Mathematics: Proofs by induction

Mathematics from high school to university

Proofs by induction, Wrap-up

Hania Uscka-Wehlou, Ph.D. (2009, Uppsala University: Mathematics)

University teacher in mathematics, Sweden
T(n0) is true, T(n) ⇒ T(n + 1) for all n ⩾ n0
 We can prove
Formulas holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0
 We can prove
Formulas holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Inequalities holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

 We can prove
Formulas holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Inequalities holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Statements (e.g. about divisibility) holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0
 We can prove
Formulas holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Inequalities holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Statements (e.g. about divisibility) holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Number n in the statement can also be (for example):

the size of a (square) matrix
the degree of a polynomial
 We can prove
Formulas holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Inequalities holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Statements (e.g. about divisibility) holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Number n in the statement can also be (for example):

the size of a (square) matrix
the degree of a polynomial
 0 0 0 ... x 0
Determine all the real
b b b ... b x solutions to the equation D = 0 whe
135 Problem 12, another large determinant.
he real solutions to the equation D = 0 where a and b are constants and x
Problem 12: Show that:
other large determinant. 5 3 0 ... 0 0
ow that: 2 5 3 . . . 0 0
5 3 0 ... 0 0 0 2 5 . . . 0 0
Dn = . . . . . ..
2 5 3 ... 0 0 . . .
. . . . .
. . .
0 2 5 ... 0 0 0 0 0 ... 5 3
n+1 n+1
Dn = . . . .. .. .. = 3 2 0 0 0 ... 2 5
.. .. .. . . .
0 0 0 ... 5 3
0 0 0 ... 2 5
 I
Induction step

NI
i
T nDnTW T

950 3000
2 5 3 0
00
0 0 538n.n.it
2 5 00 30
Ii Diii assume

2nd
0 2 5 3 2 0
0 Dn 55 Dn G Dn n
ai 5 Dn 3 n
0 2 53 00 Intl Dnti Zm

poppin
iii is the
Induction with
g
O O
baseO Ocases
p
53
I know that Dnt 5 Du 6 Day
TCI is true
3 2mi 60 3 2n
is 5
T 2 true 2 3

I
5.34
1
5 2 2 3mn 1 3 2nd
w w
i

2 2
I 3 3 2 2nd 34 24

VEE
 We can prove
Formulas holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Inequalities holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Statements (e.g. about divisibility) holding for all natural numbers, or just from some n0

Number n in the statement can also be (for example):

the size of a (square) matrix
the degree of a polynomial
 Theorem: If p(x) and d(x) are polynomials such that d(x) 6= 0 then there exist two polynomials
q(x) and r(x) such that
p(x) = q(x)d(x) + r(x)
and deg(r) < deg(d). The polynomials q(x) and r(x) are unique.

Proof: Let deg(p) = n and deg(d) = m, i.e.:

The new polynomial has degree n 1 at the most (the red parts cancel out, but the degree can
be lower than n 1 in Induction
some withnBecause
cases). respect nto 1the 1degree
deg(p ) < n, of polynomial
we know that p(x)induction thesis holds
the
p(x) = an x + an 1 x + · · · + a1 x + a0 , an 6= 0
for p1 : we get polynomials q1 and r1 s.t. p1 = q1 d + r1 and deg(r1 ) < deg(d). We have:
a m m 1
d(x) = nbm xn m+ bm 1 x + · · · + b1 x + b 0 , bam
n= 6 n0 m
p(x) = p1 (x) + x · d(x) = q1 (x)d(x) + r1 (x) + x · d(x) =
1. Existence of q and r:bm bm
an n m
= d(x)(q (x) + x
If n < m then we simply take q = 0 band r = p.
1 ) + r 1 (x) = d(x)q(x) + r 1 (x),
m

whichIfproves the existence of polynomials q (of degree n m) and r (r = r ).

n > m, we prove the theorem with help of induction for n. We fix (any) m 2 N and d(x)
1 The principle of
induction
with tells us now
degree thatletthe
m, and n 2thesis is true
N (where n>form)alland
natural n > m,
p(x) with which
degree completes the proof of
n vary.
existence.
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Mathematical_Logic_and_Proof/
Book%3A_Mathematical_Reasoning__Writing_and_Proof_(Sundstrom)/
04%3A_Mathematical_Induction/4.01%3A_The_Principle_of_Mathematical_Induction
Strong induction
 Extra material: notes with the proof of the theorem above.
202 Proof of the partition theorem from Video 171.
Prove by contradiction: Theorem about partitions: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set X. Then every
element of X belongs to exactly one equivalence class.
Extra material: notes with the proof of the theorem above.
203 Construction of the natural numbers; Peano and induction.
Prove by induction: For each positive natural number n we have
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = .
2
Extra material: notes with the proof of the theorem above.
204 Proof by induction, Problem 1.
Prove by induction: For each positive natural number n we have 9|4n + 15n 1.
Extra material: notes with the proof of the theorem above.
205 Proof by induction, Problem 2.
Prove by induction: For each natural number n we have
1 1 1 1 n+1
+ + + ··· + = .
1·2 2·3 3·4 (n + 1)(n + 2) n+2
Extra material: notes with the proof of the theorem above.
206 Proof by strong induction, Problems 3 and 4.
Prove by strong induction:
P3. Let an be the sequence defined by: a1 = 1, a2 = 8, an = an 1 + 2an 2 for all n > 3.
Show that an = 3 · 2n 1 + 2 · ( 1)n for all n 2 N+ .
P4. Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic: Every integer n > 2 can be factored into a product of primes.
Extra material: notes with the proof of the statements above.
207 Proof of three statements about natural numbers.
Prove by any method:
1. There is no largest integer;
T1
2. The statement from Video 137: n=1 ( 1 1
n, n) = {0};
 men

