BIOLOGY

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Copyright © South Fezalar Educational Institutions

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in

any form without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Typesetting & Design

Fezalar Educational Institutions / Biology Department

3rd Edition, 2016

 PREFACE
Biology is a rapidly developing branch of science. The major advances
being made continuously affect our life on earth. Some of these important ad-
vances are included here.
The results of a recent survey on the attitudes towards existing literature ava-
ilable to high school students showed that many were unhappy with the mate-
rial used in teaching and learning. Those questioned identified a lack of the
following: accompanying supplementary material to main text books, current
information on new developments, clear figures and diagrams.

This book aims to improve the level of understanding of modern biology

by inclusion of the following: main texts, figures and illustrations, extensive
questions, articles and experiments. It is the intention and hope of the authors
that the contents of this book will help to bridge the current gap in the field of
biology at this level.

This book has been carefully reviewed and the language is considered
suitable for students for whom English is a second language.

To the students

Being curious students, you may have wondered why you resemble your
parents or why you need to breathe. In this book, I try to summarize some major
subjects of biology. These are the most promising and perhaps the most comp-
licated subjects of modern biology.

Group work will greatly enhance your learning abilities as well as give
you an opportunity to share your knowledge and experience with your friends.
I hope that, being assiduous students, you will work hard throughout this aca-
demic year and do your best to satisfy your scientific curiosity and, of course, to
pass all of your exams successfully.

The author
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - THE CELL 6

CHAPTER 2 - TISSUES 34

CHAPTER 3 - REPRODUCTION 64

CHAPTER 4 - EMBRYOLOGY 112

CHAPTER 5 - GENETICS 136

CHAPTER 6 - EVOLUTION 200

 Cell
CHAPTER 1
THE CELL

Contents
1-1 Introduction
1-2 Cell theory
1-3 Cell size
1-4 Prokaryotic Cell
1-5 Eukaryotic Cell
1-6 Cell Activities
1-7 Cell Division 5
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 Chapter - 1

1-1 Introduction:

The cell is considered as the basic unit of all organisms. Generally,

there are two types of cells from a structural point of view: the prokaryotic cell,
as bacterial cell, which lacks nuclear membrane and membranous organelles.
The second type is the eukaryotic cell which is larger than the prokaryotic cell
and has clear nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane and cell organelles.

The cell has been the centre of interest for a long time; scientists have
a major role in development of cytology (i.e. the study of cells). Developments
in cell study can be briefed as follows:

a. The cell was not known when the German scientist Antoine Van Leeuwen-
hoek ( 1632 - 1723) invented the microscope; he could be the first to see the
cell.

b. The English scientist Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703) has the same observa-
tions of Leeuwenhoek. Hooke is the first to use the word (cell) when he exam-
ined the structure of oak tree cortex. He described corky units and defined the
cell as aerobic chamber similar to bee hive.
Figure 1.1 Simple microscope
c. The Scottish scientist Robert Brown discovered the nucleus of the cell in
(for study)
1831 and described it.

d. The German scientist Mathias Schleidein concluded that all plants are con-
sist of cells in 1838.

e. The German Scientist Theodor Schwann concluded that all animals are
consist of cells in 1839.

Studies and researches into cytology have increased, particularly after

advances in light microscope and invention of electron microscope, the study
has become a major branch called Cytology.

1-2 Cell Theory

The cell theory is mainly based on the work of both M. Schleidein and T.
Schwann, which can be briefed as follows:

a- All organisms are made of cell or cells.

b- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all organisms.
c- One cell come from another cell by means of cell division.

1-3 Cell Size

Figure 1.2 Types of tissues (for Cells vary in size, for example, diameter of frog’s egg is 1 mm, it can be seen
study) by naked eyes. Most cells are smaller than 1mm.
Human egg is (100 micrometer) or less. Cells have specific specialties
to increase efficiency of various functions.

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 Cell

We need microscope to see cell and micro-organisms. Cells can be seen by

light microscope, but inner components of the cell like organelles, viruses and
organic particles can only be seen by the electron microscope.

Remember….!

All living things are made up of

cell or cells. The cell is the stru-
ctural and functional unit of or-
ganisms. This cell has ability to
self-reproduction from previous-
ly existing cells.

Figure 1.3 Size of living things

and their components (for
study)

1-4 Prokaryotic cell

It is undeveloped cell, it is more primitive in structure, and it is charac-
terized by the followings:

a. Prokaryotic cell has genetic material without a membrane and it is called as

nucleus zone or Nucleoid.

b. Prokaryotic cell cytoplasm has no membranous organelles like golgi bodies

and mitochondria, yet.
It has ribosome in the form of numerous small grains, which build proteins.

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 Chapter - 1

c. Prokaryotic cell is represented by blue green algae, bacteria and Myco-

plasma which all belong to Monera.

Each bacterial cell represents a prokaryotic organism. It is surrounded

by a solid wall consist of chemical compounds (Protein, lipids and polysac-
Remember!!! charides), behind this wall, there is the plasma membrane (it is a semi – fluid
membrane) surrounds the cytoplasm, which contains the nucleoid. There are
Bacteria differ from blue green algae no nuclei or nuclear envelope, unlike eukaryotic cells. Cytoplasm also contains
because they have no Chlorophyll ribosome. Some types of moving bacteria have flagella.
pigment. Cell wall of bacteria is sur-
rounded by capsule while blue green
algae cell wall is surrounded by gela- Table 1-1 General appearance of bacterial cell
tin skin (cortex).

Structure General appearance

Cell covering - Cell wall

- Plasma membrane

Cytoplasm -Nucleoid
- Ribosome

Suffixes - Flagella
- Fimbriae
- Sex pili

1-5 Eukaryotic Cell

This cell has true nucleus, this cell is found in Protists, Fungi, Plants
and Animals. Eukaryotic cells differ in shape; some are spherical, pyramidal,
tubular, cubic, oval, flat, astral and fusiform…etc.

Some of these cells have varying shape; they change from time to time
like amoeba. Such change in shape is due to function of these cells, because
cells often have shapes that adapt the functions. Eukaryotic cells are small and
can only bee seen by microscope, yet, but they are larger than prokaryotic cells.
Generally, the cells need surface area (plasma membrane) to exchange materi-
als with surrounding environment appropriately.

Eukaryotic cells consist of three major components:

a- Cell wall and Plasma Membrane

b- Cytoplasm
Figure 1.4 Structure of bacteria c- Nucleus

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

(for study)
Figure 1.5 Structure of a typical plant cell

(for study)
Figure 1.6 Structure of a typical animal cell

1-5-1 Cell Wall and Plasma Membrane

A-Cell Wall

Cell wall exists only on plant cells, it is an outer thick wall surrounding
the cell, and it covers the plasma membrane, which lies inside. Cell wall pro-
vides protection and support to plasma membrane and cytoplasm.

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 Chapter - 1

Cell wall has three layers:

-Middle Lamella - Primary Wall - Secondary Wall

Chemically, cell wall consists of cellulose in young cells, and thickens when
lignin is added in older cells.

B- Plasma Membrane;

It is a cellular membrane surrounding the cytoplasm in prokaryotic

Remember!!! and eukaryotic cells. It is a flexible, thin and fluid membrane unseen by light
microscope; it can be seen by electron microscope. Chemically, the plasma
Plasma membrane is a se- membrane consists of two thin layers of phospholipids with hydrophilic end
mi-permeable membrane; it allows and a hydrophobic end. The two layers are separated by protein particle that
passage of some micro-particles and allows and controls passage of materials.
blocks larger particles.

Figure 1.7 Structure of plasma

membrane

For your information

1-5-2 Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm represents the part that lies between the plasma membrane
The plasma membrane sur-
and the nucleus. It is a complex material consisting of (80 %) water, (15%)
rounds the cell and marks its outer
proteins and (5% ) fat, sugars and salts. Cytoplasm consists of many cellu-
borders. It supports and protects the
lar organelles, which stand for living structures in cytoplasm. It also contains
cell, and it blocks liquids inside and
non-living components represented by particles formed by activities of cell
outside the cell.
organelles.

1-5-2-1 Living Components of Cytoplasm

1- Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum has reticulate interconnected system of tubules

and vesicles, attached to plasma membrane at certain places and attached to
nuclear membrane at other places. Endoplasmic reticulum is the place where li-
pids, carbohydrates and proteins are made. It is called “Endoplasmic” because
of branches and interlocks with each other. Endoplasmic reticulum is divided
into two types:

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

A- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

This type of endoplasmic reticulum has ribosome on its tubules; they

look rough and granular. This type has active role in building proteins. They Endoplasmic reticulum is
help transport materials inside the cell, especially to Golgi bodies. It also acts the place where lipids, carbohydrates
as a structural reticulum of intra-cytoplasm material. and proteins are made.

B- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic Reticulum differs from rough endoplasmic re-

ticulum in that they have no ribosome, thus, they are smooth. As in the case The smooth endoplasmic re-
of rough endoplasmic reticulum, the smooth reticulum transfers materials in- ticulum has a vital role in detoxifica-
side the cell and acts as a structural reticulum of intra-cytoplasm material. The tion of drugs and medications. They
smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a vital role in detoxification of drugs and are the place for building and con-
medications. They are the place for building and concentration of fats. Thus, centration of fats. Thus, they appear
they appear in cells of ovary, testicles and two adrenal glands. They secrete in cells of ovary, testicles and two
steroid hormones. adrenal glands. They secrete steroid
hormones.

Figure 1.7 Smooth and rough

endoplasmic reticulum
(for study)

2- Golgi Apparatus

It is a secretory apparatus and first described by scientist Camillo Gol-

gi in1898 while studying on neurons. Golgi apparatus has a special location in
the cytoplasm between the nucleus and plasma membrane. It is hard to identify
its certain location and it differs in shape and size from one cell to another.
Golgi apparatus consists of three chambers marked by smooth membranes, the
first is (3 to 10) flat saccules called cisternae, the second is vesicles and the
third is large vacuoles. Golgi apparatus has no ribosome.

Golgi apparatus is called Dictyosome in plant cell, it builds cellulose

and some components of cell wall.

In animal cell, golgi has a number of functions: Figure 1.8 Structure of golgi
apparatus (for study)
- Build and secrete complex sugars

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

- Secrete protein, which is obtained from endoplasmic reticulum but it does not
produce protein.
- Secrete many materials like hormones and enzymes.
Mitochondria are known
3- Mitochondria
as Energy houses because they
are involved in producing ATP.
They are spherical or filamentous structures (0.5 – 1) micrometer
width and up to 10 micrometer length. They distribute differently in different
Thus, the basic function
cells. Mitochondria are found in eukaryotic cells, they differ in size according
of mitochondria is cellular respi-
to their cells. Mitochondria are surrounded by double layer membrane. The in-
ration, because they have respira-
ner layer has curves and bends of different shapes and directions, tops of these
tory enzymes.
curves and bends are towards mitochondria cavity. These structures are called
Cristae. They increase surface area of the inner layer.

Mitochondria are known as Energy houses because they are involved

in producing high-energy Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP). Thus, the basic func-
tion of mitochondria is cellular respiration, because they have respiratory en-
zymes.

Figure 1.9 Structure of mito-

chondria

4- Plastids

They are cellular organelles in cytoplasm of plant cell. They have dif-
ferent shapes, sizes and colours. They can be oval, calyx, spiral and astral.
Plastids are of three types:

a. Chromoplasts, which contain different pigments, these pigments, give col-

ours to flowers and fruits.

b. Leucoplasts, which are centres for converting glucose sugar into polysac-
charide like starch or into fats or proteins. The white matter in potatoes, for
example, results from colourless plastids and full of starch.

c. Chloroplasts:
They are common in plants. Chloroplast, just like mitochondria, is sur-
rounded dual layer membrane.
Inside the membrane, there are two structures: the Granum (pl. Grana) and
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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell
the stroma. Stroma is the liquid transparent material, which fills the inner space
of the plastid; it contains the grana, which contains chlorophyll. Chloroplasts
Chromoplast gives different colors
contribute in photosynthesis; this process needs pigments to absorb solar pow-
to the fruits and flowers while leu-
er, and enzymes to produce carbohydrates. These pigments (Chlorophyll) for
coplast converts and stores glucose
example, exist on the grana membrane. CO2 – reducing enzymes, which exist
in form of different complex organic
in the stroma, help chloroplasts with photosynthesis process.
material.
Thylakoid Membrane: A capsule structure formed by the inner membrane of
the plastid. It contains chlorophyll and enzymes, which help in photosynthesis.

CO2 – reducing enzymes, which

exist in the stroma, help chloroplasts
with photosynthesis process.

Figure 1.10 Structure of ch-

loroplast (for study)

5- Lysosomes

They are vesicles surrounded by mono-layer membrane. It contains

many lysis enzymes (over 40 enzymes). These enzymes are responsible for
digestion in the cell. Lysosomes are found in almost all cells, especially those
that have the ability for phagocytosis, like neutrophils.

Lysosomes have several functions in the cell:

1. It cleans cell cytoplasm from food particles, mitochondria pieces and micro-
organisms and other impurities.

2. Lysosomes play a vital role in animal metamorphosis, for example frog lar-
vae tail disappear when become adult frogs. This process is done by releasing
enzymes from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm. This process digests the contents
of the cytoplasm and finally death of the cell by a process called Autolysis.
This process lyses bodies of living organisms after death.

3. Lysosomes destroy the cell which contain them after death of the organism.

4. They recycle elements in nature through autolysis.

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 Chapter - 1

Metamorphosis is sudden changes

happen in body of organism. This
process is done by releasing enzymes
from lysosomes to cell cytoplasm.
This process digests the contents of
the cytoplasm and finally death of the
cell by a process called Autolysis.
This process lyses bodies of living or-
ganisms after death.

Figure 1.11 Lysosome

6- Cytoskeleton

Eukaryotic cells have a distinctive system of micro filaments and tu-

bules, which form the skeleton of the cell. These are considered as support to
the cell maintaining its form. This system is used by many cells in moving and
transferring organelles inside the cell.

Microtubules are major elements in a-Microfilaments

formation of cilium, flagella and
centrosomes. They are thin straight structures first observed in muscular cells. They
are actin filaments, which contain actin protein, the other type is myosin,
which contains myosin protein, and both are responsible for expansion and
contraction of cell.

b-Microtubules

They are larger than micro filaments and have tubular structures con-
sisting of protein called tubulin. Microtubules play vital role in chromosome
movement during cell division. In addition, they are important for cytoskeleton,
organization and transfer of materials. They are major elements in formation
of cilium and flagella. Microtubules, which exist in animal, cell cytoplasm and
other primitive organisms like algae and fungi, are situated near the nucleus
and form the “centrosomes”.

7- Centrosomes

The centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each of which is a cylinder

consisting of nine triple- groups of microtubules. The centrosome doubles dur-
ing cell division; the two centrosomes move a part to the opposite sides of the
cell and connect together through spindles fibres. Although centrosomes are
Figure 1.12 Centrosome not found in plant cell, yet, there is a centre for creating microtubules and micro
(for study) filaments.

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 Cell

8- Kinetosome

It looks like centriole in structure. It is structure at the base of the cili-

um or flagellum in cells, which contain cilium, or flagella. The kinetosome has
a vital role in movement of cilium and flagella; it is also called basal body.

Figure 1.13 Structure of

8- Vacuoles kinetosome (for study)

They are membranous sacks that exist in cell cytoplasm and vacuoles
in some protista, whereby it is represented by contractile vacuoles which
drain cells from surplus water and dissolved faecal material like amoeba and
paramecium. There are also temporary food vacuoles formed when food
is surrounded by a membrane of the living organism. Food is digested inside
these vacuoles by secreting enzymes from lysosomes inside the vacuole. As for There are 3 kinds of vacuoles;
plant cells, the vacuoles are clearer than those in animal cells, they are small in
young cells and wide in adult cells. They contain juices of different dissolved Contactile vacuole
materials known as Cell Sap. Temporary food vacuole
Storage vacuole
1-5-2-2 Non-living Contents of the Cell

They are temporary contents in cytoplasm called cytoplasmic depos-

its. They are mainly formed by metabolite materials or piled deposits. These
deposits have several forms:

1. Lipid droplets in fatty (adipose) tissue cells and liver cells.

2. Formations represented by glycogen as in liver cells.
3. Proteins stored in glandular cells in the form of secretory granules, these
granules are periodically released outside the cells.
4. Deposits of pigments and colourings, some cells produce pigments as in the
skin cells.
5. Enzymes, hormones and some vitamins are also cytolasmic deposits which
are granular, spherical or oval. And these are materials are surrounded by
membrane as in the case of neuro-secretory granules.

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 Chapter - 1

1-5-3 Nucleus

The nucleus is the most important cell component in living organisms.

It is essential for life; cell survival depends on exchanges between nucleus and
Filaments of the chromatin network
cytoplasm. The cell without nucleus lives for a short time then degenerates
appear during cell division, for-
like, adult red blood cells. Cell nuclei show variance in shape, this variance
ming a specific number of bacillary
has to do with cell shape, it might be spherical or oval or lobed or irregular,
structures known as chromosomes;
like white blood cells. The nucleus is the largest distinctive organelle inside the
they carry genes, which transport
cell and its size differs according cells. Its size depend on size of cytoplasm.
genetic features from one generati-
Most cells are mono-nuclear cell. In some cases, the cell can be di-nuclear like
on to another.
cartilage cells, liver cells and neuron cells. The nucleus is central in stem cells.
It has side or peripheral location in some secretory cells like fatty cells and
mucous cells. The nucleus consists of the following components:

1. Nuclear Membrane or Envelope

It is a thin, double -layer membrane. It surrounds the nucleus and it has

its own physical and chemical properties. It regulates exchange of materials
between the nucleus and cytoplasm through micro pores that allow passage of
particles, this membrane has selective permeability. This membrane surrounds
the nucleus in all cells except for bacteria and blue green algae (prokaryotic), it
has no nucleus but it has nuclear matter.
Most cells are mono-nuclear cell. In
some cases, the cell can be di-nuc- 2. Nucleoplasm
lear like cartilage cells, liver cells
and neuron cells. It is colourless gelatinous liquid fills the nucleus where the nuclear con-
tents are distributed. These contents include nucleolus and chromatin network.

3. Nucleolus

The nucleus has one or more nucleolus. For example, onion cell nu-
cleus has four nucleoli. The nucleolus is a relatively big spherical structure
inside the nucleus. It consists of protein and RNA. Nucleolus has vital role for
ribosome, which is responsible for protein formation.

4. Chromatin Network

The chromatin network is an interconnected and irregular filamen-

tous structure. Filaments of the chromatin network appear during cell division,
forming a specific number of bacillary structures known as chromosomes; they
carry genes, which transport genetic features from one generation to another.
Therefore, chromosomes are very important because of vital role in genetics,
reproduction, development and mutation. Chromosomes can be seen only dur-
ing cell division, the number of chromosomes differs in living things.
Living beings have a fixed number of chromosomes in their somatic
cells. In ascarislum bricoides, there are 2 chromosomes only; it is the least
number of chromosomes among organisms. The number of chromosomes in
the Spanish butterfly is 380, 12 chromosomes in home fly, 26 chromosomes in
frog, 80 chromosomes in pigeon and 64 chromosomes in horse. As for humans,
Figure 1.33 Structure of
they have 46 chromosomes.
chromosome

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

It must be noted that these numbers of chromosomes represent somatic

cells. Numbers of chromosomes in gametes or reproductive cells is half. For
example, human egg has 23 chromosomes, while somatic cells have 46 chro-
mosomes, 23 X 2 = 46. It results from fusion of egg cell with sperm nucleus.
Chromosomes have fixed size and shape in living organisms, its length ranges
from (0.2 – 50) micrometer.

Comparison between Animal and Plant Cells

Animal and plant cells differ in some areas; table (2-1) shows the basic
areas of similarity and difference between animal and plant cells from a struc-
tural point of view.

Table 2-1: A comparison between Animal and plant Cells

Character Plant Cell Animal Cell

A thin plasma membra- Thin plasma membrane
ne along with thick cel-
1 Cell Wall lulose wall consisting
of lignin, giving the cell
fixed shape.
There are chloroplasts No plastids
associated with photos-
2 Plastids ynthesis; some are Leu-
coplasts, white plastids
and colored plastids.
No Centrioles , unless Centrioles exist in many
in some primitive plant animal cells, has a role
3 Centrioles
cells in cell division.

Vacuoles are few in There are many vacuo-

plant cells, large. Vacu- les in animal cell, small
4 Vacuoles oles occupy the whole in size, spread in cytop-
size of adult cell. lasm.

During cell division, the During cell division, the

cellular plate is created. cytoplasm bends from
This plate grows from the outside and moves
5 Cell Division the center outward; it is inside.
generated by cell pro-
toplast.

1-6 Cell activities

Cells, whether plant or animal, achieve many activities. These activities are
reflected on the human being, these activities can be summarized as follows:

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

First: Exchange of materials through membranes;

Exchanging of materials inside and outside the cell is considered the

basic cell operation. This operation regulates cellular functions and determines
exit of waste materials and water outside the cell. It is essential to maintain
biological operations of the cell and construction of living matter. Passage of
materials is done via many ways:

1-Diffusion

Diffusion is defined as movement of ions and particles in a certain

medium, from high concentration regions to low concentration regions.

As a rule, gases like O2 and CO2, materials soluble in fats like hydrocarbons
and alcohols are the soluble that can spread through bio-membranes (cell mem-
branes) freely. This can be observed by the naked eye when copper sulfides or
Potassium Permanganates are placed in water, the coloured material spreads
Diffusion is defined as mo- through the water when crystals of above materials dissolve in water. Colored
vement of ions and particles in a material spread on a short distance and it hardly spread for a long distance.
certain medium, from high concent- Distance of spreading particles is directly proportional to square root of time
ration regions to low concentration for spread. With passage of time, matter will spread all over the water.
regions.

2-Permeability

It is exchange of materials between the cell and its environment by aid

Permabılıty is exchange
of plasma membrane. The cell can absorb food materials in an appropriate food
of materials between the cell and its
medium. This does not mean that food outside the cell can all be absorbed by
environment.
the cell. These materials must pass through the plasma membrane. In addition,
these food materials should have certain solubility in water to pass this mem-
All food materials should
brane. Similarly, excess materials and faeces should dissolve in cytoplasm to
have certain solubility in water to
pass through the membrane out of the cell.
pass this membrane.
Generally, membranes are classified according to permeability into:

1. Permeable membranes: These membranes allow passage of materials re-

gardless of their structure and size.
2. Semi - permeable membranes: These membranes do not allow equal pas-
sage of solutes as level of solvents.
3. Selectively Permeable: These membranes allow selective passage of mate-
rials according to size of their particles.
4. Non-permeable membranes: Like nylon. It must be noted that permeabili-
ty of plasma membrane is affected by internal and external factors.
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 Cell

3- Osmosis

It is defined as movement of water particles through selectively per-

meable membrane (plasma membrane) according to variance in concentra-
tion. Movement of water particles is done according to diffusion law, because
osmosis is a case of diffusion.
To clearly illustrate osmosis, we can do a simple experiment, using se-
lectively permeable membranes like cellophane attached at the end of a funnel.
The funnel is filled with distilled water, and then placed in a glass basin. Water
level should be the same in the basin and the funnel.
When sugar solution is added to the funnel, water level rises in the fun-
nel. It indicates that water passes cellophane membrane to the sugar solution
in the funnel, causing hydrostatic pressure. Water particles stop when hydro-
static pressure becomes equal to osmotic pressure. Solutions can be classified
according to osmotic concentration into three types; each type has a particular Figure 1.14 Osmosis mechanism
effect in the cell:

a. Isotonic Solution whereby, concentration of water outside the cell is equal

to concentration of cell cytoplasm, the cell neither loses nor gains water.

b. Hypotonic Solution: this solution has low concentration of non-permeable

solutes compared to solutes in cytoplasm. The cell gains water, this leads to
distention of the cell and then rapture.

c. Hypertonic Solution: this solution has high concentration of solute mate-

rials compared to cytoplasm, thus, direction of water is from cytoplasm to the
outer solution, this causes shrinkage of the cell. The size of plant cell, com-
pared to animal cell, does not change when placed in high hypertonic solution
because plant cells have walls. The cell membrane merely moves away from
the cell wall, this process is called plasmolysis, it results from water leaving
the cell, but, when the solution is added to the cell, it goes back to its previous
state. This reversed process is called deplasmolysis.

Figure 1.25 Osmosis in plant

and animal cell

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

4- Active Transport

Cells, sometimes, absorb materials from the outside environment, al-

though, the concentration of these materials inside the cells is higher than out-
side. To perform this process, there must be carriers in cell membrane. These
carriers can move inside and outside the cell. The carrier integrates with other
material (particle or ion) needed by the cell.

This carrier moves to the inner surface of the membrane. The carried
material separates inside cytoplasm. This process requires energy, which is
supplied by ATP.

Figure 1.16 Active transport

5-Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is cellular eating; it is a common way of eating (nutrition)

among protista like amoeba. It is also used by white blood cells in devouring
remaining cells and germs in the blood. This process is done when cell mem-
brane is pouch-like that surrounds the solid matter, then this pouch separates
from cell surface and moves inside cytoplasm. The contents are digested by the
enzymes secreted by lysosomes in the cytoplasm.

6- Pinocytosis

It is similar to phagocytosis. When a liquid material is taken, there will

be a small hole in cell membrane, this hole surrounds the liquid matter, and
becomes inside a pinocytic vesicle. This vesicle separates from cell membrane
and moves inside the cell.

7- Exocytosis

This term is used to describe release of some materials outside the cell. This
process takes place in various cells to get rid of undigested left overs from
phagocytosis, or to secrete some hormones.

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 Cell

Second: Cell Metabolism

Cell metabolism is represented by sum of chemical changes, which take place

with the help of enzymes. These changes are catabolism; degradation of ma-
terials and anabolism which means building new things. Anabolism usually
consumes energy, while catabolism releases energy, for example, Glucose par-
ticle anabolised from CO2 + H2O needs energy. Green plants obtain this energy
from the sun. While catabolism of glucose particle in respiration releases the
energy required by the living organism in the many activities.

1- Respiration

Glucose is the primary respiration material; it undergoes a series of reactions

to transform into two molecules of Pyruvic Acid during a process called glyc-
olysis. This process is performed in cell cytoplasm because there are enzymes.
Figure 1. 17 Phagocytosis
Glycolysis is summarized as follows;

1. Glucose molecule activation (6C) by phosphorylation to transform into glu-

cose mono-phosphate, the process consumes 1 molecule of ATP.

2. Glucose mono-phosphate (6C) is transformed into fructose mono-phosphate

(6C) by means of a specific enzyme.

3.Fructose mono-phosphate (6C) is activated by a second phosphorylation to

transform into fructose di-phosphate; this process consumes 1 molecule of ATP.

4. Fructose di-phosphate molecule (6C) splits into two phosphoglyceraldehyde

molecules, because of this fission (split).
Figure 1.18 Pinocytosis
5. Each glycerol phosphoglyceraldehyde molecule is changed into pyruvic acid
(i.e. becomes two pyruvic acid molecules). Although, four ATP molecules re-
sult from this transformation, two of them are consumed in phosphorylation,
thus, the gain is two ATP.

6. If respiration is anaerobic, the pyruvic acid has either alcoholic fermentation

or lactic fermentation in cell cytoplasm.

However, if the respiration is aerobic, the Pyruvic acid turns into

(Acetyl co- A) which reacts in a cycle called as Krebs Cycle in cell mitochon-
dria. Below is a description of aerobic and anaerobic respiration reactions:

First: Anaerobic Respiration; It includes:

a. Alcoholic Fermentation:

It takes place in yeast and green plants due to lack or absence of O2,
and in some types of bacteria. The pyruvic acid is oxidized by taking CO2
molecule, and then reduced by hydrogen from glycolysis, turning it into ethyl
alcohol, as in the following equation:

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

Figure 1.19 Sketch of ethyl

alcohol fermantation
b. Lactic Acid Fermentation

It happens in muscles and kinds of bacteria (lactic acid bacteria) during

which the pyruvic acid resulting from glycolysis is reduced by means of hydro-
gen also resulting from glycolysis; as a result it change to lactic acid as in the
following equation.

Figure 1.20 Lactic acid fer-

mantation
Second: Aerobic Respiration

When the pyruvic acid turns into Acetyl Co-A due to glycolysis, Acetyl Co A
enters in Krebs cycle, in a series of reactions that release the whole energy: 12
ATP in each cycle. To brief, energy released from oxidizing one-gram molecule
of glucose sugar during aerobic respiration is as follows:

2 ATP

Energy Gain from Glycolysis

(2x3ATP) 6 ATP

Transforming Molecules of Pyruvic Acid into Acetyl CO-A

(2x3ATP) 6 ATP
From 2H resulting from transforming Molecules of Pyruvic Acid into
Acetyl CO-A
(2x12ATP) 24 ATP
Table 1.3 Amount of ATP pro- From Krebs two-Cycles
duced in aerobic respiration
Total: 38 ATP

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

Anabolism: Reduction of CO2

CO2 is one of the major outputs of aerobic and anaerobic respiration,

although respiration is considered catabolism, yet it produces chemical energy
that is stored as (ATP). This energy is used in many important activities like
muscle movement and body parts as mechanical operations. This energy is
also used to form complex biological materials as a chemical operation. Plants
reduce CO2 in the form of organic materials using solar energy, as you know;
plants absorb CO2 using water and solar energy to produce carbohydrate ma-
terials. This reaction is called CO2 reduction. This reaction forms all complex
organic molecules, thus, this process is considered as anabolism of organic
materials.

Figure 1.21 The sketch of cel-

lular respiration (Glycolysis
and Krebs cycle)

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

1-7 Cell Division

Cell division is considered one of the complex operations, which mul-
tiply (increase) the genetic matter qualitatively, and ensure homogenous distri-
bution among the resulting cells. There are three types of cell divisions:

1-7-1 Amitosis

In this type of division, the cells divide without clear nuclear or cyto-
plasmic changes. The nucleus or nuclear matter and cytoplasm curve and bend
then split to form two cells, each of which contain part of the original nucleus
or the nuclear matter and part of the original cytoplasm. This type of division
occurs in bacteria and blue green algae.

1-7- 2 Mitosis

Mitosis is defined as cell division in such a way that both new cells
have the same number and quality of chromosomes of the mother cell.

Mitosis requires doubling of each chromosome to form two identical

and adjacent chromosomes as if they are one chromosome. When cell division
starts, the two chromosomes part from one another and separate in advanced
phases. Division of nucleus is followed by cytokinesis. For example, human
cell has 46 chromosomes. They double before division to be 92 chromatids.
During division, 46 go to one cell; the other 46 go to the second cell to form
chromosomes of the new cell. This process continues every time.

Cell division undergoes four phases, preceded by interphase. The cell

goes through this phase before cell division. It is noted that, during this phase,
the nucleus is relatively large compared to nucleoli in divided cells. In addition,
during this phase, the cell creates huge molecules of nuclear acids and proteins
as preparation for division. This phase is characterized by doubling DNA. The
centrosome also doubles during this phase.

As for the four phases, which follow the interphase, they are:

Phase one: Prophase

The chromatin network is marked into a number of chromosomes,

which looks thick. It is divided into two sister chromatids. These sister chro-
matids are connected to each other at their centromeres. They form the subse-
quent chromosomes.

The centrosomes that are formed in the interphase, part away in oppo-
site directions toward to the cell poles. The centrosomes extend astral filaments
(aster). Spindle filaments are formed between them. The nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear at a later stage of this phase.

24
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

Phase two: Metaphase

Chromosomes shrink and thicken at this phase. They are located at

equator line of cell. Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres by their centromere.

Phase Three: Anaphase

At this phase sister chromatids which formed in interphase, separate

from each other and move in opposite directions of the cell. Mechanism of
chromosome movement is not fully uncovered; however, there are explana-
tions of that:

a- Spindle fibres are thought to shrink when there is ATP; they pull chromo-
somes to ward the poles.

b- Spindle fibres form a path so that chromosomes slide on these threads to-
ward the poles.

Phase Four: Telophase

The final phase starts when the chromosomes reach the opposite poles
of the cell. Then the chromosomes back to their micro filaments shape. They
appear as chromatin network and nucleus division ends.

Nucleus division is followed by cytokinesis.

Animal cell shows difference in cytokinesis compared to plant cell. In

animal cell, cell membranes bends and curves near cell equator line, through
time, this curve and bend increases gradually until the cell divides into two new
cells, each containing a nucleus.

As for plant cell, cytokinesis starts with cell plate formed at cell equa-
tor line. This wall is secreted by cell protoplasm. Then each new cell starts
forming its own cell wall from its side, this process results two new cells.

It must be noted that time for cell division varies according to type of
cell, tissue and age of the organism. Furthermore, each division phase has cer-
tain period. This period depends on events, which occur in each phase.

It is found that, division phases in human cells, prophase lasts (30-60)

minutes, metaphase (2-6) minutes, anaphase (3-15) minutes, while telophase
lasts (30-60) minutes. It is also noted that division time of neuron lasts (30)
minutes during embryonic phases, while division of adult neurons is rare be-
cause adult neurons specialize in a definitive way.
Figure 1.23 mitosis (for study)

25
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

Figure 1.25 Mitosis

1-7- 3 Meiosis

Meiosis aims at maintaining a fixed number of chromosomes for var-

ious species during succession of generations where gametes, eggs, sperms in
animals are created, and spores in plants.
Meiosis is two successive divisions of the cell. During this division,
the number of chromosomes is reduced to half the number of somatic chromo-
somes. When two nuclei or gametes are fused to form first embryonic cell, total
number of chromosomes is obtained.

26
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

Meiosis is done through two nuclear divisions, the first separates homolo-
gous chromosomes, and this division has four phases:

Prophase 1
Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1
Telophase 1

As for the second division, chromosome chromatids are separated, each chro-
matid moves to cell pole.
The second division, is similar to first division, it has four successive phases:

Prophase 2
Metaphase 2
Anaphase 2
Telophase 2

Below is a description of both divisions:

First Meiosis Division:

a. Prophase 1:

This phase is slow; it has five rounds with special features:

Leptotene: Chromosomes at this round are single, long filaments like beads.
They look like necklace, the DNA (genetic material) doubled in each chromo-
some.

Zygotene: Homologous chromosomes align and double at this round. Then,

they bend on each other; this process is called Synapsis. The doubled chromo-
somes are called “bivalent”, this process is distinctive in meiosis, because it
does not occur in mitosis.

Pachytene: At this round, chromosomes condense, thicken, and shorten. Each

chromosome double into two clear chromatids, attached to each other via their
centromeres. Each two chromatids of the same chromosome are called sis-
ter chromatids. At this round, each pair of homologous chromosomes form a
band of four chromatids, this band is called Tetrad. For example, human cell,
at this round, has 23 tetrads and 92 chromatids total.

In addition, at this round, there is exchange of genes locations between

identical chromosomes; this process is called Crossing Over.

Diplotene: At this round, homologous chromosomes repulse and part, the

non-sister chromatids remain attached by one or more points, these connection
points are called chiasmata. Number and location of chiasmata differ from
chromosome to another and from one cell to another. Non-sister chromatids are
exchanged at each chiasmata point.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

Diakinesis: This is the last round of the prophase at which chromosomes (chro-
matids of homologous chromosomes) shorten and thicken more. The nucleolus
and the nuclear membrane gradually fade. Locations of chiasmata move to the
far end of the chromosomes, thus, chiasmata decrease.

b.Metphase1

At this phase, homologous chromosomes align at cell equator line in

the form of binary chromosomal groups. Centrosomes start to appear, and the
spindle appears attached to centrosomes.

c.Anaphase1

At this phase, homologous chromosomes separate and move in op-

posite directions toward cell poles. Chromatids of each chromosome remain
attached to each other at their centromeres.

d.Telophase1

New chromosomes gather at the poles, spindle fibres often disappear at

this phase. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane, which surround chromosome
groups, start forming; this group is haploid because contains half of total num-
ber of chromosomes. Nuclear division is followed by cytokinesis, as in the case
of mitosis, thus, the two new cells are formed. They are ready for the second
meiosis.

Second Meiosis Division:

a. Prophase 2

The number chromosomes in each nucleus in the prophase2 is half the

total number of chromosomes, thus, it differs from mitosis in which the nucleus
has total number of chromosomes. At this phase, the chromatids are distant and
might differ in structure because of the crossing over at pachytene round of the
prophase1.

b. Metaphase 2

At this phase, the chromosomes are located at the equator plate of the cell; it is
attached by spindle fibres through their centromeres.

Each chromosome is made of two chromatids. This phase differs from met-
aphase 1 in that chromosomes in metaphase 1 are made of four chromatids,
while chromosomes in metaphase 2 are made of two chromatids.
c. Anaphase 2

At this phase, chromatids of each chromosome split when their centro-

somes separate. Each chromatids represents a chromosome with independent
nuclei moving towards one pole of the cell by spindle fibres.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

d. Telophase2

At this phase, chromosomes gather at cell poles, they get longer and
thinner, chromatin matter appear as fine threads (micro filaments), then the
nuclear membrane and nucleoli emerge to form two new nuclei out of one
original nucleus.

In some plant cells, the cell plate is formed through the spindle, and
then becomes middle lamella, then cell wall. As for animal cells, cytoplasmic
membrane is generated between the two new nuclei to separate them.

When the first and second meiosis division ends, the total outcome
is four cells with haploid chromosomal group. Meiosis occurs in testes and
ovaries when gametes are formed in animals, and it occurs in plant cells when
eggs and pollen formation, although there are some differences which will be
discussed later.

Mitosis Meiosis

- One division - Two divisions

- Two identical cells form by each - Four non-identical cells form by

division each division.

- Genetically identical cells formed - Genetically different cells formed

- Number of Chromosomes in new

- Number of chromosomes in both
cells is half those in mother cell
new cells is similar to mother cell

- Somatic cells divide - Reproductive cells form

- Division occurs after sexual ma-

- Division Occurs during cell life
turity only.
cycle continuously

- This division is used for growth, - Division is used in sexual repro-

repair cells and asexual reproduc- duction and having new members
tion. of that species.

Table 1.4 Above is a comparison of mitosis and meiosis

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

Figure 1.27 Meiosis

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

Questions
Q.1 Write the scientific word for each of the followings.

1. ........................ is a colourless liquid that fills the nucleus.

2. ……………… a sphere structure inside the nucleus consists of protein and the RNA.
3. ………………… movement of the water molecules through selectively permeable membrane according to the differ-
ence in concentration.
4. …………………. operation of removing some material from cytoplasm to outside of cell.
5. …………………… organelles are centres of conversion of glucose into different polymers.
6. …………………. a structure located at the base of flagella or fimbrea in the cells which contains flagella or fimbrea.
7. ……………………… a liquid transparent material fills the internal spaces of the plastids.
8. ……………………… a complex material represents the basic component of cytoplasm located between the plasma
membrane and nucleus.
9. ……………………… is the way of swallowing the remaining of the cells and germs in the blood by the white blood
cells.
10. ………………………. is a group of chemical changes which happens in the cell by the enzymes.
11. ………………… is the operation of cell division without clear nucleic and cytoplasmic changes.

Q.2 Explain the followings.

