Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr.

Mohammed Jawad Mohammed

Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

Actuators
 DC Motor
It is converting the direct current of electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most
common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC
motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to
periodically change the direction of current in part of the motor. Applications for
electromechanical components range from robot control, sun and star trackers, disk-
drive position control, DC machines control and central Air-Conditioning systems for
residences.
Principle operation
A shown in the Figure (1), the DC motor consists of Coil, Magnets, commutator,
brushes and shaft. A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an
electromagnetic field aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude
of the magnetic field produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and
magnitude of the current flowing through it. A simple DC motor has a stationary set of
magnets in the stator and an armature with one or more windings of insulated wire
wrapped around a soft iron core that concentrates the magnetic field. The windings
usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors there can be several
parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are connected to a commutator.
The commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the
rotating coils with the external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors
have electronics that switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)
The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around
dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created.

Figure (1)
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

The main briefing of DC motor working as follows:

1. When the current flows through coil between magnates, an electromagnetic
field generates and produce force based on Lorentz law 𝐹⃑ = ⃑⃑⃑⃑𝑖𝑎 × 𝐵⃑⃑ .
2. In motor, there are two parts, stationary part (magnets) and rotor or armature
part (coil).
3. We can know the force and magnetic field direction by applying right hand rule.
4. The current will pass from (+) and flow to the (-).
5. When the current at the right side, the index finger toward to the inside figure
(1) as current and the magnetic field direction should be for (N) to (S) (middle
finger). Therefore, the force direction (thump finger) will be in downward.
6. When the current flows to the left side, the index finger (current) toward outside
the figure (1), the middle finger should be in same direction (N) to (S) (magnetic
field), therefore, the thump finger (force) will be upward direction.
7. The shaft will rotate continued with clockwise, but when the shaft rotates until
the half turn, no current will be passed due to no electrical connection unite
reach to the right side (coil) to the left side, then the commutator will change
the polarity.
8. In real motor, there are many coils and many magnets in order to get more torque
and rotational speed smoothly as shown in Figure (2).
9. Armature wrapped around iron core, so the magnetic field doesn't have to cross
a large air gap.

Figure (2)
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

DC Brushed Motor Modeling

finding the mathematical model representation is one of the most important part in
order to find the final transfer function and use it later in control process. We have
many assumptions before write the motor equations as follows:
1. There are two ways to control the motor: armature control and field control
based in Lorentz law. Here we will depend on armature control method.
2. Armature control depends on changing the torque by changing the current in
the rotor. While, field control depends on change torque by changing the
strength of magnetic field (by changing the current through the magnets).
3. Model resistance and inductance of coils as lumped parameters.
4. Mechanical mass (inertia) and friction as lumped parameters.
5. Based on Lorentz law( ⃑𝑭⃑ = ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝒊𝒂 × ⃑𝑩
⃑⃑ ), force with the moment generates a torque
equal to 𝑻 = 𝒌𝟏 𝑩 𝒊𝒂 . Where, 𝑘1 is constant and depends on motor geometry,
number of coils and coil position relative to the magnetic field.
6. The torque above can written as 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝒊𝒂 . Because each of 𝑘1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are
constant and the generated torque by motor is proportional to current by
armature. The 𝑘 is the motor torque constant.

Figure (3)

Based on figure (3), two parts can be noticed; mechanical parts and electrical parts.
Electrical parts consist of supplied voltage, equivalent resistor, equivalent inductor and
back emf that produced based on magnetic field. While, the mechanical parts consist of
shaft rotational mass, friction and produced torque based on magnetic field.
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

For electrical parts (based on Kirchhoff law)

𝒆𝒊𝒏 − 𝒆𝑹 − 𝒆𝑳 − 𝒆𝒃 = 𝟎
𝒅𝜽
𝒆𝒊𝒏 − 𝑹 𝒊𝒂 − 𝑳 𝑫 𝒊𝒂 − 𝒌𝒃 𝑫 𝜽 = 𝟎 (1) based on Faraday Law 𝒆𝒃 = 𝒌𝒃 𝒅𝒕

Using L.T.
𝑬𝒊𝒏 − (𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔) 𝑰𝒂 − 𝒌𝒃 𝑺 𝜽 = 𝟎 (2)
For mechanical parts (based on 2nd Newton Law)

𝑻 − 𝑻𝒇 = 𝑱 𝜽̈

𝑲 𝒊𝒂 − 𝒃 𝑫 𝜽 = 𝑱 𝑫𝟐 𝜽 (3)
Using L.T.