ÉTn umber u can be factored casey n is not prime

as a
product of primes
AT
ale
aim
Base case T 2 2 2
T prime a pi path
the induction step
23 q got
suppose that for some

k is true for ALLO Kent

T ne ab pi's ppm g qtr
is
cast n
prime

MY prime
Is it always possible (or: a good idea) to conduct proofs by induction?
 notes from the iPad.
ion, Wrap-up.Is it always possible (or: a good idea) to conduct proofs by induction?
ng that choosing a proof by induction is not always possible (for statements ab
the best choice:
none ofNot
thepossible:
numbers Sn for n
for example in > 2 is integer,
proving of the numbers Sn for n ⩾ 2 is integer:
that none where

1 1 1
Sn = 1 + + + . . . + .
2 3 n
or each natural number n we have n + 1 > 2n. 2

an article with an advanced proof by induction, coming from the course Precalcu
nd rational functions: Theorem about Polynomial Division.
 notes from the iPad.
ion, Wrap-up.Is it always possible (or: a good idea) to conduct proofs by induction?
ng that choosing a proof by induction is not always possible (for statements ab
the best choice:
none ofNot
thepossible:
numbers Sn for n
for example in > 2 is integer,
proving of the numbers Sn for n ⩾ 2 is integer:
that none where

1 1 1
Sn = 1 + + + . . . + .
2 3 n
2
or each natural number
Not optimal: n we have
for example in 1>
proving
n +that2 all natural n we have n + 1 ⩾ 2n
for2n.
an article with an advanced proof by induction, coming from the course Precalcu
nd rational functions: Theorem about Polynomial Division.
 notes from the iPad.
ion, Wrap-up.Is it always possible (or: a good idea) to conduct proofs by induction?
ng that choosing a proof by induction is not always possible (for statements ab
the best choice:
none ofNot
thepossible:
numbers Sn for n
for example in > 2 is integer,
proving of the numbers Sn for n ⩾ 2 is integer:
that none where

1 1 1
Sn = 1 + + + . . . + .
2 3 n
2
or each natural number
Not optimal: n we have
for example in 1>
proving
n +that2 all natural n we have n + 1 ⩾ 2n
for2n.
an article with an advanced proof by induction, coming from the course Precalcu
2 2 2
x + 1 ⩾ 2x ⇔ x − 2x + 1 ⩾ 0 ⇔ (x −
nd rational functions: Theorem about Polynomial Division. 1) ⩾ 0
 notes from the iPad.
ion, Wrap-up.Is it always possible (or: a good idea) to conduct proofs by induction?
ng that choosing a proof by induction is not always possible (for statements ab
the best choice:
none ofNot
thepossible:
numbers Sn for n
for example in > 2 is integer,
proving of the numbers Sn for n ⩾ 2 is integer:
that none where

1 1 1
Sn = 1 + + + . . . + .
2 3 n
2
or each natural number
Not optimal: n we have
for example in 1>
proving
n +that2 all natural n we have n + 1 ⩾ 2n
for2n.
an article with an advanced proof by induction, coming from the course Precalcu
2 2 2
x + 1 ⩾ 2x ⇔ x − 2x + 1 ⩾ 0 ⇔ (x −
nd rational functions: Theorem about Polynomial Division. 1) ⩾ 0
 notes from the iPad.
ion, Wrap-up.Is it always possible (or: a good idea) to conduct proofs by induction?
ng that choosing a proof by induction is not always possible (for statements ab
the best choice:
none ofNot
thepossible:
numbers Sn for n
for example in > 2 is integer,
proving of the numbers Sn for n ⩾ 2 is integer:
that none where

1 1 1
Sn = 1 + + + . . . + .
2 3 n
2
or each natural number
Not optimal: n we have
for example in 1>
proving
n +that2 all natural n we have n + 1 ⩾ 2n
for2n.
an article with an advanced proof by induction, coming from the course Precalcu
2 2 2
x + 1 ⩾ 2x ⇔ x − 2x + 1 ⩾ 0 ⇔ (x −
nd rational functions: Theorem about Polynomial Division. 1) ⩾ 0
Advantages and disadvantages of the method
 Advantages and disadvantages of the method

Advantage: a mechanical method, always the same steps

 Advantages and disadvantages of the method

Advantage: a mechanical method, always the same steps

Disadvantage: you must know the result in advance (or guess it)
Mathematics: Fun tricks for everybody