1. There are a large number of mitochondria in the muscles.

2. There are lysosomes in the neutrophils.
3. There is an important role of centrosomes in cell division.
4. Presence of certain enzymes in the green plastids facilitate the photosynthesis.
5. The plant cell under the microscope is clear border.
6. There are cristae in mitochondria.
7. The main function of the mitochondria is cellular respiration.
8. The nuclei of cells vary in its shape and this is related to the shape of the cell.
9. The cells usually absorb some materials from external media in spite of the concentration of these materials inside the
cell is higher than outside.
10. The procedure of installing carbon dioxide (CO2) regarded as organic anabolism.

Q.3 Write inside brackets the letter which indicates the correct answer.

1. The first scientist who used the word (cell) is:

a- Van Leeuwenhoek b- Robert Hooke c- Robert Brown d- Theodor Schwann

2. The two scientists who set the cell theory are:

a-Mathias and Robert Hooke b-Robert Brown and Theodor Schwann
c-Theodor Schwann and Robert Hooke d-Mathias and Theodor Schwann

3. The Endoplasmic Reticulum contribute the following except:

a-wrapping protein b-transferring materials between the cell parts
c- produce some types of fats d-store proteins and fats

4. Golgi Apparatus is called Dictyosome which is available in:

a-animal cell b-bacteria cell c-plant cell d-lymph cell
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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

5. The location of nucleus in the embryonic cells is:

a-central b-sided c-circumference d-surface

6. The movement of molecules and ions within certain media from high concentration to low concentration is called:
a- osmosis b- diffusion c- permeability d- phagocytosis

7. The organelles that plays important role in Metamorphosis in animals is:

a- centrosomes b-mitochondria c-vacuoles d- lysosomes

8. Vacuoles have the following properties except:

a-more clear in plant cells b-small in the young cells
c-It has important role in the movement of flagella and fimbrea d-contain cell Sap

9. The shape of the nucleus of white blood cells (leucocytes) is:

a-sphere b-oval c-clove d-irregular

10. The number of nucleoli which the nucleus of onion cell contains:
a-five b-four c-three d-two

11. The proteins in the cytoplasm of the cell forms by:

a-mitochondria b- ribosomes c- golgi Apparatus d- lysosomes

12. The number of the chromosomes in sexual cells for Spanish butterfly are:
a-415 b-154 c-190 d-69

13. The common way of feeding in Amoeba

a- pinocytosis b- phagocytosis c- phagocytosis d- plasmolysis.

Q.4. Complete the following sentences:

1. Changes in the shape of some cells are due to…………………..

2. The main contents of eukaryotic cell determined by the following:
a………………………. b…………………………… c……………………………..
3. Golgi apparatus in the plant cell called …………………….
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum which lack the ribosomes describes as ………………………..................
5. There are cases the cells can be bi-nucleus as in …………….., ………….....… and ………….......
6. Inside the membrane of plastids there are two important structure are …………and………………
7. Cell wall consists of three layers are: …….…..….., …………….. and ..................……………….
8. Golgi Apparatus consists of three compartments, they are; ……………., ………..... and ………..
9. Lysosomes contains large number of enzymes which is responsible for …………………..
10. Cell metabolism includes the process of …………………. which takes place in………………… and the process of
…………………… which performed by …………..

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Cell

Q.5

1. Arrange the following scientists according to the order of their discoveries:

Robert Hooke, Mathias Schleidein, Theodor Schwann, Van Leewaenhock, Robert Brown.
1…………………….. 2…………………… 3………………….. 4…………… 5……………

2. Complete the two columns the second and third in the following table with mentioning the structure and the function
of each organelle in first column:

Organelles Structure Function

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi Apparatus

Mitochondria

Plastids

Lysosomes

Plasma Membrane

3. Compare the followings:

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum.

• Semi Permeable membrane and Selectively Permeable membrane.
• Centrosome and Kinetosome.
• Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis.
• Telophase 1 and Telophase 2.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 1

34
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

CHAPTER 2
TISSUES

Contents

1-1 Introduction
2-2 Plant tissues
2-3 Animal tissues

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

2-1 Introduction
A tissue can be defined as a Organisms differ in their body structures. Some of the organisms con-
group of similar cells in addition to tain only one cell such as bacteria, certain types of moss and fungi, Ameba,
certain cellular resultant substances Euglena and some other types. These types of organisms are called “Unicel-
which are all specialized to perform lular Organisms”. The bodies of some other types of organisms consist of
a certain function. The study of tis- many specialized cells; which function connectively in the form of functional
sue is known as histology. tissues within the organs. These tissues function, one with another, in a great
harmony to build the body of the organism. The cells of a tissue may be diverse
sometimes. Also, large quantities of intercellular substance may form in some
tissues.

A tissue can be defined as a group of similar cells which are all spe-
cialized to perform a certain function in addition to certain cellular resultant
substances. The study of tissue is known as histology.

2-2 Plant Tissues

Plant tissue is a group of cells that vary in shape and size but are con-
nected to each other to perform certain function.

The body structure of the early plants consists of one cell only as in
some types of moss. This cell has the capability of performing various basic
functions, such as nutrition, breeding, breathing, etc., on the other hand the
more mature plants, have a huge number of different types of cells in their bod-
ies, which form various types of tissues perform the various plant functions.

2-2- 1 Formation and Distribution of Plant Tissues

The various types of tissues that build the different organs of the plant
are developed from the cells or the Apical Meristematic tissues, which lie ba-
sically at the growing points of the roots and stems of the mature plants. These
tissues are known as “Apical Meristematic Tissues”. Meristematic tissues
may also exist in other locations in the body structure of the plant such as at the
bases and top points of nods and at the base of the leaves, which are known as
Intercalary Meristematic Tissues. There are also other tissues that occur par-
allel to the long axis of plant body and they are called “Lateral Meristematic
The meristematic tissue Tissues”.
does not usually transform entirely.
A Meristematic part of this tissue, The Meristematic tissues turn gradually to become permanent tissues
however, stays for regeneration. as in the case with the tissues of the growing pieces or tips and top or lateral
buds. The meristematic tissue does not usually transform entirely. A Meristem-
atic part of this tissue, however, stays for regeneration.

2-2-2 Classification of Plant Tissues

The different types of tissues that build the plant body fall into four major types.

36
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

Tissue Location Function

Meristematic tissue Plant parts of high cel- Cell division and plant
lular division growth

Ground Tissue Roots, stems and leaves Forming internal tissue

in the form of the cor- masses in roots, stems
tex, pith and pith rays and leaves

Epidermis Different parts of the Forming the cortex whi-

plant ch has many functions
like providing plant
protection, exchange
of gasses and water ab-
sorption.
Vascular Tis- Different parts of the Including phloem and
sue plant which contain xy- xylem tissues. Their
lem and phloem basic functions are to
transport water and nut-
rients, storage and sup- Table (2-1) illustrates these
port four types of tissues in higher
plants (flowering plants).

2-2-2-1- Meristematic Tissues

The undifferentiated cells of this tissue are characterized by their ability to

divide actively and rapidly. This tissue occurs in the plant parts where growth
takes place. This growing process leads to:

a- Giving rise to roots and stems.

b- Giving growth to buds.
c- Giving thickness to roots and stems.

Generally, the meristematic tissue does not stop functioning, though its func-
tions may stop in certain parts of the plant.

The meristematic tissue occurs in three types of tissues:

• Apical meristematic tissue.

• Lateral meristematic tissue.
• Intercalary meristematic tissue.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

Tissue Location Function

Apical Meristematic It is found in the tips of It gives growth in the

Tissue the roots and stems of tips of the roots and
the plant stems of the plant
Lateral Meristematic It is found in the parts of The secondary growth
Tissue the plants which are re- and thickness in plants.
mote from the growing The vascular cambium
tips, i.e. the lateral side produces the secondary
of the plant extending phloem and xylem. The
parallel to the outer cork cambium produces
periderm of the plant the periderm
body. It consists of Vas-
cular Cambium
Intercalary Meriste- It is found between the It allows growth and
matic Tissue permanent tissues of the upward rise in the nodes
plant and is remote from of the plant. In grasses,
Table (2-2) illustrates the th- the growing ends of the it is responsible for the
ree types of tissues with their nodes as in the nodes of rapid regrowth in the
location and function. many monocotyledon mature leaves
plants

Figure 2.2 Growing levels of

plant tissues

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

2-2-2-2- Ground Tissue

It is the tissue in which the cells differentiate to develop the permanent

tissues in the plant body. It forms internal tissue masses in the roots, stems and
leaves in the form of cortex, pith and pith rays. The permanent tissues in the
plant body differentiate to the following types:

a- Parenchyma

The parenchyma cells are living cells. They have thin cell walls and
they are often polygonal or spherical in shape due to the pressure of the neigh-
boring cells. There are intercellular spaces between cells. The parenchyma
cells may contain plastids which may be chloroplasts. Thus, the parenchyma
cells are called chlorenchyma. Parenchyma cells have several functions, the
most important of which are ventilation, storage and delivery of nutrients.
Figure 2.3 Parenchymatous
b- Collenchyma tissue (for study)

The collenchyma tissue consists of elongated cells with irregularly thickened

walls. These tissues occur in the woody parts of plants. They also exist in the
mature organs of the herbal plants.

Collenchyma tissue is the primary supporting tissue in many stems and

leaves, especially the mature ones. The collenchyma tissues rarely occur in the
roots and leaves of monocotyledon plants. The main function of collenchyma
tissue is to provide structural support and strength. The thick walls of the
cells and their distribution assist this tissue to do these functions.

c- Sclerenchyma

Sclerenchyma tissue is composed of dead cells with extremely thick

Figure 2.4 Collenchmatous
cell walls because the cells have lignin. The cells of the sclerenchyma tissue
tissue (for study)
are highly differentiated. They differ from each other in shape, origin, compo-
sition and formation. The main function of this tissue is to provide structural
support.

There are two types of sclerenchyma cells:

a- Fibres

The cells of this type are long and cylindrical. They found individually or in
bundles in the parts of the plant body which need support.

b- Sclereids
Figure 2.5 Sclerenchyma tissue
The cells are relatively short. They occur in some kinds of fruits such as pears (for study)
and quinces.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

2-2-2-3 Epidermis

It is the tissue that covers the plant body and forms the permanent
dermal tissue. The epidermis is a single-layered group of thickened cells that
covers the primary body of the plant. The dermal cells are flat and tightly linked
to each other. There are no intercellular spaces among the dermal cells. The
epidermis serves many functions; it protects the plant body and regulates gas
exchange (by pairs of guarding cells) and water absorption.

2-2-2-4 Vascular Tissue

The vascular tissues are specialized in transporting water and nutrients

throughout the body of the plant in addition to providing structural support.
The existence of vascular tissues is one of the most distinguishing features of
most kinds of plants. The vascular tissue includes xylem tissue and phloem
tissue.

a- Xylem Tissue

The xylem tissue is derived from rectangular meristematic cells. Dur-

ing their development, the meristematic cells elongate and have great increase
in size. When they reach maturity, they start to lose their living components and
finally become dead cells.

The xylem tissue is composed of various components which differ

in structure and function. These are xylem vessels, tracheids, xylem fibres
and parenchyma. Xylem vessels differentiate into many types. These types
vary according to the way of thickness (roughness). The tracheids are charac-
terized by their pointed endings which distinguish them from xylem vessels.
The xylem vessels and tracheids are specialized in transporting water with all
the dissolved nutrients.

Figure 2.7 Xylem tissue and

trac
heids (for study)

40
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

b- Phloem Tissue

The phloem tissue is composed of several types of cells. These types of cells
are Sieve Tubes, Companion Cells, Phloem fibres and Phloem Parenchyma.

All these types of phloem cells have some features in common; they are all spe-
cialized in transporting nutrients produced by the leaves, except for the fibers
which have the function of providing structural support.

Tissue Cell Function

Producing new cells to

increase the thickness
Meristematic Tissue Undifferentiated cells
and height of the plant.

Photosynthesis, breat-
Parenchyma cells
hing, storage, flexible
Ground Tissue Collenchyma cells
support and inflexible
Sclerenchyma cells Figure 2.8 Phloem tissue
support.
Protection, regulating
the exchange of gasses
in stems and leaves and
Epidermis Epidermal cells
absorption in of water
and salts in roots.

Vasular Tissue

Xylem Xylem Vessels Transporting water and

Tracheids minerals
Xylem Parenchyma Storage
Fibres Structural support

Phloem Sieve Tubes Transporting the orga-

Companion Cells nic particles throughout
Phloem Fibres the plant body.
Phloem Parenchyma Transporting carbohyd-
rates from/to the Sieve
tubes. Table (2.3) Types of Tissues and
Structural support Cells in Plant Body

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

2 - 3 Animal Tissue
As in the plant tissue, the animal tissues are composed of a group of
identical cells which are specialized in serving certain function. The cells of
a tissue may sometimes differentiate and the intercellular substance may also
vary from one tissue to another rather than the variance in chemical composi-
tion. Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types:

1- Epithelial Tissues. 2- Connective Tissues.

3- Muscular Tissues. 4- Nervous Tissues.

2-3-1 Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissue is the tissue that covers the surface of the organism
that comes in contact with the external environment and lines the body cavities.
Epithelial tissue forms the glands. It has the following distinctive features:

a- Epithelial tissue is manifested in continuous sheets of cells lined up in one

raw or more.
b- All epithelial cells rest on basement membrane.
c- Epithelial cells are very packed that they leave very little intercellular space
and almost have no intercellular substance. The cells endings are attached to
each other at many locations by “Cell Conjunctions” (plasma Conjunctions).
The epithelial tissue is classified into two basic types according to the number
of layers composing the tissue:

1- Simple Epithelial Tissue.

2- Stratified Epithelial Tissue.

FIRST: Simple Epithelial Tissues

The simple epithelial tissue is composed of one line of epithelial cells which
rest on basement membrane. It is classified into several types according to the
shape of its cells:
Simple Epithelial Tissue

1.Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue 2.Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue

3.Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue 4.Pseudo stratified Columnar

Epithelial Tissue

1- Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue

a- This type of epithelial tissues is composed of a single layer of flattened cells

which have a polygonal appearance with a central flat nucleus.
b-The epithelial tissue covers the inner lining of blood vessels, body cavities,
lung vesicles and malpighi particles.
c-The cells of the simple squamous epithelial tissue serve the functions of dif-
fusion and filtration.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

Figure 2.9 Simple squamous

epitheial tissue (for study)

2-Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue

a- This type of epithelial tissues is composed of a single layer of cube-like cells

which have quadrangular appearance with large spherical central nuclei.
b- This tissue is found on the inner lining of the kidney tubules and in some
glands such as the salivary glands.
c- The simple cuboidal epithelial tissue performs secretion and absorption.

Figure 2.10 Simple Cuboidal

Epithelial Tissue (for study)

3-Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue

a- The cells of this type of epithelial tissues line up in long columns. They tend
to take a rectangular appearance in their sections. The nuclei of the cells are
ovoid and take a very close location to the basement.
b- This tissue lines the inner lining (endothelium) of the intestines and some
glands.
c- The simple columnar epithelial tissue serves the functions of protection,
secretion and absorption.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

3-Pseudo-stratified Columnar epithelial Tissue

a-This tissue comprises more than one type of cells. The cells’ nuclei are dis-
posed at different levels, thus suggesting that the tissue is composed of several
layers. All the cells of this tissue rest on the basement membrane and the free
surface of the cells may be provided with cilia, in which case may be referred
to as “Ciliated Pseudo-stratified Epithelial Tissue”.
b- This type of epithelial tissues is found in the endothelia of the trachea and
the big ducts of salivary glands.
c- The main functions of this tissue are protection and secretion.

Figure 2.11 Simple Columnar

Epithelial Tissue (for study)

Tissue Location Function

Simple Squamous Endothelium of blood Diffusion.

Epithelial Tissue vessels. Filtration.
Endothelium of the
body cavities.
Endothelium of the lung
vesicles.
Endothelium of Malpig-
hi particles.

Simple Cuboidal Epit- Endothelium of kidney Secretion.

helial Tissue tubules. Absorption.
Endothelium of some
glands.

Simple Columnar Endothelium of intesti- Protection.

Epithelial Tissue nes. Secretion.
Endothelium of glands. Absorption.
Table (2-4) illustrates the types
of simple epithelial tissues with Pseudo-stratified Co- Endothelium of trachea. Protection.
the location and function of each. lumnar Epithelial Tis- Endothelium of big du- Secretion.
sue cts of glands

SECOND: Stratified Epithelial Tissue

The stratified epithelial tissue comprises more than one layer of cells. It is
found in areas where friction occurs, thus protecting and preserving the internal
organs which it covers or lines.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

Stratified Epithelial Tissue

Stratified Squamous Epithelial Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue

Tissue
Stratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue Transitional Epithelial Tissue

1-Stratified Squamous Epithelial Tissue

a- The stratified squamous epithelial tissue is composed of more than one layer
of cells. The base layer of cells is vertical or cuboidal and is based upon the
basement membrane. The cells in the middle layers are polyhedral whereas the
cells in the surface layers are flattened and squamous. These cells may also be
keratinized as in the case of the outermost layer of the skin.
b- It forms the inner lining of the mouth and esophagus.
c- It serves the function of protection.

Figure 2.12 Stratified Squ-

amous Epithelial Tissue (for
study)

2-Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue

a- The cells of the surface layer of this tissue take the cuboidal appearance.
The cells in the middle and base layers are similar to the cells of the stratified
squamous epithelial tissue.
b- This tissue covers the internal surface of the salivary gland ducts and sem-
iniferous tubules.
c- The main functions of this tissue are secretion and protection.

Figure 2.13 Stratified Cuboidal

Epithelial Tissue (for study)

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

3-Stratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue

a- The surface cells of this tissue are vertical epithelial whereas the base and
middle cells tend to be polyhedral and usually smaller.
b- This tissue is found in the lining of male urethra.
c- The major function of this tissue is protection.

Figure 2.14 Stratified Columnar

Epithelial Tissue (for study)

4-Transitional Epithelial Tissue

a- This tissue is a special stratified epithelial tissue. The surface cells of this
tissue are big with a domed apex and one or two nuclei. The middle layer cells
are polyhedral and the base layer cells are cuboidal in appearance and reside
on basement membrane. The cells of the transitional epithelial tissue have the
ability to change their shape, thus, making the tissue extremely appropriate to
line the inner walls of the organs which can contract and expand.

b- This tissue is found in the liner of the urinary bladder, ureter and pelvic
kidney.
c- The major function of this tissue is protection. It allows the organs which it
lines to contract and expand without causing any damage to the cells.

Figure 2.15 Transitional Epithelial Tissue (for study)

46
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

Tissue Location Function

Stratified Squamous -Lining of mouth. -Protection.
Epithelial Tissue -Esophagus.
-Skin epidermis.
Stratified Cuboidal -Salivary glands ducts. -Protection.
Epithelial Tissue -Seminiferous tubu- -Secretion.
les.
Stratified Columnar -Lining of urethra. -Protection.
Epithelial Tissue
Table (2-5) illustrates the types
Transitional Epithelial -Urinary bladder. -Protection. of Stratified Epithelial Tissue,
Tissue - Ureter. -Contraction and expan-
location and function.
-Pelvic Kidney. sion of organs

2-3-2 Connective Tissues

The connective tissue is the tissue that connects and supports the different parts
of the body, thus, it is referred to as the “Supporting Tissue”. The connective
tissues consist of:

a- Cells.
b- Fibres.
c- Intercellular Substance, which is called “Matrix”.

A-Cells of Connective Tissues

The cells of the connective tissues are separate from each other. There are sev-
eral types of these cells and they serve various functions. The major types of
the connective tissue cells are:

1- Fibroblast

a- This type of cells is the most common type in the connective tissues. These
cells are characterized with their big size and long endings of their body. They
are flat spindle-shaped cells (Fusiform). The cell has a big oval nucleus and
homogeneous cytoplasm.
b- The basic function of the fibroblast is to produce all types of fibres in the
connective tissues.

2- Macrophage

a- It is an amoebic cell with short stretches compared to the stretches of the

fibroblast. The nucleus of this cell is not central.
b- The major function of this cell is to attack the foreign substances within the
tissue, thus, its function is mainly defensive.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

3- Adipose Cell

a- This type of cells is spherical in appearance and contains one fat droplet
which occupies most of the cell. The cytoplasm of this cell takes the shape of a
thin ring. The nucleus of the cell is flattened and located on the cell periphery.
b- The adipose cell stores fat to generate energy and maintain thermal balance
of the body.

4-Mesenchymal Cell

a-This cell part of the morphology of the embryonic connective tissue. It is an

undifferentiated cell with cytoplasm stretches and a central oval nucleus.
b-The main function of the mesenchymal cell lies in its ability to differentiate
into any other type of cells in the connective tissue in adults.

5- Plasma Cell

a- Plasma cell is a relatively small spherical or oval cell with a central nucleus.
The chromatin substance of the cell is arranged in a ray-like in a characteristic
cartwheel or clock face arrangement. The cytoplasm of the cell is homogenous.
b- Plasma cells are responsible for secreting antibodies and playing a very im-
portant role in body protection.

6- Mast Cell

a- Mast cells are very common in the connective tissues. They are big and
spherical in appearance with a small central nucleus. The cytoplasm of the mast
cells appears to be granular.

b- Mast cells contain histamine which plays a protective role in the contraction
of the smooth muscles in the pulmonary bronchioles. It also contributes to the
expansion of the blood capillaries in order to increase their exuding ability.
Mast cells also contain heparin which is an active substance to prevent coag-
ulation.

In addition to the above mentioned types of cells, there are several oth-
er types of cells within the connective tissues such as the “reticular cell” and
“pigment cells.

B- Connective Tissue Fibres

There are three types of fibers in the connective tissues:

1. White or Collagenous Fibres

2. Yellow or Elastic Fibres
3. Reticular Fibres

48
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

Fiber General characteristics

A-It is called “White Fiber” because its co-

lor is white when it is mellow.

B-It is found in the form of bundles consis-

ting of a number of fibers. Each fiber consists
White or Collagenous Fiber of fibrils.

C-The white fiber has a mechanical impor-

tance in the connective tissues because of its
resistant to tensely.

A-It is called “Yellow Fiber” because its co-

lor is yellow when it is mellow.

Yellow or Elastic Fiber B-It is found in the form of single fiber not in
bundles. The yellow fibers can have ramifi-
cations and they can easily stretch. They are
flexible but are not as tough as the white fi-
bers.
A-It is called “Reticular Fiber” because the-
se fibers crosslink to form a fine meshwork.
It is a network of thin fibers. Table (2-6) illustrates the types
Reticular Fiber of connective tissue fibres with
B-This fiber is found in the lymphatic nets to the distinctive characteristics
which it provides a structural support. of each.
C- Intercellular substance or matrix

The intercellular substance is found in the form of a transparent homog-

enous substance with no distinctive shape. It may occur as a liquid, half-liquid,
gelatin or solid. It occupies the spaces between the cells and fibers.

D- Classification of Connective Tissues

The connective tissues are classified according to the types of cells and the
physical characteristics of the intercellular substance into:

1- Connective Tissue Proper

2- Special Connective Tissue

Each type is also classified into subdivisions.

1. Connective Tissue Proper

The connective tissue proper is classified according to its cells and fibres form-
ing it into “Loose Connective Tissue” and Dense Connective Tissue”.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

Figure 2.16 Aerolar connec- The loose connective tissue is classified according to the cells and fibers form-
ing it into:
tive tissue contain almost all
kind of connective tissue cells
and fibers (for study) Connective Tissue Proper

1.Adipose Connective Tissue 2. Areolar Connective Tissue

3.Reticular Connective Tissue 4. Mesenchymal Connective Tissue

5.Mucoid Connective Tissue

Tissue Location Function

1. Areolar Connective Tis- a-Beneath the skin. -It covers most of

sue; It is the most common b-Around the internal the body organs
type of connective tissues. organs. including the blood
All types of its fibers have vessels, lymphatic
varying densities. Various vessels and nerves.
types of connective tissue
cells differentiate.
2. Adipose Connective Tis- a-Beneath the skin. -It stores fat.
sue; The fat cells prevail in b-In the locations of fat -It generates ener-
the adipose connective type storage and metabolism. gy.
of tissues. -It maintains the
body thermal ba-
lance.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

3. Reticular Connective a- Lymphatic organs. -Support.

Tissue; It is one of the pri- b- Liver.
mitive types of tissues. Re- c- Bone marrow.
ticulum cells prevail in this
tissue. Its intercellular subs-
tance is liquid.

4. Mesenchymal Connec- a- It is found in the early -It differentiates to

tive Tissue; It is an undiffe- embryonic phase then form various types
rentiated tissue. Its cells are the tissue differentiates of tissues in the
located in an intercellular to the various types of body.
substance which takes the tissues in the adults.
form of a liquid

5. Mucoid Connective -Umbilical cord. -Support.

Tissue; It is composed of
fibroblasts of a star-like ap-
Table (2-7) illustrates the types
pearance. It lies in a mucous of Connective tissue proper, lo-
gelatin substance. cations and functions.

Figure 2.18 Reticular connective

tissue (for study)

Figure 2.19 Adipose connective

tissue (for study)

Figure 2.17 Mucoid connective

tissue (for study)

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

The second type of the connective tissues proper is the “Dense Connective
Tissue”. It is classified according to the density of the constituent fibers into:

Dense Connective Tissue

1-Dense Collagenous Connective 2-Dense Elastic Connective Tissue

Tissue

Collagenous fibers prevail in this type The yellow fibers prevail in this type
of tissues. The fibers in this tissue are of tissues. It is found in the ligaments
either regular as in the tendons or ir- as in the cervical ligament.
regular as in the skin dermis.

Figure 2.20 Regular dense con-

nective tissue (for study)

Figure 2.21 Irregular dense

connective tissue (for study)

Figure 2.22 Dense elastic con-

nective tissue (for study)

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

2. Special Connective Tissue

The Special Connective Tissue includes cartilage and bone which both
make a structural connective tissue (they make the body structure). It also in-
cludes blood and lymph.

a- Cartilage

The cartilage tissue is characterized with its solid intercellular sub-

stance which makes it resistant to pressure and tensely. The intercellular
substance contains a compound called “Chondromucin”. The intercellular
substance also includes very thin white fibres and special type of cells called
“Chondrocytes” which are found in “Lacunae”.

Cartilage falls into several types. It is classified according to the abun-

dance of the fibres in the intercellular substance. It might be “Hyaline Carti-
lage” in which the intercellular substance is transparent and homogeneous due
to the low fibre abundance. This type of cartilage is found in different locations
throughout the body.

Cartilage might also be “White Fibro-Cartilage” in which white fi-

bres found in the discs between the vertebra of the spine.

Finally, it might be “Elastic Cartilage” in which the elastic or flexible

fibres prevail as in the ear pinna.

Figure 2.23 Hyaline cartilage

(for study)

b- Bone

Bones represent the hardest connective tissue of the cartilage tissue be-
cause its intercellular substance mostly contains calcium salts such as calcium
phosphates and calcium carbonates (non-organic salts) in addition to white
fibres. Bone tissues come in two types:
1- Compact Bone
2- Spongy Bone.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

As in the cartilage tissue, the bone tissue is formed of special cells

called “Osteocytes” within lacunae, microscopic white fibres and intercellular
substance.

Figure 2.24 Compact bone

tissue (for study)

If we study a section of the bone closely, we will see that its intercel-
lular substance comes in the form of “Bone Lamellae” which are distributed
throughout the tissue. Some of these bone lamellae take the form of peripheral
lamellae which come in parallel to the outer and inner surfaces of the bone. In
this case, the lamellae are called “Peripheral Lamellae”.

Other lamellae are arranged in concentric lamellae around a central ca-

nal called “Haversian Canal” through which the blood vessels and nerves go.
The concentric bone lamellae and Haversian canal constitute the “Haversian
system”. The Haversian canals are connected to each other by latitudinal ca-
nals named “Volkmann’s Canals”. There are also intercellular lamellae which
fill the spaces between haversian systems and the bone peripheral lamellae.
The concentric bone
The spongy bone tissue is different from the compact bone tissue in
lamellae and Haversian canal cons-
that the bone lamellae in the spongy bone tissue are not arranged as in the
titute the “Haversian system”.
compact bone. They take the form of irregular trabecula which ramify and meet
again forming vacant spaces occupied with bone marrow.

Figure 2.25 Spongy bone tis-

sue (for study)

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

c- Blood

The blood is a special connective tissue that develops from embryon-

ic intermediary cells. It is composed of cells, plasma and protein substances
which transform into fibres when blood clotting occurs. The blood constitutes
(7-8%) of the healthy adult human body weight which is about (70) kg. The
human body contains (5-6) litres of blood.

First: Blood Cells

The blood cells in the human body are: Blood is originated from the
embryonic intermediary cells.
A- Red Blood Cells “Erythrocytes”.
B- White Blood Cells “Leucocytes”.
C- Blood Platelets “Thrombocytes”.

A-Red Blood Cells

The red blood cells are also called “Red Blood Corpuscles”. In mam-
mals including humans, red blood cells appear as biconcave discs with no nu-
clei. One exception to this prototype is the red blood cells in camels where they
also lack cell nucleus but appear as oval and biconvex.
The diameter of the red blood cell in humans is (5,6 - 8,0) micrometer.
The size of the red blood cells may change into smaller or bigger in some cases
like sickness.
The number of the red blood cells in a mature male human is (4000000-
6000000) cells per cubic microliter. In the mature female human, the number
is ranging from (3900000) to (5500000) cells per microliter. The number of the
red blood cells goes down the normal level in the case of anaemia and goes up
when a person goes up to high places and when being exposed to carbon mon-
oxide.
The cytoplasm of the red blood cells contains the “Hemoglobin” which
binds with oxygen to make an unstable compound called “Oxy-hemoglobin”.
The oxygen is dropped off when it reaches the cells and replaced with carbon
monoxide forming an unstable compound called “Carboxy-hemoglobin”.
The average life cycle of the red blood cells in humans is estimated 120 The red blood cells contain
days. Every second, 2500000 new cells enter the blood stream to compensate hemoglobin which transport the oxy-
an equal number of cells which got worn out during the same time. The big gen and carbondioxide
macrophages in the liver, spleen and red bone marrow devour the dead red
cells.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

B-White Blood Cells

The white blood cells are real cells in that they have cell nucleus and
living cell contents. They also have the capability of like-ameba moving. The
number of the white blood cells in the adult human is 5000-11000 per micro
litre of blood.

The ratio of the white blood cells to the red blood cells is approxi-
mately 1-700. The number of the white blood cells in children exceeds that of
adults. In newborn infants, there are approximately 16000 white blood cells
per microliter of blood. Many changes to the number of the white blood cells
happen in special cases of sickness. The white blood cells are classified into
two main groups:

First: Granular Leukocytes

The cytoplasm of this type of white blood cells contains granules with often
lobed nuclei. There are three types of granular leukocytes distinguished by
their colouring ability:

1. Neutrophils:
They constitute (40-70%) of the total number of the white blood cells.

2. Acidophils:
These cells constitute (1-4%) of the total number of the white blood cells.

3. Basophils:
This type constitutes (0.0-1%) of the total number of the white blood cells.

Second: Non-Granular Leukocytes

The cytoplasm of this type of white blood cells does not contain granules and
the cell nucleus is not lobed. There are two types of non-granular leucocytes:

1. Lymphocytes:
They constitute (20-45%) of the total number of the white blood cells.

2. Monocytes:
They constitute (4-8%) of the total number of the white blood cells.

The white blood cells play a very important protective role against in-
fections. They perform their functions outside the blood stream and after they
enter into the loose connective tissue.

C-Blood Platelets

The blood platelets are small spherical or oval colourless discs with
no cell nucleus. The blood platelets are found in mammals. Their counterparts
in the in vertebrates, the lower class in the evolution ladder, such as birds and
amphibians are bigger spindle-like cells with cell nucleus.

56
FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

They are called “Thrombocytes”.

It is believed that they serve the same function of the blood platelets. The diam-
eter of the blood platelets is 2-4 micrometer.
The average lifespan of the blood platelets in humans is 9-10 days. The
big macrophages devour the blood platelets in the liver, spleen and bone mar-
row. The blood platelets serve the function of releasing “Thromboblastine”
enzyme which plays a very important role in blood coagulation.
The blood platelets contain “Serotonin” which helps in the contraction
of the small blood vessels.

Second: Blood Plasma.

The blood plasma is the intercellular substance of the blood tissue. It

is a pale yellow homogeneous liquid and can be obtained by “Hemofiltration.
It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. Water makes up about 90%
of the blood plasma. The rest 10 % includes solid substances available in the
plasma as proteins, hormones, enzymes, non-organic salts, glucose and etc.

Lymph
The lymph is similar to the
The lymph is a liquid that is collected out of the tissues. It returns to
plasma in composition except that its
the blood stream through “Lymphatic Vessels”. The lymph is similar to the
protein content is less and its blood
plasma in composition except that its protein content is less and its blood co-
coagulation is slower. The clot in the
agulation is slower. The clot in the lymph is soft not solid. The lymph mainly
lymph is soft not solid.
contains lymphatic cells which vary in number according to the lymphatic nuts
in the passage of the lymphatic vessels through which the lymph passes.

2-3-3- Muscular Tissue

The muscular tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibres. These

fibres contain Actin and Myosin filaments which gather and slide past one
another to perform a certain action of movement. Muscles also serve a ther-
mal-generating function to the body.

Muscles are classified into three types:

1- Smooth Muscles.
2- Skeletal Muscles.
3- Cardiac Muscles.

1. Smooth Muscles
They are also called “Visceral Muscles”. They are characterized with the fol- Figure 2.26 Human blood cells
lowing: (for study)
1- The cells or fibres of the smooth muscles are spindle-like with two pointed
ends. They are thick in the middle and thin at the ends.
2- The muscle fibre is covered by Sarcolemma.
3- The cell has one central nucleus.
4- The action of the muscle is involuntary.
The smooth muscles are found in the walls of the stomach, intestines, blood
vessels and other internal hallow organs.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

2. Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles are voluntarily controlled. They are attached to the

bones through bundles. When they contract, the body part moves. They have
the following distinguished characteristics:

1- The skeletal muscle fibre is a long cylindrical fibre. It may sometimes stretch
along the muscle.

2- The skeletal muscle fibre is distinguished with cross-lined appearance in

dark and light spaces. This arrangement gives the fibre a striated appearance
and for this reason they are called “Striated Muscles”.

3- The skeletal muscle fibre is covered with a special membrane called “Mus-
cle Membrane”. It is different from the muscle membrane which covers the
smooth muscle fibre.

4- The skeletal muscle fibre is multi-nucleated. Its nuclei are peripherally po-
sitioned.

5-The skeletal muscle fibre performs its function under one’s control, that’s
why they are called “Voluntarily Muscles”.

3- Heart Muscles

Heart muscles are involuntarily striated muscles found in the walls of

the heart only. Their contraction pumps the blood out of the heart. Their stretch
allows the blood to enter the heart. The heart muscle fibre has the physical and
functional characteristics of both the smooth muscle fibre and skeletal muscle
fibre. It has the following features:

1- The heart muscle fibre is cylindrical in shape. It is smaller and much shorter
than the skeletal muscle fibre. It is a ramified fibre and its ramifications meet
together.

2- The heart muscle fibre is distinguished with its latitudinal striation, very
similar to that in the skeletal muscle fibre. Accordingly, the heart muscle is a
striated muscle.

The blood platelets serve 3- The heart muscle fibres are connected to each other at their ends in differen-
the function of releasing “Throm- tiated places of their plasma membranes called “Intercalated Discs”.
boblastine” enzyme which plays a
very important role in blood coagu- 4- The membrane of the heart muscle fibre is thinner than that of the skeletal
lation. muscle fibre.
Thrombocytes serve the
same function of the blood plate- 5-The heart muscle fibre contains one cell nucleus. It is centrally positioned.
lets.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

Figure 2.27 Types of muscles

(for study)

Feature Smooth Muscle Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle

1-Shape of the Spindle-like with Cylindrical. Ramified.

muscle fiber. two pointed en- Long Cylindrical.
dings. Thick in No ramifications. Shorter than the
the middle and skeletal muscle
thin at both sides. fiber.

2-Size of the Small. Big. Smaller than the

muscle fiber. Short. Long. skeletal muscle
fiber.
3-Muscle stria- Scattered. Organized. Organized.
tion Not striated. Latitudinal stria- Latitudinal stria-
tion. tion.

4-Nucleus. One, centrally Multi nuclei, pe- One, centrally

positioned ripherally positi- positioned
oned

5-Action Involuntarily Voluntarily Involuntarily

Table (2-8) presents a compa-
rison between the different ty-
pes of muscle fibers.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

2-3-4 Nervous Tissue

The nervous tissue serves the function of propagating the nervous im-
Skeletal muscles are voluntarily pulses from one part to another in the body and for long distances. It is com-
controlled. They are attached to the posed of nervous cells or “Neurons” supported by accompanied cells within
bones through bundles. the nervous tissue. However, these cells do not perform a nervous function.
They are called “Neuroglia”.

Nervous cell (Neuron); It is a specialized cell composed of three parts:

1. Cell Body

It represents the enlarged part of the neuron. It contains the cytoplasm and
nucleus which has a very clear nucleolus. The cytoplasm contains the “Neu-
rofibrils” and “Nissl’s Granules” which serve as protein synthesis sites. The
cell body also has the other living substances which are found in other cells.

2. Dendrites

These are extensions or thin structures that arise from the cell body. They serve
the function of transmitting signals or nervous impulses to the cell body.

3. Axon

It is an extension that transports the nervous away from the cell body. It may or
The heart muscle fiber has the phy- may not be covered with a medullary membrane. It is usually single and long.
sical and functional characteristics The nervous cells (Neurons) are usually classified according to the number of
of both the smooth muscle fiber and the extensions that arise from the cell body into:
skeletal muscle fiber.
1-Monopolar Neuron; the cell body of the mono-polar neuron is oval or spher-
ical with only one extension.

2-Bipolar Neuron; the cell body is spindle-like with two extensions.

3-Pseudo unipolar Neuron.

4-Multipolar Neuron; the cell body is star-like with multi extensions.

Neuroglia

They form the largest part of the nervous tissue. They constitute (1-50)
of the tissue, i.e. each neuron has (50) cell counterparts of the Neuroglia. They
occupy more than half of the brain volume. Their main function is to provide
support for the neurons. They also devour bacteria and cellular crumbs.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

Figure 2. 28 Types of neurons and their structure

NOTE: Microscopic view of pictures is not included in exam.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 2

Questions
Q. 1 Write the scientific term which stands for the following statements:

1. …………….the meristematic tissues which are found at the growing tips of the stems and roots of higher plants.
2. …………… the meristematic tissues which are available at the base part of the leaf blade.
3. …………… the tissue in which the cells differentiate to form the permanent tissue in the body plant.
4. ……………. the parenchyma cells which contain the plastids.
5. …………… one of the two types of the sclerenchyma cells found in some fruits like pears.
6. …………… one of the connective tissue cells. It has an amoeba appearance and its nuclei not centrally positioned.
7. …………… a type of the connective tissue fibres. It occurs individually and it is flexible and extendable.
8. ……………. spindle-like cells that are found in the bloods of birds and amphibians. They are counterparts of the blood
platelets in mammals.
9. …………… an enzyme released by the blood platelets. It plays an important role in blood clotting (coagulation).
10. ………. the cells that form the largest part of the brain. They constitute more than have of the brain volume.

