0% found this document useful (0 votes)
706 views502 pages

Mechanics of Trusses and Forces

This document provides information about force systems, trusses, and other mechanics concepts. It defines a force system as a collection of forces acting on a body. Trusses are described as rigid structures composed of members joined at pin joints. Types of trusses include plane and rigid trusses. Methods for analyzing trusses like the section method and analytical method are summarized. Concepts such as friction, straight line motion, projectile motion, and rotational motion with uniform acceleration are also briefly defined.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
706 views502 pages

Mechanics of Trusses and Forces

This document provides information about force systems, trusses, and other mechanics concepts. It defines a force system as a collection of forces acting on a body. Trusses are described as rigid structures composed of members joined at pin joints. Types of trusses include plane and rigid trusses. Methods for analyzing trusses like the section method and analytical method are summarized. Concepts such as friction, straight line motion, projectile motion, and rotational motion with uniform acceleration are also briefly defined.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

.

,,
..•,arihant
Arihant Publications (India) Ltd.
All Rights Reserved

!Ii © AUTHOR
No part of this publication may be re-produced, stored in a retrieval system or
distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, scanning, web or otherwise without the written permission of the
publisher. Arihant has obtained all the information in this book from the sources
believed to be reliable and true. However, Arihant or its editors or authors or
illustrators don't take any responsibility for the absolute accuracy of any
information published and the damages or loss suffered there upon.
All disputes subject to Meerut (UP) jurisdiction only.

!Ii ADMINISTRATIVE & PRODUCTION OFFICES


Regd. Office
'Ramchhaya' 4577/15, Agarwal Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi -110002
Tele: 011- 47630600, 43518550
Head Office
Kalindi, TP Nagar, Meerut (UP) - 250002
Tele: 0121-7156203, 7156204

!Ii SALES & SUPPORT OFFICES


Agra, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Bareilly, Chennai, Delhi, Guwahati,
Hyderabad, Jaipur, Jhansi, Kolkata, Lucknow, Nagpur & Pune

!Ii ISBN : 978-93-5094-584-1

Published by Arihant Publications (India) Ltd.


For further information about the books published by Arihant
log on to [Link] or email to info@[Link]

Follow us on O [§] a @)
1

Mechanics
Force System
When a member of forces simultaneously acting on the body, it is known
as force system. A force system is a collection of forces acting at specified
locations. Thus, the set of forces can be shown on any free body diagram
makes-up a force system.

Truss
It is a rigid structure composed of number of straight members pin jointed
to each other. It can sustain static or dynamic load without any relative
motion to each other.

Types of Truss
1. Plane Truss It is defined as a truss in which members are essentially
lies in a single plane.
2. Rigid Truss Rigid means there is no deformation take place due to
internal strain in members.
3. Simple Truss This type of trusses built a basic triangle by adding
different members are known as simple truss.

Classification of a Truss (based on joints)


Truss can be classified on the basis of joints (j) and members (m) in the
structure. It can be easily understood with the help of following hierarchical
approach.
2 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Truss

Perfect Truss Imperfect Truss


m = 2j – 3 (unstable truss) n ¹ 2j – 3

Redundant Truss Deficient Truss


m > = 2j – 3 m < = 2j – 3

m = 6, j = 4 m = 4, j = 4
6>2×4–3 4<2×4–3
6>5 4<5
Classification of truss

where m = number of members and j = number of joints

Key Points
✦ When truss collapse under loading, then truss is known as unstable or
imperfect truss.
✦ When truss is not collapse under the loading, then truss is known perfect
truss.

Analysis of a Framed Structure (Section Method)


1. This method is used when the forces in the few members of a truss is
required to found out in a truss structure.
To find out force in AC, BC and BD

First cut a section which passes through AC, BC and BD members.

Find out reaction at point A and B

A C F
E

B D
Framed structure using section method

Find out forces FCA, FCB and FDB in members CA, CB and DB respectively by
taking moment about A and B.
Mechanics 3

2. Analytical Method In this method, the free body diagram of each joint
is separately analysed to find magnitude of stresses in the truss
members.

Lami’s Theorem
If a body is in equilibrium under three concurrent forces, the each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between other two.
P

g a

b
Q R

Three concurrent forces P, Q and R


P Q R
= =
sin b sin a sin g

Friction Force
It is resistant force which acts in opposite direction R
at the surface in body which tend to move or its
F
move.
Normal force R = mg mR
If m mg > F , the body will not move. mg
m mg = F the body will tend to move. Friction force on a body
m mg < F the body will move.

Angle of Friction
It is defined as the angle between normal reaction and resultant reaction
when the body is in condition of just sliding.
Resultant
m mg reaction
tan f = f R
R
m mg F
= =m (Q R = mg ) F
mg mmg

f = tan-1 m mg
m = coefficient of friction Angle of friction due to
resultant reaction
4 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Angle of Repose ( a)
It is defined as angle of inclined plane with R mR
horizontal at which body is in condition of just
sliding. w sin a a w cos a
a=f a
Angle of friction is equal to angle of repose. w
Angle of Repose (a )

Plane Motion
When all parts of the body move in a parallel planes then a rigid body said
to perform plane motion.

Key Points
✦ The motion of rigid body is said to be translation, if every line in the body
remains parallel to its original position at all times.
✦ In translation motion, all the particles forming a rigid body move along
parallel paths.
✦ If all particles forming a rigid body move along parallel straight line, it is
known as rectilinear translation.
✦ If all particles forming a rigid body does not move along a parallel straight
line but they move along a curve path, then it is known as curvilinear
translation.