𝑲 𝑰𝒂 − 𝒃 𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑱 𝒔𝟐 𝜽
(𝑱 𝒔𝟐 +𝒃 𝒔 )𝜽
Or 𝑰𝒂 = (4)
𝑲
Sub. eq. (4) in eq. (2) will get:
(𝑱 𝒔𝟐 +𝒃 𝒔 )
𝑬𝒊𝒏 − [(𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔) 𝑲
] 𝜽 − 𝒌𝒃 𝑺 𝜽 = 𝟎 (5)

Rearrange equation (5) will get:

(𝑱 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒃 𝒔 )
𝑬𝒊𝒏 = [[(𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔) ] + 𝒌𝒃 𝑺 ] 𝜽
𝑲

𝜽 𝟏 𝑲
= by multiplying the right equation of
𝑬𝒊𝒏 (𝑱 𝒔𝟐 +𝒃 𝒔 ) 𝑲
[[(𝑹+𝑳 𝒔) ]+𝒌𝒃 𝑺 ]
𝑲

𝜽 𝑲
= (6) in unit rad / v
𝑬𝒊𝒏 [[(𝑹+𝑳 𝒔) (𝑱 𝒔 +𝒃)]+𝑲 𝒌𝒃 ]𝒔

Due to 𝜽̇ = 𝑫𝜽 and if use L.T. will be 𝜽̇ = 𝜽 𝒔, so the equation (6) can be written as:
𝜽̇ 𝑲
= (7) in unit rad/sec
𝑬𝒊𝒏 [[(𝑹+𝑳 𝒔) (𝑱 𝒔 +𝒃)]+𝑲 𝒌𝒃 ]

If the motor reach to steady state, the 𝑫 𝒊𝒂 = 𝟎 in equation (1) and will be:
𝒆𝒊𝒏 − 𝑹 𝒊𝒂 − 𝒌𝒃 𝑫 𝜽 = 𝟎 (a)
Using L.T will be
𝑬𝒊𝒏 − 𝑹 𝑰𝒂 − 𝒌𝒃 𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟎 (b)
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class
𝑻
Due to 𝑻 = 𝑲 𝒊𝒂 or 𝒊𝒂 = 𝑲 and sub in equation (b) will get:
𝑻
𝑬𝒊𝒏 − 𝑹 − 𝒌𝒃 𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟎 (c) by multiplying the equation (K) will get:
𝑲

𝑬𝒊𝒏 𝑲 − 𝑹 𝑻 − 𝒌𝒃 𝑲𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟎 (e) by dividing the equation (R) will get:

𝑬𝒊𝒏 𝑲 𝒌𝒃 𝑲𝒔 𝜽
− 𝑻 − =𝟎
𝑹 𝑹
𝑬𝒊𝒏 𝑲 𝒌𝒃 𝑲𝒔 𝜽
Or − =𝑻 (f)
𝑹 𝑹
𝑬 𝑲 𝒌 𝑲𝒔
Due to 𝒊𝒏𝑹 − 𝒃𝑹 are constant, it means that the torque is a linear function of angular
displacement or speed. If using slop as shown in Figure (4) will recommend:

 The intercept changes with 𝑬𝒊𝒏

 The slop down because of the sign (-).

Figure (4)
Homework: Find the electrical and mechanical equations for the Figure (5) when
the DC motor carrying by load.

Figure (5)
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

Notices
1. Limitation of DC motor due to friction and wear between brushes and
commutator.
2. Heat generation due to friction in the central of rotor and its difficult to escape
it.
3. Limit speed range and low efficiency.

 Permeant Magnet Synchronous Machine (PM Syn.)

1. It's very important form electric vehicle.
2. Its type of AC motor, but, supply by DC source.
3. It's called also brushless DC motor.
4. Based on the current called AC (sinusoidal) or DC
(trapezoidal).
5. Speed torque characteristics are similar to brushed motor.

Operation concept
1. Rotor in permeant magnet (filed is fixed) and stator consists of three phases (a,
b and c) as shown in Figure (6).