Q. 2 Explain the following scientific facts?

1. The parenchyma tissue cells are often spherical or polygonal in shape.

2. Why is it called pseudo-stratified columnar epithelial tissue?
3. Transitional epithelial tissue is appropriate to the extendible and contactable body organs.
4. The existence of histamine in the mast cells of the connective tissue.
5. The connective tissues are described as supportive tissues.
6. The bone is the hardest connective tissue of the cartilage tissue.
7. The skeletal muscles are called striated muscles.

Q.3 Write the letter of the correct choice between brackets:

1. The meristematic tissues that are found at the bases and tips of internodes are: (…..)
a-Apical. b- Intercalary c- Lateral. d- Peripheral.

2. The tissue which its cells are dead and have thick walls are: (….)
a- Collenchyma. b- Parenchyma. c- Sclerenchyma. d- Mesenchyma.

3. The tissue that is found in the tracheal lining is:

a- Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue. b- Pseudo-stratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue.
c- Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue. d- Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue.

4. The simple cuboidal epithelial tissue is found in the lining of:

a- Blood vessels. b- Alveoli. c- Kidney tubules. d- Glands.

5. The cell responsible for developing all types of fibres in the connective tissue is:
a- Plasma Cell. b- Macrophage. c- Mesenchymal Cell. d- Fibroblast.

6. Plasma cell is a type of the connective tissue cells. It serves the function of.
a- Devouring alien bodies. b- Secreting antibodies.
c- Maintaining thermal balance. d- Differentiating into any other type of connective tissue cells.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Tissues

7. The type of the loose connective tissue that is found in the liver is.
a- Reticular b- Mesenchymal. c- Mucoid. d- Adipose.

8. The type of the cartilage found in the pavilion is (….).

a- Hyaline Cartilage b- White Fibro - Cartilage c- Elastic Cartilage d- Mucoid

9. The number of the red blood cells increases above the normal level in (…).
a- Anaemia b- White Fibro - Cartilage c- Elastic Cartilage d- Mucoid

10. The red blood cells life cycle in human is estimated: (…..)
a-130 days. b- 120 days. c- 112 days. d- 140 days.

11. The ratio of plasma in blood is: (….)

a-55%. b- 50%. c- 90%. d- 95%.

12. The muscles that are spindle-like with two pointed ends and become thick in the middle part are called: (…..).
a- Smooth b- Skeletal c- Heart d- Striated

Q. 4 Complete the following sentences:

1. Xylem tissue is composed of a number of components which differ in structure and function. These components are:
a- …………… b- ……….. c- …………... d- ……………….
2. The tissue that covers the lining of the urethral is ……………………….. .
3. The cells of the Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue are found in ……….
4. The connective tissues are composed of: a- ……….. b- ………… c-………
5. The Connective Tissue Proper is classified according to the density of its contents into: ……… and ……………….
6. The Concentric Bone Lamellae and the ……………. form a system called “…………..…….“.
7. The oxygen combines with hemoglobin to form a compound called ………
8. There are three types of Granular Leucocytes: 1- …………… 2- ………… 3-……………. .

Q. 5 Compare between the following:

1. The Meristematic Tissue and the Vascular Tissue in terms of location and function.
2. The Ground Tissue and the Epidermis in terms of location and function.
3. The Xylem Tissue and the Phloem Tissue in terms of components and function.
4. The Compact Bone and the Spongy Bone.

Q. 6 Match group 1 and group 2. Put the number of the correct answer from group 2 between the brackets:

Group 1 Group 2
Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue Support
Reticular Connective Tissue Secretion and Prevalence
Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue Protection and Secretion
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue Support and Absorption
Stratified Squamous Epithelial Tissue Prevalence and Filtering
Pseudo-stratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue protection
Secretion and Absorption
Protection, Secretion and Absorption

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 Chapter - 2

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 Reproduction

CHAPTER 3
REPRODUCTION

Contents

3-1 Introduction
3-2 Reproduction and its role in preserving species
3-3 Types of reproduction
3-4 Reproduction in Viruses
3-5 Reproduction in Moneran
3-6 Reproduction in Protista
3-7 Reproduction in fungi
3-8 Reproduction in plants
3-9 Reproduction in Animals
3-10FEZALAR
Parthenogenesis
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 65

3-11 Hermaphroditism
 Chapter - 3

3-1 Introduction
All organisms must produce new individuals similar to itself after its
death to preserve its species, others it is caused to disappear and become ex-
tinct.
Reproduction means production of new individuals approximately
similar to parents. Sexual reproduction which is performed by most of multi-
cellular animals is more complex from asexual reproduction which primitive
organisms perform. But both types of reproduction have two main states;

- Collection of pure substances from environment and transmission to new

generation.
- Transmission of genetic material (DNA) to next generation.

3-2 Reproduction and its role in preserving species

There are many types of organisms in universe primitive or developed,
all need to leave offspring to not disappear.
Organisms don`t need
reproduction to survive but they Reproduction is different from other life activities like digestion, res-
need it for continuity of their ge- piration, circulation and excretion since these activities are important for or-
nerations. ganisms to survive. Unlike this organisms don`t need reproduction to survive
and may not able to reproduce or have no complete organs for reproduction but
have a healthy body for continuity of their life.

Any organism without functional reproductive organ can not provide

continuity of its generation and disappear.

In some kinds of animal populations reproduction performed by par-

ticipation of only a few number of organisms. For instance; in a bee hive most
of bees are sterile female members and they have no role in reproduction. But
the drones (male bee) have ability of reproduction and they are less in number.
There is only one female that able to do reproduction, the queen.

3-3 Types of reproduction

There are two main types of reproduction; asexual reproduction and sexual
reproduction.

1. Asexual reproduction

Some organisms can new organisms similar to itself by broking and

change a part of body into a new independent organism. This type of reproduc-
tion can produce one organism or more.

2. Sexual reproduction

Most of plants and large amount of animals are distinguished by hav-

ing male and female members. The males are able to produce sperm while
females are able to produce egg (Ova).

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Reproduction

These organisms are different from each other in their anatomy, physical fea-
tures and structure of reproductive organs.

Sexual reproduction is performed by union of male and female repro-

ductive cells by passing through a process called fertilization. Off springs re-
ceive different traits from both male and female. Some of these traits are good
and some of them are bad for new individual. In spite of all these bad features
good features are dominant and individuals are adapted to the environment.

Sexual reproduction passes through two main steps;

- In first step cell undergo meiosis, the number of chromosomes reduced and
resulted cells receive half of the original number of chromosomes.

- In second step two gametes are unite in a process called fertilization to form
a cell called zygote with total number of chromosomes (2n). Then this embry-
onic cell (zygote) grows into a new organism by series of mitotic divisions.

1.Spermatogenesis

Sperms are formed in testis which consist of a large number of sem-

iniferous tubules. Cells located at the periphery of these tubules, which are
first step in this process are called as spermatogonia and they are diploid (2n).
Each spermatogonium passes through a period of growth after a series of divi-
sions and forms primary spermatocyte.

Figure 3.1 Stages of sperm forma-

tion

Primary spermatocyte undergoes first division of meiosis and result

is two cells being equal in size and haploid (n). These cells are called as sec-
ondary spermatocyte. And each of them passes through the second division
of meiosis and haploid (n) cells which equal in size are formed. Each of these
cells called as spermatid. And each spermatid undergoes changes in shape and
structure to form mature sperm.

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 Chapter - 3

2. Oogenesis

Reproductive cells (germ cells) in female are formed in ovary. The

cells in ovary undergo equal mitotic division to form a group of cells called
oogonia. Oogonia undergo normal division to increase in number (2n).
These cells pass through a period of growth to increase in volume and form
diploid cells (2n) called Primary oocytes. There are many cells small in size
Primary oocyte and perip- which form a layer around primary oocyte called as follicle cells. Primary oo-
hery positioned follicle cells toget- cyte and periphery positioned follicle cells together forms ovarian follicle.
her forms ovarian follicle.
Primary oocyte undergoes first division of meiosis and result is two
cells being unequal in size are formed, due to unequal cytoplasmic division.
And these cells are haploid (n). The big sized cell called as secondary oocyte
while the small sized cell called as first polar body.

Secondary oocytes pass through second division of meiosis and form

two cells unequal in size. Big sized cell (Ooblast) passes through a period of
growth to form mature egg (ovum). But small sized cell called as secondary
polar body (n) and has half number of chromosomes.
As a result of oogenesis one
mature egg and three second polar First polar body undergoes second division of meiosis and forms two
bodies are formed. secondary polar bodies. As a result one mature egg and three second polar bod-
ies are formed.

Figure 3.2 Stages of egg formation

3-4 Reproduction in Viruses

Viruses are tiny structures which can be seen only by electron micro-
scope. They represent a connecting link between living and non-living things.
Viruses cause diseases in human, animals, plants and others.

They are able to grow and reproduce inside the living cells of other
organisms but cannot survive in external environment. This is due to viruses
have no cellular mechanism to reproduce independently

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Reproduction

Information about virus reproduction is obtained by observing a type

of virus, attacking a kind of bacteria called “Escherichia coli”. This type of
viruses which attack bacteria called as bacteriophage. Viruses can reproduce
by one or two types of process; the lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle: Viruses cannot survive in
external environment. This is due to
viruses have no cellular mechanism
to reproduce independntly

Figure 3.3 Reproductin in viruses

1. Attachment stage
When the virus becomes in contact with the bacteria, the fibre exist in
the tail stick to special positions on the cellular wall of the host.

2. Penetration stage
The enzyme found in the tail decomposes the cell wall of bacteria in
the region of adhesion. The nucleic acid of the virus (DNA) is injected into the
host cell.

3. Biosynthesis stage
When viral DNA enter to bacteria, it transcripts mRNA necessary for
the construction of enzymes for degradation of DNA and mRNA of bacteria
then the cellular mechanism of bacteria produces of proteins and releases en-
ergy under the control of viral DNA. Viral DNA directs the mechanism of the
host for the formation of new nucleic acids (DNA) and new viral proteins.
A prophage is a phage (viral)
genome inserted and integrated into
4. Maturation stage.
the circular bacterial DNA chromoso-
Molecules of protein are organized in order to form protein covers
me or existing as an extrachromoso-
around new strips of the viral nucleic acid; as a result, 100-200 new viruses are
mal plasmid
made.

5. Release stage
New viruses cause the decomposition of the host bacterial cell. These
viruses are released in order to infect other disinfected bacteria. This process
completely takes about 25 minutes.

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 Chapter - 3

In lysogenic cycle attachment and penetration stages occur as in lytic

cycle. Then nucleic acids of virus (DNA) incorporate with nucleic acid of bac-
teria (DNA) without breaking nucleic acid of bacteria and viral DNA called as
prophage. And prophage is duplicated by reproduction of bacteria.

3-5 Reproduction in Moneran

Monera includes bacteria and cyanobacteria, it reproduces sexually
and asexually, we will focus on reproduction in bacteria as an example of re-
production in monera.

A- Asexual reproduction in bacteria

Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission.

This can be summarized as follows.

1- The chromosome of the bacteria sticks to the plasma membrane in a certain

position and that means the bacteria cell is ready for the division.
2- The bacteria cell gets ready for binary fission by expanding its cell mem-
brane and plasma membrane so the whole of the cell will be ready.
3- The division of DNA produces two identical chromosomes and at the same
time the cell membrane and plasma membrane starts to stretch.
4- As a result of this stretch the two chromosomes split in two different direc-
tions within the cell at the same time, the cytoplasm spreads and the cell stretch
will increase.
5- The cell divides to produce two identical cells.

Figure 3.4 Reproduction in bacte-

ria (binary fission)

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 Reproduction

B- Sexual reproduction in bacteria

Bacteria reproduce sexually by conjugation which occurs between

different strains of bacteria. Scientists found that when two different strain of
colon bacteria (e-coli) are mixed within one transplant media, a new strain
appears which functionality differs from the two original strains that have been
mixed. They found that a type of genetic unity has been taken place between
two cells. The represented by recombination.

Conjugation within bacteria is processed in the following steps.

1- First conjugation happens between two cells. The first cell is called donor
cell, this contain fertility factor, represented by the DNA particles in cyto-
plasm of the donor cell. These cells also contain sex pili on its surface. This
structures make this cell as the male donor cell. The second cell recipient cell
does not contain fertility factor or sex pili and represents the female cell.

2- When sex pili touch the surface of recipient cell, it transforms into a conju-
gation bridge formed. This link the protoplasm two bacteria cell.

3- One of the DNA strand of the fertility factor broke in a certain point and
extend to transfer the recipient cell.

4- This broken DNA together with a part of the cytoplasm of the donor cell
moves to the recipient cell through the conjugation bridge. DNA strand repli-
cate itself and become a complete double strand DNA.

The donor cell remain as it was in terms of its genetic material because
the broken DNA strand of fertility factor will be replicated in the donor cell as
gain its original size. At the end of conjugation both cells posses the fertility
factor or plasmid. This kind of sexually reproduction is not an ordinary one,
because of new bacteria does not receive a complete collection of genes from
both of the original cells.

Figure 3.5 Conjugation in bacteria

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3-6 Reproduction in Protista

Protista includes various types of unicellular organisms. We will study
reproduction chlamydomonas, euglena and paramecium as example.

3-6-1 Reproduction in chlamydomonas

Chlamydomonas, euglena
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular organism from green algae. It lives in
and paramecium are examples for
lakes and reservoirs. The special property of the green algae for this organism
protists.
that contains two flagella. It is surrounded by a thick cellulose wall and con-
tains a green coloured plastid which has a cup shape. Chlamydomonas repro-
duce sexually and asexually.

1) Asexually reproduction

Asexual reproduction begins by formation 2 – 8 or 16 zoospores which

are able to move and swim in water. Division takes place within the cellulose
wall of the original cell. The spores release after breaking of cellulose of origi-
nal cell wall of mother cell. And they grow into independent green algae which
swim in water.

2) Sexually reproduction

Sexually reproduction in chlamydomonas usually happens when the living

conditions are poor as follows:

1. Chlamydomonas which has haploid number of chromosomes undergoes se-

ries of normal divisions. This will give 16 – 32 individuals within the cellulose
cell wall. These individuals similar to the mother chlamydomonas but they are
much smaller than it and these are called as isogametes.

2. The cell wall of the mother cell will be shuttered and isogametes release into
the water. And they unite with other isogametes from another strain which are
formed in the same way.

3. Zygote will be formed as a result of union of isogametes.

4. This zygote is has pair of chromosomes (2n) this structure swim in water
for a while and then it loses its flagella. It surrounded by a thick cellulose wall
in order to resist against unsuitable environmental conditions and called as
zygospore.
Haploid (n) chromosomal
5. The zygospore re-activated in the suitable conditions, it divides by meiosis
group chlamydomonas under go
to make four haploid zoospores (n).
mitosis and form 16-32 individuals
similar to the mother chlamydomo-
6. The surrounding wall split and then the new four zoospores which are similar
nas but smaller than it which called
to the mother cell in a way grow and behave like grown independent organisms.
as isogametes.

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 Reproduction

Figure 3.6 Reproduction in

chlamydomonas

3-6-2 Reproduction in paramecium

Paramecium is from ciliated Protista spread out in lakes and pond water which
contains water plants and dissolved organic substances.

1. Asexual reproduction in Paramecium

Paramecium reproduces asexually by binary fission which is explained as fol-

lows:

1. Division starts by normal division of micronucleus.

2. After division of micronucleus each nuclei moves to the opposite side of
paramecium, at the same time macronucleus extends and cytosome (mouth)
appears.
3. Macronucleus divides by amitosis into two nucleus and move to the two
sides of paramecium. New mouth and two new contractile vacuoles appear and
also body of paramecium stretches and this result the division.
4. Paramecium divides into two new paramecia.

2. Sexual reproduction in paramecium

Paramecium reproduces sexually into two ways; conjugation and autogamy.

A) Conjugation Paramecium reproduces

asexually by binary fission
Conjugation in the paramecium happens as follows:

1. Two individuals from the same type but from the different strains meet and
touch each other from the side which mouth located and they remain stuck to
each other for a short time, a cytoplasmic bridge formed between them which
is temporary to pass or exchange of chromosomal substances.

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 Chapter - 3

2. The micronucleus in both organisms undergo meiosis to form four nuclei,

each of these nuclei contains half of the complete number of chromosomes (n).

3. Three of these nuclei dissolve and disappear; the fourth nucleus divides un-
equally by normal division in two nuclei. Each of these nuclei contains half of
the complete number of chromosomes (n). They represent the primary male
and female nucleus.

4. The male nucleus in the two conjugated organisms exchange and unites with
female nucleus to form the compact nucleus which contains complete number
of chromosomes (2n).

5. Each of paramecium reproduce asexually by binary fission and four new

paramecia are formed.

Figure 3.8 Conjugation in paramecium

B) Self-fertilization or Autogamy

Autogamy similar to the conjugation as above, except in-exchanged

nucleus, while the two primary micro nuclei which contain half number of
chromosomes (n) unite together to form an identical nucleus (synkaryion). It
Paramecium reproduces
contains identical genetic factors (Homozygous) not contains different genetic
sexually into two ways; conjugation
factors (Heterozygous).
and autogamy.
3-6-3 Reproduction in Euglena

Euglena is from protista which have flagella; it lives in lakes and cur-
rent water which contain plants. Euglena is exist in free case and encysted in
unsuitable conditions.
Euglena reproduces by transverse binary fission and this division
happens in free-swimming stage and encysted stage as follows:

1. The nucleus divides by mitotic division to form additional flagellated protist.

2. The cytoplasm divides laterally and gradually until the two parts get sepa-
rated completely to form two new organisms. Sexual reproduction in euglena
is not known yet.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Reproduction

Figure 3.9 Transverse binary fissi-

on in euglena

3-7 Reproduction in fungi

The world of kingdom fungi contain more than hundred thousand type
and they think there are similar number which has not been diagnosed yet. Pre- Fungi don`t have photosynt-
viously fungi were regarded as plants, which are similar to plants in reproduc- hetic pigments so they are not autot-
rophic and also they nutrition strate-
tion property, growth ways and its biochemistry. But later it founded that they
gy different from plants strategy.
are differ from plants in many ways. Fungi don`t have photosynthetic pigments
so they are not autotrophic and also they nutrition strategy different from plants
strategy.

We will study reproduction in black bread mold as an example for

reproduction in fungi. The black bread mold belong to Zygomycota which
contain about 1050 types of fungi, the sexual and asexual reproduction in black
bread mold happen as follows:

Hyphae are thread like fi-

lamentous structures that forms the
body of fungus.

Figure 3.10 Reproduction in

black bread mold

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 3

1. A contact and merging takes place between hyphae which contain different
nucleus, positive and negative, followed by cytoplasmic integration.

2. Gametangia forms at the end of each hyphae, which contain positive and
negative nucleus, in the end of each hyphae nucleic integration (two nuclei
integration) takes place.

3. Gametangia merge and a pair of nuclei then join together to form zygote.

4. A thick wall forms around zygote and meiosis takes place.

5. The sporangiphore holds a sac called sporangium which splits to release

the spores and contain half of the original number of chromosomes because it
formed by meiosis. When it falls on nutrients (a piece of bread for example) the
asexual reproduction cycle starts and the operations repeat.

3-8 Reproduction in plants

The plant kingdom contains eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic
organisms. It is thought that plants descended from plants lived in fresh water
represented by green algae which was about 500 million years ago. Scientists
proved that this descends represent by both of them contain chlorophyll also
different kinds of additional pigments and they store excess amount of carbo-
hydrates as starch and cell wall in both contain cellulose.

In the plant kingdom alternation of generations appear and it is a clear

phenomenon in reproduction of plants, it means the complete life cycle of
plants would be in two stages, they are sporophyte and gametophyte as fol-
lows:

Figure 3.11 Alternation of genera-

tion in plants

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Reproduction

1- Sporophyte

It is asexual stage which produces the spores; its cells have complete
number of chromosomes (2n) and when this stage get mature some of its cells
(mother cells) undergo meiosis for spore formation, because of this division
there will be spores with half of the original number of chromosomes (n) and
these spores indicate the starting of gametophyte.

2- Gametophyte

This is sexual stage and produce gametes, after the fertilization be-
tween male and female gametes sporophyte forms (alternation of generations).
Notice that the size of the sporophyte bigger than size of the gametophyte in
terrestrial plants which are exist now.

Figure 3.12 Reduction in size of

gametophytea

This happened because the plants

are adapted with life on the earth and
when the adaptation for the life on
earth increases that leads to the inc-
rease in size of sporophyte from the
plant, at the other hand this cause
decrease in the size of the gametop-
hyte.

We will study three examples for reproduction in plants, reproduction in moss-

es, in ferns and in flowering plants.

1-Reproduction in Polytrichum

Reproduction in polytrichum happens in two stages, sporophyte and

gametophyte. It is form of mosses which represents the biggest part of the
non-vascular plants and includes more than 1500 and types and it happens as
follows:

1. In the mature gametophyte the leafy stem carries antheridia; the male game-
tangia or archegonia; the female gametangia or both gametes.

2. The male gametes release from antheridia to the outside swim in water until
reach the archegonia. Then fertilization takes place by merging male nucleus
with female nucleus.

3. After the fertilization the zygote formed and sporophyte forms inside the
archegonia.

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 Chapter - 3

4. The gametic tissue complete and it is holder of sporangium; which meiosis

takes place inside it to produce spores which have half number of complete
Spores are asexually chromosomes (n).
reproductive cells that can grow
a complete organism without fer- 5. The spores release after opening the cover and spores spreads out in the air
tilization, spread easily and resist because of wind which helps the spreading of spores.
aginst unfavorable conditions.
6. The spores grow into male or female gametophyte (protonema) this repre-
sent the first stage of gametophyte.

Figure 3.14 Reproduction in ferns

(polytrichium)(for study)

2-Reproduction in ferns

The reproduction in ferns happens in two stages, sporophyte and ga-

metophyte. Ferns are type of seedless vascular plants, includes about 1150
types. Reproduction happens as follows:

1. Sporophyte is dominant stage in ferns. Sporangia are formed at lower sur-

face of the leaves.

2. The spores are formed in sporangium and these spores have half of the
complete number of chromosomes (n) because they produced by meiosis and
spores release when the sporangium opens.

3. The spores grow into gametophyte which represented by prothallus. It is a

heart shaped, green coloured structure and carries archegonium (female) and
antheridium (male), it grows from the sharp side.

4. The fertilization takes place in moist media, the sperms swim in water to
reach the egg within archegonium.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Reproduction

5. Zygote, the product of fertilization formed inside the archegonium and the
first leaf appears above the prothallus and roots formed at below and the spo-
rophyte appears.

Figure 3.15 Reproduction in ferns

(for study)

3-Reproduction in flowering plants

Flower represents the reproduction organ in flowering plants. Continu-

ity of plants depends on reproduction in plants.

The flower is a specialized branch carries differentiated leaves which

involved in sexual reproduction, producing fruits and seeds. Flower contains
parts which directly related to the reproduction and other parts which are not
directly related to reproduction. Flower are formed from buds but differs from
them by growing nature. For instance we see that flower organs are closed to
each other and not isolated.
Flower consist of 4 parts as follows;

1. Sepals
They make groups called calyx, which protect the bud before it gets to
the full form. These leaves usually have green colour and stay attached to the
lower part of flower.

2. Petals
These are called corolla. They have different shape, size and colour in
different plants. Usually the number of petals equal to the number of sepals or
its doubles. In Iris there are three sepals and three petals. However in the Rose
there are many multiples of petals than sepals. Both sepals and petals have no
direct role in the sexual reproduction.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Chapter - 3

Figure 3.25 Structure of flower

3. Stamens
This is the male part in the flower. This is consisting of two parts, anther
and filament. Anther has cylindrical bag shape or an elliptic shape which con-
tains pollens and carried by holders called as filaments. Stamens are usually
loose and they may bind together. The number of stamens may different from
one plant to another.

4. Pistil
This is the female part of flower which consists of following parts:

a) Ovary
This is the lower part of pistil and contains the “ovules” inside it, which are
connected to the ovary wall by a short neck called “funiculus”.

b) Style

It has a cylindrical shape and it is thin and hollow. It joints the ovary to the
upper part called stigma.

c) Stigma

This is the final (top) part of pistil. This part is rather puffed up. This
part will be somewhere covered by a sticky liquid to facilitate the sticking the
pollens to it. However different plants have no same structure of flower. Mono-
cotyledon and dicotyledon plants have different forms of flower.

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FEZALAR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
 Reproduction

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
1 Have one embryonic leaf Have two embryonic leaves
Have triple or multi triple flower The flower parts are quantic
2
parts or multiples
3 Pollen with single pore Pollen with three pores Table 3.1 Compares the differen-
4 Parallel veined leaves Net veined leaves ces between Monocotyledon and
Dicotyledon plants.
5 Have adventitious (fibrous) root Have tap root
6 Generally herbal plants Generally woody plants

Flower Terminology

Property Flower
All parts of flower exist (sepals,
1 Complete flower
petals, stamens and pistil)
Some basic parts of flower are
2 Incomplete flower
missing
Perfect flower also called Her-
3 It has stamens and pistil
maphrodite or Monoocious
Have stamen alone or pistil
4 Imperfect flower or Dioecious
alone but not both

5 Sterile flower Have no stamens or pistils

6 Inflorescence Flowers as bundles Table 3.2 Some scientific terms for

different kinds of flowers
They look as a single flower,
7 Composite flowers but they consist of numerous
small flowers

First: The formation of pollens and ovules

1. Anther and Pollen Production

Anther is made of two splits alongside with inner tissue which lies from
the base of anther to its top. This tissue surrounds the vascular bundle. Each
split of the anther is made of two compartments and each one called as Pol-
len sac or Microsporangium. The pollen sac contains Pollen Grains. When
the Anther gets mature the connecting tissue between two compartments dis-
solves and two compartments become one compartment and open to the out-
side through vertical external split. Then the pollens will be ready to spread to
the environment.

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At the beginning the pollen sacs contain the microspore mother cells
which have double number of chromosomes. The microspore mother cell di-
vides by meiosis to form microspores with half number of chromosomes (n).

The nucleus of microspore divides in an ordinary way and each new

nucleus will be covered by cytoplasm to form a tube cell and a generative cell.
This represents the immature male gametophyte. The pollens spread from
anther to outside approximately hundred numbers in each anther. The pollens
are covered by a thick wall with horns or they are rough surfaced, taking differ-
ent shapes according to type of plants. Pollens contain number of thin regions
called germination pores.

Figure 3.16 Life cycle of flowering

plants (for study)

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Figure 3.17 Pollen formation in

flowering plants (for study)

2. Ovary and Egg Production

Pistil together with ovary made of from leaves called as carpel leaves (one
or many). The carpel leaves represents the megasporophyll where the eggs are
attached to the ovary wall as a shell for megasporangia.
Egg start growing by having a small hump called nucellus, connected to
the ovary wall through the funiculus. This is covered by one or more layers of
ovary cover cells. These layers grow from the base of nucellus and cover the
nucellus completely except the top part where it leaves a small hole called as
micropyle.
A compound cell grows inside nucellus called megaspore mother
cell. This cell undergoes meiosis in order to produce four megaspores with
half number of chromosomes (n) on the same line.
Three megaspores disappear and the fourth one remains. This represents
the female gametophyte which is immature and thin called embryo sac. This
will grow in size as long as the cytoplasm grows together with the nucleus. This
occupy the most of the ovary.

Three successive divisions take place in the nucleus of the embryo sac
resulting in eight nuclei in the embryo sac. Three nuclei organize near the mi-
cropyle and three nuclei at the opposite side, two of them remain at the centre.
Three nuclei at the micropyle side covered by membranes to form cells, the
middle one represents the egg cell and the other nuclei at the two side forms
two synergid cells. The nuclei of opposite side of micropyle within embryo sac
also covered by membranes and it forms antipodals. Two central nuclei form
two polar nuclei. The embryo sac represents the mature female gametophyte.

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When female gametophyte gets mature, the mature egg form in mature em-
bryo sac and covered by membrane and nucellus. And funiculus looks curved
to the bottom in a way so micropyle is near the funiculus and may takes other
positions.
Pollination is one of the
operations which lead to produce 3. Pollination
seeds and provide fertilization.
Pollination can be defined as transporting of pollen from anther to the
stigma of same plant or another. As a result of transporting fertilization takes
place, so the pollination is one of the operations which lead to produce seeds
and there are two types of pollination.

1- Self pollination

This happens by transporting of pollen from anther of a flower to the

stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of different flower of same plant.
This kind of pollination happens in many kinds of plants like wheat, barley,
rice, cotton, beans, peas and orange tree.

2- Cross pollination

This kind of pollination happens by transition of pollen from anther of

flower to the stigma of another flower of another plant from the same type and
The cross pollination hap- perhaps to the other types belongs to same species. The cross pollination hap-
pens in many plants and it is more pens in many plants and it is more important than self-pollination because the
important than self-pollination beca- fruits are bigger in size and more.
use the fruits are bigger in size and That’s why the farmers are advised to have a bee house in the farms
more. or nearby to guarantee of cross pollination then to get a lot of and good quality
products.
The bees are most important insects that help pollination, so some econo-
mists estimate the profit of pollination by bees a huge amount of money (yearly
average is more than 200 billion dollars) in the world. But not only bees help
pollination in the plants there are also many insects for example beetles, but-
terfly and others. And also the wind and water play a good role in transition of
pollens then pollination and also human can do this job as in date trees.

4. Development of Pollen Tube

The pollen grows after fallen on the stigma to form with a narrow diam-
eter called as pollen tube and usually each pollen produces one pollen tube.
The pollen tube grows and penetrates the stigma and the style until it reaches
the ovary which contains eggs.
The pollen tube represent Although of fallen many pollen on the stigma to form many pollen
the mature male gametophyte in this
tubes, but only one of them reach the egg.
case and it is ready for fertilization.
The pollen tube grows up and generative cell undergoes normal divi-
sion (once) to produce two sperm cells. So the pollen tube contains a tube cell
and two sperm cells, the pollen tube represent the mature male gametophyte in
this case and it is ready for fertilization.
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5. Fertilization and Embryo Development

With arriving the pollen tube to into the ovary it penetrates the Micro-
pyle and enters the nucellus then into the embryo sac and releases its contents
in it. One of the sperm cells unites with egg to form zygote which has diploid
(2n) number of chromosome. The second sperm fuse with two polar nuclei to
form endosperm nucleus, so this nucleus has triple (3n) chromosomal group.
Union nucleus of one sperm cell with the nucleus of egg and union of the nu-
cleus of second sperm cell with two polar nuclei is called double fertilization
Endosperm nucleus is
which is one distinguished characteristic of flowering plants. After fertilization
is completed three antipodal cells, two synergid cells and tube cell disappear. triploid (3n) becuse it formed
Zygote starts normal divisions to form embryo. The endosperm cell undergoes by union of two polar nuclei and
many divisions to form endosperm tissue which contain nutrients to be used by sperm nucleus.
embryo during growth stages.

We can summarize the growing stages in dicotyledons as follows:

1-Zygote Stage
In this stage double fertilization takes place and products are zygote and en-
dosperm.
2-Proembryo Stage
In this stage the pro-embryo is multicellular by having non-functional parts.
3-Globular Stage
The embryo like a small ball in this stage.
4-Heart Stage
The embryo is in a heart shape and cotyledons start to appear.
5-Torpedo Stage
The embryo as torpedo and splits form and seen clearly.
6-Mature Embryo Stage
The embryo gets mature and starts to grow. It takes the shape of a real embryo
formed from shaft, pre-root, per-leaf and split stem.

Figure 3.18 Embryo formation in

flowering plants

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6. Seed Formation

The formation of the seed starts after fertilization directly. So endosperm

cell divide to form endosperm tissue and then grows and covering of egg trans-
form into seed coat which define as testa.

The seed at the mature stage formed from embryo and a cover of seed
as it is in most of the seeds in the dicotyledon plants like, broad beans, green
beans and others. But there are types of plants as wheat, corn which the em-
bryo doesn’t use endosperm unless that seed has been planted and started to
absorb water. The mature seeds usually formed from embryo, endosperm and
also cover of the seed which is consist of one layer or more.

Figure 3.19 Seed structure in

A- Monocotyledon plants
B- Dicotyledon plants

7. Fruit Formation

Formation of fruit starts by growth and expansion of ovary wall. This

Fertilization process regar- will be accompanied by the growth of the seed inside the ovary. Fertilization
ds as stimulator causing to expand process regards as stimulator causing to expand the ovary. This expansion may
the ovary include some other parts of flower such as the receptacle as in the case of ap-
ples and covers of flower as in berries. These kinds of fruits are called false
fruits. A large quantity of food is needed to develop the ovary to the fruit.
Foods such as glucose and amino acids are transferred speedily to the wall of
ovary through tissues which link the parts of flower to the stem.

These food materials are converted and stored as feeding material like
some complex sugars, proteins and oils. When the amount of sugar is high
in fruits, this sugar makes it sweet. This in the case with fruits such as grape,
dates, etc. Sugar may convert into starch at the maturity stage as in corn, grains
and rice.

Oils can accumulate in the fruits with large quantities such as olives. In
some other kinds of fruits water may be stored such as in watermelon, melon
and tomatoes.

On the other hand some other kinds of fruits will have very low level of
water content when they are mature such as walnuts, nuts and almonds. These
kinds of changes to the fruit accompany changes to their color. For example
chlorophyll disappears and replaced by carotene when some fruits get mature
as in tomatoes. Anthocyanin can accumulate as in grapes and pears.

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Pollen grains have two roles. First producing male reproductive cells
which fertilize the eggs with double fertilization process and this produces the
seed. The second role is stimulating special hormones which organize the ma- Pollen grains have two ro-
turity process of the ovary and converting it to fruits. Therefore this process can les. First producing male reproducti-
be replaced sometimes by sprinkling some hormones over the ovary of some ve cells which fertilize the eggs with
flowers. These plant hormones affect the ovary to get mature and change it to double fertilization and produces
fruit. This process called as artificial pathenocarpy and these fruits are called as seed. The second role is stimulating
artificial parthenocarpic fruits. However there are some kind of fruits which special hormones which organize the
naturally have no seed and these called as natural parthenocarpic fruits. maturity process of the ovary and
Pine apples and some kinds of grapes are examples for its. It is believed that converting it to fruits.
the ovary of this kind of flowers have high level of hormones.

Figure 3.20 Some kinds of fruits

(for study)

Structure of fruit

It is possible to define the fruit as a mature ovary with its contents and its cov-
erings. Seeds are formed in fruit and consist of three layers. They are;

A) Exocarp; can be called as a skin or cover.

B) Mesocarp; can be called as a flesh.
C) Endocarp; can be called as a pith.

Notice that these layers differ in growth rate and thickness in different types of
Figure 3.21 Fruit structure
plants.

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Types of fruits
Fruits have various types we will summarize the common types of fruits as
follows.

1. Simple Fruits
These fruits are product of one flower with one carpel or many carpels as in
case of broad beans, tomato, cucumber, orange and apricot.

2. Aggregate Fruits
These fruits formed from many separated carpels. The fruits in this type come
formed from one single flower as in blackberry.

3. Compound Fruits
They can be called as multiple fruits and formed from a group of flower. Each
flower forms a fruit and they remain connected to each other at the maturity as
in the case of pine apple.

Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Large number of fruits and seeds contain structures or different special

parts help them to spread out easily in their environment or in similar environ-
ments by different factors which help to spread the fruit and the seed like wind,
birds, and other animals, human and also the structure of seed and opening of
fruits.

The wind carries the seeds and fruits away from the mother plants as it
happens in the seeds of grass, weeds and desert plants. Since seeds are very
light in weight or covered by hairs in umbrella shape as in the winged fruits.

The animals also help to spread the seeds and the fruit so that some
seeds contain prickles and it sticks the shin of the animals so it transfers it to
far distances from its position.

Many water plants depends on water waves to transfer its seeds and
fruits in order to keep the quality, usually the seeds and fruits of these plants
are light or their caver contain vacuums which help seed to float on the surface
of the water as in coconut.

Figure 3.22 Dispersal of fruits and

seed by animals

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3-8-1 Vegetative propagation

It is a common type of asexual reproduction in many plants and ferns.

The plants have vegetative propagation in many ways, by stolons; they are
stems extend on the surface of the ground. Rhizomes or Tubers, Corms and
Bulbs. All these parts are vegetative parts of plant and they are not related to the
sexual reproduction but act in vegetative propagation. There are three general
types of vegetative propagation.

A) Natural vegetative propagation

This happens in many ways;

1. Propagation by Stolons

It one of the vegetative propagation types as in strawberry. A horizon-

tal stem (stolon) which can be a meter in length extends above the surface of
the ground. The stolons form new vertical plants on the knot positions on the
stolons. New roots grow in ground, stems and leaves grow to up. The new plant
separates from the mother plant naturally and when stolons die it can take and
plant in other places.

Fıgure 3.23 Types of vegetative

propagation in plants

2. Propagation by Rhizomes

This is a vegetative propagation way which most of the weeds and

ferns reproduce by this way. It happens by formation of terrestrial stems, which
extends under the soil surface and called as rhizomes. Roots grow from hori-
zontal stem and green parts grow from the buds above the ground. Terrestrial
stems extend by the growth of their apical buds and covers new areas in a great
speed. Garden grass and Iris are examples for this type of reproduction.

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3. Propagation by Tubers

Tubers can be defined as food storing terrestrial stems. Tubers contain

number of lowness called eyes. Each eye contains a bud or many buds called
axillary buds. Usually one plant has a group of tubers which are capable to
form new branches from its bud as in potato.

4. Propagation by Bulbs and Corms

This kind of vegetative propagation happens in many herbaceous

plants by formation bulbs. A bulb is a single, globular, big bud. It has a disk
stem at the base end and some leaves grow from its upper surface and roots
grow from lower surface. Buds are emerged from axils of leaves and these buds
similar to the mother bulb. It may separate or remain connected to the mother
bulb. Onion, garlic, narcissus and lily are examples for this type of propaga-
tion.

Corms also a method of vegetative propagation and it similar to the

bulbs in morphology but differs in the big part of corms is a stem tissue; the
leaves are thinner and smaller than the leaves of bulbs. Corms also reproduce
by forming buds from the axil of leaves on stem and separate to form new
corms as in gladiolus, earth apple and turmeric.

B) Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Many plants lose their ability to form active seeds as in banana, grape,
and some kinds of orange. And also some plants take long time to reproduce by
seeds like date, and also there is difficulty to guarantee to limit the species and
genus of tree, therefore the farmers resort to propagate the plants vegetatively.
There are some plants cannot reproduce vegetatively and they need stimulation
to propagate by using some plant hormones like; indole acetic acid, indole bu-
tyric acid and naphthalene acidic acids.

The ways of artificial vegetative propagation as follows:

1. By offsets

Offsets are big buds frequently formed at the stem base in the region
of its connection with the soil. Adventitious roots, which extend in soil, are
formed from them. And when their growth completes, they are separated from
the mother tree. Then they are translocated and grow in another place in the
form of an independent plant. Among plants, which are propagated by this way,
are date palm and banana.

