the communities are having 100%
renewable energy penetration, low fraction of unmet electric load, and low proportion of capacity
shortage. The same figures also indicate that the monthly electricity production is predominantly
from PV though for Chigunda, wind energy also seems to make a small contribution. This again
begs the question as to whether hybridizing PV with wind is really the best option for Chigunda. The
figures also show that there are large fractions of excess electricity in all cases. This justifies the
need to increase the number of batteries in order to maximize energy storage.

Figure 8. Optimal system’s

electrical properties for
Chigunda.

Figure 9. Optimal system’s

electrical properties for
Mdyaka.

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Figure 10. Optimal system’s

electrical properties for
Kadzuwa.

3.3. Sensitivity analysis

The plots in Figure 11–13 are response curves representing the sensitivity of optimal systems’ NPC
to changes in wind velocities and fuel prices for each community. In accordance with these figures,
the NPC of the optimal systems appears to respond more to changes in the wind velocity. This is
based on the steepness of the slopes of these curves. The implication is that adequate resources
need to be allotted in establishing accurate wind velocity readings for the study sites.

Taking cognizance of the results presented by Ataei et al. (2015), we note that the findings on
the optimal system architecture tally with those for Chigunda while they disagree with those for
Mdyaka and Kadzuwa. The NPC and COE values are however in complete disarray with the findings
in Tables 2 – 4. While the NPC value of US$ 70,358 for the optimal system informed by the previous
study are lower compared to the NPC values of all optimal systems under consideration in this

Figure 11. Sensitivity spider

plot for Chigunda.

Figure 12. Sensitivity spider

plot for Mdyaka.

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Figure 13. Sensitivity spider

plot for Kadzuwa.

study, the COE of US$ 2.693 informed by the very same study is very high when compared with the
COEs of all the optimal systems in this study. In comparison with the results obtained by Al-Sharafi
et al. (2017), we also observe that the PV-wind-battery system was favorable, the same for
Chigunda but not for Mdyaka and Kadzuwa. Comparatively, the COE of US$ 0.609 is, however,
slightly lower when gauged against the results for our cases. Judging our findings based on the
study by Hossain et al. (2017), it also appears that the PV-wind-battery system also satisfies the
set conditions, the same which holds true for Chigunda but not for Mdyaka and Kadzuwa. Unlike
our cases having very low life cycle costs, the system in the other study had life cycle cost of US$
17.15 m and was producing electricity at a very lower cost of US$ 0.279 per kilowatt-hour.
Considering the results brought forward by Bogaraj et al. (2015), we also realize that the PV-
wind-battery system with NPC of US$ 1,503,129 and COE of US$ 0.344 was deemed reliable for
deployment. These results on optimal configuration are again in agreement with those for
Chigunda though they contradict the findings for Mdyaka and Kadzuwa. While the NPC is way
above the values for the optimal systems in the current study, the COE is almost 50% less than the
values found in this study. Another observation worth mentioning is that while the DG is favored as
one of the principal components in optimal systems in studies by (Das et al., 2017; Basir Khan
et al., 2015; Olatomiwa et al., 2015; Mandal et al., 2018 & Murugaperumal & Vimal, 2019), this
component is missing in the optimal systems under the current study. The most plausible argu­
ments for these observed differences are as follows. Differences in renewable resource availability
have an influence on HOMER outputs. Proximity to components manufacturers also reduces the
capital and replacement costs, which in turn minimizes the NPC and COE values. Differences in
diesel availability and prices also contribute to dwindling NPC and COE values. Although wind
energy contributed meaningfully to the satisfaction of the peak energy demand in Chigunda, the
general outlook appears to suggest that the PV technology is ideal. The points to the fact that just
like wind velocity data, considerable investment also needs to be made in establishing accurate
solar radiation data. The feasibility of the designed systems could also be improved through
provision of tax cushions on renewable energy components. This could substantially reduce the
initial capital invested which could in turn reduce the NPC and COE.