2. Current in each phase is approximately sinusoidal or trapezoidal its alternating

currents from DC source using an inverter by changing the frequency and the
order in which these switches are open and closed.
3. Coils in stator are energized, in such with rotor can sense by hall-effect sensor,
optical encoder and resolvers.
4. No brushes, so, no heat generated in stator and its easer to remove, safely and
less losses.
5. Can model each phase as a single circuit, and sum the total currents vector (is).
6. The max. force will be when the angle. between tow vectors are 900.
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

7. Pm Syn. Motor torque can be represented by the same manner as brushed DC

motor 𝑻 = 𝑲 𝒊𝒂 .
8. R, L and eb is lumped due to rotating the rotor, 𝑬𝒊𝒏 − (𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔) 𝑰𝒂 − 𝒌𝒃 𝑺 𝜽 =
𝟎.
9. Rotor has same mechanical parts; J and friction,
𝟐
𝑲 𝑰𝒂 − 𝒃 𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑱 𝒔 𝜽

Figure (7)

Comparison between brushes and brushless DC motors

B is stationary cause the magnets is B produced by rotor (magnets

stationary and produced by stator rotation)
i in the rotor windings made
i produced by stator windings and
stationary by commutator action ( the
made to rotate the rotor by action of
commutator works on fixing the i
control system
direction during rotating
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

 Solenoid actuator
The solenoid under consideration is represented as a coil wound in the shape of a
cylinder surrounding a movable iron core, as shown in figure (1). A solenoid can be
considered to be an electromagnet device, and as soon as an electrical current passes
through the coil, each section of wire generates a strong and uniform magnetic field
inside the hollow of the solenoid. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to
the magnitude of the electric current in the coil and the iron core moves inside the casing
of the solenoid. The solenoid is energized with the required level of electrical energy
via proper electrical connections, and when the supply of electrical current to the coil
is cut off, the mechanical parts push the plunger backward to its original position.

Figure (1)
For electrical parts as shown in Figure (2), the coil is a
series combination of inductance and resistance
circuit. According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL),
the voltage across the solenoid coil is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across the inductance and the
resistance of the coil; it can thus be calculated as in
equation (1)
𝑽𝒊𝒏 − 𝑽𝑹 + 𝑽𝑳 − 𝑽𝒃 = 𝟎 (1)
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝒊 𝑹 + 𝑳 𝑫𝒊 + 𝑲𝒃 𝑫𝒙 (2)
Using L.T., the equation (2) become:
Electromechanical Eng. Dept. Dr. Mohammed Jawad Mohammed
Electromechanical Devices and Instrumentation 4th Class

𝑽𝒊𝒏 = (𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔)𝑰 + 𝑲𝒃 𝒔 𝒙 (3)

By energizing the magnetic circuit of the solenoid with electrical energy, the magnetic
force is set up in terms of the electrical current and applied into the armature placed
inside the core of the solenoid.
The produced magnetic force (Fm) of the coil depends on the current; this can be
calculated as below:
𝑭𝒎 = 𝑲 𝒎 𝑰 (4)
The mechanical system of the solenoid can thus be represented as damper–mass-spring
system, as shown in equation (5).

𝑴𝑫𝟐 𝒙 + 𝑪 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑲𝒙 = 𝑭𝒎 (5)
Using L.T. will get:
(𝑴𝒔𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔 + 𝑲)𝒙 = 𝑭𝒎 (6)
Sub eq. (4) in eq. (6) and rearrange it will get:
(𝑴𝒔𝟐 +𝑪 𝒔 +𝑲)𝒙
𝑰= (7)
𝑲𝒎

Sub. eq. (7) in eq. (3) will get:

(𝑴𝒔𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔 + 𝑲)𝒙
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = (𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔) + 𝑲𝒃 𝒔 𝒙
𝑲𝒎
(𝑴𝒔𝟐 +𝑪 𝒔 +𝑲)
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = [(𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔) + 𝑲𝒃 𝒔 ] 𝒙 multiply each part by 𝑲𝒎 will get:
𝑲𝒎

𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝒎 = [(𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔)(𝑴𝒔𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔 + 𝑲) + 𝑲𝒃 𝑲𝒎 𝒔 ]𝒙

𝑲𝒎 𝒙
=
[(𝑹 + 𝑳 𝒔)(𝑴𝒔𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔 + 𝑲) + 𝑲𝒃 𝑲𝒎 𝒔 ] 𝑽𝒊𝒏