2. By layering

Some plants can form adventitious roots if they touch the earth and
are covered with soil. Man has utilized this characteristic in propagating some
plants in that a twig is bended while it is still connected with the mother plant
and part of it is covered with some quantities of soil. This process is known as
layering.
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If the bending of the branch is difficult because of its hardness for ex-
ample, it can be aerial layering by enclosing it with a soil-containing pot and
leaving it for a period of time (about 6 weeks) in that part of the branch, bur-
ied in the pot, forms adventitious roots. Then, the branch, which has become
containing roots, can be separated from the mother plant and grown in another
place. Among plants, which can be propagated by layering, are grape, lemon
and orange and others.

3. Propagation by Grafts

The process of grafting is attachment part of a plant to the part of an-

other plant. This method is used to reproduce plants with desired properties. It
is noticed in the experiment if a part of plant taken which has buds as orange
and it has put in a special way on another plant similar to the its characteristics
as lemon, the bud of orange grows forms flowers and fruits on lemon tree.
The part which contains the buds is called scion while the other part is called
as stock.

There are two main types of grafting:

a. Budding Grafting

A bud is taken from a plant with desired properties placed in a split of T

shape within the stock. Their two sides are lifted and the bud is inserted in it
and covered again with two sides then the bud tied up in its place.

b. Cleft Grafting

Cleft grafting is carried out by cutting the stem of the stock tree hori-
zontally near the soil surface. Then a vertical split is made in it. Afterward, Propagation by Grafts is
a branch containing a number of buds is taken from the scion and its end is used to reproduce plants with desi-
trimmed in such a way that it fits the split and it is put cautiously in such a red properties.
manner that cambium tissue fit one another in the scion and stock. Then this
place is tied up and covered with the wax.
It is important to know that grafting always not succeeds, only if there
are alike properties between scion and stock. Means they must be from the
same class of plants, so orange cannot grafted on peach but can be grafted on
lemon and also peach can be grafted on plum.

Figure 3.24 Vegetative propagation

in plants
A,B,C Budding grating
D,E Cleft grafting
F Layering

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The importance of Vegetative propagation in plants

The vegetative propagation is used in plants for many purposes;

1. To propagate the plants which do not produce seeds

2. To propagate hybrid plants without change since their seeds do not give all
of the plants which are similar to the parents.
3. To propagate plants which the seeds are germinated at low rates.
4. To increase the propagation speed and speed-up the fruiting.
5. To adapt the plants to new conditions. For example, roots of the pear trees do
not grow well in a sandy soil but they can be grown in such a soil successfully
by way of grafting it on stocks of peach trees of which the roots blossom in
this soil.
6. Preventing the affliction by some parasites, which attack roots of specific
kinds and do not attack other kinds. For example, roots of the European grape
are subject to be afflicted by a type of parasites, which do not hit roots of the
American grape. If stocks of the American grape are grafted by those of the
European grape one, the latter grow without being exposed to these parasites.

2-8-3 Plant tissue Culture

The plantation of plant tissues is regarded as one of the applications

of vital techniques which help in reproduction of plants and this represents the
artificial vegetative propagation. Simply it means; the development of plant
tissue and cells outside the plant body, in environment or in proper feeding me-
dia. This result in formation or development of plant buds which transformed
during proper time to form a mature plant.
The advantage of this tissue plantation in plants, it is a method used at
the present time to get a plant with desired properties. The salt resistance and
the changes in temperature and it also used to overcome some plantation prob-
lems like long life, as in date tree.
The tissue plantation is becoming common in the world and in Iraq,
some studies at research centres achieved a success in this field and this can be
the main of reproduction of date palms which is commonly grow in Iraq.

The tissue plantation for date tree can be summarized as follows:

1. One of the offsets is separated from the mother plant; mostly a good offset is
selected because it has an active growth.
2. The apical growing part extracted and this requires sterilized media to pre-
vent contamination of extracted tissue.
3. The apical growing part partitioned into small pieces, because it contains
active cells.
4. The tissue planted in media which contains nutrients, reliable humidity and
temperature. After transplanting it to a normal environment.

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3-9 Reproduction in Animals

The members of the animal kingdom show a big difference in reproduc-
tion ways and mostly reproduce sexually but there some animals which repro-
duce sexually and asexually, the basic structure of the reproductive system in
animals is similar although there are some differences in reproduction habits
and fertilization ways which made many changes especially in vertebrate.

We will study some examples about reproduction and reproductive systems in

individuals of animal kingdom.

3-9-1 Reproduction in hydra

Hydra belongs to class Hydrozoa they mostly are sea-living animals but there
are some that lives in fresh water. It lives individually or in colonies, the ideal
life cycle of hydra in two stages, asexually stage Polyp and sexually stage Me-
dusa. Notice that hydra of fresh water doesn’t have sexual stage medusa; some
kind of hydra has sexual stage only without asexual stage. Hydra reproduces
asexually and sexually.

1- Asexual Reproduction

Hydra reproduces asexually by budding, and this kind of reproduction

happens when the food is available, so mostly at the beginning of the last third
of the body it forms a little bulge is called bud which contains vacuole that
represents the main vacuole for the mother animal.

The bud grows and extends, and when it reaches the suitable size at
the far end the little bulges will appear and grow, then the mouth forms, during
several days the bud grows and appears as a complete formatted small animal
which is connected to the mother, and after a short period it pinches of at the
base of the bud and in the connected area with mother body. And then the bud
separates from the mother and it closes its base and also closes the hole which
was left in the mother body, then the independent life starts. The one animal
may forms many buds which grow into new individuals.

Hydra reproduces asexually in another method which is Fragmenta- Figure 3.26 Sexually (Me-
tion and Regeneration, it has been found when hydra cut into many pieces dusa) and asexually (Polyp) form
most of them renews into a small size complete hydra. of hydra

2- Sexual Reproduction

- Hydra is present in nature either Monoecious or Hermaphrodite so the an-

imal has ovaries and testes in the same individual. There are some kinds of
hydra separated sex (Diocious) so the testes are in one animal and the ovaries
in another animal.

- Hydra gets stimulated to form ovaries and testes in certain circumstances as

changes in the temperature and raising the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the water especially in the season of autumn.

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- Gonads form in shape of bulges which is covered by the outer layer for the
body wall, the testes usually take a cone shape in the upper half of hydra’s
body; the ovaries are sphere structures takes position in the lower half of the
body near the lower disc.

- Testes are formed from interstitial cells which are available in the body wall,
and these cells are not differentiated and it may differentiate to form any kind
of cells when is needed. The interstitial cells form spermatogonia which pass-
es through a sequenced formation stage to produce sperms that collects in an
expanded structure which opens out to release the sperms into the water and it
finds its way to the egg.

- The ovary also forms in the same way as testes and differentiates at several
interstitial cells to form oogonia. The size of one of the oogonia increases and
usually the central oogonia increase, which supplied by food from the adjacent
dissolved cells. The oogonia will have formation stages to produce big sized
mature ovum. When the ovum formation is complete, the surrounding skin
layer splits and the ovum remains stuck by the base of the ovary until it meets
the sperms, then fertilization takes place and the zygote is formed.

The zygote passes by formation stages which are stuck by the mother
body and then separates from it after it has been covered by protective layer to
resist unsuitable environmental circumstances, in the season of spring young
hydra come out.

Figure 3.28 Sexual reproduction in

hydra

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3-9-2 Reproduction in Planarian

Planaria belongs to tape worm (flatworm) class which includes a big

variety of worms its length varies between 1mm to several meters as in tape-
worm, and its flat body is thin and horizontal as the leaf of the tree or long looks
like a tape.

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction in Planaria

1-Asexual Reproduction in Planaria

Planaria reproduces asexually by Fragmentation and Regeneration,

when the worm is cut into many pieces; these pieces grow and renew to form
new complete worms.

The laboratory experiments have proved that fragmentation represents

a procedure which brings attention in laboratory studies for example if a piece
from the middle of planaria worm is removed it may form a new head and a
new tail by fragmentation.

This piece keeps its original poles, so the head grows at the front side and the
tail grows at the back side. Planaria of fresh water reproduces asexually by
binary fission so the animal pinches off behind the throat and it pinches off
more gradually then the animal divides into two individuals, each one of them
complete the missing parts.

Binary fission in Planaria is a quick reproduction method, the animal heads

towards this method when the population decreases. Figure 3.29 Asexual reproduction
in planaria
2-Sexual Reproduction in Planaria

Planaria is hermaphroditic; the same animal has got male and female
reproductive organs. The male reproductive organs consist of many sphere
shaped testes which are connected to the vas deferens. The vas deferens is
connected to penis on both sides; the penis enters into the genital cloaca.

The seminal vesicle is situated at the base of the penis. The sperms
form in the testes and it passes by the vas deferens to seminal vesicle which
remains there until it is needed.

Female reproductive organs consist of two ovaries and two long ovi-
ducts where many glands connected to them, uterus and vagina where they
are open to genital cloaca. The eggs form inside the ovary and it passes to the
oviduct then into the uterus, the fertilization takes place then the cocoon is
formed.

During the intercourse the sperms transfer from an animal to another

two intercourse animals or two conjugated animals the reproductive organs are
designed to prevent self-fertilization. Figure 3.30 Reproductive organs
of planaria

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3-9-3 Reproduction in Earthworm

Earthworm belongs to class Segmented worms, this class is very big

and it includes around 9000 types and the most common one is the earthworm,
freshwater worms with a few pili, but the sea worms represents most of the
individuals in this class (two third of class individuals).

Earthworms reproduce sexually and it is hermaphroditic, so the male

and female reproductive organs are in the same animal.

Male reproductive system consists of the following:

a. A Pair of small testes which are positioned in the each body segments 10
and 11.
b. A Pair of sperm funnels each one is represented by funnel structure situated
near each testes.
c. A Pair of vas deferens extends into segment 15 and each one of them is
opened into a separate hole on the abdominal surface for that body segment.
d. The testes, sperm funnels and the vas deference of each side gets covered by
three seminal vesicles, the total is three pairs of seminal vesicles for each side.

The immature sperms transfers from the testes to get mature inside the
seminal vesicles, then passes into the sperm funnels then into the vas defer-
ence finally into the male genital openings in the body segment number 15 and
comes out during the intercourse.

Figure 3.31 Reproductive organs

in earthworm (for study)

Female reproductive system consists of the following.

a. A pair of small ovaries which are situated in the body segment number 13.
b. A pair of fimbrea funnels which are situated near the ovaries within the same
body segment and it extends to the next segment.

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c. A pair of oviducts which extend to the segment number 14 and they are open
separately through the female genital opening on the abdominal surface for the
body segment number 14.
d. Two pairs of spermatheca (seminal receptacle) in the segment number 9
and 10, the first pair opens into the furrow between segment 9 and 10 and the
second pair opens into the furrow between segment 10 and 11.

Intercourse in the earthworm

The intercourse in the earthworm usually happens during the night and
especially in moist hot climate in the seasons, spring and summer. During the
intercourse each one of the animals extends the front side from the hole which
they are located in, so the abdominal surfaces of the two worms are faced to
each other in opposite directions, so the saddle area (clitellum) for each worm
will be opposite the spermatheca openings of the other worm.
The two worms attach to each other by mucus which is secreted by the
saddle and the body of each worm will be covered by mucus layer from the
segment 8 to the point before the saddle.
The two worms exchange the sperms which are released from vas def-
erens opening that is located on the abdominal surface for the body segment
number 15 from each worm, the sperms of each worm goes under the mucus
layer towards the saddle to enter to the opening of the spermatheca for other
worm (the fertilization is cross, that means each worm gives its sperms to the
other worm during the copulation).
The saddle in each worm starts excreting mucus substance to form Cocoon (for study)
mucus tube on the saddle called cocoon.
As a result of moving the worm the cocoon slips and while passing the
body segment number 14, which the oviducts opening are, so it gives off the
eggs inside cocoon and when it arrives to the seminal receptacle openings it
releases sperms in it, in this case the cocoon contains the eggs and sperms.
The cocoon slips off on worm’s body to be free completely off worm’s
body, after that the fertilization takes place. The cocoons gives off in moist soil,
inside the cocoon formation new individuals start without passing caterpillar
stage, after two – three weeks the cocoons split and new worms similar to
adults comes out.

Figure 3.32 Marriage and coccon

formation in earthworm (for study)

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3-9-3 Reproduction in Insects

Insects show big differences in reproductive systems and reproduction

methods; this difference comes of a huge variety of insects. It’s the most vari-
ous animal group, and includes nearly a million types.

Insects usually are diocious, the two sexes are separate into male and
female, most female insects are bigger size than males, there are other differ-
ences between male and female which are colour, having wings or not, shape
of antenna and the legs.

3-9-4 Reproductive organs in Insects

The reproductive organs in male and female are not differentiated until
the growth stage after embryo formation is completed, different kind of insects
have different reproductive systems, in general reproductive organs in insects
divides into two parts:

1. The inner reproductive organs, consist of gonads and a group of exported

canals and some supplements like glands, spermatheca and some other.
2. The external reproductive organs, this represented by ovipositor in female
and copulation apparatus in male.

1-Male reproductive system in Insects

Male reproductive system consists of the parts and the structure as

follows.
Figure 3.33 (a) Male reproductive
system in insect 1. Two testes which are located above the digestive tube or on its side, the testes
in insects consist of group of small tubes called seminiferous tubules.
2. Seminiferous tubules opens into small canal on the same side called vas def-
erens, the front part of vas deferens is connected to the testes, and the back part
is connected to the seminal vesicle which represents wide area of vas deferens.
3. Two vas deferens unites to form ejaculatory duct which extends into the
penis, and this opens in the end of it to the reproductive opening which releases
the sperms from it.
4. Two accessory glands which located in the beginning of ejaculatory duct and
they secrete mucus liquid which surrounds the sperms and it forms sac struc-
ture around it called sperm sac.

2-Female reproductive system in Insects

Female reproductive system consists of the following parts and structures;

1. A pair of ovaries, each one of them consists of a number of ovum tubes

called ovarioles and these tubes don’t contain a vacuole, ovarioles contain oo-
gonia and oocytes. And also contain nurse cells for their (oocytes) nutrition.
2. Two oviducts on the sides and the back part of each ovary are connected
to an oviduct on each side. Two oviducts on the side unite to form the main
oviduct into it.

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3. Seminal receptacle; this is a sac structure belongs to female reproductive

system in most insects and some insects have two or three seminal receptacles
usually a gland connects to the seminal receptacle called a gland of seminal
receptacle which secretes a liquid to keep the sperms while it stays there. Sem-
inal receptacle connects to the back wall of vagina and it receives the sperms
during mating after that it releases them to fertilize the eggs.

Accessory glands, these are represented by a pair of glands which are

connected to the end of it to be open in the vagina. Vagina; this is the back
part of the reproductive system and the main oviduct opens the function of the
accessory glands varies in insects, in some insects the accessory glands are
responsible for forming the ovisac as in cockroaches it is also used as defence
as in bee and in ants the accessory glands are used to mark its path.

Fertilization and reproduction

Fertilization takes place when to adult insects male and female from
the same type meet and then mating will take place. During mating the male
reproductive opening flops on female reproductive opening, so the male ejac-
ulates the sperms into the vagina and female releases its mature eggs in the
vagina too, the sperms fertilizes the eggs.
Figure 3.33 Female reproductive
Female insects usually lays its zygote in places which have suitable system of insect
environment for its growth, it lays the eggs in holes which it digs them by ovi-
positor or it sticks them on plants leaves, or it lays them in holes it digs it in a
certain plants stem, in this case the insects called oviparous, and the reproduc-
tion defines as ovipary.

There are some insects lays larva instead of eggs, these insect called
viviparous and can be ovoviviparous, this kind of insects keep the zygote inside
its body certainly in the oviducts, the embryo will grow and completes and the
eggs hatches then the small insects come out.

3-9-5 Reproduction in Frog

Frog belongs to Amphibian class within vertebrate phylum; it repre-

sents the example which explains the strategy of body forming in quantic feet.
Frog reproduces sexually; we summarize the contents of male and female re-
productive system in frog and also reproduction in frog.

1. Male reproductive system in Frog.

Male reproductive system in frog consist the following;

A pair of testes which are attached to the kidneys, the test is stretched
egg shape structure, and its light yellow, it connects to the inner wall for the
body by mesorchium. There are many finger shape projections near the front
end of the testes, these called adipose body. It represents food store, the ani-
Figure 3.34 Male reproductive
mal use it for the growth of the testes during the winter season. Testes contain
system in frog (for study)
wiggled seminiferous tubules with internal wall which is responsible for sper-
matogenesis.

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Vasa efferentia, numbers of them are 10-12 which connects to semi-

niferous tubules, and it connects to kidneys tubules.

Two vas deferens these are joint canals with kidneys canals therefore it
will be called urogenital ducts, they transfers the urine and the sperms and it
opens into the cloaca, in some frogs the back part of vas deferens can expand to
form seminal vesicle the sperms will be stored in it. Frogs don’t have external
male mating organs.

2. Female Reproductive system in Frog

Female Reproductive system in frog consist the following structures;

Two ovaries which are located near the kidneys, they connect to the
inner body wall by mesovarium, and the ovary in frog is irregular sac structure
it appears as a sac with multi-clove. And its colour is black to grey, there are
adipose bodies in the front end of the ovary, as it’s in male, the two ovaries will
be expanded a lot during the reproduction season.
The eggs form from germ cell which is in the lining of the ovary through oo-
genesis.

Two oviducts, the oviduct in frog is wiggled, long, white tube and it
Figure 3.35 Female reproductive doesn’t connect directly to the ovary, the front end of each oviduct is a funnel
system in frog (for study) structure with fimbrea opening, the function of fimbrea is represented by mov-
ing the eggs to the back. There are glands in the inner layer of oviducts which
secrete Albumin layer around the eggs while passing in the canal, the back
end for each oviduct will expand to form ovisac which the eggs are collected
before it gets released. Oviducts are open by two separate openings in the wall
of cloaca.

Fertilization in Frog

Sexually mature frogs gathered with each other in reproduction season

which is usually in spring season, they are available in the lakes with shallow
water, the male frog hugs the female by its front parts, the first finger in male
is expanded to form nuptial pad which helps to hold the female, the frogs
stay like that for the period of time, so the male presses on female’s body, then
female starts to release its eggs in the water, and at the same time male starts
to ejaculate its sperms on the eggs, so fertilization takes place, and usually the
one egg will be surrounded by a big number of sperms, but only one sperm
succeeds in fertilization, and then the zygote will be formed which represents
the beginning of forming a new animal.

Fertilization takes place outside the female body this is called external
fertilization. After that the zygote will pass by cleavage stage and tadpole
forms which it has tail, with growth progress and having morphology chang-
es, the tadpole will lose its tail and the gills which will have lungs instead to
achieve respiration in adult frogs.

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Figure 3.36 Reproduction and life

cycle in frog (for study)

3-9-6 Reproductive System in Human

As the case in most vertebrate the sexes in human also is separated,

the reproductive system in human is more complicated than other vertebrates;
we will try to know the parts of male and female reproductive system and the
function of each one.

Male reproductive system in Human

Figure 3.73 Male reproductive

system in human

Male reproductive system in human consist of reproductive organs and acces-

sory glands.

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ORGANS FUNCTION
A. REPRODUCTIVE OR-
GANS
1.Testes (2) they are located in Sc- Produce sperms and sexual hor-
rotum outside of the body to per- mones
form their function at available
temperature.
2. Epididymis (2) Sperms get mature and it’s the
place to store the sperms
3. Vas Deferens (2) Transfers the sperms and stores
them
4. Ejaculatory Duct (2) Delivers the sperms to the penis.
5. Penis (1) Intercourse organ.

B. ACCESSORY GLANDS
1. Seminal Vesicle (2) Secretes liquid to the sperms and
its secretion makes big part of se-
men liquid
2. Prostate Gland (1) Secretes part of semen liquid

Table 3.3 Explains content of male 3. Bulbourethral Glands (2) also Secretes mucus liquid helps to
reproductive system and function called Cowper’s Glands. move the sperm and also helps to
of each one equalize the acidity of the liquid
which the sperms get produced

Sperm Formation

The testis in human is an egg shape structure, it contains seminiferous

tubules, and the length of seminiferous tubules all together is about 250 me-
ters.
In the seminiferous tubules spermatogonia forms which will increas-
es in size and divides normal division to form two primary spermatocytes and
both of these cells are bi –chromosome group (2n).
Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis to form secondary spermato-
cytes and these cells are haploid – chromosomes group (n), followed by second
meiosis division to produce early spermatids which are haploid- chromosome
group (n), and these differentiate to form sperms which is also haploid- chro-
mosome (n).

Mature sperm differentiates into three parts: head, middle piece and
tail, the head consists of nucleus and a head cover which contains the acro-
some in the front part, it is thought that the function of acrosome is forming
materials with enzyme nature, the egg membranes get dissolved by this ma-
terial in the area which sperm meets the egg so this facilitates the passing of
sperms to the egg surface, and the middle piece contain an axil of longitude
tubes, it is believed that it controls the movement of the tail.

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Figure 3.38 Testes structure in

human (for study)

Figure 3.39 Mature sperm in

human

2- Female reproductive system in human

Female reproductive system in human consists of two ovaries, two ovi-

ducts, uterus and a vagina.

The ovaries contain thousands of eggs and they are usually smaller
than the testes, each egg grows inside the follicle called graffian follicle and
this grows and increases in size, until it explodes in the end to release the ma-
ture egg. During woman’s fertility period, about 13 eggs get matured every
year, female remains fertile for thirty years only, so about 300-400 eggs only
gets a chance to be mature and the rest of the eggs are dissolved and absorbed.

Two oviducts they are called fallopian tube these tubes to carry the
eggs, the front part of them has funnel shape openings to receive the eggs
which it releases from the ovary after ovulation, oviduct has a fimbrea lining to
push the eggs in its way.

Oviducts open in the upper sides of uterus, which specified to keep the
embryo during the nine months while staying inside the uterus.

The uterus has a thick muscular lining, and a lot of blood vessel and
specialized lining.

Vagina, this is represented by a muscular tube ready to receive the

embryo after it exits from the uterus; it’s also specialized to receive male organ
during the intercourse.

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Figure 3.40 Female reproductive

system in human (for study)

ORGAN FUNCTION
Producing eggs and they get
1. Ovaries (2) mature in it, also produce sexual
hormones
Transferring the eggs from the
2. Oviducts (2) This is called Fal- ovary to the uterus and usually
lopian Tube the fertilization of eggs takes
place in it.
It is the place where the embryo
3. Uterus (1)
grows.
It secretes mucus material to help
sperms to move inside the uterus.
4. Cervix (1)
Table 3.4 Female reproductive sys- After fertilization it protects the
tem and their function in human embryo from bacterial infection.
5. Vagina (1) It is the female intercourse organ.

Fertilization and pregnancy

Fertilization takes place when the sperms enter to the vagina during the inter-
course between male and female at or near the ovulation time.

The sperms swim from vagina towards the cervix then enter into the
uterus then ascend to the fallopian tube, where the fertilization takes place if
there was a live mature egg in the upper third of it. If mature egg descended
to the lower part of fallopian tube before the fertilization it loses its ability for
fertilization.

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The mature egg gets fertilized by one sperm only, after fertilization
the zygote formed in the fallopian tube, and then it starts to go down until it
reaches the uterus where the embryo is implanted in the thick lining of the
uterus. Embryonic membranes grow to form a sac which surrounds
the embryo and it contains amniotic fluid.
At the end of implanting the embryo to the uterus lining pregnancy
stage will start and the corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone hor-
mones after the 26th day of menstrual cycle until the fifth month. So it lacks the
ability to form enough amount of this hormone to continue the pregnancy, the
placenta replaces, and it works as endocrine gland to give enough amount of
progesterone hormones to the lining of uterus directly instead of secreting it to
the blood.
The embryo will be ready for birth after about 9 months of the begin-
ning of its growth. Before the birth the placenta will stop to produce proges-
terone hormones, the uterus starts to contract, and this is the first sign to start
the birth, then the cervix expands and the sac which contains the fluid will
split. Then the liquid comes out and the uterus starts to contract strongly and
consequently to push the baby outside the uterus through the cervix then to the
vagina and then to outside of the body.
The size of the breast in women increases during the pregnancy, the
milk gland secretes the milk as a respond to the effect of the hormones, contin-
uation of milk secretion depends on the feeding period.

Menstrual Cycle

In the reproductive system of sexually mature female, periodic chang-

es happens, these changes start when the female reaches the adolescence age
12-14, these changes happens within menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle includes changes happens in the ovary which leads to
ovulation and explains the main roles for ovulation and the growth of ovarian
follicle, and also changes in the lining of the uterus, the table (3-5) explains the
events of ovarian cycle and uterine cycle.

1-Ovarian Cycle

The Ovarian cycle is controlled by Gonadotropic Hormones, Follicle

Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH), we summa-
rize the events of ovarian cycle as the followings:

a. Early Follicle forming stage; It contains oogonia which are diploid (2n),
and the first meiosis starts.
b. Primary Follicle forming stage; A non-cellular membrane called zone
pellucida starts to forms around the egg.
c. Secondary Follicle stage, the vacuole of follicle appears with full of secre-
tions from the follicle cells, blood plasma contents, protein and others.
d. Mature follicle stage, the follicle gets mature and the first meiosis complet-
ed, the secondary oocyte and a primary polar body forms.
e. Ovulation stage, the follicle splits, then the secondary oocyte and first polar
body releases.
f. Corpus Luteum formation stage, Corpus luteum forms from the follicle
remaining. (The Corpus Luteum dissolves when the woman is not pregnant).

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Figure 3.41 Ovarian cycle stages

in mature female

2- Uterine Cycle

Female sexual hormones in the ovarian cycle produces oestrogen and

progesterone, these hormones effects the internal lining of the uterus endome-
trium and this causes periodic events called uterine cycle and the period of
this cycle is 28 days and it divides as the following:

1. Between the days 1-5 the level of sexual hormones is low, this leads to tear
the lining of the uterus and its blood vessels, and the blood comes out by the
vagina during the monthly period.

2. Between the days 6-13 the ovarian follicle will increase producing oestrogen
hormone, the internal lining of the uterus thickness and becomes rich with ves-
sel and glands, this called reproduction stage, the ovulation usually takes place
in the day 14 of the 28 days of cycle.

3. Between the days 15-28, the corpus luteum increase producing progesterone
hormone causing double increase in thickness the lining of the uterus and in-
creasing uterine glands which produces mucus secretion, this called secretion
stage of the menstruation cycle.

The internal lining of the uterus in this case will be ready to receive
the embryo. And if there isn’t pregnancy, the corpus luteum disappears and the
level of sexual hormone decreases in female’s body and the internal lining of
the uterus tears, then the monthly period takes place.

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UTERINE CYCLE OVARIAN CYCLE

Stage Events Stage Events

1. Menstrual The internal 1. Follicle stage Produce folli-
cycle days (1-5) lining of the days (1-13) cle stimulating
uterus tears hormone - FSH.
Produce oestro-
gen to mature
the follicle
2. Forming The internal 2. Ovulation Decreases
stage days (6- lining of the stage days (14) production of
13) uterus repairs luteinizing hor-
itself mones - LH-
3. Secretion The internal lin- 3. Corpus lute- Secretes follicle
stage days (15- ing of the uter- um stage days stimulating hor-
28) us thickens and (14-28) mone - FSH - to
the glands get form the corpus
mature secrete luteum which
its secretion secretes the Table 5.3 Ovarian cycle and uterine
progesterone cycle in human

3-10 Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is type of reproduction which the embryo grows from

non-fertilized egg. This kind of reproduction happens in the aphids, insects and
in many kinds of fishes, amphibian and desert lizard.

Parthenogenesis is common in honey bees, the female of bee or the

queen gets fertilized by the male once in its life. It keeps the sperms in a sac
which is connected to the reproductive passage, closes by muscular valve,
when the queen bee lays her eggs, it opens the valve to release the sperms, so
these sperms fertilize the eggs or it keeps it closed, so the eggs grow without
fertilization and the fertilized eggs become male.

In some case the parthenogenesis is the one type of reproduction, there

are certain gathers of flagella lizard which lives in south-west of America and
their individuals are female and these females are diploid (2n). So, because its
chromosomes doubles it self before meiosis division to be tetraploid chro-
mosome (4n) and after the division it becomes diploid, these eggs which are
diploid grow without fertilization .

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3-11 Hermaphroditism

Many types of animals has male and female reproductive organs in

the animal, this kind of animal called hermaphrodite, therefore the one animal
produces eggs and sperms, usaully most of hermaphroditic animals avoids self
fertilization which is exchanging reproductive cells with each other. But tape-
worm has abbility to fertilize itself (self fertilization).

Although it has male and female reproductive organs at the same time,
but it fertilizes its eggs by sperm of conjugated animal or vice - versa. There
are some hermaphroditic animals avoid self-fertilization because growing and
maturing of eggs and the sperms in different times. On the other hand the tape
worm has the ability to do self-fertilization, so its sperms fertilize its eggs.

Hermaphroditism has different shapes in many invertebrate animals

like some hydra, flat worm, annelids and some types of scale. It seen in some
kinds of fishes but rare in other vertebrates.

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Questions
Q.1 Write the suitable scientific word in each of the following

1. ……………… cells which are produced by mitosis from the primary germ cells which are lined for the seminiferous
tubules.
2. …………………. unicellular organism is from green algae, and its green cell has got two flagella.
3. ……………….. it is egg shape or cylinder sac structure and it has pollen inside it.
4. ……………….. has a green colour heart shaped structure and carries Archegonium and Antheridium and in its pointed
side roots will grow.
5. ………………… are expanded stems stores the food and grows under the ground.
6. ………………... is vegetative propagation method, the branch remains connected to its mother and it buries under the
ground.

Q.2 Mention the place and the function of the following?

Acrosome, Interstitial cells, Corpus luteum, Accessory glands, Prostate glands, Fallopian tubes, Sporophyte, Stigma,
Micropyle, Torpedo stage.

Q.3 Compare the followings

1. The donor cell and the Recipient cell in sexual reproduction of Bacteria .
2. Archegonium and Antheridium.
3. Sepals and Petals.
4. Cross pollination and Self-pollination.
5. Artificial fruits and natural fruits.
6. Compound Fruit and Aggregate Fruit.
7. Reproduction by Stolons and reproduction by Rhizomes.
8. Oviparous insects and Ovoviviparous insects.
9. Conjugation and Self –fertilization in Paramecium.

Q.4 Complete the followings.

1. The sperms form in …………………..which consist of big number of …………………..

2. Reproduction in viruses happens through two integrated cycle first one is …………cycle and………………………
cycle
3. Paramecium reproduces sexually by ………………..and………………………………..
4. Anthocyanin pigment accumulates to mature the fruit as in ………. and ……………….
5. The ideal life cycle in hydrozoa are two stages……………………. and……………
6. Planaria reproduces sexually by…………………………………..
7. The reproductive organs insects are two parts a……………..and b…………………….
8. The length of seminiferous in human testis is…………………………….
9. Mature sperm in human divides into three parts are……..,………………and……………..
10. Secretion of the milk in female human depends on …………………………….

Q.5 Define the following scientific words.

Double fertilization, multiple fruits, pollen tube, nuptial pad, Graffian follicle, parthenogenesis.

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Q.6 Choose the best answer for each of the followings.

1. Hydra reproduces in many ways except:

a-budding c-fission b-regeneration d-gametes

2. Alternation of Generation appears in life cycle of:

a-Bacteria c-Amoeba b-Plasmodium d-Polytrichum

3. The number of spermatids that formed at the end of spermatogenesis is:

a-4 c-6 b-2 d-8

4. Bacteria reproduce asexually by:

a-Budding c-Regeneration b-Binary fission d-Spores formation

5. Paramecium reproduces asexually by:

a-Binary fission c-Budding b-Regeneration d-Spores formation

6. Which one of the following organisms doesn’t reproduce asexually by bina-

ry fission:
a-Paramecium c-Euglena b-Bacteria d-Black bread mold

7. Black bread mold reproduces asexually by:

a-Green reproduction c-Spore formation b-Budding d-Binary fission

8. Hydra reproduces asexually by:

a-budding and binary fission
b-budding and fragmentation and regeneration
c-spores formation and binary fission
d-green reproduction, fragmentation and regeneration

9. The shape of leaves vein in the plants with double split:

a-netted c-vertical b-parallel d- crossed

10. One of the following organisms reproduces by fragmentation and regen-

eration:
a-Planaria c-Bacteria b-hydra d-none of them

Q.7 Write a summary about each of the followings:

1. The role of the bees in plants pollination.

2. The stages of embryo formation in plants with double split.
3. Cleft grafting
4. Male reproductive system in frog

Q.8 Write what you know about the followings:

1. Explain the steps of asexually reproduction in bacteria by a diagram.

2. Alternation of Generation in plants reproduction.
3. The steps of tissue transplantation for the date palms.

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4. The marriage in earthworm.

5. The events of uterine cycle in female human.

Q.9 Explain what happens in the following cases?

1. Disappearance of corpus luteum in forth month of pregnancy.

2. The location of testes inside the human body.
3. Absence of cilia in the lining of fallopian tube.
4. Injection or sprinkle the ovaries of some flowers by special plants hormones.

Q.10 Explain by a diagram with writing the data?

1. The stages of sperm’s formation.

2. The three layers of the fruit.
3. Reproductive system in Planaria.
4. Male and female reproductive system in insects.

Q.11 Justify and explain the following facts (write causes)?

1. Reproduction enables to survive the species.

2. Alternation of Generation is the best way for reproduction.
3. Only some members provide reproduction process in some species.
4. In asexually reproduction some organisms disappear when the environmental conditions available.
5. Human usually uses artificial fertilization.
6. Production large number of pollen grains.
7. Maturing the fruit and the seeds show that vegetative growth of the plants stop.
8. Presence of micropyle in the ovary and the seed.
9. Presence of cowper gland, prostate gland and seminal vesicle in the male reproductive system
10. Viruses are able to grow and reproduce inside the living cells, but it loses this ability at outside.
11. The tail of virus secretes enzyme when attaches to the bacterial cell.
12. The farmers advise to have bee-cells in the farms.
13. Reproduction by spores is the best way of asexually reproduction.
14. The function of the accessory glands various in insects.
15. The binary fission in planarian is the quick way of the reproduction.

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CHAPTER 4
EMBRYOLOGY

Contents

4 - 1Introductions
4 - 2 Concept of growth.
4 - 3 Concept of cell Differentiation.
4 - 4 Level of Organization in Animal.
4 - 5 Concept of Embryology.
4 - 6 Embryonic Development in Amphioxus.
4 - 7 Congenital Malformation in humans.
4 - 8 Multiple Births and twin Formation.
4 - 9 Periods between Births.
4 - 10 Stem cells.
4 - 11 Cloning in Animals.
4 - 12 Infertile treatment techniques.
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4-1 Introduction
Embryology or the growth is worth to give attention. In many cases it
leads to scare and wonder, so how is the tiny human egg? Its diameter is one
micrometer and it is not seen by naked eye but becomes a complete organism
which consists of billions of cells and each group of them achieves functional
role. Embryology includes growth, development and differentiation which
are basic characters of life.

The question is “How the formation of complete organism can be per-

formed from single cell?”

To answer this question, we say, all the necessary information is avail-

able inside the zygote, mainly in the genes of nucleus. All the stages of embryo
formation controlled by DNA particles which located inside the zygote.

4-2 Concept of Growth

Growth can be defined as an increase in size and weight of cells of
organisms. The tissues are made up of a large number of cells which play the
main role in the stages of growth, the growth of the organisms occur by the
following methods:

1-Growth by cell reproduction or cell duplication, that’s achieved by forming

new cells by division.

2-Interstitial growth, this kind of growth means is the increase in the cellular
substance which found in construction of tissues as intercellular substance in
connective tissue. Hyaline cartilage cells grow and differentiate into mature
cartilage cells which secrete interstitial substances. This forms the base mate-
rial of hyaline cartilage tissue. This represented by chondro-mucoprotein so
the cartilage grows by increasing its interstitial substances.

3- The growth of a single cell; this kind of growth is rarely happens, it is

growth in size of the cells, for example the growth of nervous cells; it increases
in size and multiples of the original size. That’s because the increase in the size
of cytoplasm through new organelle formation, and also the growth of den-
drites in the nervous cell which increases the surface area of the cell.

4-3 Concept of Cell Differentiation

Cell differentiation is defined as the ability of genetic cells in the ear-
ly stages of embryo formation to get functional ability, this means functional
ability of cell or a group of cells which other cells can’t do it. For example con-
traction in the muscular cell is special functional trait for muscular cells, can’t
any other cells do it, and also secretion which happens in the glands cells.

Although there are some recognized factors which play roles in di-
recting some cells in differentiation but the procedure of differentiation is not
understood completely.

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4-4 Level of Organization in Animals

Organization is regarded as one of important characteristics in history

of animal development, so the simplest unicellular animals have much more
narrow field in organization level. Despite of that, these animals are complete
organisms and they do all the main vital activities which the more organized
animal do it. Animals show five level of organization, and they are ordered in a
way so each one of them is more organized than the previous one as following:

A-Protoplasmic level of organization

Protoplasmic organization is clear in unicellular organisms as Protis-

ta. In these animals all the vital activities take place inside the one cell which
represents the main unit of life. In the protoplasm of the cell some organelles
specialized to do special functions.

B- Cellular level of organization

In this level of organization we see division in the job, that some cells
are specialized for reproduction and others for nutrition as in colony of volvox.

C-Cellular tissue level of organization

In this level of organization, the identical cells group together to form a

tissue. Scientists think that sponges are belongs to this order in level of organ-
ization.

D-Level of organized tissues

Organization and mostly the organs are made up of more than one
type of tissues, so it has a function which is more advanced than other types of
tissues. This level of organization starts in flat worms, which has a number of
limited organs like trunk and reproductive organs.

E-Level of organ system

In this level the organs work together for a certain function, reaches
to the highest level of organization which is organ system, the systems do the
main function for the body, like blood circulation, respiration, digestion, and
others. Organization shows the top level in human which is at the top of the
development pyramid of the organisms.

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Figure 4.1 Tissues in human

body (for study)

4-5 Concept of Embryology

Embryology or the growth Embryology or the growth define as forming the organism from one
define as forming the organism from cell which represented by zygote, until formation completes to become a mul-
one cell which represented by Zygo- ti-cellular complicated structure, similar to the parents.
te, until formation completes to be-
come a multi-cellular complicated Embryology is the science which studies the embryo formation and
structure, similar to the parents. development which includes the growth and differentiation and develop-
ment.
During the operation of embryo formation, morphogenesis take place,
which is forming appearance of the embryo; the main steps of this operation
are similar in embryo of all vertebrates. It is necessary to point out that focus-
ing only on embryo development is insufficient which represents Pre-metamor-
phosis in amphibians, and pre-hatching stage in birds, the stage of pre-birth
in embryonic animals, but it continues to other stages involves the growth of
the animal in living stages, for example in embryo of the frog after the organs
formation.

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After the hatch, the tadpole doesn’t look like the parents; it undergoes the stage
of metamorphosis which includes quick changes in the body. So the tadpole
with tail which feeds on plants in water changes to a small frog which feeds
on meat on the land. Metamorphosis happens in insects too. In the mammals
the born animal is similar to the parents, and with the birth, the first step in the
growth of the born animal start, so the cartilage is replaced by bones, and these
bones continues growing for a certain time, also some organs not perform its
functions for a certain time for example ovary and testes in human.

