What Is The OSI
Model?
The Open Systems Interconnection
Model breaks down network
communication into seven layers. These
layers are useful for identifying network
issues.
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OSI Model !
What is the OSI model?
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
is a conceptual model created by the
International Organization for Standardization
which enables diverse communication systems to
communicate using standard protocols. In plain
English, the OSI provides a standard for different
computer systems to be able to communicate
with each other.
The OSI model can be seen as a universal
language for computer networking. It’s based on
the concept of splitting up a communication
system into seven abstract layers, each one
stacked upon the last.
Each layer of the OSI model handles a specific job
and communicates with the layers above and
below itself. DDoS attacks target specific layers
of a network connection; application layer
attacks target layer 7 and protocol layer attacks
target layers 3 and 4.
Why does the OSI model matter?
Although the modern Internet doesn’t strictly
follow the OSI model (it more closely follows the
simpler Internet protocol suite), the OSI model is
still very useful for troubleshooting network
problems. Whether it’s one person who can’t get
their laptop on the Internet, or a web site being
down for thousands of users, the OSI model can
help to break down the problem and isolate the
source of the trouble. If the problem can be
narrowed down to one specific layer of the
model, a lot of unnecessary work can be avoided.
What are the seven layers of the OSI
model?
The seven abstraction layers of the OSI model
can be defined as follows, from top to bottom:
Applicat io n Laye r
We bs ite
Re que s t co nte nt
Re turn co nte nt in re quire d fo rm at
7. The Application Layer
This is the only layer that directly interacts with
data from the user. Software applications like web
browsers and email clients rely on the application
layer to initiate communications. But it should be
made clear that client software applications are
not part of the application layer; rather the
application layer is responsible for the protocols
and data manipulation that the software relies on
to present meaningful data to the user.
Application layer protocols include HTTP as well
as SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is one of
the protocols that enables email
communications).
Th e Pre s e ntat io n Laye r
Encryptio n Co m pres s io n Trans lati o n
6. The Presentation Layer
This layer is primarily responsible for preparing
data so that it can be used by the application
layer; in other words, layer 6 makes the data
presentable for applications to consume. The
presentation layer is responsible for translation,
encryption, and compression of data.
Two communicating devices communicating may
be using different encoding methods, so layer 6
is responsible for translating incoming data into a
syntax that the application layer of the receiving
device can understand.
If the devices are communicating over an
encrypted connection, layer 6 is responsible for
adding the encryption on the sender’s end as
well as decoding the encryption on the receiver's
end so that it can present the application layer
with unencrypted, readable data.
Finally the presentation layer is also responsible
for compressing data it receives from the
application layer before delivering it to layer 5.
This helps improve the speed and efficiency of
communication by minimizing the amount of data
that will be transferred.
Th e Se s s io n Laye r
Ses s io n o f co mmu nicati o n
5. The Session Layer
This is the layer responsible for opening and
closing communication between the two devices.
The time between when the communication is
opened and closed is known as the session. The
session layer ensures that the session stays open
long enough to transfer all the data being
exchanged, and then promptly closes the session
in order to avoid wasting resources.
The session layer also synchronizes data transfer
with checkpoints. For example, if a 100 megabyte
file is being transferred, the session layer could
set a checkpoint every 5 megabytes. In the case
of a disconnect or a crash after 52 megabytes
have been transferred, the session could be
resumed from the last checkpoint, meaning only
50 more megabytes of data need to be
transferred. Without the checkpoints, the entire
transfer would have to begin again from scratch.
Tran s po rt Laye r
Se gm e ntati o n Trans po rt Re as se m bly
4. The Transport Layer
Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end
communication between the two devices. This
includes taking data from the session layer and
breaking it up into chunks called segments before
sending it to layer 3. The transport layer on the
receiving device is responsible for reassembling
the segments into data the session layer can
consume.
The transport layer is also responsible for flow
control and error control. Flow control determines
an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a
sender with a fast connection doesn’t overwhelm
a receiver with a slow connection. The transport
layer performs error control on the receiving end
by ensuring that the data received is complete,
and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.
Th e Ne t w o rk Laye r
Packe ts Cre ati o n Trans po rt Packe ts As s e m bly
3. The Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for facilitating
data transfer between two different networks. If
the two devices communicating are on the same
network, then the network layer is unnecessary.
The network layer breaks up segments from the
transport layer into smaller units, called packets,
on the sender’s device, and reassembling these
packets on the receiving device. The network
layer also finds the best physical path for the data
to reach its destination; this is known as routing.
Th e Data Lin k Laye r
Fram e Cre ati o n Trans po rt Trans fe r fram e s be t w e e n
ne t w o rk no de s
2. The Data Link Layer
The data link layer is very similar to the network
layer, except the data link layer facilitates data
transfer between two devices on the SAME
network. The data link layer takes packets from
the network layer and breaks them into smaller
pieces called frames. Like the network layer, the
data link layer is also responsible for flow control
and error control in intra-network communication
(The transport layer only does flow control and
error control for inter-network communications).
Th e Phys ical Laye r
Se nding cable Bits trea m Re ce iving cable
1. The Physical Layer
This layer includes the physical equipment
involved in the data transfer, such as the cables
and switches. This is also the layer where the
data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a
string of 1s and 0s. The physical layer of both
devices must also agree on a signal convention
so that the 1s can be distinguished from the 0s
on both devices.
How data flows through the OSI model
In order for human-readable information to be
transferred over a network from one device to
another, the data must travel down the seven
layers of the OSI model on the sending device
and then travel up the seven layers on the
receiving end.
For example: Mr. Cooper wants to send Ms.
Palmer an email. Mr. Cooper composes his
message in an email application on his laptop and
then hits ‘send’. His email application will pass his
email message over to the application layer,
which will pick a protocol (SMTP) and pass the
data along to the presentation layer. The
presentation layer will then compress the data
and then it will hit the session layer, which will
initialize the communication session.
The data will then hit the sender’s transportation
layer where it will be segmented, then those
segments will be broken up into packets at the
network layer, which will be broken down even
further into frames at the data link layer. The data
link layer will then deliver those frames to the
physical layer, which will convert the data into a
bitstream of 1s and 0s and send it through a
physical medium, such as a cable.
Once Ms. Palmer’s computer receives the bit
stream through a physical medium (such as her
wifi), the data will flow through the same series of
layers on her device, but in the opposite order.
First the physical layer will convert the bitstream
from 1s and 0s into frames that get passed to the
data link layer. The data link layer will then
reassemble the frames into packets for the
network layer. The network layer will then make
segments out of the packets for the transport
layer, which will reassemble the segments into
one piece of data.
The data will then flow into the receiver's session
layer, which will pass the data along to the
presentation layer and then end the
communication session. The presentation layer
will then remove the compression and pass the
raw data up to the application layer. The
application layer will then feed the human-
readable data along to Ms. Palmer’s email
software, which will allow her to read Mr.
Cooper’s email on her laptop screen.
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