Transmitter -first step in sending a message is to convert it into The modulated carrier is amplified and sent to the antenna

the antenna for

electronic form suitable for transmission. a microphone is used to transmission. This process is called broadband transmission.
translate the sound into an electronic audio signal. A camera converts
the light information in the scene to a video signal. In computer TYPES OF MODULATION
systems, the message is typed on a keyboard and converted to binary
codes that can be stored in memory or transmitted serially. AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) – (HEIGHT OF THE
CARRIER / CONSTANT FREQUENCY)
The transmitter itself is a collection of electronic components and
circuits designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) – (FREQUENCY OF
transmission over a given communication medium. CARRIER / CONSTANT HEIGHT CARRIER)

The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic FSK – FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
signal is sent from one place to another.
PSK – PHASE SHIFT KEYING
- Electrical Conductors. In its simplest form, the medium
may simply be a pair of wires that carry a voice signal from a Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share
microphone to a headset. the same medium or channel.

- Optical Media. The communication medium may also be a frequency-division multiplexing, the intelligence signals
fiber-optic cable or “light pipe” that carries the message on a light modulate subcarriers on different frequencies that are then added
wave. together, and the composite signal is used to modulate the carrier.

- Free Space. When free space is the medium, the resulting time-division multiplexing, the multiple intelligence signals
system is known as radio. Also known as wireless, radio is the broad are sequentially sampled, and a small piece of each is used to
general term applied to any form of wireless communication from one modulate the carrier.
point to another.
In code-division multiplexing, the signals to be transmitted
The earth itself can be used as a communication medium, because it are converted to digital data that is then uniquely coded with a faster
conducts electricity and can also carry low-frequency sound waves. binary code.

Carrier current transmission or power line communications (PLC) - THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
signals to be transmitted are simply superimposed on or added to the
power line voltage. Electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillate.

A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is
accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum.
back to a form understandable by humans.
FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
Transceivers - most communication equipment incorporates circuits
Frequency is the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in
that both send and receive.
a given period of time.
Signal attenuation, or degradation, is inevitable no matter what the
Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave, and it is
medium of transmission. Attenuation is proportional to the square of
usually expressed in meters.
the distance between the transmitter and receiver. (LOSS /
kabaligtaran ng GAIN)

Noise - it is the bane of all electronic communications (hindrance to

communicate properly)

ANALOG SIGNALS – SINE WAVE, VOICE, VIDEO(TV) SIGNAL

DIGITAL SIGNALS – MORSE CODE, CONTINUOUS WAVE CODE, SERIAL

BINARY CODE

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

Simplex - The simplest way in which electronic communication is

conducted is one-way communications, normally referred to as
simplex communication. (ex: tv, radio, remote controls)

Full Duplex The bulk of electronic communication is two-way, or

duplex communication. (ex: vc using cp)

Half Duplex The form of two-way communication in which only one

party transmits at a time is known as half duplex communication. (ex:
walkie-talkie)

An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or

current.

Digital signals, in contrast to analog signals, do not vary continuously,

but change in steps or in discrete increments.

Modulation and Multiplexing

Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for

transmitting information efficiently from one place to another.
Modulation makes the information signal more compatible with the
medium, and multiplexing allows more than one signal to be
transmitted concurrently over a single medium.

Baseband Transmission

Before it can be transmitted, the information or intelligence Extremely Low Frequencies. Extremely low frequencies (ELFs) are in
must be converted to an electronic signal compatible with the the 30- to 300-Hz range. These include ac power line frequencies (50
medium. Putting the original voice, video, or digital signals directly and 60 Hz are common), as well as those frequencies in the low end
into the medium is referred to as baseband transmission. of the human audio range.
Voice Frequencies. Voice frequencies (VFs) are in the range of 300 to Technicians. Technicians have some kind of postsecondary education
3000 Hz. This is the normal range of human speech. in electronics, from a vocational or technical school, a community
college, or a technical institute
Very Low Frequencies. Very low frequencies (VLFs) extend from 9 kHz
to 30 kHz and include the higher end of the human hearing range up Gain means amplification.
to about 15 or 20 kHz.
Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component.
Low Frequencies. Low frequencies (LFs) are in the 30- to 300-kHz
range. Frequencies in this range are also used as subcarriers, signals The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in decibels (dB), a unit
that are modulated by the baseband information. of measurement that was originally created as a way of expressing the
hearing response of the human ear to various sound levels. A decibel
Medium Frequencies. Medium frequencies (MFs) are in the 300- to is one-tenth of a bel.
3000-kHz (0.3- to 3.0-MHz) range.
dBm. When the gain or attenuation of a circuit is expressed in
High Frequencies. High frequencies (HFs) are in the 3- to 30-MHz decibels, implicit is a comparison between two values, the output and
range. All kinds of simplex broadcasting and half duplex two-way radio the input.
communication take place in this range.

Very High Frequencies. Very high frequencies (VHFs) encompass the

30- to 300-MHz range (mobile radio, marine and aeronautical
communication, FM radio broadcasting)

Ultrahigh Frequencies. Ultrahigh frequencies (UHFs) encompass the

300- to 3000-MHz range. (It includes the UHF TV channels 14 through
51 / CELLULAR TELEPHONES)

Microwaves and SHFs. Frequencies between the 1000-MHz (1-GHz)

and 30-GHz range are called microwaves. Superhigh frequencies
(SHFs) are in the 3- to 30-GHz range.

Extremely High Frequencies. Extremely high frequencies (EHFs)

extend from 30 to 300 GHz. Electromagnetic signals with frequencies
higher than 30 GHz are referred to as millimeter waves.

Frequencies Between 300 GHz and the Optical Spectrum. This

portion of the spectrum is virtually uninhabited. It is a cross between
RF and optical. Lack of hardware and components limits its use.

Right above the millimeter wave region is what is called the optical
spectrum, the region occupied by light waves.

Infrared. The infrared region is sandwiched between the highest radio

frequencies (i.e., millimeter waves) and the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. (0.1 millimeter (mm) and 700 nanometers
(nm))

Infrared is produced by light-bulbs, our bodies, and any physical

equipment that generates heat.

The Visible Spectrum. Just above the infrared region is the visible
spectrum we ordinarily refer to as light. Light is a special type of
electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in the 0.4- to 0.8-µm
range (400 to 800 nm)

Ultraviolet. Ultraviolet light (UV) covers the range from about 4 to 400
nm. Ultraviolet generated by the sun is what causes sunburn.

BANDWIDTH

Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

occupied by a signal. It is also the frequency range over which a
receiver or other electronic circuit operates.

BW = f2 -f1

Channel Bandwidth - When information is modulated onto a carrier

somewhere in the electromagnetic spectrum, the resulting signal
occupies a small portion of the spectrum surrounding the carrier
frequency.

the term bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that contain

the information.

term channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required

to transmit the desired information.

Standards are specifications and guidelines that companies and

individuals follow to ensure compatibility between transmitting and
receiving equipment in communication systems.

The term used to describe the ability of equipment from one

manufacturer to work compatibly with that of another is
interoperability.

Engineers. Engineers design communication equipment and systems