4 - 5 - 1 Opinions and Theories about the Embryology

Embryology has taken scientists and researches attentions since long

time, and their first question was;
What was the procedure which controls forming a new organism
that is similar to the parents?
The scientists were unable to explain many points in the formation of embryo,
as human creation is the secret of human existence.

In the following there are concepts and theories about embryology:

1. The Greek philosopher Hippocrates in the 5th century (B.C.) put the first
qualitative notes about the embryo formation for the chicken, and then followed
him the Greek philosopher Aristotle (350) who is regarded as the embryology
founder. He described the embryo-formation for the chicken, and he mentioned
that the parts of the embryo is formed according to the egg contents, he relied
on his eye in this description by that he found Descriptive Embryology.

2.When the scientific evidence was approved in the explanation of natural

phenomena in the 17th and 18th century, the science developed including em-
bryology. After discovering the microscope, the scientist De Graaf in (1672
AC) introduced a description for ovarian follicle. The scientist Leeuwenhoek
described the sperm in (1677 AC) the ideas established which had role the
progress of embryology.

3. Pre-formation Theory: The supporters of this theory assumed that there is

a minimized embryo inside the egg called Homunculus and its parts get big-
ger when there is alert by seminal liquid. The attitude of these scientists was
proved when the scientist Bonnet in (1745 AC) explained the ability of some
eggs to grow by Parthenogenesis without fertilization in some insects.

The other Pre-formation Theory supporters group assumed that there

is homunculus in sperm’s head, so they proved they seen homunculus inside
sperm’s head by using Leeuwenhoek microscope.
Figure 4.2 Homunuculus
And then the scientist Spallazani explained that forming new organ- inside sperm cell (for study)
ism needs male gametes and female gametes.

4. Epigenesis Theory, this theory assumed that the embryo is made of a granu-
lar material inside the egg and it turns gradually into an embryo and this theory
belongs to scientist Wolf.

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5. The scientist Karl Ernst Von Baer set the “Von Baer Law”. This scientist
pointed out that the general charactheristics in the embryo of chordata appear
before the special charactheristics in the animal of that group, for example the
appearance of notochord in the embryo of chordata before the appearance of
the charactheristics which specializes the types which belongs to the chordata
like growing the feathers in birds.

Ernst Von Bear is one of the scientists who did a lot for embryology.
He compared the embryonic development in different animals in his studies
which named as Comparative Embryology.

6. Experimental Theories; these are the theories depends on having experi-

ments to explain the embryo-formation. Scientist Roux (1888) is the first one
who did an experiment on the egg of frog in the first cleavage stage by killing
one of the blastomeres by very hot needle. The formed embryo was incomplete
and then the embryology entered into a stage called Experimental Embryol-
ogy.
Experimental embryology led to discover the Embryonic Induction
in the thirties of the last century. Which means, the ability of certain tissue to
differentiate after receiving the induction signals which make it ready for dif-
ferentiation, for example the differentiation of Ectoderm cells after receiving
the induction signals from lower tissues to change the nervous platelets which
the nervous system forms from it. This phenomenon was discovered by the
scientists Spemann and Helda Mangold who did many experiments on the
embryo of frogs, the scientist Spemann got the Nobel prize in (1935 AC) for his
experiments, and then the scientists started to give a special care to bio-chem-
istry and physical-chemistry in their experiments. Then the Experimental Em-
bryology transferred to the level of molecule then the Molecular Embryology
appeared which explains the phenomenon of embryo-formation according to
the role of bio-chemistry by using special machines.The Electron Microscope
had special importance in that.

It is necessary to point out at the current time that Preformation Theory

can be accepted that, all information regarding the embryo –formation already
determined and carried on the DNA. Also acceptance of Epigenesis theory re-
garding those different organs of embryo forms epigenetically step by step.

4 - 5 - 2 Main concept of Embryology

Embryology doesn’t stop at the end of each stage of formation, but

continues to the following stage, to explain the embryology we divide it as the
following:

1-Formation of Sex cells and Fertilization

This stage includes:

a- Formation of Gonads which are able to form reproductive cells.

b- Producing the reproductive cells when organism reach the sexual maturity.

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c-Uniting the ovum by the sperm by fertilization and forming the Zygote. Fer-
tilization is not end of sexual reproduction but it is the beginning of a chain of
systematic and completed changes which produces new individual belongs to
the same species.

2-Cleavage

It is a chain off requent mitotic divisions which start from Zygote and
divides into two cells (Blastomeres) and then into four blastomeres then into
eight blastomeres and by frequent divisions. The zygote changes into a hollow
and ball shaped group of cells called Blastula, the thickness of it is one layer
of cells as in Amphioxus which is from pre-vertebrate, or a half-hollow ball
and the thickness is many layers of cells as in amphibians (frog), or becomes a
group of cells in shape of blastodisc which is settled on one of the egg’s poles
as in birds and reptiles.

3-Gastrulation and formation of Germ Layer

This is regulating cells according to Morphogenetic Movements,

so the embryo in this stage is complicated cellular structure called Gastrula
which forms bio-germ layers in the embryo of invertebrates and pre-chordata.
So the embryo is consisting of two layers; Ectoderm and Mesentoderm. Gas-
trula can be triple layers in the embryo of chordata and the embryo consists of
Ectoderm and Mesoderm and Endoderm.

4-Differentiation

In this stage the cells would take certain direction in the operation of
embryonic development. So the cells differentiate in the shape which is suita-
ble with the type of function it does, as in nervous cells. It transfers the nervous
signals therefore Histological Differentiation happens in it which represented
by having the way of doing the function through axon and dendrites.

5-Organogenesis

This stage is the stage of embryo growth and organizing the cells in
the form of tissues, and the tissue is in the form of organs that formed through
organ differentiation during embryonic development. So the three germ layers
differentiate to four main types of tissues they are Epithelial Tissues, Connec-
tive Tissues, Muscular Tissues and Nervous Tissues.

6-Stage of Post hatching

It is the stage which the embryo comes out from the egg, as in most
fishes, all the amphibians, most of the reptiles, all the birds and some mam-
mals, or by the birth as in some fish, some reptiles and most mammals. At the
end of this stage the operation of Sexual Maturity starts which ends up by
sexually mature animals (male and female) which conjugate and so on.

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4 - 6 Embryonic Development in Amphioxus

Embryonic development in Amphioxus has been studied to know the

operation of embryonic development in a clear way because it represents the
simplest way.

These operations regarded as the base for embryonic development in the ani-
mals that are more developed than Amphioxus which belongs to protochorda-
ta. Therefore studying its embryonic development represents connection point
between the embryonic development stages for vertebrate and invertebrate an-
imals.
The two sexes are separate in Amphioxus. The gonads (testes or ovaries) lo-
cated on the two side of abdominal surface of the body, and there aren’t tubes
for the gonads, so the gametes exit at the sexual maturity into Atrium and then
exits out of the body through Atriopore into the water media, so the eggs get
fertilized by the sperms at the outside.

Figure 4.3 Morphological

structure of amphioxus

1- Gametes

Male gametes sperms consist of three main parts; head which is a

sphere shape, then the middle piece which is short and the tail which is long.
The egg of Amphioxus is small in size and its diameter is 0.1mm and its (Mi-
crolecithal) granules of yolk spreads not quite identically in the cytoplasm, the
yolks granules is less concentrated at the Animal Pole. It is more concentrated
at the Vegetal Pole which is at the opposite of it, and also the area of Animal
Pole has got a nucleus and the egg gets covered by Vitelline Membrane.

2- Fertilization

Fertilization in Amphioxus takes place at outside, the sperm penetrates

the egg and the fertilization takes place by uniting the male nucleus with the
female nucleus to form the zygote and an adaptation happens on zygote surface
which prevents entering other sperms inside the egg.

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3- Cleavage

About one hour after fertilization, the first cleavage starts by appear-
ance the furrow of cleavage from the animal pole gradually descends towards
the vegetal pole, and its level is longitudinal, at the same time the nucleus of
the zygote divides into two nuclei, each one of them heads towards one of the
sides.
Then the zygote divides into two blastomeres (two cells) then the sec-
ond cleavage follows it. Which its level is longitudinal too, but it is vertical on
the level of the first cleavage and its products are four equal sized blastomeres
this is followed by the third cleavage which is just above the equator of the
cleavages towards animal pole, this is because the yolk is available in vegetal
pole with higher concentration. The product of this cleavage is eight blasto-
meres the four upper blastomeres are called micromeres which are smaller in
size than the four lower blastomeres which are called macromeres.

This is followed by the fourth cleavage which divides the eight blastomeres by
two longitudinal levels to form sixteen blastomeres and then the fifth cleavage
takes place by two latitudinal levels and the products are thirty two blastomeres
.
This is followed by independent cleavages of each blastomere with keeping the
size of blastomeres in the animal pole smaller than blastomeres in the vegetal
pole, and the product of this is a mass of blastomeres which is similar to the
berry fruit called the morula.

Figure 4.4 Cleavage stages in

amphioxus(for study)

A) Zygote of amphioxus
B) First cleavage
C) End of first cleavage and
blastomere formation
D) End of second cleavage
E) End of third cleavage
F) End of fourth cleavage
G) 32 blastomeres formed at the
end of fifth clevage
4-Blastulation

The division continues after the formation of berry shaped cells to

form spherical shaped structure called blastula which has one layer of cells
surrounds a big coelom called blastocoel which starts appearing from eight cell
stage as a very small coelom expands gradually by the progress of division, the
blastula is recognized by the size of the cells in animal pole still smaller than
the cells in the vegetal pole.

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5-Gastrulation

Gastrulation is another stage of embryo development stages in Amphi-

oxus and through this procedure a cellular movement takes place called Mor-
phogenetic Movements. So the blastulation changes from mono-layer embryo
to double- layer embryo in Amphioxus (Triple-layer embryo in the other ver-
tebrates) called Gastrula which is regarded as First Differentiation Phase in
which three kinds of different cells are determined:

1. Cells form Ectoderm which is externally located.

2. Cells form Endoderm which is internally located.
3. Cells form Mesoderm which is intermediate located (between the two lay-
Figure Blastulation stage in ers).
These three layers called Germ Layers and these are the origin of all
amphioxus
the organs which formed in the embryo of vertebrate. The formation technique
of the Gastrulation depends on the type of the animal; it is less complexity in
Amphioxus than the other vertebrates.
Formation of gastrulation in amphioxus starts when the cells of vegetal
pole for blastulation begin flattening and then invaginating. The invagination
continues progressing to the inside toward to the non-invaginated part. So the
size of Blastocoel decreases gradually and disappears when it touches the cells
of vegetal pole with the cells of animal pole, and then it gets replaced with a
new coelom called Gastrocoel or Archenteron which opens outside by a hole
called Blastopore.

Figure 4-6 Gastrulation in

amphioxus (for study)

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Then the embryo is in a cup shape which consists of two layers, the ex-
ternal one called Ectoderm and the internal one called Mesentoderm, and the
Blastopore will be surrounded by these layers. They are the back layer (upper)
which its cells called Notochordal Cells which forms the notochord later and
the lower layer which forms mesoderm and endoderm.

The Blastopore is wide in the beginning of gastrulation and then gets

smaller gradually, and in the end of gastrulation changes into a small hole,
that’s because of embryonic movement in its surrounded layers.

As a result of pushing the cells of this layers inside, gastrulation which

supports to form the internal layer of the gastrulation which includes the cells
of endoderm, the cells of mesoderm and the cells of notochord, the remain cells
in the surface of embryo represents the cells of ectoderm layer, then the germ
layers forms and the gastrulation expands in amphioxus.

The gastrulation in amphioxus rotates around its axis, so the Anteri-

or-posterior axis of embryo forms, so the side of blastopore represents the
back end for the embryo, and the opposite side represents the front end for the
embryo.

5-Organs Development in Amphioxus

The main organs in the Amphioxus forms from the germ layers after formation
are completed, and at the beginning of formation they are in a shape of pre-or-
gans. Before considering the details of organs formation, should know the de-
rivatives of the Germ layers in the embryo of amphioxus which is explained in
the following diagram:

There are four main compounds in the body of Amphioxus:

- Nervous System
- Notochord
- Mesoderm
- (Gut) Enteron

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A-Development of Nervous System

After the extension of the gastrulation, the cells at the posterior of the
Ectoderm layer near the Blastopore migrate out, and this migration out extends
on the entire posterior area and it becomes a tape shape called Neural Plate
and this tape reduces a little bit of the level of ectoderm. As a result of that the
two edges of ectoderm rises, on the sides of neural plate and they join together
above that, then the embryo becomes surrounded by ectoderm which forms the
skin in the advanced stages of embryo formation in amphioxus.

At the same time the middle part of the neural plate reduces to form
the Neural Groove and the edges on the side of the groove called Neural Fold
each fold faces towards the other one until they meet and join together then the
Neural Tube is formed, which surrounds the Neural Canal or Neurocoele.
The formation of neural tube is called Neurulation and the embryo during this
called as Neurula. After the formation of neural tube, their front parts differen-
tiate into Brain Vesicle and the Spinal Cord follows it, which they represent
the Central Nervous System in Amphioxus.

B-Development of Notochord

Notochord represents the internal structure of Amphioxus, and extends

from the beginning of the head into the back end of the body. Notochord forms
from the middle part of mesentoderm (the internal layer of Gastrulation ) and
these cells forms a groove called Notochordal Groove which closes up grad-
ually when its sides gets near each other to form Notochordal Rod. This is
a solid, non-coelom structure, separates from mesentoderm layer and changes
into Notochord which is a cylinder shape, and supports in extending the em-
bryo through the increase in the length.

C-Development of Mesoderm

During the formation of the neural tube, the mesoderm forms from the
back side of the mesentoderm layer by a shape of two grooves which extend
outside, and their coelom is connected with the coelom of the Archenteron,
then on each groove horizontal partitions divide it into small parts. They are in
shape of chain of Archenteric Pouches, and then these pouches separate from
the coelom of archenteron and called as Mesodermic Sacs. These sacs grow
on the side of notochord area, a coelom appears in it.

1-The upper part (back) of the sac represents Somite and this differentiate into
three pieces which forms connective tissue under the skin, and the muscular
piece which body muscles forms from it, and the solid piece which forms the
surrounded wall of the notochord.
2- The lower part of mesodermic sac, and it called Lateral Mesoderm which
differentiate into two layers, a layer located under ectoderm called Parietal
Mesoderm, and a layer which is near to endoderm layer and it called Splanch-
nic Mesoderm, a coelom appears between the two layers. And then the lower
part of right mesodermic sac meets with its left identical at the middle abdom-
inal line for the embryo, by then their coeloms meet too, this will form one
coelom for the body of the embryo.

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D- Enteron Development

After Notochord and mesoderm get separated from mesentoderm lay-

er, the remaining part of this layer represents Endoderm which its edges from
the two sides grow towards the middle back line. Then they meet at the middle
line, then Enteron, the intestine and its derivatives are formed in amphioxus
and by the progress of the embryo development, the hole of the mouth and the
anus forms.

Figure 4.7 Cross sections from

embryonic development in am-
phioxus (for study)

4 - 7 Congenital Malformation in a Human

The embryo of human may dispose to Congenital Malformation. It represents
the structural faults as a result of abnormal formation of the embryo organs or
the body system and (Teratology) takes care of that.

There are many factors causing the Embryo Malformation, this can be
summarized in two main groups:

1- Genetic factors, including the exceptional of body chromosomes, as in

Down syndrome which show malformation in the feature of the face, mental
disorder and malformation in the heart.

2- Environmental factors, includes many factors, the most important one is

the effect of radiation which causes many malformation such as malformation
in the nervous system, direct exposure to radiation causes congenital malfor-
mation.

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It is passed on to future generation and also exposure to radiation ef-

fects the fertility and causes partial or permanent sterility, this depends on the
dose of radiation and exposal period of time and the age of the person.
Drugs are one of the factors that cause many embryo malformations
such as malformation in the nervous system and the skeletal system, split lips,
cleft and others. For that reason pregnant women should not take drugs without
doctor’s permission.
The first weeks of pregnancy is regarded as a critical period of embryo
development for humans. Humans suffer from malformation when they are
exposed to whatever causes it.
The embryo is connected to the mother by Placenta inside the uter-
us, which helps transferring the food, oxygen and the other material from the
mother to the embryo, so whatever the mother eats or gets any infection or
illnesses it goes to the embryo. So the mother harms the embryo if she doesn’t
take care of it, so the mother should take care of some issues so the embryo
does not get affected.
1. To avoid smoking because it affects the child’s weight and causes a decrease
in oxygen levels and raises the carbon monoxide level in both the mothers and
the embryos blood and the placenta which causes an unhealthy environment
for the embryo. Smoking also causes an increase in miscarriage and premature
birth or embryo death, the effect of smoking continues beyond the birth of the
baby causing infections in trachea, and asthma and others.
2. Reduce taking the caffeine in coffee because over taking it harms the baby.
3. Avoid taking the herbal medicine without doctor’s consultation.
4. Alcohol affects the embryo; it causes nervous disorder and body malforma-
tion especially in the face, also behaviour disorder, and alcohol cause Fatal
Alcohol Syndrome which appears in European society.
5. Mother should avoid been effected by Toxoplasmosis because this causes a
dangerous malformation for the embryo, that’s by cooking the meat very well,
and don’t expose to stool of cats.
6. Pregnant woman should take Folic Acid during the pregnancy because it re-
duces the malformation in the nervous tube, also she should treat all the disease
such as diabetes, high blood pressure and epilepsy under medical consultation.
It is possible diagnose the embryonic malformation for the embryo,
before birth by using Ultra sound Scan and having blood test for the mother to
research about the certain protein levels which have relationship with causing
malformation, also test the embryonic cells to be certain about the chromo-
somes by taking a sample of the liquid which is around the embryo or from the
Figure 4.8 Split lips in human
placenta.
Diagnosing the cases of malformation is important, such as in a case of
not completing maturing the lungs and helps it to do the respiration function,
by giving the mother a special drug before a certain time of birth. In some ad-
vanced medical centres, they may do surgery for the embryo inside the uterus,
to treat some embryonic malformation, this method need special study before
the surgery because it can be dangerous for the embryo.

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4 - 8 Multiple Birth and Twin Formation

Some real mammals (Placenta) have structured adaptation to have
pregnancy with more than one embryo in each pregnancy, this is called multi-
ple embryos or multiple births, so many eggs release from the ovary and after
its fertilization it implants to the lining of the uterus in certain destinies. In hu-
man the female gets pregnant with one embryo usually in each pregnancy, and
if the female gets pregnant with more than one embryo then this called Twins.

Types of Twins Figure 4.9 Twins (for study)

1-Franternal Twins

This type of twins forms from two separate eggs which are released
from the ovary at the same time, and each one fertilized by a sperm. Franternal
Twins don’t show similarity, and its sex can be similar (all male or all female)
or can be different.

Figure 4.10 Franternal twins

(for study)
2-Identical Twins

Identical twins form from one fertilized egg by one sperm, and this
fertilized egg divides into two cells, and each cell continues its growth to form
a complete embryo.

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Identical twins are very similar in the shape and sex (either male or
female). The separation of fertilized egg can be uncompleted, this result in
attached twins in the head area or chest or the back, these twins are called Sia-
mese twins. The attached twins can be unequal so one of the twins is small and
parasite on the other one; the twins in this case are called Parasitic Twins.

Figure 4.11 Identical twins

(for study)

3-Multiple Twins

Multiple twins rarely happens in humans, some women give birth to

three or four babies, each fertilized egg forms a complete embryo, this case
usually happens in women who take treatment with hormones to activate the
ovary or those who are subjected to the program of test tube babies.

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4 - 9 Extension of birth periods

Mother needs at least two years between each pregnancy and birth and
another one, that’s to give a chance for the body to recover from the pregnancy
and birth difficulties. Periods extension gives the child a chance of a good body
and mental care, also gives the mother a chance of keeping her health. It has
been found that the children who were born by time period less than two years
between one and the other mostly don’t achieve the body and mentally devel-
opment. That can cause birth to incomplete babies, their weight is less than (2.5
KG) at birth, and they can be carried.

4 - 10 Stem Cells
Since discovering the Stem Cells, the scientists trying to use them in
the treatment of many chronic and difficult diseases, the stem cells are unspe-
cialised cells, have got the ability for division and regeneration and produce
new specialized cells which can repair and replaces the ruined body cells. Stem
cells can be obtained from many resources: such as the early stages of embry-
onic development and the blood of Umbilical Cord, placenta and bone mar-
row.

Figure 4.12 It shows the ability

of stem cells to produce different
differentiated cells (for study)

Types of Stem Cells

1-Embryonic Stem Cells
This type of stem cells are basic, it has unlimited division ability and
it has a high ability to specialize into types of cells, it can repair and exchange
the ruined cells, when it is transplanted in the effected organs and can be ob-
tained from an early embryonic stages after fertilization, because of that it is an
important resource for many of medical achievements.

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2- Adult stem cells

These cells are found with the specialized cells in the body and its
function includes exchanging and replacing the harmful or dead cells in the
body, but it differs from embryonic stem cells as in the following.

A. Its little existence which makes it difficult to separate from each other.
B. Their number decreases as the time passes.
C. It can be abnormal.
D. They don’t have the same ability for specializing and division as the embry-
onic stem cells.

3-Umbilical Cord Stem Cells

These cells can be taken from the blood of Umbilical cord, it classifies
as another type of an adult stem cells because they are similar in the structure
and the function, also its ability to resist freezing condition (C-196) in liquid
nitrogen for many years.

The uses of stem cells

The important uses of stem cells are the following:

1- Determination the causes of untreatable diseases and congenital disorders

which is caused by disorder in division and specialization of the cells.
2- It is used in overcome the immunity rejection in organ transplant.
3- It is used in genetic engineering to understand and treat many diseases in-
cluding genetic diseases.
4- It is used in experiments on drugs to know its consequences.
5- It is used in Cell Therapy for many diseases such as Alzheimer, Parkinson,
joint infection and burns.

Nanotechnology is full and accurate control in molecule size (Nano-

meter=10-9 meter) to produce certain materials through control in molecule re-
action. This technique has been joined with research of the Stem cells, for the
purpose of understanding how direct those cells, and controlling its purpose,
and getting advantage of using that in cell therapy.

4 -11 Cloning in Animals

Cloning is one of the asexual reproduction methods in animals. Clon-
ing is economically important, because through it can produce animals from
body cells.

In 1997 (A.C.) Scientist Ian Wilmot announced that he was able to clone a
sheep called Dolly from body cells which are taken from an adult sheep, this
was the first time they can clone vertebrate animal.
To achieve this work Ian Wilmot and his pupils followed the following steps:

1- Cells were taken from mammary glands of an adult sheep at the age of (6)
the cells were put in transplant media, the transplant media is adapted to be able
to keep the nucleus of cells settle.
2- The egg was taken from another sheep, they removed the nucleus of these
cell.
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3- Operation of joining between the donor cell (the cell of mammary gland)
and the cell which the nucleus has been removed from by putting these two
cells together and exposing them to an electric shock which lead to merge them
and another electric shock lead to the activation of the egg to start embryonic
development.
4- The product embryo was transferred to the uterus of another sheep.
5- After the pregnancy period (five months) is over the sheep dolly gave birth
which is exactly similar to the sheep which the body cell was taken from.
6- The DNA test showed that the nucleus of sheep’s dolly cells where the prod-
uct of the same donor cell’s nucleus.
After that they have received the same results by using cows and rats.

Figure 4.13 Cloning dolly sheep

(for study)

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4 - 12 Techniques to treat the Infertility

The medical achievements in field of diagnosing and treating the infer-
tility became experiments, infertility is regarded as one of the most common
problems in the world, it happens because one of the couple or both, for un-
known reasons.

The science could solve many cases of infertility by medical treatment, most
of them needs treatment by hormones or by surgery, that’s by using many tech-
niques, there are:

1-Artificial Fertilization

Artificial Fertilization represents the operation transferring the sperms

after cleaning and concentrating them in the laboratory into the eggs, this ferti-
lization is used in many cases, they are:

1- Reasons considering the ovulation or the fallopian tubes or the lining of the
uterus in female.
2- Reasons considering the male reproduction system which causes reduce in
the sperms rate, failure in fertilizing the egg. The studies show that taking alco-
hol and smoking reduces the production and the activity of the sperms.
3- Hormone failure which effects producing the eggs and the sperms.
4- Reasons by exposing to the accidents or having some surgery or using some
medicine or exposing to radiation.

Types of Artificial Fertilization

1-In vivo Fertilization

This type of fertilization takes place by injecting the semen (sperms) of

the husband inside the uterus of the wife, by special tube (Catheter) and to get a
good result. This operation should be done at the ovulation time for the woman,
with giving her the medicine which activates the ovary.

2- In Vitro Fertilization

This kind of fertilization is regarded as the most common in the world

for the cases of infertility, it means fertilize the egg by the sperm in a test tube
with giving the wife the hormones which activates the ovary and the fertiliza-
tion takes place after taking the eggs from the ovary by an ultrasound machine.
Then these eggs put in the special transplant media and then the active sperms
added into it so fertilization can take place. This operation takes place in a
temperature which is similar to the temperature in the mother’s body. Then
usually three embryos transferred (to guarantee the fertilization) they are in the
first stages of cleavage to the uterus of the mother by a special tube to implant
them into the lining of the uterus with giving the mother some medicines which
helps to fix the embryo in the uterus.

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The results of this fertilization are the most successful; because the
best embryo can be chosen to be transferred to the mother also it gives a big
possibility of pregnancy in one time that’s through transferring more than one
embryo inside the uterus.

Before starting this operation there are some tests that should be done
for the couple which includes blood test, the uterus, fallopian tubes test and
sperm test. Also there are many factors which lead to failure of the fertilization
by In vitro fertilization the most important one is the type of sperms and the egg
and their safety. The older mother, because the older eggs have less ability to
fertilize, this technique spreads in many special centres in the world including
the centres in Iraq.

2-Embryo Freezing

This techniques is used in In Vitro Fertilization (test tube babies) that

through freezing the extra embryo after choosing the suitable embryo and
transfer it to the mothers uterus. So it can be used later in the future if the cou-
ple would like to have another pregnancy, that’s because the program of fertili-
zation by test tube is economically costly, also needs health and psychological
preparation. The embryo can be frozen by a liquid nitrogen (-170C) in a special
scientific centres.

3-Oocyte Freezing

This techniques includes freezing the parts of the ovary which contains
the immature eggs in the liquid nitrogen (-170C) the rate of success is less
than the success rate of freezing the embryo, because freezing can affect the
chromosomes of the egg. This technique helps the woman to keep her fertility,
especially those who have been exposed to radiation or chemical treatment or
some diseases.

4-Sperm Freezing

This technique includes freezing the sperms in the liquid nitrogen

(-170C) the sperms (semen Bank) can be kept in a small plastic tubes or a
special discs to be used when needed. So gradually get it warm into the room
temperature, it has been found that this operation wouldn’t lose its fertility.

The program of freezing the sperms is used in many cases, like in

some men who suffer from cancer and they need chemotherapy treatment or
the disease of the testicle and they are exposed to remove it, also the men who
are exposed to continue sperms decreasing.

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Questions

Q.1 Write the scientific word which suits each sentence in the following:

1. ………ability of embryonic cells in the early stages of embryonic development to get the functional ability.
2. …….. ability of a certain tissue for the differentiation after receiving Induction signals enables it for differentiation.
3. ……….. is the science which explains the phenomenon of embryonic development according to the role of bio-chem-
istry by using special machine.
4. ………… are non-equal connected twins, one of them is small and parasite on the other one.
5. ………… are the full controlling techniques in the molecules by the size of nanometer to produce a certain material
through controlling reactions of molecules.

Q.2 Define the followings:

Growth, Embryonic development, Morphogenesis, Gastrula, Morula, Multiple Twins,

Embryonic Stem Cells, Artificial Fertilization, Homunculus

Q.3 Complete these statements with suitable answers.

1. The operation of growth takes place by one the following:

a………………….
b…………………
c…………………
2. The two scientist who discovered the phenomenon of Embryonic Induction are…………………….and……………..
3. The gastrula in the embryo of invertebrate is consist of two layers are ………….and………………..
4. Granular of yolk in the egg of Amphioxus distributes unequally in the cytoplasm, so it is less concentration in the side
of ………….and more concentration in the side of …………………..
5. The body of amphioxus has four main contents:
a………………….. b……………….
c………………….. d…................
6. Neural Tube formation in Amphioxus is called…………….the embryo through that called……………….
7. There are three types of Stem Cells are:
a………………………….. b…………………… c…………………..
8. In the year ………….announced the scientist …………….that he could clone a sheep called…………….

Q.4 Explain and justify the following facts.

1. At the current time the theory of Pre-formation and Epigenesis Theory can be accepted.
2. An adoption happens on the surface of zygote in Amphioxus.
3. At the end of Gastrulation in Amphioxus, the Blastopore changes into small hole.
4. The pregnant mother is advised not to take medicines without doctor’s consultation.
5. Mother needs at least two years between each pregnancy and birth and another.
6. The success rate of freezing the egg is less than the success rate of freezing the embryo.

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Q.5 Write between brackets the letter which indicates the correct answer.

1.Who established the descriptive embryology?

a- Bonnet b-Aristotle c-Abu Carat d-De Graaf

2.The scientist Leewaenhock described the sperm in the year

a- 1677 b-1678 c-1766 d-1687

3.The scientist who showed that formation of new individual requests male and female gametes is:
a- Leewaenhock b-Walf c-Spallazani d-Von Baer

4.The first scientist who conducted an experiment on the egg of frog in first cleavage stage was:
a- Spemann b-Roux c-Walf d-Spallazani

5.One of the embryonic development stages which differentiation of tissue takes place:
a- Cleavage b-Gastrulation c-Differentiation d-Organogenesis

Q.6 Compare between:

1. Differentiation stage and Organogenesis in the embryonic development

2. Franternal twins and identical twins.
3. Embryonic stem cells and Adult stem cells.
4. In vivo fertilization and in vitro fertilization.

Q.7 Explain the followings:

1. Von Baer law.

2. Cleavage stage of the embryonic development in Amphioxus.
3. What should the pregnant women take care of and what should she avoid which affects her embryo.
4. The uses of stem cells.
5. The steps that the scientist Ian Wilmot followed in cloning.
6. The cases which the artificial fertilization are used for.
7. The changes and transforms which take place in the stage of Metamorphosis for frog’s tadpole.

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CHAPTER 5
GENETICS

Contents

5.1 Introduction and brief history

5.2 Genetics before Mendel
5.3 Mendelian Genetics
5.4 Post Mendel Genetics
5.5 Molecular base of Genetics

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5.1 Introduction and History

Genetics is known as branch of Biology that deals with inherited var-
iations of an organism or a group of organisms, as well as how the expression
of genes responsible for those variations.

Genetics is concerned with the followings:

1. Genetics studies on transmission of genetic traits from one generation to

another.
2. Genetics try to understand the molecular structure of the genetic material
and know the changes happen in their structure and their various applications.
3. Genetics studies, how the genetic expression occurs at the phenotypic and
molecular level.

The first person who named this branch of science as Genetics was an
English researcher called Bateson in 1906. There is a brief historical over-
view of the most important genetic studies that helped in the progress of this
science.

1. Firstly the genetic variations for the useful types were selected. The recog-
nized characteristics were chosen which serve generations, considering every-
day life requirements, especially in the agricultural field.

2. Mendel produced a system to control heredity qualities which was not as-
sociated with sex. He published an article in 1866 entitled “Research on some
vegetable hybrids”. Unfortunately none of the Scholars of his time paid at-
tention until after 34 years.

3. The discovery of Mendel’s experiments (1900) has gone beyond and that
time was called “golden age” for cell biology. It is assumed that chromo-
somes are carrier of genetic traits which not realized before.

4. The third quarter of the 20th century was a period to find solutions for many
questions. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) which described by the two scien-
tists James Dewey Watson and Franchis Creak in 1953 and molecular structure
of DNA understood. This scientific researches showed the way to solve the
genetic code.

5. Geneticist’s began to study about the field of bio-technology in the seven-

ties. They were able to hybrid the DNA of different types in order to find very
effective drugs. At the same time, they succeed in discovering the genes that
cause most rare genetical diseases caused by a single gene. Therefore diagno-
sis method has been developed and they developed tests before appearance
of symptoms. In addition new types of treatments were invented through the
genetic engineering.

6. In 1986 the idea of using DNA in applied fields has started due to the DNA
have a number of characteristics, including:

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- DNA has ability to be transported from one organism to another by some

viruses and plasmids.
- It has ability to modulate the recipient cell functions.
- It has ability to replicate inside a cell naturally and also outside, through the A plasmid is a small
use of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). DNA molecule that is physically
separate from, and can replicate
7. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, especially in year of 2003 the independently of, chromosomal
sequence of nitrogenous bases is fully has been unveiled and it is found that DNA within a cell.
there were more than 3.3 billion genes of human chromosomes, called the
genome.

8. Research currently focuses on genomes, about how gene expression takes

place in different organisms, whether in patients or in healthy. As well as reserc-
es done for detection of differences that has the priority in character building
and their differentiation.

5-2 Pre Mendel’s genetics

5-2-1 Role of a civilization of Mesopotamia

Ancient civilization in Iraq made studies on varieties of wheat, rice,

cotton and beans, as well as cattle and horses, during the period between the
year 4000 – 800 BC.

The population of Iraq then realized the importance of sexual repro-

duction in genetics and crop improvement through exercise palm vaccination,
as well as holding the matching between different breeds of cattle.

These documented through the seals that were found there. For exam-
ple, it was found among those documents a unique message written in cunei-
form script about 1360 BC. This has given an accurate description on how to
train horses and select the best ones for the race.

5-2-2 Role of Nile Valley Civilization

Some applications of genetics have started with the Nile Valley Civi-
lization in years of 5000 B.C. It was found with the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt
on the types of wheat with selected quality and abundance of production.

5-2-3 The role of the Greek civilization

The Greek philosophers were interested in clarifying the similarity be-

tween relatives. Hippocrates (460 - 370 BC) referred the repetition of certain
human qualities such as Crossed eye and baldness in a certain group of fami-
lies.

He also noted the spread of certain diseases such as epilepsy and cer-
tain types of blindness in certain families. Greeks discovered the symptoms
of some human syndromes such as (Down’s syndrome). They were also con-
cerned with the structures which provides the natural body immunity.

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5-2-4 The role of the Europeans before Mendel

The biologist scientist Maupertuis was one of the scientists who high-
lighted the importance of human genetics. He collected records of Pedigrees
of the families that have albinism and analysed and predicted probability of
occurrence in the future generations through the application of the theory of
probability.

In the mid-nineteenth century the scientists applied cases of transmis-

sion of certain genetic traits in human, such as the eye colour (Brown x Blue)
and body hair color (Black x White). This was applied to cattle for abundance
of hair and flesh.

Figure 5.2 Albino human (for

study)

Figure 5.1 Example for pe-

digree. It shows how albinism
passes through generations.

After mid-nineteenth century, August Weismann put forward an the-

ory that germplasm is the genetic material transmitted from one generation
to another. Base on the above facts the genetic facts are regarded as one of
the familiar since ancient times to the extent that it was taken at face value for
granted. The difference between individuals was complicated and no analysis
or explanation applied to it at that time. In spite of that Some biologists tried
Germplasm is the genetic
to develop certain insights to explain the phenomena of the similarities and
material transmitted from one gene-
differences, but they unfortunately have been unable to devise experimental
ration to another.
method based on a scientific basis until the coming of the Austrian researcher
Mendel. Mendel made major assumptions about the transmission of genetic
traits through results of experiments on plant Pisum Sativum (Pea Plant).

5-3 Mendelian genetics

Gregor Johan Mendel was the first one who succeeded in the Dis-
covery of the basic principles of genetics. Mendel was born in Austria (1822).
Mendel began to hold experiments on Pisum sativum in 1856 and has multi-
ple experiments lasted approximately eight years. Later Mendel presented his
research findings to magazine called Natural History in 1865. His research
findings were published after one year from the date above, but unfortunately
the results of his research remained under wraps for a period of 34 years from
the date of publishing as the scholars were preoccupied with the theory of Dar-
win (1809 – 1882) in organic evolution.
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In the early twentieth century Mendel hypotheses in genetics were represented

as a result of research done by three different research scientists who agreed
with Mendel’s principles in genetics. These three scientists, Dutchman ‘De
Varies’, the German ‘Correns’ and the Austrian ‘Tschermak’, who were in-
terested in studying function and behaviour of chromosomes.

5-3-1 Some properties of living things used in genetics experiments

It has become known that studies in genetics depend on the design

of experiments and analysis of results. This was for the purpose of extracting
certain hypothesis about how to move different qualities. Here are some con-
siderations that need to be taken into account when using a particular object for
the purpose of conducting genetic studies:

1. Short life cycle.

2. Large number of production.
3. Having the possibility to get variations and genetic mutations when organ-
isms are exposed to unsuitable environmental conditions such as radiation and
Figure 5.3 Gregor Johan Men-
chemicals.
4. Ability to control fertilization or mating of the object. del
5. Easy upbringing and maintenance.
6. Ability to produce new structures as a result of sexual reproduction or deliv-
ery (Transduction) by viruses.

Many research conducted on bacteria, fungi and some plants like Pi-
sum Sativum, yellow corn, barley, wheat, squash, tomato and snapdragon.
Many traits in animals as insect drosophila, mice, chicken, guinea pig and cat-
tle, as well as in humans.

Common Name Number of chro- Common name Name of ch-

for plant name mosomes Body for animal type romosomes in
cells body cells
Pee 14 Insect 6
Corn 20 Drosophila Mela- 8
nogaster
Bean 22 Bee 32, 16*
Table 5-1 shows the number of ch-
Rice 24 Cat 38 romosomes in the body cells for dif-
ferent kind of living things.
Grain 28 Mouse 40
Sunflower 24 Human 46 * Male bee (drone) has half number
of chromosomes.
5-3-2 Usage of genetical Models by Mendel in Experiments

The success of Mendel in his experiments despite of failure of other scientists

may be caused by;

1. Chosen best model in design and analysis of genetic experiments. It is Pisum

Sativum which has genetic variation, ability to grow easily and susceptibility
to hybridization artificially.

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2. Mendel limited his research on one pair of traits or less in each experiment.
3. Keeping accurate records and relied upon in the statistical analysis of his
experiences.

Figure 5.4 Mendel used art-

ficial cross pollination in pea
plants for his experiments (for
study)

Figure 5.5 Seven pairs of cont-

rast traits which Mendel used
in his experiments (for study)

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5-3-3 Some genetic terminologies and symbols

For the purpose of understanding mono-hybrid cross and the theories

that have been derived from it we have to know number of new terms used in
this field, namely:

1. Allele
Alternative form of a gene. One of the different forms of a gene that can exist
at a single locus.

2.Genes
Is a sequence of DNA that has a specific function, for example, turning the ge-
netic code to a protein or controlling the expression of character and can prove
itself through contrast alleles.

3. Gene Expression
It is the process of using DNA information by cells in the manufacturing of a
particular protein.

4. Genotype
It reflects the composition or structure of the genetic of individual. It expresses
the genetic codes together in a particular individual.