4. Conclusions
In the current study, HRESs for electrifying Malawi’s rural villages of Chigunda, Mdyaka, and
Kadzuwa were designed and tested for technical and economic suitability. HOMER is employed
as a simulation, optimization, and sensitivity analysis tool under wind velocity and diesel price
constraints. There is therefore a huge disparity between the COE that results from the designed
systems and the actual market value for the electricity. follows:

● The optimal systems realized in this study had maximum renewable energy penetration
(100%) in all the cases considered. This means that by deploying these systems, emission of
toxic greenhouse gases could be minimized.

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● Substantial cost savings were being achieved by considering the deployment of renewable
systems as compared to using diesel generators.
● Systems’ economic performance in terms of net present value was responding negatively to
changes in wind velocity and diesel pump prices over the course of the project's lifetime.

Author details system: Techno-economic analysis and optimization.

Clement Malanda1,2,3 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 30,
E-mail: [email protected] 821–832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.11.011
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6853-9174 Bogaraj, T., Kanakaraj, J., & Kumar, K. (2015). Optimal
Augustine B. Makokha2,3 sizing and cost analysis of hybrid power system for a
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3281-5971 stand-alone application in Coimbatore region: A case
Charles Nzila3,4 study. Archives of Electrical Engineering,64(1),
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6285-5640 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1515/aee-2015-0013
Collen Zalengera5 Das, B. K., Hoque, N., Mandal, S., Pal, T. K., & Raihan, M. A.
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8112-8230 (2017). A techno-economic feasibility of a stand-alone
1
Department of Mechanical, Production and Energy hybrid power generation for remote area application in
Engineering, Moi University, 3900-30100, Eldoret, Kenya. Bangladesh. Energy, 134, 775–788. https://doi.org/10.
2
Africa Center of Excellence in Phytochemicals, Textiles 1016/j.energy.2017.06.024
and Renewable Energy, Moi University, 3900-30100, Diab, F., Lan, H., Zhang, L., & Ali, S. (2016). An environ­
Eldoret, Kenya. mentally friendly factory in Egypt based on hybrid
3
Department of Applied Studies, Malawi University of photovoltaic/wind/diesel/battery system. Journal of
Science and Technology, 5196, Limbe, Malawi. Cleaner Production, 112(July), 3884–3894. https://doi.
4
Department of Manufacturing, Industrial and Textile org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.07.008
Engineering, Moi University, 3900-30100, Eldoret, Kenya. Diaf, S., Notton, G., Belhamel, M., Haddadi, M., &
5
Department of Energy Studies, Mzuzu University, Private Louche, A. (2008). Design and techno-economical
Bag 201, Luwinga Mzuzu 2, Mzuzu, Malawi. optimization for hybrid PV/wind system under var­
ious meteorological conditions. Applied Energy, 85
Disclosure statement (10), 968–987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.
The author(s) declare no conflicts of interest. 2008.02.012
Diemuodeke, E. O., Addo, A., Dabipi-Kalio, I., Oko, C. O. C.,
Funding & Mulugetta, Y. (2017). Domestic energy demand
The research was funded by the World Bank Group assessment of coastline rural communities with
through the Africa Center of Excellence in Phytochemical, solar electrification. Energy and Policy Research, 4
Textiles and Renewable Energy (ACEII-PTRE) at Moi (1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/23815639.2017.
University, Eldoret, Kenya under Grant: Credit No 5798-KE 1280431
Diemuodeke, E. O., Addo, A., Oko, C. O. C., Mulugetta, Y., &
Citation information Ojapah, M. M. (2019). Optimal mapping of hybrid
Cite this article as: Techno-economic optimization of renewable energy systems for locations using
hybrid renewable electrification systems for Malawi’s rural multi-criteria decision-making algorithm. Renewable
villages, Clement Malanda, Augustine B. Makokha,Charles Energy, 134, 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Nzila & Collen Zalengera, Cogent Engineering (2021), 8: renene.2018.11.055
1910112. Egenco. (2018). Electricity Generation in Malawi. Retrieved
April 30, 2019, from www.egenco.mw
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Malanda et al., Cogent Engineering (2021), 8: 1910112
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