5. Phenotype or phenotypic category:

It refers to the properties or observed signs of the organism which is

genetically controlled. For example, stem length and stem shortness in Pisum
Sativum plant referred to as expressions of natural information. These are
available in the genetic factors. By following the principles of dominant and
recessive traits we can tell about phenotype for the individual from the geno-
type. For example TT and Tt refer to the long stem and tt refers to the short
leg. When the individual carries genetic factors such as symmetric TT or tt it
is said that the individuals are homogeneous or pure (Homozygous). When the
individual carries a genetic model which are not symmetric factors such as Tt,
it is said that the individual is heterogeneous or hybrid (Heterozygous) (figure
5.6).
The diagram gives an example of crossing between a homozygous, dominant
trait and a recessive trait as well as modern terminology used.

In connection with the genetic factor codes, usually different ways are
used. We now mention the symbol for one of Mendelian traits, say the stem
length in Pisum Sativum. This is given the symbol capital letter (T) in order
to refer to the tall stem. The small letter t refers to the short stem trait, which
recessive trait. In this case special symbol is derived from the dominant trait.

To point out a short stem trait, the code is derived from the dominant trait.

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Figure 5.6 It shows using some

genetical terms and symbbols
by an example

Some genetic codes used in crossing and also in solving the genetic issues:

Symbol The meaning of the symbol

F1 The first generation is taken from the word Filial

(Latin and means offspring, and so on For the se-
cond generation F2 ... etc.
G1 Refers to the gametes (Gametes) parents and G2 for
gametes generation First ... etc.
P1
refers to native parents and thus for the P2 ... etc.
X Mark of mating, crossing or vaccination or hybridi-
zation.
♂ Latino code refers to the father or male.
♀ Latino code refers to the mother or female.

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5-3-4 Monohybrid Cross

This a genetic hybridization between two persons and includes a pair of oppos-
ing traits, such as aa X AA. Thus it reveals how transmission versions of these
qualities through the generations take place.

Example:
For Monohybrid Cross Mendel

The trait for stem length in Pisum Sativum plant is an example of mo-
no-hybrid cross. When hybridization between Pisum Sativum long stem pure
with similar but short stem happens, all members of the first generation (F1)
were long stemmed. When conducting self fertilization among the members
of the first generation, Mendel noted that 787 of 1064 of second-generation
plants (F2) were long, while 277 of 1064 were short. These figures represent
the approximate ratio 2. 84 : 1. This is about 3:1. So the recessive trait that did
not appear in the generation (F1) but appear in the second generation by 25%.

Evidenced by the results of Mendel show that the results do not depend on the
sex. This means that the traits are located on the somatic and not sexual chro-
mosomes.

Usually reciprocal cross is used for the purpose of making sure that
certain trait has the gene located on either the somatic chromosome or sexual Reciprocal cross is used
chromosomes, or located in somewhere else. for the purpose of making sure
that certain trait has the gene lo-
Definition of Reciprocal cross: cated on either the somatic chro-
mosome or sexual chromosomes,
Crossing gets between two individuals, one carrying a dominant pure or located in somewhere else.
trait and the other carries the recessive pure trait or vice versa.
If the results in both cases are similar then the gene for that falls on the somatic
chromosome. If the results were different at the opposite type, it means that the
trait gene located on sex chromosome or in the cytoplasm of organelles. This is
shown in the following example on Pisum Sativum.

Example of reciprocal cross in Pisum Sativum:

A)

♂ A plant axillary flowers pure X A plant ♀ terminal flowers pure

P1 AA aa
Meiosis Division

G1 A a

F1
Aa
100% Axillary flowers hybrid plants

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B)

♂ Terminal flowering plant pure X ♀ Axillary plant flowers pure

P1 aa AA

Meiosis Division
G1 a A

F1 Aa
100% axillary flowers hybrid plants

Mendel concluded that trait is located on the body chromosome. In

order to clarify these results Mendel assumed the existence of a pair of genetic
factors for each trait. These are the factors that control transmission capacity
from one generation to another. This confirms the success of Mendel in his
experiments.

5-3-5 Mendel’s Postulates

Mendel agreed with results, which he obtained in mono hybridization in order

to derive three hypotheses or principles in genetics, as follows:

1. Unit Factors in Pairs; This means that every trait is carried by an individual
is controlled by a pair of factors. Usually the diploid organism contains one
of three genotypes which determine the trait and they are ( AA or Aa or aa).

2. The dominant and recessive traits; The dominant and recessive are; when
there are two factors which are not similar (Tt) which are in charge of one trait
in any individual, one of these factors (T) is dominant over the recessive trait
(t). However the recessive factor is responsible of showing the recessive trait
when it comes as a pair (tt).

3. Segregation during the formation of Gametes formation

The two factors which are not similar (Tt) split randomly. So each gamete will
receive one of these factors with equal probability.

Figure 5.7 Law of segragation

(first law of mendel)

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If the individual has a pair of similar factors (tt) or (TT) this lead to
the fact that all the gametes will receive one factor. After fertilization, the
first generation individuals (F1) receive one factor from each, so the resulting
individuals have a pair of factors. During the self fertilization in the first gen-
eration (F1), each gamete randomly receives either the dominant factor or the
recessive factor. After fertilization there will be four units for the formation of
the second generation F2 at the ratio: Dominant 3: Recessive 1. According to
this hypothesis Mendel set his first law, which is called “Law of Segregation”,
which states that:

“The paired genetic factors in an individual split from each other

when the gametes are formed. After it formed in pairs again during fertiliza-
tion when the genetic individuals are created”.

The Mendel’s fourth postulate, which is called free distribution, con-

siders that later as part of Mendel’s second Law.

5-3-6 Punnet Square

The genotypes and phenotypes produced by recombined gametes dur-

ing fertilization could be demonstrated visible and easily through the punnet
square.

Punnet box:

Geometrical shape of the chessboard which has the male gametes are
placed in its left and vertically above the gametes. The female gametes are
placed above and horizontally towards the male gametes. In this case you can
see all possibilities of the units male and female as well as knowledge Pheno-
typic and genotypic models and their respective ratios.

Note the each of genotypic ratio (1:2:1) and phenotypic ratio 1:3 for the second
members of second hybridization generation.(Figure 5.8)

5-3-7 Test Cross

The aim of this crossing is to identify the genotype of the individual

which holds dominant unknown purity. It crossed with another recessive indi-
vidual for that trait. If all the members were carrying the dominant trait, then
this member must be pure in that trait. If either 50% of the members were
dominant and 50% recessive, that means that the individual hybrid in trait.

This can be illustrated as follows:

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Punnet Square
Figure 5.8 Punnet square is
used to identify second filial
generation(F2). F1 generation
used in self pollination

The first Possibility

When the individual is pure and dominant for the Pisum Sativum

P1 ♂ A plant long stem pure X ♀ A plant short stem

TT tt
Meiosis

G1 T t

F1 Tt
100% long-stem hybrid plants

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The Second Possibility:

When the individual is a hybrid in the dominant trait.

P1 ♂ plant long stem hybrid X ♀ plant short stem

Tt tt
Meiosis

G1 T t t

F1 tt Tt
50% short-stem pure 50% long-stem hybrid

Optional crossing is regarded as part of reciprocal cross.

Back Cross

It is a cross between hybrid members of the first generation with a par-

ent or with an individual similar to one of them.

The output crossing with pure male dominant trait can be seen in this
example;

♂ A plant long stem hybrid X ♀ A long stem plant pure

The Law of independent as-
P1 Tt TT sortment states that:
Meiosis
“The isolated pairs of gene-
G1 T, t T tic factors are distributed indepen-
dently from each other during ga-
F1 Tt TT metogenesis”.
100% long stem

5-3-8 Dihybrid Cross and Free Distribution Mendel’s Law

Dihybrid cross is a hybridization which includes a couple of contrast

traits ggww × GGWW. For example, if the pisum sativum of pure round yel-
low seeds conjugated with green wrinkled seeds, then all members F1 will be
round and yellow. This is because the yellow colour is dominant over the green
and round seed is also dominant over the wrinkled seeds.
When allowing members of F1 (hybrid traits) GgWw, for self-fertilization we
find that the seeds of self-members F2 appear in accordance with the approxi-
mate ratio 9/16 round yellow and 3/16 wrinkled yellow and 3/16 green round
and 1/16 green wrinkled.

The Law of independent assortment and also known as Mendel

second law has been developed by Mendel and enhance the forth hypothesis
which is also called free distribution.

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This law requires that any pair of isolated genetic factors is independ-
ent from all other pairs of genetic factors. As we know each gamete receives
one allele from each pair of genetic factor. Any of the factors or the recipi-
ent alleles, one pair does not affect the any other pair. So they following this
procedure the possible gametes units are constructed made up of all by the
equal repetition, figure at the below clarifies the free distribution throughout
the formation of the second generation members, the process of gametes by the
second generation plants.

In each case of fertilization between members of the first generation

(F1 x F1), each egg will have the same probability to receive one of the four
units from each parent. In the case of the production of a large number of
members of the descendent, we will get the ratio 9/16 round yellow, 3/16 yel-
low wrinkled and 3/16 green round and 1/16 green wrinkled seeds. This ratio
is ideal because it is based on the events of probabilities of events including
segregation, free distribution and random fertilization.

Deviation from these ratios can take a place (which is subject of strictly coin-
cidence) especially in the recessive small numbers of traits so the results are
rarely identical with the ideal ratio.

Figure 5.9 Dihybrid cross in

pisum sativum (pea plant) (for
study)

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5-3-9 Selective Crossing for two traits:

It is possible to apply optional crossing on individuals carrying a cou-

ple of opposite dominant traits with known genetic type (unknown purity). As
example phenotype of a plant with yellow seeds rounded dominant can pro-
duced by genotype (GGWW, GGWw, GgWW or GgWw).

Figure 5.10 Result of hybridi-

zation between organisms whi-
ch are similar in phenotype but
different in genotype (for study)

In the case hybridization of a plant with the seeds of round with a pure
plant, green wrinkled seeds, ggww (recessive) the analysis of genetically phe-
notype ratio is explained in figure below.

5-3-10 Interpretation of the results of Mendel in the light of the knowl-

edge of the functions of chromosomes and genes:

Chromosome: This is the installation of composite linear shape of the DNA

molecule, Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein, which contains the coded ge-
netic information sequence and can be viewed through the process of cell divi-
sion. The gene is a part of DNA chromosome that controls at least in specific
genetic trait.

Since chromosomes present on the image matched in pairs, it is also

the genes found in the image of pairs, as Aa for a certain trait and Bb for anoth-
er trait and whether the individual is a hybrid of these two traits. This, of course
supports the first hypothesis of Mendel.

The phenotype relationship between the behaviour of chromosomes

and genes also through meiosis, as it receives each gamete chromosomes and
one of each pair of identical chromosomes. So when those gametes unite dur-
ing the process of fertilization, the children receive one gene for a particular
trait of the Father and the other from the mother.

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The free distribution of the chromosomes over the gametes during the
meiosis supports the law of Free distribution of Mendel. This is because the
genes being unattached. (Will not be on the same chromosome), will also be
distributed independently.

Figure 5.11 Free distribution

of alleles through gamete for-
mation (for study)

Example 1

Application on Mendel’s Second Law

A Drosophila Melanogaster of ebony colour with long wing pollinated

with a gray and vestigial. The first generation (F1) were gray and long wing,
knowing that genetic factors for these traits are located on two different chro-
mosomes.

a. What is the genetic type for the parents and the members of the first and
second-generation?
b. What is the phenotypic ratio for the F2 members?
c. What are the genetic ratios for F2?
d. Show the type and the number of units which is possible, between the gam-
etes? Clarify that on the punnet box.

Conclusion and solution:

Since all members of the first generation were long wing and gray, then
the wing long L is dominant over the vestigial I, and the gray E is dominant
over the ebony colour e as well as the fly with long wing and gray male must
have each of these pure traits. Accordingly genotypes codes for the parents and
members of the first-and second-generation will be as follows:

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a)
♀ Ebony and long winged X ♂ Gray and vestigial winged

P1 LLee llEE
Meiosis

G1 Le lE

F1 LlEe
100% gray and long wing (hybrid )

After being pollinated for F1 the members will be as follows:

♀ Long and gray hybrid X ♂ Gray long wing hybrid

P2 LlEe LlEe

♀ \ ♂ LE Le lE le
LE LLEE LLEe LlEE LlEe
Le LLEe LLee LlEe Llee
lE LlEE LlEe llEE llEe
le LlEe LlEe llEe llee

When genotypes are combined in the Bonnet box and that share a certain phe-
notypic, we get the following ratios:

b)Phenotype 9 Gray 3 Gray 3 Gray 1 ebony

ratio Long Long Vestigial Vestigi-
al
c)Genotype 1 LLEE 1 LLee 1 llEE llee
ratio
2 LlEE 2 Llee 2 llEe
2 LLEe
4 LlEe

d) Genotype Ratio 1:2:1:2:1:4:2:2:1

e) Number of possible associations (units) between gametes = 16.

5-3-11 Possibilities in Mendel’s genetic experiments

Probability: is the likelihood of the occurrence of a specific event by an estima-

tion or calculations. It can be expressed as the number of decimal, percentage
or number of fractional and determined by the following equation:

Probability =

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The rates of phenotypic models and genotypes in generation F2 representing

potential or expected rates to those models. |However, the proportion of those
models that are actually obtained from mating may be different from the ideal
ratios. This can be explained in Mendel’s experiments on seed colour trait, as
in Figure 5.5.

The number of the dominant yellow seeds was 6022 seeds, while the number of
green recessive seeds was 2001 seeds. So the total number of seeds was 8023.
Using probabilistic equation we can determine the true proportion of the yel-
low in this kind of hybridization as follows:

6022 / 8023 = 0.7506

But the real ratio for the green seeds is:

2001 / 8023 = 0.2494

To express this percentage ratio of the expected probability of the yel-

low seeds is 75%. This can be expressed as a fractional of ¾. While the ratio
of the expected probability of green seeds is 25%. This can be expressed as a
fraction ¼. These numbers can be expressed as ratios 1: 3 represent the same
probability that number represents the fraction ¼ and ¾ respectively, i.e. there
are three out of four opportunities. This means that every time two hybrid par-
ents produce a new member the probability of carrying the dominant trait is
3/4. So the probability of carrying recessive trait is 1/4. Referring to the actual
ratios obtained in this example.

Usually we find a difference between the actual ratios obtained in the

field and the expected ratios. This is due to the experiment, such as its depend-
ent on the lack of equal opportunities of gametes at the pollination process as
well as the lack of equal opportunities for individual factor, hybrid (Gg) from
segregation equality over the gametes.

When we are dealing with two traits or more and which are inherited
independently of each other, we can predict all potential duplicates of pheno-
typic types in the second generation. This is done through the application of act
of the product of probabilities. This indicates that when there are two separate
events spontaneously, then the obtained probabilities of the occurrences of its
members.

5-4 Post-Mendel genetics

After the discovery of Mendel’s experiments in 1900, there was expan-
sion in the study of many traits in different kinds of organisms for the purpose
of applicability of Mendel’s laws on the genetics of those traits and whether
there are new discoveries.

It has actually found that the genetic information which has seen some
traits do not actually agree with Mendel’s expected ratios. So some assump-
tions were given in order to clarify these changes.

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Bearing in mind phenotype for some traits are changeable by different meth-
ods, according to its genetic factors and the environments. Below are some
examples for such kind of traits. They are called deviations in Mendelian rules
in some references.

5-4-1 Qualities that Deviate Mendelian ratio 3:1

a. Incomplete dominance
Phenotype of the hybrid individual is different than the parents. This
takes a compromise between the two types. This is the average between the
two phenotypes for the two pure opposite traits as a result of mixed techniques
for these two traits. This situation is different from the case of full purity of the
traits studied by Mendel.

An example of what happens when the “Snapdragon” plant of red flowers

R1R1 is pollinated with a white flower R2R2 plant, the first generation is pink
flowers R1R2. In a self-pollination a member of the first generation F1, the sec-
ond generation plants would be in the ratio: R1R1 1: R1R2 2: R2R2 1, white,
pink and red flowers respectively. This is similar to the proportion of genetic
ratio as described below.

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b. Co-dominance
This is the case in which expression of two alleles seen together in the
phenotype of the hybrid individual. Neither one of the traits is dominant or
recessive.

Example (1) Blood System AB

All blood groups AB, B, A in humans are determined by two factors IA and IB
and these antigens which are available within membrane of the red blood cells.
The genotype of an individual belongs to blood group AB is IA IB. So none of
the alleles IA , IB would be dominant over the other. The blood cell AB carry A
and B in its shells. When the parents carry both genetic types IAIB get married,
it would be possible to get children with phenotype and genetic falling in the
ratio:

IBIB : 1 IA IB : 2 IAIA:1
B AB A

Example (2) Blood System MN in humans

An individual with a blood M has antigen M. While another individual with

group NN has antigen N. The individual with a blood MN possesses both the
antigens M and N in the membrane of red blood cells. So at parents’ marriage
with the installation of a genetic LMLN. It would be possible to get children
with phenotype ratio as following:

L N LN ¼ : LM LN ½ : LMLM ¼

The sign L is used by the scientist “Landsteiner” who discovered the antigens
for these groups. There are two kinds of molecules “Glycoprotein”

Example (3) Hair colour in some breeds of cattle with short horns

There are two alleles controlling the hair colour. One is responsible for
the appearance of red colour CR and the other is responsible for the emergence
of white CW, where C stands for any colour and R for Red colour any and W
for the white. When two members are crossed, one red and one white hair, all
the members of the first generation will result in “dust” colour, i.e. whitish red.
Careful examination found that this colour is a mixture of hair some red, others
white.
When a mating between members of the first generation takes place, the follow-
ing phenotypic and genetic type ratios were obtained in the second generation:

White CWCW : 1 Dust color CR CW : 2 Red CRCR :1

c. Lethal alleles
These alleles will cause the affected member to suffer if the member
carries it. This expression leads to loss of an individual which inherit a pure
dominant in some cases or recessive in other cases.

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Example (4) Sickle - cell Anaemia

This genetic disease is caused by allele mutant recessive Hbs affects

the quality of hemoglobin Hb. It becomes some kind of abnormal type (Hemo-
globin S). It also affects the shape of red blood cells they become scythe shape
instead of the normal disc shape.

It is clear that this deadly allele becomes a multi-effective (Pleiotropic).

The table showing the genotype and phenotype of the offspring resulting from
mating between parents both for scythe anaemia.

Figure 5.12
A) Red blood cells infected by
sickle cell anemia
A B B) Normal cells(not infected)
(for study)

Genotype HbAHbA HbAHbS HbSHbS

Phenotype OK Carries gene allele Dies after adolescence

Example (2) Dominant allele for creeping chicken:

This type of chicken appears if they are having allele (C) together with
normal allele (c). The chicken cannot walk normally because of the short and
twisting legs. Individuals pure in this gene (CC) usually die. Below is an ex-
ample of mating parents of creeping chicken.

♀ Creepy chickens X ♂ Creepy Rooster

P1 Cc Cc

G1 C, c Meiosis C, c

F1 CC Cc + Cc cc
Death Creeping Ordinary (OK)

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Example (3) Dominant allele for yellow mice

These are similar to the previous case. When yellow hybrid mice are
mated with each other the result is, quarter of the yellow embryos will die.
That is pure in the deadly allele YY which leads to phenotypic modulation
ratio 3: 1 to 2/3 yellow hybrid: 1/3 gray. So the yellow mice are always hybrid
and any carrier of the gene is not affected by it. The killing gene is important
in designing some genetic tests. The following diagram shows mating of two
hybrid members for this kind of killing allele.

♀ Yellow mice hybrid X ♂ Yellow mice hybrid

P1 Yy Yy

Meiosis
G1 Y y Yy

F1 YY Yy Yy yy
Yellow dies Yellow Yellow Gray

5-4-2 Penetrance and Expressivity

Penetrance Gene: This is the probability of an individual inherits allele and

Cystic fibrosis (CF), also known as posses phenotypic trait which is related to allele. For example recessive allele
mucoviscidosis, is an autosomal re- that causes cystic fibrosis with complete percentage of 100% of pure indi-
cessive genetic disorder that affects viduals (cc) have the disease. As well as the dominant allele to acquire extra
most critically the lungs, and also the fingers (Polydactyl) in the hands or feet is incomplete percentage. This is be-
pancreas, liver, and intestine. cause some individuals which inherit this allele have ten normal fingers, while
others have more than ten.

The expressive: It means an allele could produce a heterogeneous range of

phenotypic types.
An example of this is pure insect for the recessive gene for the mutation of
eyeless which gives phenotype with various ranges between the existences of
ordinary eye to partial loss in the eye size in one or both eyes.

5-4-3 Genetics and the environment

Each living thing has its own traits, which are inherited from the par-
ents. It can be identify phenotypic traits through the study of the parents and
analyse their genes. However, this determination cannot be accurate because
the genes only determine what could be the object and not really what will be,
because some phenotypic traits depend on genetics and environmental factors
and overlap between them. There are number of cases show that the effect
of genes determined by various environmental factors, whether these factors
surrounding the mother organism and inside her, to clarify this we give the
following examples:

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Example (1)
Genes responsible of the human body are affected by the quality of his food

The fat and slim characters are depend on the genetic bases. Controlling the
body weight greatly influenced by the amount of food and other factors.

Example (2)
The impact of the environmental quality of the food as the gene responsible
for the color of fat in Rabbits:

Building yellow fat in rabbits depends on a recessive gene (yy). Note

that rabbits carrying this gene suffer from a lack of enzymatic and thus become
unable to demolish the yellow colour which can be found in the carrots and in
other plants. So when those rabbits fed on plants containing the yellow colour,
then this colour will appear in their fat. If these rabbits are fed with colourless
plants, then their fat will of course be white although the gene (yy) has not
changed-only the food has changed.

The other rabbits that do not carry pure gene of yellow fat has the abil-
ity to partition the yellow colour, thus they will have white fat even though it
was fed on a diet rich in yellow colour.

5-4-4 Gene Interaction

This is producing new phenotype by interaction alleles peculiar to different

genes. There are two types of interactions.

1. Genetic interaction that leads to a change in the expected phenotypic ratio

eg“Epistasis” which is the non-reverse interaction, such as the availability of
gene interfering in or preventing another gene expression. The white colour W
of the fruit in the pumpkins plant (Squash), superior to gene with yellow color
of the fruit Y.

When hybridising white WWYY to another green fruit wwyy fruit,

the first generation was white fruits. In the second generation the white color
appeared in the ratio 12 white: 3 yellow: 1 green. This ratio shows that parents
are different in two pairs of genes. The father white-fruit carries yellow gene
that did not show its effect, because of the presence of white color gene which
is superior. It is possible to explain how to get the phenotype ratio and the ge-
netic ratio by using punnett square as follows:

A white fruits plant X A green fruits plant

P1 WWYY wwyy
Meiosis
G1 WY wy

F1 WwYy
% 100 White

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If they leave for self cross;

P2 WwYy X WwYy

WY Wy wY wy

WY WWYY WWYy WwYY WwYy

Wy WWYy WWyy WwYy Wwyy
wY WwYY WwYy wwYY wwYy
wy WwYy Wwyy wwYy wwyy
Figure 5.13 Different colored
pumpkin fruits (for study) 2. This is the genetic interference which does not lead to any changes in the
expected phenotypic ratios. However, the members of the first generation pos-
ses new trait which is not available in the parents. With regard to the second
generation, they will have two new traits not available in the grandparents. An
example of this case is the shape of comb in the chicken. The rose shape for the
comb is due to the gene R which is dominant over r for a single form.

The pees shape of comb in the chicken is because of gene which is

dominant P over allele p for a single comb too. When rose shaped parents are
mated with a Pea shape, assuming both are pure, a new type appear in the first
generation, known as walnut hybrid. When the members of F1 are mated be-
tween each other, F2 shows the new type (Walnut and single) in addition to the
grand parent’s type as below:

Pea Shape X Rose shape

P1 rrPP RRpp
Meiosis
G1 rP Rp

F1 RrPp
Walnut shape

P2 RrPp X RrPp

The phenotype ratio for the second generation will be:

F2 rrpp 1 : rrPP 3 : RRpp 3 : RRPP 9

Single Pees Rose Walnut

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5-4-5 Multiple alleles

This is the availability of alternatives or various alleles for the same

gene, as a result of mutation happened the molecule of (DNA) genetic material.
This cause variety in the phenotype. And they located the same genetical posi-
tion on a certain chromosomes. We give some examples for multiple alleles:

Example 1 ABO system in Humans

There are three alleles controlled by the system, which are IA, IB and
I . As we are aware that IA and IB are co-dominant but both of them is dom-
O

inant over IO. The two alleles IA and IB control forming two different type of
enzyme which results in appearing two different molecules of antigens over
the surface of the red blood cell. IO allele does not cause activation any type of
enzyme, so antigen will not produced as a result. The person which inherits two
alleles of IO, his blood group is O.

Blood Group
Antigen Genotype
(Phenotype)
A A (IA IO) or (IA IA)
B B (IBIO) or (IB IB)
AB A,B (IA IB)
O -- (IO IO)

Blood transfusion

The blood group ABO and RH factor must be known for both the do- Table 5.2 Shows how three alleles
nor and the recipient. This is because the red blood cells of some people may could meet in the form of pairs and
clump clearly and when mixed with samples of other donors. This is discov- how to produce four types of blood
ered by Landsteiner in 1900. groups.

The basis for this clumping is the resulting interaction between what is
carried by red blood cell over its surface of antigens and what is contained in
the serum of antibodies. Antibodies note that the relationships between them
are shown in the table.

Antigens are given by the letters A and B and the antibodies given by
small letters a and b.

Blood Groups
Antigens Antibodies

A A Antibody b for antigen B

B B Antibody a for antigen A
AB A,B
Antibody a for antigen A
O -- Table 5.3 Shows the antigens and
Antibody b for antigen B
antibodies according to blood

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In the light of the above information in the given table, it would be

possible to decide whether to agree or disagree occur between the donor and
the recipient in the transfer of blood groups ABO (incompatibilities) and the
case when there would be agglutination between them.

Figure5.14 Shows how the geneti-

cs have explain the compatibility
or the mismatch in the transfer of
blood groups ABO. (for study)

Agglutination not observed. Agglutination observed.

Donor Recipient Donor Recipient

O O,A,B,AB A B,O
A A,AB B A,O
B B,AB AB A,B,O
AB AB

Example 2; RH antigens

This is one of the other antigens that show multiple alleles. It was dis-
covered by two scientist called Landsteiner and Weiner in 1940. It was given
a great deal of attention and that of their direct emergence of a case of anaemia
for some newly born babies. The disease is called Erythroblastosis Fetalis.
For this reason, the blood groups AOB and the Rh have to be tested on the
verge of marriage and. This is to exclude the emergence of this disease in their
children and to take the necessary precautions.

The embryos who has Rh+ and mother Rh- and their father are Rh-
can be affected by this disease. The father passes this allele to the embryo
because Rh+ is dominant over Rh- so the embryo has become of genetic type
hybrid Rhrh. This kind of genetic units results in compatibility total immunity
between the mother and the embryo.

If blood flow through the placenta which is defective for some genet-
ic reasons and entered into the mother’s circulation, the immune system of
the mother will diagnose Rh antigens foreign bodies, so it builds antibodies
against them.

In the second pregnancy, these antibodies concentrate in the mother’s

system and when they pass through the placenta, of course enter the circulatory
system of the baby and start break-up of red blood cells. As a result this will
cause loss of hemoglobin, causing pneumonia.

There are about 10% of the populations who have pregnancy with Rh
incompatible. For several reasons, less than 0.5% in fact produce anaemia.
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Usually the mothers with this kind of problem will be given Anti-Rh immedi-
ately after birth antimatter’s (Anti-Rh) Rh+. These kinds of antibodies crush
cells of RH+ type, which has passed to the mother’s blood circulation. So she
is unable to produce antibodies for the recipient.

Genetics Rh system

Preliminary genetic research led to belief that the human population there is
only two alleles controlling the presence or absence of antigen. The scientists
assumed that the allele Rh appoint an antigen on the surface of red blood cells
and behaves as a dominant gene. The allele leads to the absence of antigen.

It has been found that 85% of the population of New York City contains any
antigen (Rh+); at the same time the remaining 15% do not contain any antigen.
I.e. (Rh-).

In the city of Basrah, it has been found in 1976 that 93% of the sample studied
possessed Rh+ and 7% of all was Rh-.

It has found that the negative type is less in the Eastern societies per-
haps because of the election against negative alleles. This is due to the result of
improvements to the tests necessary to set the presence of antigen. It became
clear that genetics, which controls the Rh antigen, is rather more complicated
than expected in previous time.

The scientist Weiner supposed later that there is a series of multiple

alleles in a single location for Rh and that must be taken into account for these
variations. On the other hand the scientist Fisher and Race that there was some
sort of another alternative inheritance which includes three of the convergent
genes associated with C, D, E and every one of them includes two alleles which
have the responsibility of inheriting the Rh factors.

The term Linkage used to describe the genes located on the same chromosome,
which is the first pair of the physical chromosomes for this group. The student
can follow this table which simplified in problem solving and genetic-related.

Phenotypic Genotype

Rh+ RhRh or Rhrh

Rh- rhrh

Example (3) About the blood group Rh

Man descended his first birth in a family group Rh+. His father was an
Rh+ too, but his mother was with Rh-. This man married a woman with Rh+,
but her father was Rh-. Predict the blood group Rh for his children.
Indicate the number of his children who will not be affected by the disease.

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Conclusion:

1. The father of the man with Rh+ and his mother Rh-, so the man is hybrid
Rhrh.
2. The women is Rh+ and her father Rh-, therefore she is also a hybrid Rhrh

♂ Hybrid Rh+ x ♀ Hybrid Rh

P1 Rhrh Rhrh

G1 Rh, rh Rh, rh

F1 RhRh: Rhrh: Rhrh: rhrh

3 Rh+ : 1 Rh-
None of the children will be affected by the disease.

Example (4) Series of alleles in rabbit fur colour

The fur color is a classic example of multiple alleles or multiplier,

where it can be seen the influence of the allele on the phenotypic directly with
the naked eye, without having to use any technique for explanation. The fur
color is controlled by at least four different alleles, which are (ca, ch, cch, C).
Note that the allele (C) is responsible for the gray colour (agouti). This
allele has the full dominant over all the other three remaining alleles (ca, ch, cc).
With regard to the allele cch in turn is dominant over the two alleles ca, ch. While
ch is dominant over ca. So the order of dominance for these alleles would be
follows: ca<ch<cch< C.
Some sources claim that there is incomplete dominance between alleles of ch
,cch and between cch and ca so when these two alleles meet in the same individu-
al, between ch and cch and between cch and ca results in light gray colour.

Phenotype Genotype

Agouti CC, Ccch, Cch, Cca

Chinchilla cchcch, cchch, cchca

Himalayan chch,chca

Albino caca

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5-4-6 (Inheritance multi-genes) Quantitative Genetics

This is the transmission of genetic traits as a result impact cumulative

or additive for the number of the genes in the cell. Most of the qualities in
human are the qualities of multiple genes (polygenes) or complex charac-
ters. They greatly influenced by the genes and the environment as well. The
character of multiple genes in human is the skin colour, eye colour, intelli-
gence, blood pressure, body weight and total number of skin lines (Total Ridge
Count TRC) in the fingerprints of both hands.

Note that the number of lines of fingerprints models are largely ap-
pointed by multiple genes as well as partially respond to the environment of the
uterus and this is a multi-factorial trait.

It has been observed in some communities there are differences be-

tween the sexes in the distribution of installing these lines where the average
number in the male sample 145 line, while the average number in a female
sample 126 lines. These numbers can be different in some other societies.

The properties with multiple genes available in the other creatures is

the seed colour in the wheat and the amount of production of seeds and fruits
and the time required to reach maturity in plants. Also the amount of milk,
Figure 5.15 Eye color controlled
meat, eggs, and the rest of the economically important traits in animals.
by multiple genes (for study)

Figure 5.16 Anatomy of fingerp-

rint and total number of lines in
it (for study)

Concept of multiple genes

Multiple genes is defined as; having slight impact on the phenotype

when a gene is alone. As it accompanies with a few or many other genes, it can
control quantitative property. Quantitative traits System are differs qualities
from Mendelian traits system or descriptive Qualitative traits as in the follow-
ing:

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Quantitative traits Qualities traits

Controlled by more than one pair of Controlled by a pair of genes.

multiple genes
Phenotypic model for members of
Phenotypic model for members of
the F1 hybrid is similar to the pure
the first generation will compromise
dominant phenotypic model for the
between the parents.
parents.
Its differentiation is continuously. Its differentiation discontinuous type.
So the members of F2 or following Thus F2 or the following generations
generations cannot be distributed to can be distributed to members of the
limited phenotypic groups. to limited phenotypic groups.

Access multiple genes is incomplete. Access multiple genes is complete.

Therefore affected by the environ- Except in some cases it will be affec-
ment. ted by the environment.

The phenotypic ratio for the F2 mem-

The phenotypic ratio is; 1: 3: 3: 9
bers with respect to bilateral hybrids
is; 1: 4: 6: 4: 1.

Measuring the effect of multiple genes (heritability coefficient):

Most of quantitative traits influenced by heredity and environment at

various degrees, so researchers are interested in this area in measuring herita-
bility coefficient (Heritability) for the quantitative trait for its outstanding role
in estimating genetic improvement expected from the election.

The heritability coefficient is statistical measure shows the amount of

variations in the population which is due to genetic factors between 0 and 1.
Approaching the value one indicates on the impact of genetics and vice ver-
sa for the impact of the environment. For example, heritability coefficient for
prescription number of lines on equal to 0.66. This means that the genes have
additional affect have the influencing role in the expression of this trait.

Additive variation
Heritability =
Phenotypic variation

This kind of inheritance can be explained by the following example:

If we assume that the inheritance of eye colour in humans is under the

influence of a couple of alleles AA and BB. Then if a man dark brown (Black-
eyed) AABB is mated to a woman with light blue eyes, then the eye colour for
their descents will be as indicated in the following diagram:

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Dark Brown (Black) eyed man X Light blue eye woman

P1 AABB aabb

G1 AB ab

F1 AaBb
Light Brown (Average)

If the members of the first generation are mated to members of the same type
in their genotype the phenotype in the second generation will be as follows:

1 Black (dark brown): 4 brown Moderate: 6 Light brown : 4 green

(dark blue): 1 light blue.

Also genotypes for second-generation members will be as described in.

Figure 5.17

Variations in the eye color.

A. Model for two genes, each conta-

ining two alleles which are able to
explain the existence of a five-color
in the human eye.

B
B. Frequency distribution of eye co-
lor with a distribution of bell curve
for the quantitative trait.
(for study)

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We note followings from the figure:

1. The eye colour becomes black due to the presence of a couple of dominant
alleles AABB.
2. The moderate brown (medium brown) color appears when there are three
dominant alleles and one recessive (AABb) or (AaBB).
3. The eye colour becomes moderate (light brown) when there are two domi-
nant and two recessive alleles (AAbb) or aaBB or AaBb.
4. The eye colour appears deep blue or green when there is one dominant allele
and three recessive Aabb or aaBb.
5. With regard to the light blue it is shown when there no dominant alleles
(aabb).

5-4-7 Sex and Genetic

5-4-7-1 Limitation and Determination of Sex

As we know the gamete contains half number of chromosomes, union

takes place between male gametes and female at the fertilization to form new
member which will be either male or female in normal case.

Limitation of sex in many of organisms (except micro-organisms) due

to the genes which are located on the sex chromosomes.

It’s been found in Diocious organisms (separate sex) that male differs
from female in chromosome structure, these chromosomes which include the
difference called Sex chromosomes which are different in two the sexes, so
can be XX in female and XY in male and conversely, the other similar chromo-
Figure 5.19 X and Y chromo-
somes in male and female are called Autosomes(A).
somes during cell division (for
study)
When the sex chromosomes are identical in one of the sex, it will give
one type of gametes when it divides, this called homogametic sex. The other
sex gives two different types of gametes and this called heterogametic sex.
The following diagram is to identify the sex in the organisms which gives dif-
ferent gametes in its male or in female, that’s because of the difference in the
sex chromosome from the shape XY aspect or the number XO.

Notice the figure below which explains a mammal animal doesn’t the chromo-
some Y (XO).

Diagram of Identifying The Sex System

Males Give Different Gametes

XY males; is found in human, other mammals, some insects and dioicious

plants. Male produce two types of gametes; the gametes with X and gametes
Figure 5.18 Animal (mole)
with Y chromosome. Female contain only X chromosome and after fertiliza-
without Y chromosome. (for
tion zygote contains XX (grow in female) or XY (grow in male).
study)
Male XO; is found in some types of grasshoppers and in two types of mole
voles, male has one less chromosome.
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The males produce two types of gametes. Gametes with X and gametes with-
out X chromosome. The single sex chromosome determine the sex of male.

Females Give Different Gametes

Female XY; is found in insects and most of birds.

Female XO; is found in chicken and butterflies

The chromosome Y is much smaller than chromosome X in human

but it contributes with chromosome X in many of DNA sequences. This chro-
mosome contains sex determining region of the Y (SRY) and also contains
azoospermia factor (AZF). This chromosome is important in development
studies.

In some of twisted winged insects, such as bees, ants and wasp the sex
determines by completely different procedure, so the in-fertilized eggs hatches
into males with haploid chromosomes and female with diploid chromosomes.
Figure 5.20 Male determining chro-
In some cases it has been found that the ratio between the sex chromo- mosome in human (for study)
some X and the body chromosomes A determines the sex in Drosophila mela-
nogaster. Noticed that the change in temperature controls the determination of
sex in reptiles.

In microbiology such as bacteria, some of them have got positive fer-

tility factor (F+) it behaves as a donor in the operation of fertilization. The
bacteria cell which hasn’t got the factor (F-) it behaves as a recipient.

5-4-7-2 Sex linked traits in drosophila melanogaster

These are the traits which express about the genes which are located on
the sex chromosome. These traits differs from the other traits in main property
that is represented at least by two genes in female and by one gene in male,
that’s because the number of the chromosome (X) in both sexes.

The first one who discovered the property of sex linked traits is the
scientist Morgan (1910) when studying the genetic of the colour of eyes in
drosophila melanogaster, so he noticed that the trait of white colour of eyes is
linked to sex and its recessive in respect to red eye and also noticed that’s the
reciprocal cross to these traits gives different results.

Example 1

Female of drosophila melanogaster which have pure red eyes conjugated with
male which have white eyes, the first generation were male and female red eyes
by the ratio is 1:1 and when the first generation were left to self conjugation,
some of the product was male white eyes.
What are the genotypes for the parents and the member of two generations (F2,
F1)?

The gene of red colour eye is dominant over the gene of white eye.

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The solution;

The gene of the eye colour in drosophila is linked to sex chromosome,

so it should always be sketched on that chromosome which is defined by X. It
refers to the gene of white colour eyes (recessive traits) by the letter w from the
word white, it refers to the gene of red colour eyes (dominant) by the letter W,
can explain the result of this crossing as follows :

Female pure red eyes X Male white eyes

P1 XWXW X wY

G1 XW Xw, Y

F1 XWXw XWY
Hybrid Female red eyes Male red eyes
1 : 1

Hybrid female red eyes X Male red eyes

P2 XWXw XWY

G2 X W , Xw XW, Y

F2 XWXW : XWY XWXw : Xw Y

Female red: Male red Hybrid female Male white
eyes pure eyes red eyes: eyes
`

The results of this crossing differs to cases for the two alleles, one of
them is dominant and the other one is recessive which are available on the two
Figure 5.21 Difference betwe- body chromosomes (Mendel genetic) as follows:
en eye colors of fruit fly (for
study) 1-The rates in the second generation F2, are 3:1 in both cases but with regard
to the sex linked traits, the appearance of recessive trait which are (white eyes)
restricted to the male only.

2-Half of the male have white eyes and the other half have red eyes with regard
to this sex linked trait, also the results differs when conjugation female that has
white eyes with male that has red eyes as in example (2).

Example (2)
Reciprocal Cross for the above case in example (1)

When crossing female of drosophila melanogaster (white eyes) with

male (red eyes), the members of the first generation were females red eyes and
males white eyes, when the members of (F1) conjugated between them, the
two sexes appeared in (F2) by the ratio 1:1.

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What are the genotypes for the parents and for the member of (F1) and (F2)?
Given that the gene of white eye trait is recessive towards the of red eye trait.

Solution
We refer to a recessive white eyes gene (w) and the symbol for the dominant
red eye gene (W). We can explain the products of this reciprocal cross as fol-
lows:

Female (white eyes) X Male (red eyes)

P1 X wX w XWY

G1 Xw XW, Y

F1 XWXw X wY
Hybrid red eyes female White eyes male

When crossing the member of the first generation (F1) with each other ,we get
the following:

Hybrid red eyes female X White eyes male

P1 XWXw X wY

G1 XW, Xw Xw, Y

F1 XWXw: XWY: X wXw : Xw Y

Hybrid red Red eyes male White eyes White eyes
eyes female female male

We conclude the followings from this cross:

a. Differences of phenotypes for the first generation and the second one from
the results of the example (1) and from the results of Mendel’s traits.

b. The white eye mothers transferred their traits to the males of the first gener-
ation members, also the fathers transferred their trait of red eyes to the females,
and this type of genetic is called diagonal genetics.

c. In the second generation we got the ratio (1:1) in each of the sex with regard
to the colour of eyes instead of the known ratio for the Mendel s traits which
are (3 dominant: 1 recessive).

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5-4-7-3 Sex linked traits in human

1. Colour Blindness

The cause of this disease is recessive, sex linked gene (Xc) taken from
the word (colour) and the ratio of this disease in male more than female by 20
times. The effected person feels inability to recognize between the two colours
red and green (fig 5.22). That’s why he has to be careful when driving a car. In
the following the explanation of genotypes and phenotypes for this disease.

Phenotype in woman Genotype in Phenotype in man Genotype

woman in man
Not effected X CX C Not effected XCY
Disease carrier X CX c ------- -------

Effected XcXc Effected XcY

2. Haemophilia

The affect of this disease are described as inability of their blood to clot
when having a cut in the skin, that’s because of difficulty to breaking the blood
platelets, this because of anti hemophilic factor which is called Factor V111
is missing. Missing this factor is caused by a recessive sex linked gene Xh.
The genetic of this disease is similar to the genetic of color blindness except
the pure female in the gene of the disease (XhXh) may die in the early stage of
embryonic growth.

Phenotype in woman Genotype in woman Phenotype in G e n o t y p e

man in man
Not affected XHXH Not affected XH Y

Carrying the gene of XHXh affected XhY

the disease
Affected dies in the XhXh ----------- ---------
early stage of embr-
yonic growth

3. Genetic of dominant sex linked trait in human

Some people have decrease in phosphor level in the blood. The cause
of this disease is a dominant sex linked gene (XD), the normal person has got
recessive gene (Xd).

Practical example

Woman affected by Rachitis her mother was affected, but her father was not
affected, she got married to a man (not affected) and she had four children,
there were a boy and girl are affected. What is the genotype for each member
of this family?
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Conclusion:

Some children are affected and some are normal that means the mother is hy-
brid in the gene of the disease, because if she was pure, then all the children
would be affected. Also we conclude that woman is hybrid from her father (not
affected).

Solution

Hybrid female affected X Male not affected

P1 X DX d Xd Y

G1 X D, X d X d, Y

F1 X DX d X DY X dXd XdY
Female Male affected Female not Male
affected hybrid affected not affected

Figure 5.22

a) Pedigree of color blindness

(sex linked trait)

b) Shows the probable genetic

trait for each member.

Anyone who infected by color

blindness cannot see number
“8” but see number “3” from
the colorfull circle
(for study)

5-4-7-4 Sex-influenced traits

The phenotype for the trait depends on the sex of the person. Hybrid
express about phenotype in sex and the alternative type in the other sex exam-
ple for that is Baldness in human.

It is known that this trait is controlled by the gene B which is available on the
body chromosome and its dominant in male, the baldness produces in male by
two genotypes BB and Bb but it doesn’t produce baldness in female, except in
the case of BB although of that, the effect of it, isn’t as much as in male and it
express about it in later stage of the age. The appearance of baldness depends
on concentration of male hormone.

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Phenotype in Genotype in wo- Phenotype in Genotype in

woman man man man

Bald BB Bald BB

N o r m a l ( c a r r- Bb Bald Bb
ying the gene)
Normal bb Normal bb

The other sex- influenced traits are the trait of length and shape of the
feathers in chicken, horn in sheep and the colour of the hair in Ayrshire cow.
There are two descents, one of them is red and the other one is spotty by black
Ayrshire cow (for study) and white, and the last type is more common in male.

5-4-7-5 Sex-limited traits

We have known when studied the recessive sex-linked genes will

be in male more than in female. Any there are other factors can affects the
express of the gene according to the sex (male or female) in a different ways.
Sex – limited trait due to a gene affects the structure or function of the body
which is available in male only or in female only. This kind of gene can be
located on body chromosome or linked to sex. Understanding the sex-limited
genetic is important for people who is specialist in looking after animals, for
example producing milk in cows affects one sex only but any of the parents
can transfers the genes which controls these traits.

Another example in human is the voice, growing beard, the size of

breast and sudden raise in blood pressure at the time near giving birth for
some pregnant women. In general female don’t have growing beard because
its disability to secrete the essential hormones for growing hair in the face.

5-4-7-6 Chromosome Mapping

The farther apart two genes are located on a chromosome, the more
likely a cross-over occur. The greater the percentage of F2 offspring showing
recombinant traits, the farther apart the genes for those traits must lie on a
chromosome.

Researchers conduct breeding experiments and use the resulting data

to prepare a chromosome map. A chromosome map is a diagram that shows
the linear order of genes on a chromosome.

Alfred H. Sturtevant, one of Morgan’s students, made the first chro-

mosome map for flies, as shown in Figure 12-4. To prepare his map, Stur-
tevant compared the frequency of crossing-over for several genes. The per-
centage of crossing-over for two traits is proportional to the distance between
them on a chromosome. Sturtevant defined one map unit as a frequency of
crossing-over of 1 percent.

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5-4-8 Linkage and Genetic Crossing over

Linkage is a case of availability of two or more of non allele genes

which tend to inherit with each other. The linked genes has got its location on
the same chromosome, it doesn’t distribute freely but it can separate from each
other by Crossing Over which happens through Prophase l stage in first mei-
osis which the two homologous chromosomes exchange some parts including
the molecule of DNA.

This exchange happens between the two non-sister chromatids for that
identical pair of chromosomes, it doesn’t produce new gene and it doesn’t re-
move old genes, but rearrange the alleles in one of the sexes or in both.

Figure 5.23 It shows how gene-

tical crossing over takes place
(for study)

Discovering the phenomenon of Crossing over by the scientist Mor-

gan (1910) helped in explaining the results of many traits which has heredity
procedure different than Mendel’s ratio. As we know that these Mendel’s ratio
applies to the traits which its genes located on different chromosomes, that’s
why it distribute freely at gametes formation, but when these genes are located
on the same chromosomes (Linked) its behaviour will change, so it doesn’t
distribute equally to the gametes, then we get different phenotypic - ratio to the
one we got in test cross for (Dihybrid Cross).

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So in this case we get two big ones are the product of uniting parents gametes
and two small ones are the of product of Recombination’s.

We get the value of Crossing-over as follows:

The product will be by percentage (%).

Map unit or Centimorgan is used to measure the distance between

the genes on the chromosome and each of them represents the value (1%) from
the Crossing between two genes. The amount of crossing or the seen recom-
bination’s proportional with the distance between two certain genes on the
Figure 5.24 Show three gee- chromosome, so if this distance gets bigger, then the possibility of crossing is
nes on a chromosome of fruit bigger, the genes which are close to each other on the same chromosome are
fly including distance between hardly connected to each other, this notice was developed by the scientist Mor-
them (for study) gan which led him to put the theory of longitudinal order for the genes on the
chromosome which led them to put the genetic maps for the chromosome.

Also notice the map of the genes for chromosome X in human. This
was put by using some new techniques. The percentage of crossing between
the genes is affected by many genetic and environmental factors such
as chromosomal mutations like Inversion and also chemical mutations and
selection and sex, age, temperature and the x-rays.

Example;

Linkage and GeneticCrossing

When crossing the plant of Sweet peas with purple flower (P) and
long pollen (L) with Sweet peas with red flower (p) and round pollen (I) all
the member of the first generation were plants with purple flowers and
long pollen, this result seems normal, because as we know that the traits
of purple colour and long pollen are dominant on the traits of red colour and
Figure 5.25 Gene map for X round pollen. But the ratio of the second generation is not identical with the
chromosome in human.Shows phenotypic - ratio ( 9:3 :3 : 1) which is particular by di-hybrid, also when using
the genes which cause different test crossing we don’t get the phenotypic - ratio and genotypic - ratio ( 1 : 1 :1:
disorders (for study) 1), that’s means the two above genes are linked and in this case, can draw these
two genes on the chromosome to recognize them from the Mendel’s genes
which is each of them is located on a different chromosome as follows:

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The above explains the different type zygote PL//pI didn’t produce
the expected gametes in equal ratio. It produced parent’s gametes PL and pI
by higher ratio from the produced gametes of crossing pL and PI, that the
last one gave less number of individuals. The linkage always tends to keep the
parental combinations for the genes by fixed ratio nearly for any two linked
genes.

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5-4-9 Cytoplasmic inheritance

All the genetic information is coded in the molecule of DNA

which is available in the chromosomes in eukaryotes organisms. According
to this, can predict inheriting the traits in the families by knowing the behav-
iour of chromosome during division. But the DNA is not only available in the
chromosomes, it is also discovered in the mitochondria, green plastids, base
body for flagella and that was in the beginning of sixties. This discov-
ery explains some aspects of cytoplasmic inheritance or (External nuclear
inheritance) which is non-Mendelian inheritance; it includes transferring
genetic information through auto-multiply for the cytoplasm organelles such
as mitochondria, green plastids and others. The molecule of cytoplasm DNA
shows a clear differences in nucleotides sequence from nucleus DNA ,so it’s
divested of protein, same as in the molecule of DNA in Prokaryotes like bac-
teria, virus. The multiplying of molecule of DNA for cytoplasmic organelles
is similar to multiplying in prokaryotes, the studies showed its ability to do the
genetic expression.

Kappa particles in Paramecium

Some descents of paramecium (Orillia) has the ability to secrete poi-

son which distributes in water media and its called Paramecin, it kills the
member of other descents which belongs to the same type when they present
in the same media, it explodes the food vacuoles for the sensitive paramecium
which swallows it.

The paramecium who produces this poison called Killer and the par-
amecium who dies because of it called Sensitive. In the cytoplasm of killer
paramecium, it’s been found that small particles called Kappa particles which
is similar to bacteria and it may contains a certain swallowed viruses. One of
the theory points out that these viruses reproduce through multiplying, and then
they produce poison which releases to kill the sensitive chains.

Kappa particles contains DNA and protein, each paramecium cell con-
tains 100-200 particles, its present in the cell permanently depends on a dom-
inant nucleic allele K, the paramecium will be killer when it contains kappa
particle and the dominant allele K in the two cases (Kk and KK) and will be
sensitive in these two cases:

1-When the gene is recessive (kk) even if it contains kappa particle, it can’t
keep them, so it lose them after a few division.

2-When the gene is pure and dominant (KK) or hybrid (Kk) that s in the case
of kappa particles not present, so the dominant allele (K) can’t produce bacteria
kappa, only when there is a little part of it in the cell.

After the conjugation is completed, it produces two killer descents that

mean the trait of kill inherits through cytoplasm.

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Figure 5.26
Cytoplasmic exchange happens (A)
or doesn’t happen (B). The case(A)
happens when the time of conjuga-
tion between the two descents the
killer and the sensitive is enough
to allow exchanging big amount of
cytoplasm between the two conjuga-
ted organisms, also to exchange the
nucleic material.

When a killer one conjugates with a sensitive one in suitable condition

so (avoid killing the sensitive one) exchange of the nucleic material happens
without exchange in the cytoplasm (because conjugation period is short) (case
B) and after the conjugation is completed.

The sensitive one gives sensitive descent which carries the dominant
allele in the case of hybrid (Kk) but is missing kappa particles, the killer one
gives killer descent (Kk) which carries the dominant allele and kappa particles,
that means the trait of kill doesn’t inherits through the nucleus, the produced
descent from the killer one inherits kappa particles, meanwhile the descent of
sensitive one doesn’t inherits it, because the exchange of cytoplasm doesn’t
happen, another example for cytoplasmic inheritance in animals is the effect of
genotype for the mother to point out the side of spiral the Limnaea.

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5 -4 - 10 Mutations

Mutation is sudden change in succession of nitrogen bases of a gene

or of a molecule of DNA; this change is associated with appearance of new
phenotype and genotype on the base of the quality of cells. There are mutations
happens in the germ cells which is represented by the gametes of organism,
the mutations of reproductive cells don’t effect the organism itself but it may
transfers to his children. There are mutations happens in the somatic cells of
the organism then effects it, for example some types of skin cancer and blood
cancer in human, this type of mutation doesn’t inherits.

Figure 5.27 Mutation causes

the similareffects in different
organisms.

A) Mutation in mouse
B) Mutation in cat
C) Mutation in human (for
study)

Mutations can be harmful as in the case of wings reduction in drosoph-

ila melanogaster, shorten legs in sheep and many of diseases and syndromes in
human, or can be lethal which leads to the death of embryo before birth.
Some mutations lead to useful phenotypes for organism, the organisms
with useful mutation may have better chance for adaptation, reproduction and
survive, so these organisms can be very important economically such as the
mutation which leads to increase the animal and plant production and improve
the quality.
Mutations can be represented in changes in certain chromosome this
called chromosomal mutation or in certain nucleotide this called genetic muta-
tions.

First: Chromosomal mutations

Chromosomal mutations divide into two main types:

1. Mutations because of changes in the number of chromosomes:

A. Aneuploidy, in this case there is one missing chromosome or one extra

chromosome.
B. Polyploidy, this is an increase in complete chromosome group so the organ-
ism has triple-chromosome(3n).

2. Mutations because of changes in structure of chromosomes:

A) Change in the number of genes that includes deletion which means losing
part of chromosome.
B) Change in the order of genes that includes inversion which is part of a cer-
tain chromosome breaks and reverses, then unites again with the chromosome
itself and the transition which part of a certain chromosome breaks and unite
with another not identical chromosome.
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Some chromosome mutations are the loss or gain of entire chromosomes. The
mutation that gives a person three copies of chromosome 21 results in Down
Syndrome. The mutation which provide a certain person by chromosome add-
ed to chromosome pair number 21 is produced from Non-disjunction case this
chromosome doesn’t separate of the other one during meiosis, this leads to
that one of the gametes contains an extra chromosome, at the same time the
other one is missing this chromosome and this case called Down syndrome
(Mongolia).

Figure 5.28 Chromosomal mu-

tations (for study)

Second: Genetic mutation includes two types:

1-Point mutations:

It is the product mutation from deleting or adding or exchange one nucleotide

with another one which belongs to one genetic location (Locus).

1- Deleting mutation: In this one nucleotide will be missing from a certain

gene. This deletion leads to incorrect combination for remaining Codons, this
called Frame shift mutation which leads to change all the amino-acids which
locates after it (A). This mutation may leads to dangerous affects in the func-
tion of protein.

2- Insertion Mutation: This is to insert one nucleotide into a certain gene

which may leads to Displace Mutation too.
Figure 5.29 21 numbered chro-
3- Substitution Mutation: One nucleotide replaces with another one (B). If
mosome repeated three times in
this Substitution happens in a certain codon, the amino-acid changes. There
down syndrome (Trisomy) (for
are many types of substitution mutation as follows:
study)

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A- Missense Mutation.
B- Neutral Mutation.
C- Silent Mutation.
D- Nonsense Mutation.

Figure 5.30 Gen mutation 2- Duplicate Mutation

A) In a substitution mutation, This includes affect more than one pair of nitrogen base for the gene,
one nucleotide replaces anot- this happens through repetition of copying part of gene.
her, forming a new codon that
may signal the insertion of the Average of occurrence mutation:
wrong amino acid.
Most of organisms have got many genes, so the possibility of occur-
B) Deleting a nucleotide cau- rence of mutation in one of these genes is very big. It’s been known the average
ses all subsequent codons to be of mutation for the one gene in drosophila melanogaster is nearly 10 -10 so
-6 -5

incorrectly read, resulting in a once for each 100000 million gene in one generation.
frame-shift mutation. Addin-
The total average of mutation in these insects is around 1% - 3%. The
ga nucleotide shifts the codon
average of mutation differs from gene to another in the same organism.
grouping too, and causes misre-
ading. This average may increase when an exposure occurs to some Muta-
gens like radiation with high energy such as ultra violet rays and ionic radiation
like x-rays or some chemicals like nitric acid, metallic salts and formaldehyde.
It is clear that a number of known chemical materials can be carcinogenic.

Anti-mutagens

Because of the problems which mutation causes, the scientist have found re-
cently anti-mutagens material for some mutations:

1) Bio anti-mutagens: These are stopping factors, it has role within multiply-
ing the DNA or other factors which has role within the operation of repairing
the damage.

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2) Des-mutagens: This is like finding anti-material which works directly on

mutagens such as anti-oxidation or finding Blocking Agents.

5-4-11 Human genetics

Despite of human genetics regards as the oldest branch of the practical

genetics, and the human species (Homo sapiens) is most important target to
study the genetics, but this branch developed slowly comparing by the other
branches of genetics, that’s because of many difficulties which facing the re-
searches in this field and they are as follows:

1- The small size of the human families don’t allow all the possibilities to ap-
pear, so it is difficult to make sure of the purity of the parents traits, so the big
size families are more desirable in the genetic studies, but the number of the
biggest human families is much less than the right number to put genetic ratios
statistically testable.

2- The age of one generation since the birth until it reaches the age of adoles-
cence are many years, so following the traits in the next generation takes long
time.

3- The marriage in human is regarded as private issue which is impossible to

control it or direct it according to the marriages which are controlled by exper-
iments.

4- Many of human traits are not controlled by Mendel’s genetics but they are
controlled by non-Mendel’s genetics such as an accompanying dominant, in-
complete validity, interference the genetic action, multi genes with an accu-
mulated affect which is impossible to study the effect of each one individually.

5- Large number of chromosomes in human comparing to the other organisms.

Studying the human genetic depends on the following:

a- Noticing appearance or disappearance the traits in the members and the rela-
tives through generations by drawing the family tree and collect statistical data
for one family and many families with the relation to the studied traits.

b- Studying the changes in the genetic frequencies and the interference with
the environment which is regarded as important database for surgical medicine.

c- Dependency by modern molecule techniques through knowing the nitrog-

enous bases successions for the gene and link it by the function of that gene.

5-4-11-1 Pedigrees

Pedigree is a diagram shows the producer of a certain trait’s genetic

throughout many generations. The squares in this diagram refers to males, the
circles refers to females.

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• The square or the dark circle means the presence of the trait or the case with
the person in a certain generation and vice versa for the light colour symbol.
•The horizontal line which connects the male to the female refers to the mar-
riage.
•The vertical line refers to the children which have been arranged from left to
right according to the order of the birth disrespect of the sex.
•The Roman numbers refers to concession of generations.

The four members in the fifth generation for the above pedigree are
called Carriers for the gene, because they have one recessive allele only but
they are not affected by the disease, but each family of them have the ability to
transfer it to his son and his daughter by concession (from left to right).

Figure 5.31 Pedigree show a

disease that transmitted by a
ressesive gene.

5 - 4 - 11 - 2 Inheritance of some body traits and disease abnormalities

in human:

The people who are interested in genetic may know the genetic of some traits
and the genetic abnormalities through analysing the patterns of inheritance,
so analysing the expression about the genes throughout the generations by the
pedigree. The standards of dominant traits which are the responsible gene for
each trait is located on body chromosome (table 5-5).

1- The trait transfers in male and female by equal frequency.

2- The consecutive generations are infected.
3- Stopping the transfer after the generation which there isn’t any affected one.

The standards of the recessive traits are the following;

1- The male and female are frequently affected at the same level, and the af-
fected members can transfer the gene except in the case of death before the age
of adolescence.
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2- The traits can disappear for number of generations.

3- The parents of the affected person are heterozygote or carrier of disease.

The effect of genetics is not limited to appearance or disappearance of

some traits only, but extends to the function of some organs and their prepara-
tion to get affected by certain abnormalities which transfers from the parents
to the children in an identical form for other traits, example for that multi sacs
in kidney for the dominant gene which causes that and the disease of cystic
fibrosis for the recessive gene which causes that (table 5-5).

Dominant Traits Recessive Traits

1 Achondroplasia Normal case

2 Brachydactyly Normal case

3 Breast Cancer Normal case(not affected)

4 Cleft chin Round (no presence of Cleft)
5 Freckles Clear
6 Free ear lobe Stack ear lobe
7 Presence of Dimples in the chin or Round (no presence of dimp-
check les)
8 Widow’s peak Straight
9 Huntington disease Normal case(not affected)

10 Hypercholesterolemia Normal case

11 Phenyl thiocarbamide Not tasted

12 Polycystic Kidney disease Normal case
13 Polydactyly Presence of 5 fingers in hand
or foot
14 Normal case Alkaptonuria
15 Normal case Non ability to coordinate mo-
vements (Ataxia)
16 Normal case Cystic Fibrosis
17 Normal case Duchene muscular dystrophy
18 Normal case Galactosemia
19 Normal case Phenylketonuria
20 Normal case Thalassemia major

Table 5-5 Some Traits and (the

Dominant, Recessive abnorma-
lities) in human.

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Figure 5.32 Some common

genetical traits in human

5 - 4 - 11 - 3 Human Chromosomes

The chromosomes which are not directly related by determination the

sex in human are called Autosomes and they are 22 pairs and the remaining pair
as we know it represents the sex chromosome (one pair represents the sex).
Chromosomes of human may differentiate according to centromere’s
location to the following types:

a- Metacentric Chromosome; centromere is located at the centre and the locus

of chromosome at the same size.

b- Submetacentric Chromosomes; centromere is closed to one of the poles and

locuses are in different sizes.
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c- Acrocentric Chromosome; centromere more closed to one of the poles and

look as “I” during cell division.

d- Telocentric Chromosome; centromere located at one of the poles.

Figure 5.33 Types of chromo-

somes according to centromere
On the bases of the length of chromosome and centromere’s location, positions
the chromosomes of human can be ordered in 7 groups of Autosomes from A
- G, and one pair of sexual chromosome either (XY) or (XX). On that base so
the 23 pairs of chromosomes in body cells divides into the following:

Chromosome Group

1-3 A
4,5 B

6-12 C

13-15 D

16-18 E

19-20 F
Figure 5.34 Chromosomal sys-
21-22 G tem of a normal male embryo
(for study)
XX and XY X

5 - 4 - 11 - 4 Diagnosing the genetic diseases

People who have got family history in getting affected by a genetic dis-
ease usually have the genetic examination, especially before having children,
there two methods to diagnose:

a- Method of Amniocentesis.
b- Method of examine of Chorionic villi which are located in the lining of
uterus.

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5-4-11-5 Reducing the symptoms of some genetic diseases

That can be done by many ways:

1. Diet: This described for some genetic metabolism diseases such as phenyl
qutonuoria.
2.Physiotherapy: This described for Cystic Fibrosis patients, so the patients
have many sessions which hitting on the back and the chest will be used to get
the sticky mucus from the lungs.
3. Using certain injections for some diseases such as insulin injection which
are used to treat urine diabetes and the injection of blood clotting protein to
treat Haemophilia.
4. Using some surgical operations for the embryo (limited cases) to repair
some genetic abnormalities.
5. Treatment by the genes, exchanging the gene which suffers of problems in
function, that’s by reducing the symptoms of disease which the original gene
is responsible for it.

5-4-11-6 Genetic counselling

Many people with a family history of a genetic disease also undergo

genetic counselling, the process of informing a person or couple about their ge-
netic makeup. Genetic counselling is a form of medical guidance that informs
individuals about problems that might affect their offspring. By studying the
data from genetic screening tests and the family’s pedigree, a genetic counsel-
lor can predict the likelihood that a couple will produce an affected child. For
diseases that have both genetic and environmental influences, such as diabetes,
physicians and counsellors can advise families on how to lower risk factors.

The fields which can be counselled:

1. Know the range of affecting some members of the family by one of the ge-
netic diseases.
2. Know what leads to (relative marriage) possible genetic diseases.
3. Know the causes of irregular sexual formation or late sexual maturity.
4. Give advises in case of frequent miscarriages.
5. In case of identifying the father.
6. In case of finding out the danger of medicines and radiation.

5-4-11-7 Human Genome

After a half century of discovering the structure of DNA, genetic sci-

entists knew the genetic successive or human genome which includes order of
about 3,3 billion pairs of nitrogen’s bases in human chromosomes. Scientists
looking forward to know the information which the nucleotides succession will
determine for DNA real terms.
That’s by developing new and important field of biology fields (Bioinformat-
ics) which is aiming to program the computer to help to explain and analysis
most of DNA nucleotides successive and expect genes presence places and the
functions which control by it, also comparing between successive of different
nucleotides for DNA.
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5 - 5 Molecule base for genetic

Mendel through his study for many traits in plant of peas concluded
that there are genetic factors controls transferring the traits in the organism, but
what are these factors, what its procedure to store the genetic information and
its ability to solve the vague information which puzzled the scientists. Later
through their studies and researches could solve some aspects of that puzzle
by insistence of scientists to find the solution for one the respiration system’s
diseases which was spread in the society in 1928 (A.C.).

5-5-1 Detection of DNA

Scientists depended on three studies definite that DNA is the genetic material:
1. Krevet experiments on bacteria, so he explained that there is genetic factor
which did the Transformation; he could transfer the ability of killing between
types of bacteria cells.
2. The experiments of Avery showed that DNA and not the protein are respon-
sible of Transformation in bacteria.
3. The experiments of Hershey and Chase, these two scientists in (1952m)
had a test to know if (the DNA or the protein) is the genetic material which the
virus transfer it or bacteriophages. Can explain this experiment in three steps:

• Radiation was used to distinguish DNA from the protein in virus, so radiated
phosphor (P32) was used for the DNA and the radiated sulphur (S35) was used
for the protein. After that the two scientists left the virus which contains the
radiated phosphor and the one which contains the radiated sulphur individually
to affect the bacteria (Escherichia coli).
• The layers of virus were removed from the cells by certain processer.
• The viruses were separated from bacteria by using Centrifuge. The result
was all viruses’ DNA a little bit of protein interred to bacteria. On that base it
was concluded that the part of virus which affected bacteria cell and multiply-
ing its DNA not its protein.

Figure 5.35
Hershey and Chase, had a test and
concluded that DNA is the genetic
material which the virus transfer
it. (for study)

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5-5-2 The structure of DNA

Until the year 1953 the biology scientists were proving the idea of
DNA is the genetic material but before that time they didn’t know the structure
of DNA, then two scientist Watson and Crick put the idea for DNA structure;
it is basically consist of two anti-parallel chains, one of them turns around
the other one in a shape of double spiral and the nitrogenous bases for one of
the chains connects with the bases which are relate (complementary) in the
opposite chain by hydrogen bonds, also the sugar circles and phosphate group
in each of the chains by covalent bonds.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is regarded as a complex chemical

compound. It is present in all living organisms and it is important. It is present
mainly in the nucleus within the chromosomes which forms from the chro-
matin reticulum, and the chromatin material forms from units of Nucleosome
which is consist of four molecules of histone each one presents in dual case,
DNA molecule includes this structure. DNA also presents in some cytoplasmic
Figure 5.36 Double helix form organelles as in mitochondria and plastids.
of DNA. (for study)
Molecules of this acid is the biggest biological molecules, as polysac-
charides are consists of number of units or small molecules which are mono-
saccharide, the proteins are consist of number of units or smaller molecules
which are amino acids, so the nucleic acids are consist of a big number of
frequent building units called Nucleotides.

Each Nucleotide consists of three simplest molecules connected with

each other directly it is from out to inside as follows:

1. Pentose sugar which called Deoxyribose, the molecule form is (C5 H10 O4).

2. Phosphate group: This consists of an atom of phosphate (P) is connected

by four atoms of oxygen (O).
Figure 5.37 A) Structure of nucle- The alternate molecules for phosphate and sugar forms the two sides of DNA
otide (for study) chain, so the nucleotides which are on the way of each chain connects by cova-
lent bonds combines between the sugar of one of the nucleotides and phosphate
group for the other nucleotides. The covalent bond is unites two atoms as a
result of corporation of each one of them by an electron. The sugar and phos-
phate are identical in each nucleotide.

3.Nitrogenous Base is a ring compound which contains nitrogen, in addition to

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen except adenine which doesn’t contain oxygen.
The distance between each base and another one is constant.

Types of Nitrogenous Bases

A-Pyrimidine: includes the following ordinary bases:

1) Thymine (T) it is available in DNA only.

Figure 5.37 B) Structure of nucleo- 2) Cytosine (C) it is available in both nucleic acids.
some (for study) 3) Uracil (U) it is available in RNA only.

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B-Purines: includes two bases:

1) Adenine (A) it is available in DNA and RNA.

2) Guanine (G) it is available in DNA and RNA.

The linkage of the bases between two chains is not random, but it is
bounded, so adenine in one of the chains always connects with thymine in the Figure 5.38 Structure of purine
other chain by two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine in one of the connects with and pyrimidine nucleotides
guanine in the other chain by three hydrogen bonds.

In 1949(A.C) the scientist Chargaff ingratiate that the percentage for

Adenine equals the percentage for Thymine, also the percentage for Guanine
equals the percentage for Cytosine in the DNA for a various group of organ-
isms and these pairs of bases are called Complementary base pairs.

So the order of the bases in one chain of the DNA molecule or RNA is com-
plementing for the structure of the bases in the opposite chain. For example
the chain of DNA with order AGAC the opposite chain will be in completing
order TCTG.

Complementary base pairs are important in DNA’s structure and function for
two reasons:
1) Because the bonds between the base pairs helps to hold the two DNA chains.
2) Because of complementary nature for the DNA helps to explain how it is
multiplying before the cell division.

Example: If you know the succession of the bases in one of the DNA chains
is: TCT GTG GAC. How the complementary bases will be in the opposite
chain?

Solution:
The succession of the given bases is: TCT GTG GAC
The supplement succession will be : AGA CAC CTG

The above shows the DNA is very important, because it is the forming material
for the genes, the succession of the nitrogen’s bases determines the traits of
organisms.

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5-5-3 Structure of RNA and its functions

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is available in the nucleus and in the cyto-

plasm as the case in the nuclei, and in ribosomes and in other structures. This
acid can be the genetic material for some viruses; also it is very important in
protein synthesis and the enzymes. This acid is similar to the DNA in chemical
building units, but it differs in limited aspects as the following:

1) RNA contains ribose sugar C5H10O5 instead of ribose sugar missing oxygen
C5 H10 O4 which is in DNA.
2) RNA contains nitrogen base Uracil instead of the base Thymine which is in
DNA.
3) RNA usually consists of one chain not two as in DNA. But some parts of the
RNA may bends to become binary chain, in that Uracil connects with Adenine
and Cytosine connects with Guanine.
4) RNA is short (nearly equals the length of one gene) but he DNA is a huge
molecule contains hundreds or thousands of genes.
5) RNA carries instructions of protein synthesis, but the DNA can give the
instructions only.
6) RNA can behave as enzyme, but DNA can’t do enzyme function.

RNA Types:

We will mention three types of RNA and all of them are made in nu-
cleus of the cell and transferred to cytoplasm, so it has role in protein synthesis
and they are:

1) Messenger RNA: it is a molecule transfer genetic message from DNA

which is available in the nucleus to the ribosomes which is available in the
cytoplasm in the cells of eukaryotes.

2) Ribosomal RNA: it is part of the structure of ribosome; it shares with pro-

tein in its formation.

3) Transfer RNA: it transfers amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthe-
sis. It was noticed the amino acids connect to this acid (RNA) before transfer
it to the ribosome.

Genetic Code and Messenger RNA

Genetic Code points out the succession of nitrogen’s bases in mRNA

(Messenger RNA) so three nearby nucleotides represents Codons and deter-
mine an amino acid or points to the beginning of Initiation or to stop the trans-
lation.

5-5-4 Replication of DNA

The main property for the genetic material DNA is the ability to repli-
cation in the beginning of each cell division to make sure transferring it to the
new cells.

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Replication’s steps:

1) Helicase enzymes separate the DNA’s chain, so these enzymes transfer on

the length of this molecule to open the hydrogen’s bonds between the comple-
mentary bases. The product of separation these two chains is an area looks like
the shape of letter (Y) which is called replication fork.

2) The enzymes of DNA Polymerase adds completing nucleotides which are

inside nucleus to each one of the original chains and off course the covalent
bonds form between nearby new nucleotides, also the hydrogen’s bonds forms
between the complementary bases which are on the original and new chains.

Notice the direction of the arrows in this figure at replication fork that building
the DNA is in opposite direction in each chain this leads to make holes in the
chain which is forming recently, but these holes get connected in between them
by an enzyme called DNA Ligase.

3) DNA Polymerase enzymes ends the replication and then separate from it
and produces two separated molecules in each chain, one of them is original
and the other one new, so this kind of replication called Semi-Conservative
Replication.

The replication is carefully done, so one mutation can happen for each
one billion of added bases pairs, the reason is the presence of DNA polymerase
enzymes which mostly repairs the mistake.

Figure 5.39 Stages of DNA

replication (for study)

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5-5-5 DNA and its ability to Transcript the RNA

Transcription is the building operation of RNA by using one chain of

DNA as template. Transcription is regarded as the first stage of protein syn-
thesis, the steps of transcription as follows:

1- RNA polymerase enzyme which is the enzyme that stimulates producing

RNA from the DNA template connects in Promoter situation that leads to untie
the wrapped DNA chains and their separation.

2- RNA polymerase enzyme adds RNA free nucleotides to the nucleotides

which are in one of the DNA chains and it produces a new RNA chain. As the
case in DNA replication so the pairs of complementary bases determines nu-
cleotides succession in RNA which is made recently.

For example;
If the succession of the bases in DNA chain is: C A G C T A so the succession
of bases in RNA chain will be as the following:

Succession of the bases in DNA chain C A G C T A

Succession of the bases in RNA chain G U C G A U

Figure 5.40 It shows the stages After RNA polymerase enzymes have left the area of gene which had been
of production aminoacids from transcript, the DNA chains wrap again.
genes. Each three nucleotide
3- After RNA polymerase enzyme arrives to the ending signal it releases new
form a codon and each codon
RNA with different types.
used to produce an aminoacid.
The product RNA may perform its function in the cell. The enzyme can tran-
(for study)
script another gene.

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5 - 5 - 6 DNA Translation for protein synthesis

Translation is regarded as a step in protein synthesis and it happens in

the ribosomes and codons have been used in mRNA molecule for the determi-
nation of amino acids succession in polypeptides chain and include three main
steps:

1) Initiation: tRNA connects with mRNA and two building units for the ri-
bosome with each other. Certain enzymes connects the amino acid methionine
at one of the tRNA sides according to initiations codon AUG in the mRNA
which couples with anti-codon UAC on the other end for tRNA. The amino
acid methionine is regarded as the first nearly in all polypeptides but it may
disappear later.

2) Elongation: In this stage the chain of polypeptides form, the anti-codon in

tRNA which carries the suitable amino acid couples with the second codon in
mRNA, follows the separation of methionine from the first tRNA under the
action of ribosome. Then a peptides bond forms between methionine and the
second amino acid. Also the first tRNA leaves the ribosome and the ribosome
moves forward alongside with the molecule of mRNA one codons distance.

Figure 5.41 A typical type of

3) Termination: When the ribosome arrives to the stopping codon like (UGA
tRNA. (for study)
or UAG or UAA) on the mRNA this leads to separation of polypeptides chain
which was formed from last tRNA and a release happens in the cytoplasm with
leaving last tRNA for the ribosome, also the two building units for the ribo-
some separates from each other and the ribosome moves away from mRNA.

Translation of mRNA doesn’t get completed only after the transcrip-

tion which was mentioned before is ended, this is in eukaryotic.

In prokaryotic that don’t have nucleic membrane separates its nucle-

ic acid (DNA) from ribosomes which is present in the cytoplasm, so it can
start the translation before the transcription ends. A new ribosome can start
the translation of mRNA in case the previous one retires, therefore many ribo-
somes may translate the same copy of mRNA, and this kind of translation is
called polysome.

Structure and function of protein:

The shape of protein has a big influence on its function. Each protein
consists of one or more polypeptides, which are chains of amino acids and is
connected by peptide bonds. There are (20) different amino acids in the protein
of organisms. The chain of polypeptides consists of hundreds or thousands of
the (20) different amino acids which are ordered according to special succes-
sion which gives three dimensions structure for the protein.

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5-5-7 Genetic Engineering

It is the techniques of changing the genetic structure for the living cells
or the individuals through removing some genes or hybrid a new molecule of
DNA or altering it to enable the cell or the organism to gain the desirable traits.
The following are main needs for the technique of genetic engineering:

1. A method of cutting down the molecules of DNA which carries the required
gene to transfer by one of the restriction enzymes.

2. A suitable carrier which carries the new piece of DNA. This take place
through it’s unite with DNA carrier with the help of DNA Ligase enzyme, so
the hybrid piece (rDNA) marked by its ability to replication inside the recipient
cell.

3. A method to enter the hybrid piece of (rDNA) including the carrier piece for
the gene that is going to be transferred to the recipient cell.

4. A method of finding the recipient cell and its generations which carry the
desirable hybrid piece and separate it from the rest of colonies members who
doesn’t contain that piece.

The following is a summary of some of these needs:

1. Restriction enzymes:

These are bacterial proteins which are used to know the certain succes-
sion of nitrogen bases for the DNA molecule and it’s cutting down. Also these
enzymes break the internal phosphate bonds for the DNA.

Figure 5.42 It shows the activi-

ties of restriction enzyme(Eco
RI) (for study)

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2. The carrier:

The carrier has a main role in this technique and they are the following:
First: Bacteriophage: Phages are simple structured things which affect the
bacteria or remains inactive. It contains single or double DNA strips or it may
contain single RNA. An example for this is the phage lambda.
Second: Plasmid: It is a small circular from the additional DNA molecule
which is present in many bacteria.

- It carries a small number of genes which are responsible for some traits like
Bacterial resistance for the antibiotic.
- It replicates itself independently from the bacterial chromosome.
- It can be transferred from one bacterium to another and for many organisms
such as yeast, fungus and insects.

3. The Probe and finding the desirable gene

Probe is the molecule of DNA or RNA which is mono- chain and it is

marked by radioactive phosphor and complement for the DNA desirable suc-
cession and it is required to find it, as a result of connection between the probe
with complementary DNA piece will form a double radioactive spiral.

As for the insulin gene given in the probe is regarded as the RNA
for this gene. Usually the specialists transfer the DNA from the re-structured
bacteria into filter paper for the purpose to find out if the bacteria contains the
desirable gene, when the bacteria is viewed under ultra violet rays or when it
is exposed to photographic film, the clones cells which carries desirable DNA
and is distinguished by the probe stuck to it and it will become light and shiny.

5-5-7-1 Genetic practices

1. Determine the succession of complete nucleotides (Human genome) to know

the genetic map.
2. Its use in justice field.
3. Its use in the field of following the human immigration and some other or-
ganisms from its environments especially the ones threatened by extinction.
4. Producing human insulin hormone, protein interferon material, clotting fac-
tors number (8), blood protein and different vaccinations.
5. Transferring the trait of nitrogen installation to other types of bacteria.
6. Transferring the trait of root buds formation in the beans plant to other plants
which are economically important.
7. Developing researches of using the bacteria in research field about presence
and purification and concentration of the minerals in the soil.
8. Developing the ability of micro organisms to limit some dangers of pollu-
tion.
9. Applying selection systems in marriage of disdains of cows, sheep, horse,
chicken, fish and others.
10. Applying genetic concepts such as artificial selection and hybridization and
regular birth to produce useful plants for humans in big amounts, also taking
the advantage of twin’s phenomenon in cows and sheep to produce useful an-
imals.
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Questions
Q1) Define the following:
Genetics, Monohybrid Cross, Heterozygous, Mendel’s first law, Restriction Enzymes, Probe, rDNA, sex-linked traits,
Lethal alleles

Q2) Mention the properties of the scientist Mendel which made him famous in genetics?

Q3) Mention some scientists who contributed in the progress of genetics with pointing out their best achievements?

Q4) What is the meaning of Phenotype (P) and Genotype (G) and give some examples?

Q5) A man with blue eyes got married with a women with dark brown eyes, they had a number of children all of them
had light brown eyes. Explain the genotype for all these people according to the rules of multiple genes?

Q6) The plant of peas with red flower was crossed by another one with white flower, all the product plants where red
flowered plants and if you conjugate one of the first generation individual with one of the parents, what are the Phenotype
and Genotype for the individuals of second generation, and what is the type of cross in this case?

Q7) Guinean pig with rough, black hair was crossed by a female with rough, white hair, they had a number of births
as the following: 3/8 rough black, 3/8 rough white, 1/8 smooth black, 1/8 smooth white: what are the genotypes for the
parents and the product individuals? The traits of the rough hair and the black colour are dominant.

Q8) In yellow mice (Yy) the Allele (Y) will be dead, when internal marriage takes place between those, all the pure yel-
low colored individuals die. Explain the phenotype for all live individuals only.

Q9) A marriage took place between Mexican dogs with normal hair by another one with no hair, half of the first gen-
eration individuals were with normal hair and the other half with no hair, when marriage took place between dogs with
no hair, the individuals of product generation where as follows: 1/4 normal hair, 1/2 with no hair, 1/4 with no hair dead.
Explain this result with trying essential cross.

Q10) In Drosophila melanogaster the vaccination of (obtuse wings x obtuse wings) gives individuals as: 1 with normal
wings (folded wings), also the vaccination (obtuse wings x normal wings) gives individuals as: 1 with obtuse wings: 1
with normal wings. How do you explain these results? The obtuse wings are dominant trait.

Q11) Mention the properties of the used animals in genetic experiments?

Q12) A left handed man who carries haemophilia, got married with a right handed woman who carries the disease. Half
of the children (boys) were affected by the disease, half of the girls carrying the disease, also they had two normal chil-
dren within this generation, and one of them was left handed. What is the possible genotypes for all the children in this
family, given that right handed and not affected by haemophilia are dominant traits.

Q13) The disease of Colour Blindness is caused by a recessive, sex-linked gene, if an effected woman got married to a
normal man, what are the expected phenotypes for their children with respect to this trait.

Q14) What are the Phenotypes and Genotypes for the blood groups for the children of each couple?

A) IAIB X IBIO B)IBIO X IBIO

C) Hybrid man A X pure woman B. D) Man Rh+ X woman Rh-.

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Q15) A man with blood group A got married with a woman with blood group B, Rh is positive for both, they had two
children one of them with blood group O- and the other one with blood group A+, what are the Genotypes for the parents
and the children?

Q16) In which cases is the embryos life in danger, with explaining the reason, when the embryo is with Rh+:

A) When the man is Rh- and the woman is Rh+.

B) When the man is Rh+ and the woman is Rh-.

Q17) Mention the reasons of blood transfusion failure in some cases?

Q18) Explain the following:

1. The people with blood group (O) are described as general donors.
2. When crossing creeping cock with creeping chicken, the quarter of the product was dead.
3. Appearance of dusty individuals when crossing female sheep (short horns, red hair) with male sheep white hair.
4. Mongolian is regarded as chromosome mutation.

Q19) A plant with long stem, how can you know about of the purity of the dominant trait in it?

Q20) Is it possible and why?

1. Having a child blood group (O) from mother (B)and father (AB).
2. Blood Transfusion from any person to another one who is same blood group.
3. Finding unlimited number of Alleles for each gene.

Q21) Write the responsible Gene about:

1. Baldness 2.Hemophilia 3.Chinchilla rabbit 4.Color Blindness 5.Sickle-cell anaemia.

Q22) Mention the difficulties which the scientists faces when doing genetic experiments on human.

Q23) Mention the steps which the techniques of Genetic Engineering include.

Q24) Draw a picture explaining the method of transferring insulin gene in the human to bacteria and obtaining a hybrid
gene (Reformed).

Q 25) Compare between the molecules of DNA in each of the Nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Q 26) Do the functions of some genes be affected by the environmental circumstances? Explain by giving an example.

Q 27) When does paramecium Orelia becomes killing and when does it become sensitive, Mention the genotype for each.

Q 28) What is the relation between the plasmid and the rDNA?

Q 29) The following symbols represent succession of Nucleotides in the DNA molecule. TAG GGT CTC AGC

1. What is the succession of copy of mRNA produced from the above succession?
2. What are the Anti-Codons in tRNA which is linked to the copy of mRNA as above?

Q30) Probe is regarded as a chain for DNA or RNA mono recognized by radiated material or by florescent colour. How
do the genetic scientists use it to determine the location of rDNA?

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 Evolution
CHAPTER 6
EVOLUTION

Contents

6 - 1 Introduction
6 - 2 Development of the concept of
Organic Evolution
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6-3 Evidence of evolution 201

6 - 4 Mechanism of Evolution
 Chapter - 6

6-1 Introduction
Each environmental system is clearly defined in terms of biological
and natural aspects. Organisms survive without internal and environmental
balances. Living organisms stay living within the environment in which they
are dependent on each other with their environment. This is the fact in spi-
te of continuous changes to the natural world taking into account the boom
which has happened to uncountable types of animals and plants. Many types
of animals have disappeared leaving behind a record of fossils indicating the
presence.

However, this record is not full and the ground itself carries its own
record of changes, which has had a significant role in the disappearance of se-
Pre-adaptation plays a veral species and prosperity of others. This is because of their adaptation. For
key role in the evolution while the example, owning the first ancestors of amphibians, which are fish lobed fins of
dimensional adaptation does not take the lungs that are suited to breathe on land. This happened already when bodies
a part in the process of evolution, but of water dried out and the food sources became very limited for these fish with
consolidate the types and prosperity. lobed fins.

As a result it had to move to the land of living adjustments. Such adjustment is

called pre-adaptation. There is another type of adaptation which is a dimen-
sional adaptation called Post adaptation.

Organisms try to adapt themselves to the environment in which they

live in the best and get this kind of adjustment phase following the adjustment
process when needed, and therefore: Pre-adaptation plays a key role in the
evolution while the dimensional adaptation does not take a part in the process
of evolution, but consolidate the types and prosperity.

It should be noted that there is a timeline to change the forms of obje-

cts according to the environmental and isolated conditions. It is possible that a
chain conforming changes together with the environmental conditions. As we
see in the clear sequence of algae to mosses to ferns until we reach flowering
plants. It could be argued that the emergence of members in different living
things is a constant horizontal extension throughout long periods of time. With
regard to the advancement and development, this is a changed leading to the
fact that the member becomes better able to do its job as its performance is
more polished.

6.2 Development of the concept of Organic Evolution

The question about the origin of life occupied the peoples mind since
The question about the the ancient times. People thought a lot to answer this question. However, the
origin of life occupied the peoples precise answers were very limited. The opinions on this subject were under
mind since the ancient times. the influence of philosophical ideas and religious beliefs. Despite that all the-
se emerged ideas that led to the events of the radical changes in the concepts
relative to perceptions. Among these concepts and ideas we introduce the fol-
lowing:

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1. Anaximander (Miletus) in the sixth century B.C introduced the idea of

evolution in the animal kingdom, and cited in his book:

“The creation of living organisms has been on an individual basis.”

2. Empedocles in the seventh century introduced information about the origin

of human using his imagination based on the general concept of evolution.

3. Lucretius published his book about the nature, (De Natura Rerum) which
included views and ideas in favor of the concept of natural selection process
that includes a stay of the fittest.

4. Buffon is considered the first scientist supporting the concept of evolution.

He was considering the species constants (non variable). The he developed
his concepts through his belief that animal populations are descended from
one type, only after they possessed recipes and different characteristics over
time. Buffon also believed the living conditions representative climate and
food were the primary factors that led to the changes that have taken place on
animals. Ideas and theories consequently explain the concept of evolution.

6-3 Evidence of evolution

6-3-1 Evidence from fossils and their Formation

Fossils can be defined as the remains of living organisms deposited in

the soil, usually these remains in the solid parts such as bones and teeth and Fossils can be defined as
different parts of the structure. the remains of living organisms
deposited in the soil, usually these
1. Rapid disappearance and burring living animals under wet deposition. remains in the solid parts such as
2. The impacted animals did not get decayed by bacteria or oxidation processes bones and teeth and different parts
by the effect of the fluid. of the structure.
3. Existence of solid parts, usually there are fossils within deposits arranged in
layers and deep ones are older.

Configuration and fossils is the strongest direct evidence for evolution, because
it contains:

1. Provide evidence of changes in the forms of life through successive geologi-

cal eras.
2. Provides evidence on the distribution of the living things on the earth and in
the sea during the past periods of time, as well in addition to the environmental
conditions in those areas.

The researchers were able to diagnose an enormous variety of animals

through the study of fossils, for example they identified several types of sharks, Ancient bird fossils (Ar-
including the small ones which had teeth indicating that it was fed on animals chaeopteryx), which had fossils
of psoriasis and crustaceans. There were other types of fork with big fin great discovered in Bavaria, Germany
and some teeth. These sharks were estimated between two and three meters in
length and were believed to have been living on psoriasis.

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Whatever is said about the diversity of fish fossils can apply to the tre-
mendous diversity in reptiles. This observation drew the interest of the fossils
scientists, as well as ancient bird fossils (Archaeopteryx), which had fossils
discovered in Bavaria, Germany.

This was believed to be the link between reptiles and birds, as it con-
tained jaws and teeth and had a long tail containing a large number of bony
vertebrae.

Figure 6.1 Different types of fos-

sils (for study)

They also had claws protruding in the wing. Its discovery has aroused the at-
tention of all evolutionists and the biologists in the world.

Figure 6.2 Old examples of fossils

(for study)

The study of fossils requires a study of rock layers that are the Earth’s crust and
that are at two types:

1. Igneous rocks: These are rocks consisting of volcanic lava after it cooled,
and be similar rocks.

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2. Sedimentary rocks: These are rocks formed by the deposition of sand

and dust and gravel and fine drift with rivers and flooded water in most cases.
This material is deposited in layers containing the remains of plants and animal
fossils buried during ancient times.

The studies of layers of sedimentary rocks show that:

a. The deep bottom layer contains fossils of invertebrates, especially insects,

mollusks and also contains fish.
b. The middle layer is followed in the age contains a two fossils of reptiles.
c. The upper layer that follows the middle age and contain relatively upscale si-
milar fossils like birds and mammals that live now. This arrangement may pro-
vide an explanation that the simple objects arose first and then began complex,
down to the existing complex organisms now the age of fossils can measured
in various ways, including the use of carbon isotope.

Figure 6.4 Embryonic develop-

ment in different organisms
(for study)
Figure 6.3 Different types of fossils (for study)

6-3-2 Evidence of Comparative Embryology

Evidences can be derived from Comparative Embryology and summa-

rized as an evidence of evolution, through laws of embryonic configuration,
namely:

1. Law of embryo growth, set by (Von Bear) in 1776-1892, which stipu-

lates that the embryonic stages of the individual tend to be similar embryonic
stages of his predecessors. “Thus, the embryonic stages of an animal of mam-
mal have similar stages to the embryonic lower for other animals in the Ladder
of evolution, fish and reptiles are example. However, the resemble adult will
not be similar.

2.Biosynthesis Law
This is also called Recapitulation Theory developed by the German scientist
Ernest Haekel 1834 -1919 (The Act provides for the following:

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“The history of the emergence of the individual tends to clarify his prede-
cessors” This law is rewritten to growth law of Embryonic mentioned above.

Take, for example, pharyngeal pockets that grow for the fish embryos and
contribute to the process of configuring the gill that works mainly in an adult
animal. Following configuration for the embryonic advanced invertebrates, we
find that these vertebrates do not grow gill.

However, it can be seen that the remained pockets appear in fetuses

and soon close because these vertebrates did not need gill. They breathe using
the free air through the lungs.

Figure 6.5 The vertabrate embryo

(for study)

6-3-3 Evidence from comparative anatomy

Comparative study of anatomy regarding invertebrates shows facts ba-

sed on its interpretation of the idea of evolution. We observe for example, the
general plan of the construction of anatomical body in vertebrate animals is
the same. We find that the nervous system takes the dorsal position while the
circular system takes a position on the ventral side. The digestive system takes
the center of the body, and this case is the opposite of anatomical construction
plan in invertebrate animals.

What’s more, we find that there are some organisms various inverteb-
rates have been built according to the same anatomical system even though
they may vary in functions carried out.

For example, the front legs of each of the parties, the pigeon, the cat,
the dove, the whale, horse, bats and human.

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All these are similar in the construction foundation, but they perform
different functions, so some modification has taken place that fits the functions
performed. This case is called Homology. It means that there are structures or
organisms show similarities in the evolution and structures, regardless of job
that these organs carry out.

Figure 6.6 Examples of extremits

in some vertabrates (for study)

The homology is one of the traditional anatomical evidence on the validity of

evolution. The facts mentioned above and other applicable anatomical context
for general construction of invertebrates cannot be interpreted solely without
the basis of evolution.

6-3-4 Evidence from Vestigial Organs

The archeological organs are those organs which are atrophic organs,
which different types inherited from of ancestors, where these organs carry
out their functions of the ancestor and when no longer required to functions in
animals which have become relics. There are many members in the bodies of
archeological animals, including:

1. Appendix in humans, which is a finger rise shape which has no specific fun-
ction in humans. Appendix is removed when it is infected in human without
causing any damage. The appendix in the vegetarian mammals will have a lar-
ge cystic structure, playing an important functional role in process of digesting
cellulose.

2. Pelvic girdle and the rear legs in some snakes as in python.

3. Archeological Wings in some birds which are not able to fly like a bird
(kiwi).

There are many archaeological structures in different animals with no functi-

ons, but they remain synthetic property and which have been descendant of the
ancestors of these animals.

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6-3-5 Evidences from Taxonomy

Biologists have discovered since a long time ago, that in spite of the
great diversity of living organisms, however it was possible to arrange organis-
ms in a reasonable classification system supports the natural order of classifi-
cation, depending on the degree of similarity in phenotypic traits, for example,
we find that pet cat is very close to the wild cats whose taxonomic location lies
within the same family.

This relationship shares with a clear relation with the lions and tigers,
which are all descended from the same rank, the rank of Predators, where all
its members participate in a number of qualities that distinguish them from the
other animal groups, such as the head round and clawed toes negotiable cont-
raction. Therefore the animals can be classified according to the number of
attributes where scientists believed that each of the animals got manifestations
which are compatible with similar construction plan compositional as in (6– 7).

Figure 6-7 Morphological similari-

ties of some mammals (for study)
6-3-6 Evidence of the Geographical Distribution of Organisms

Darwin observed during his trip to the Galapagos Island that plants
and animals are not all in places of the island, despite the availability of ap-
propriate conditions of climate and other environmental factors. For example,
what has been proven by many researchers when their study of the geographi-
cal distribution of elephants, the gorillas, chimpanzees and lions.

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They found that these animals that reside in the middle of Africa, while little
or no presence in Brazil, which has the same environmental conditions to the
middle of Africa. Therefore, the geographical distribution could give further
evidence for the adaptation of organisms to their environments as a result of the
evolution and this is what fossil signs.

6-3-7 Evidence from genetics and Cytology

Genetic studies have shown common ancestor of many modern plants

and animals, where they were mediated cellular technologies and compared
genetic forms of chromosomes and therefore compared types of genes on the
chromosomes in many organisms. For example, it was found that current to-
bacco plant Nicotiana Tabacum was arisen from two wild types. Also the study
of giant chromosomes in the salivary glands of the drosophila melanogaster
and learn their details led to the detection of Evolutionary History for many
types of insects.

6-3-8 Evidence of Comparative Physiology

Some scientists believe that the phenomenon of evolution or called the

origination is essentially a functional, chemical and biochemical phenomenon.
This is supported by the following:

1. Science comparative jabs:

When injected some mount of animal serum in the body of one guinea
pigs, the foreign serum works as a generator for the antibodies in the blood of
a guinea pig animals. Therefore will acquire immunity to the type of serum in-
jection, precipitates and damage the antigen if the guinea pig is injected again
with the same type of vaccine. This will be happening altogether if added to
the blood of an animal which is related to the guinea pigs.

1. Blood Groups

There are four blood groups which are A, B, AB. O. The human shares
with the some members of mammary Primatological, including human in terms
of the blood groups. The group A is available in chimpanzee and the groups
(A, B, AB) available in Gorilla. Moreover the four blood groups are available
in higher grade monkeys.

6-4 Mechanism of Evolution

The idea of origination and now called evolution is an idea dating back
to more than 2500 years ago. Since Greek philosopher Aristotle announced that
water is the material from which organisms originated. This was followed by
Anaximander who attributed the continued life to a mixture of water and sun.
Aristotle believed the idea of a gradual transition from the simple to complex
(not from full to full) which is one of the founders of the idea of evolution.

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The concept began upgrading to emerge with the development of biology in the
sixteenth century. However, there is the fierce resistance by a lot of this idea
and for their adherence to the fact that the species were fixed and could not be
changed, despite the fact that the results of excavations prove otherwise.

6-4-1 Lamarckism

The theory of Lamarck in (1744 – 1829) the first theory dealt with the
interpretation of the mechanism of evolution. The theory of Lamarckism is
based on the principle of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. The theory
states that the object is affected by the surrounding environments. This results
in the access superficial and behavioral changes in the appropriate direction of
the impact of the environment. These changes are usually slow, but continue
and lead to the emergence of new recipes and depending on the use and neglect.
Interpretation of the idea of Lamarck is explained as follows:

1. The length of the giraffe’s neck resulted from the elongation of the cervical
spine, as a result of an attempt giraffe continuing to reach the high trees leafs.

2. The disappearance of the rear feet of the whale and its disappearance to mere
appendages is a result of the negligence of the whale using them after the whale
became living in water. The tail became representing the main part (organ) of
the movement.

3. The presence of thick fur that covers the bodies of Arctic animals resulted
from the effect of extreme cold and that leads to dense hair growth.

4. Snakes left legs gradually forced to getaway and hide in burrows and corri-
dors so that it can narrow movement, crawl. This led to the elongation of the
body and the cylindrical shape.

5. The animals that live in dark caves lose their sight to the non-use of the eye
in the consideration.

The wings of a kiwi bird become atrophic it uses it for flying.

Lamarck said that organisms acquire metamorphosis that results from
the environment and these acquired metamorphosis are inherited generation
after generation. Scientists have proved that adaptation under the influence of
the environment is a general phenomenon which is already proved. However,
the idea to use or neglect is proven to be incorrect.

Below is the summary of the points against Lamarck’s theory:

1. Organism’s tendency to increase in size is far from the truth as the reduction
in size is such dominant in many organisms.

2. The emergence of the new organism as a result of new requirements is not

true at all, for example Lamarck believed that the environment affects the ner-
vous system, leading to the formation of organisms and new structures and this
is not possible because this means that human hopes for flying birds could lead
to configure the wings to humans in the long run.
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3. The scientist Ocsat Weismann (1834-1914A) studied the difference betwe-
en the body cells and the sex cells and he observed that the change in the sex
cells are inherited and lead to development. With regard to the changes in the
body cells, they are not inherited and they do not lead to development. This is
contradicts Lamarck’s Theory. So the gained traits do not inherit unless their
genes are carried by the genetic material.

Wiseman experienced an experiment and that he cut the tails of mice in twenty
consecutive generations and found that the twenty-first generation still retains
tail which is owned by members of the first generation.

As the tradition which was followed by the Chinese to put the feet of women in
wooden molds to remain small size which was regarded as a sign of beauty did
not inherit as they generated normal feet.

4. Lamarck’s theory did not base on experiments, since any change unless it
happens in DNA molecule on the cells of chromosomes genes, it will have no
effect on the characteristics of the second generation.

Figure 6-8 Explanation

of lamark and Darwin for exp-
lanation of giraffe (for study)

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6-4-2 Darwinism

Darwin-Wallace Theory Charles Darwin, (1809-1882), was an English

scientist and his father was a doctor practiced his profession with great success
who has sent Charles Darwin to study medicine at Edinburgh University. He
left this study because it was useless in his opinion, then studied Earth science,
Biology and graduated from Cambridge University in 1831 and joined while
studying a number of Scientific associations, he joined Charles Darwin explo-
ratory cruise aboard the Beagle (in 1831) and was 22 years old at the time.
Darwin continued his journey approximately five years, during which
time he visited Atlantic Islands and some areas of coast of South America, and
some South Pacific Islands, including the island of Galapagos. That was the
most important places in the formulation of Darwin’s views about the origin of
species.
Darwin noted in islands of Galapagos variations between species. This
variation was little between closer species, and there was even less variation
within among the same species. So Darwin concluded his remarks that each
species are subject to changes and is not fixed. Darwin’s attention was drawn
to the fact that there were 14 species of birds very similar among them and now
known as Darwin’s Finches.

Many of these birds have been living alone on separate islands in Ga-
lapagos in the Pacific Ocean. Darwin found two or three types of them live on
the same island sometimes. The most obvious differences between the types of
Figure 6-9 Darwin`s finches
birds were the sizes and shapes of beaks that reflect feeding habits. Figure (6.9)
(for study)

Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913) was a nature scientist who toured around

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the world five years in South America and eight years in the Malayan peninsu-
la. This long tour has supplied him with a wide ground for views such as those
with Darwin’s. He reached similar opinions to Darwin in evolution. They have
published their views in a joint article in 1858.

It is possible to summarize Darwin-Wallace theory as follows:

1. Covariance:
The covariance exists between the members of species, and some of
the differences are inherited.
Variations include special characters such as the size, dimensions, color and
anatomical and functional construction, etc., and the inherited variations are
important in evolution.

2. The potential ability to reproduce:

Species produce in each generation more than those that remain until
the proliferative phase. Those individuals that survive and reproduce are ones
which determine the nature of the second generation.
Organisms own a latent ability to reproduce much larger than the ac-
tual reproduction rate. Darwin introduced an example in this regard. The
example was the elephants which are slow animals in terms of reproduction. If
the elephant’s potential ability is taken into consideration; assuming they reach
sexual age (30) years old and living (90) years and leave the female through
that (6) members, then its population becomes 19 million after 750 years.

3. Conflict in order to survive:

The organisms that produce eggs and seeds in millions remain constant
in numbers, because this increase cannot be consistently achieved. This is due
to prohibitive factors such as disease, hunger and lack of appropriate environ-
ment or competition between species. These is so-called struggle for survival,
and so destroy a large number because of its weakness and lack of capacity and
efficiency for getting food and prevent the evil enemies, and the individual is
considered successful if he stayed alive and made the process of reproduction.

4. Natural Selection:
During the life cycle of the organism, the members remain the most
appropriate and adapted to the mating stage. Thus they can pass the feature of
surviving recipes to the next generation. In the mean time the unbeneficial cha-
The individuals who are
racters will fall by the death of the holders these characters or their inability to
successful in survival and ma-
mating. The individuals who are successful in survival and mating to produce
ting to produce a new generation
a new generation are called the “Fittest”. They are members of more adaptive
are called the “Fittest”. They are
to the environment.
members of more adaptive to the
Darwin consolidated his theory with a huge amount of evidence in the
environment.
form that made evolution understandable from his point of view. Among this
evidences the following:

1. The animals with thick fur and that resist harsh cold live in the Polar Regi-
ons, while animals with light fur will freeze and disappear as a result of unsui-
tability of the environment in which they live.

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2. The numbers of quick swim fish normally increase. These fish can escape
from its enemies, the slow swimming fish disappear, become they are easy prey
by their enemies in the environment where you live.
3. Darwin interpreted the lengthy neck of the giraffe on scientific grounds,
where he says: that giraffes with Short necks cannot reach food from the lea-
ves of trees will disappear. In contrast, the giraffes with long necks which can
access to their diet grow and multiply. This shows they the most suitable for
the environment in which they live. Form (6 - 8).
4. All breeds that can resist viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases multiply and
grow while the weak breeds that can not resist disappear.

Objections to Darwinism

When Darwin introduced his theory there was no knowledge of gene-

tics diversity. Also it was not known that sexual reproduction entails the unity
of one sperm with one egg,. Hence the weakness and the most serious issue in
Darwin’s theory were represented by his failure in the true definition of style
of genetics. Darwin explained genetics as a mixing phenomenon, converging
parents recipes in the produced generation. Therefore he believed that lots of
kinds of differences are inherited. While this is not the case if the currently
known laws of genetics are applied. The differences resulting from changes in
the genes and mutation are the only ones which are inherited.

Synthetic Theory

This is a theory which was based on the laws of genetics in the in-
terpretation of the concept of evolution. Many Scientists had to re-evaluate
Darwin’s theory in the lights of laws of genetics. These were genetics scientist
in the community who studied the differences in the natural society for the
animals and the plants. They used a new and a more comprehensive theory,
collected between science of community genetics, fossils, embryos, classifica-
tion and behavior of the organisms.

Community Genetics Science have linked between Darwin’s natural

Interactions between so- selection and the principles of modern genetics and showed that the evolution
ciety and the media are the domi- is a change in the genetic composition of the communities. Such a change oc-
nant concept for the modern evo- curs when society is exposed to the environmental challenge, or any changes in
lution theory, which is also called the vital media. Interactions between society and the media are the dominant
synthetic theory. concept for the modern evolution theory, which is also called synthetic theory.
Synthetic theory is based on the following four points:

1. Mutation
2. Recombination
3. Natural Selection
4. Genetics Draft

1. Mutation
The Dutch scientist De Vries (1849 – 1935) regarded as the first who used the
word Mutation. He published his theory known theory of Mutation in 1908
as a result of his research on Moroccan plant. He found one plant which was
clearly different from the rest of the group that he observed.
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He believed it was a new type of this plant. So to make sure that this plant was
different in its genetic characters from the rest of the plant, he collected its
seeds and planted them.
He found that the resulting plants were similar to the parents, but contrary to
the rest of the normal Moroccan plants. Also the number of chromosomes in
the germ cells of the new plant is different from the normal plants.

He explained that this genetic character in this new plant is due to

differences in the number of chromosomes. De Vries believed that what hap-
pened to the emergence of new types suddenly between these plants is possible
to happen among other organisms, whether plants or animals, it is likely that
this has occurred in the middle Ages.

Figure 6-10 Horse evolution (for

study)

De Vries named these changes in the genetic traits that appear sud-
denly between plants and animals by mutation. On this basis De Vries put
his theory which refers to the emergence of new types of organisms suddenly,
types differ in some or all of the characters and this mutation is the cause of
the emergence of new species. So the Mutation causes a change in the genes
of the cell-bearing genital recipes. When a mutation appears with survival type
(greater opportunities for the survival of the holders was created), with its ratio
in the community will increase continuously in each generation, while the ratio
of the alternative original trait decreases.

A substitution of mutation recipe for another alternative recipe happens with

several factors, including:

1. That the new status is dominant or recessive.

2. Severity of selection.
3. The rate for the mutation and mutation counter measures.
4. Population size of the group.

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It should be noted that most of the mutations that are produced will not
be suitable for the election and staying and results in the death of organisms
this has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments.

Most of the mutations are recessive. As the spread of mutant recipe

among the majority of the population group members take a long time and
many generations. Therefore, development processes for the organisms takes a
long periods of time. For example the estimated time periods took to the evo-
lution of the horse more than fifty million years. Figure (6 - 10).

2. Recombination

This happens during the process of meiosis division of sexual cells

mixing for the gene through the crossing-over and the independent assortment.
The result of re-mixing a large number of different individuals. Certainly, this
process leads to the formation of new compositions. The importance of these
new compositions is through securing the direct origin of the changes that are
normally subject to the process of natural selection. We will try to identify this
through the following two experiences:

1. In (1905), the Danish scientist Johansson carried out an electoral inocula-

ting for a plant of beans with large seeds with another plant with small seeds
and planted them. He followed the product of the first generation and found
that the plants with large seeds gave smaller seeds. Then he selected plant
produced bigger seeds and another with smallest seed. Then he got the seeds
of the next generation which did not keep the impact of the election of the first
generation.
Therefore Johansson thought that natural selection shall not have an
important role in the development process, and this is why the Darwin’s idea
of natural selection was neglected in the results of the experiment. Johansson
related the increase or decrease of the size of the seeds after the first generation
to the effects of the environment. Figure (6 - 11).

Figure 6-11 Experiments on

bean

2. In another experiment a number of agricultural scientists conducted an ex-

periment on the corn plant. The experiment was conducted on four varieties of
corn.

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These four types were: The first was protein-rich, the second poor in protein,
the third rich in oil, and the fourth a poor in oil. After fifty generations, they
found that the ratio in rich seeds was doubled, while the ratio was decreased
to half in poor seed. Therefore the natural selection had an impact unlike what
was found in Johansson experiment.

Why did this difference happen in the two trials? In order to answer this ques-
tion we can say the following:

The difference between the results of the experiments lies in the

amount and size of existing genetic changes before the start of the selection.
For example the bean plant is Homozygous. Therefore different plants of the These differences in com-
pure strain are similar and this was what the scientist Johansson got after the munities arose because of mutations
first generation. The difference between large and small seeds was due to the and re-mixing and possibly genetic
influence of the environment only. In the corn case the mixed pollination is drift, and non-random mating and
processed by the means of air and the seed will be of different Heterozygous. migration.
So it will be different among themselves more than the case of beans, and this
is what is happening in humans.

Due to cross pollination, which may cause many genetic traits and the
result of genes in the gene pool or the gene assembly, these remain in the com-
munity population as a result of its association with other genes which have
dominant characteristic (in adaptive characteristics), by more than 50% for the
survival of species.

3. Natural Selection

That natural selection is the main force-oriented development. This is

done by sorting adaptive units from the gene pool (genotype assembly) resul-
ting from mutation and re-mixing. Other sources of genetic diversity, (such as
genetic drift) work over many generations.

The communities that are sexually reproduce composed of many mem-

bers, and everyone with a different genotype. These differences arose because
of mutations and re-mixing and possibly genetic drift, and non-random mating
and migration.

Let us assume that one of these genetic models is better than any other
model, so the animal carrying it will be adapted to the environment better than
other animals that have different genotype. This means that it has modifying
value more than the others. The one who carries it through the success of pro-
liferative and his contribution to the product of the next generation. However, with the prospe-
rity of the industrial revolution, the
It should be noted that natural selection works on the whole object of mosses disappeared due to industri-
any style. Entire gene and not on individual genes. Despite disagreement about al waste carbon which was emitted
the importance of natural selection as a major force directing evolution. from thousands of chimneys.
The natural selection occupies average center in the biological evo-
lution. Changes the distinguished stay, and reproduction of different genetic
models. There are many examples that show how natural selection changes the
society in nature. Sometimes the selection would be very fast.

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For example, high resistance of the insect killer by the insect, specially the flies
and mosquitoes. The dose that killed all lesions was closed in the first use and
was later ineffective in control, and as a result the selection of the mutations
that give high resistance and a rare at the beginning increased in frequency. The
more rapid selection case is the case of Industrial Melanism in Mites.

It has been observed before 1850 that this type of mites was always
white and speckled black spots on the wings and body (type spotted), but later a
mutation of black has appeared of the same type. This has become increasingly
common for up to (98%) in the city of Manchester in the United Kingdom and
other industrial areas in (1900).

This type of moths becomes active at night, resting during the day in
the outdoors, on stealth protection method. The spotted or mottled types locate
on the trunks of trees which are covered by mosses. However, with the prospe-
rity of the industrial revolution, the mosses disappeared due to industrial waste
carbon which was emitted from thousands of chimneys.
The stalks of the trees were covered with carbon (the black spot). Thus
the spotted mites became easy prey for predatory birds. At the same time the
mutated black shapes have become in the development of camouflage which
can disguise.

The result was a fast natural election, where the birds choose the white
spotted type being easily visible. The black type was less exposed for attach
by the birds. Thus, the pressure was tempted to electoral disqualification of the
white spotted shape (Figure 6 - 12).

Figure 6-12 Industrial Melanism

in moth

This change has happened in the population of mites in a period not to

exceed fifty years and represents rapid transformation process, which must be
noted that this shift happened in the industrial areas only. At the same time the
white spotted mites remained dominant in rural contaminated areas.

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 Evolution

Considering the advancement of the industry techniques, and developing prog-

rams to control pollution and reduce the effects of the contamination. The whi-
te spotted mites re-emerged in the surrounding forests near the cities.

This example illustrates how the industrial pollution is a dramatic

example of rapid directed natural selection. That has happened because of the
media change, which led to variable modified genetic duplicates.

3. Genetic Drift

Genetic drift indicates occasional changes in the gene frequency, whi-

ch may occur when a few individuals become random and isolated from a large
community. Genetic drift may also occur when a small number of individuals
migrate to a far destination to become the founders of new communities. This
is because these few individuals will take with them only incomplete sample of
the genetic pool of parents community.

The characters which cannot be carried will be lost. Thus, the founders
certainly differ from the parent’s community, and the less the migrants are to
the new home, the more random changes in the genetic frequencies that can
lead to many new types. Small communities descended from the founders may
be less able to contend successfully with the new environment. This is due to
the loss of some genes mediated by genetic drift, which led to the reduction
of suitability or their ability to adapt to the new community. This may be a
reason for the disappearance of small communities, but they may sometimes be
apparently successful.

Whatever the importance of genetic drift, it must be considered as a

rare event, because of being nominated a small community, forced founders
in its evolution by the mean of natural selection. There are a lot of examples
in this area, as happened in the starlings in North America, where a few birds
entered New York City (1890), and now they are in countless numbers in North
America. A similar event like this in many kinds of birds and mammals as a few
number of them entered North America, New Zealand, and Australia, domina-
ted dramatically.

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 Chapter - 6

Questions

Q.1 Write the scientific term which indicates each of the following statement:

1. ......................adaptation is working to consolidate the types and prosperity.

2. ....................is a constant horizontal extension through long periods of time.
3. .....................is changing which leads the member to become better able to do his job, consequently, be more preferen-
ce performance.
4. .....................are the remains of living organisms deposited in the soil.
5. .....................bird discovered petrifaction in Bavaria, Germany rocks.
6. .....................is the case that the presence of members of the show similarities in the evolution, the compositions, re-
gardless of the job carried out by these members.
7. .....................large cystic structures found in mammals which eat grass and play functionally important role in the
process of digesting cellulose.
8. .....................bird which is incapable of flying possesses vestigial wings.
9. .....................his first theory dealt with the interpretation of the mechanism of evolution.
10. ...................the name of the ship that sailed by Darwin in his expedition in 1831.

Q.2 Explain the following scientific facts:

1. The disappearance of types of objects and other survivals in light of the changes that have occurred on the surface of
Earth.

2. The fossils strongest direct evidence for the phenomenon of evolution.

3. Many scientists believe that the old bird (Archaeopteryx) is the link between reptiles and birds.

4. Removal of appendix in human when they get the inflammation does not cause any harm.

5. The presence of elephants, gorillas and chimpanzees, lions in the middle of Africa while little or no its presence in
Brazil, which has the same environmental conditions for the mid-Africa.

6. The disappearance of the rear feet of the whale and its transformation into a mere appendages.

7. Notable weakness in Darwin’s theory is failing to correct definition of style Genetics.

8. The state of the melanomas in more cases of mites quick election.

Q.3 Write in the parentheses letter which refers to the correct alternative

1. Creation of living organisms has been on an individual basis. This statement was mentioned by the scientists:
A. Anaximander. B. Buffon. C. Lokritus. D. Empedocles.

2. The first scientist supported the concept of evolution and regarded the verities as a constant is:
A. Lucretius. B. Buffon. C. Empedocles. D. Anaximander.

3. Study shows layers of sedimentary rocks that middle layer containing the fossils:
A. Insects. B. Reptiles. C. Birds. D. Fish.

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4. Blood type (A) prevail in:

A. Gorilla. B. Human. C. Elephant. D. Chimpanzees.
5 - The loss of the animals that live in the dark caverns of her sight evidence of health:
A. Lamarck’s theory. B. Darwin’s theory. C. Synthetic theory. D. Mutation.

6 - Exploratory trip took Darwin in 1831:

A. 3 years. B. 4 years. C. 5 years. D. 6 years.

7 - The number of kinds of birds eye view of Darwin strongly similarities among them:
A. 12. B. 13. C. 11. D. 14.

8 - The first to use the word (Mutation) is the scientist:

A. Darwin. B. De Vries. C. Lamarck. D. Johansson.

9 - Estimated periods of time that it took the evolution of the horse is more than:
A. 5 million years. B. 5 thousand years. C. 50 thousand years. D. 50 million years.

Q. Complete the following statements including matching:

1. Adjustment ............... plays a key role in the phenomenon of evolution, while not contributing to adapt ............ in the
process of evolution.

2. The general way in the formation of fossils: A. ....................... . B. ........................

3. Law embryo growth, which was put by Von Bear, states that ...........................

4. Lamarckism theory is based on........................................... ........

5. Covering the polar animals with thick fur is a result of ........................

6. Located inside the membrane that is surrounded by Plastids two important compositions which are ...........and ..............

7. Charles Darwin was sent by his father to the University of Edinburgh to study ..................... but he changed his studies
to ............................... and graduated from the University of .......... .....year ................. .

8. Synthetic theory is the theory which was based on its interpretation of the concept of evolution to...............................
and the process .......................... through which ..........................

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