Straight Line Motion


It defines the three equations with the relationship between velocity,
acceleration, time and distance travelled by the body. In straight line
motion, acceleration is constant.
v = u + at
1
s = ut + at 2
2
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
where, u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
a = acceleration of body
t = time
s = distance travelled by body
Distance travelled in nth second
1
sn = u + a (2 n - 1)
2
Mechanics 5

Projectile Motion
Projectile motion defines that motion in which velocity has two
components, one in horizontal direction and other one in vertical direction.
Horizontal component of velocity is constant during the flight of the body as
no acceleration in horizontal direction.
Let the block of mass is projected at angle q from horizontal direction

u 2 sin2 q u
Maximum height h max =
2g hmax
q
2 u sin q
Time of flight T = R range
g
Projectile motion
u 2 sin 2q
Range R =
g
where, u = initial velocity
Key Points
✦ At maximum height vertical component of velocity becomes zero.
✦ When a rigid body move in circular paths centered on the same fixed axis,
then the particle located on axis of rotation have zero velocity and zero
acceleration.
✦ Projectile motion describe the motion of a body, when the air resistance is
negligible.

Rotational Motion with Uniform Acceleration


Uniform acceleration occurs when the speed of an object changes at a
constant rate. The acceleration is the same
over time. So, the rotation motion with
uniform acceleration can be defined as the
motion of a body with the same acceleration
q
over time. Let the rod of block rotated about
a point in horizontal plane with w angular
Rotational motion
velocity.
dq
Angular velocity w = (change in angular displacement per unit time)
dt
dw d 2q
Angular acceleration a = Þ a=
dt dt 2
where q = angle between displacement.
6 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

In case of angular velocity, the various equations with the relationships


between velocity, displacement and acceleration are as follows.
q = wt
a=0
w = w0 + at
1
q = w0t + a t 2
2
w2 = w20 + 2aq
where w0 = initial angular velocity
w = final angular velocity
a = angular acceleration
q = angular displacement
Angular displacement in nth second
1
q n = w0 + a (2 n - 1)
2
Relation between Linear and Angular Quantities
There are following relations between linear and
Y
angular quantities in rotational motion. et
er

|e r | = |et | = 1 q
e r and et are radial and tangential unit vector.
Linear velocity v = rw et O X

Linear acceleration (Net)


dv
a = - w2r e r + et Position of radial and
dt tangential vectors
dv
Tangential acceleration at = (rate of change of speed)
dt
v2
Centripetal acceleration ar = w2r = (Q v = r w)
r
Net acceleration a = ar2 + at2
2 2
æ v2 ö æd v ö
= ç ÷ +ç ÷
è ør è dt ø
where ar = centripetal acceleration
at = tangential acceleration
Mechanics 7

Centre of Mass of Continuous Body


Centre of mass of continuous body can be defined as

● Centre of mass about x, x CM =


ò x dm = ò x dm
ò dm M

● Centre of mass about y, yCM =


ò y dm = ò y dm
ò dm M

● Centre of mass about z, z CM =


ò z dm = ò z dm
ò dm M

● CM of uniform rectangular, square or circular plate lies at its centre.



CM of semicircular ring

R 2R
p

CM of semicircular disc

CM 4R
R
3p
O

CM of hemispherical shell

CM R
R
2
O

CM of solid hemisphere

CM 3R
R
8
O

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum


The product of mass and velocity of a particle is defined as its linear
momentum ( p).
p = mv
p = 2 Km
8 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

dp
F=
dt
where, K = kinetic energy of the particle
F = net external force applied to body
P = momentum

Rocket Propulsion
Let m0 be the mass of the rocket at time t = 0, m its mass at any time t and
v its velocity at that moment. Initially, let us suppose that the velocity of the
rocket is u.
u u

At At
t =0 t= t
v =u m =m
m =m0 v =v

exhaust velocity
= vr
Rocket propulsion

æ dm ö

Thrust force on the rocket Ft = v r ç - ÷
è dt ø
dm
where, - = rate at which mass is ejecting
dt
v r = relative velocity of ejecting mass (exhaust velocity)

Weight of the rocket w = mg
æ - dm ö

Net force on the rocket Fnet = Ft - w = v r ç ÷ - mg
è dt ø

Net acceleration of the rocket
F
a=
m
d v v r æ - dm ö
= ç ÷-g
dt m è dt ø
m0
v = u - gt + v r ln
m
where, m0 = mass of rocket at time t = 0
m = mass of rocket at time t
Mechanics 9

Impulse
The product of constant force F and time t for which it acts is called the
impulse (J) of the force and this is equal to the change in linear momentum
which it produces.
Impulse J = F t
Þ Dp = pf - pi
where, F = constant force
P = linear momentum
Instantaneous Impulse e.g., bat and ball contact
J= ò F × dt Þ Dp = pf - pi

Key Points
✦ The relation between impulse and linear momentum can be understood by
the following equation.
Ft = m (v - u)
where, F = force, t = time, m = mass, v = initial velocity, u = final velocity
✦ Rotation about a fixed point gives the three dimensional motion of a rigid
body attached at a fixed point.

Collision
A Collision is an isolated event in which two or more moving bodies exert
forces on each other for a relatively short time.
Collision between two bodies may be classified in two ways

Head-on collision

Oblique collision.

Head-on Collision
Let the two balls of masses m1 and m2 collide directly with each other with
velocities v 1 and v 2 in direction as shown in figure. After collision the
velocity become v 1¢ and v 2¢ along the same line.
m2 v2 m1 v1 m2 m1
v2¢ v1¢

Before collision After collision

æ m - em2 ö æ m2 + em2 ö
v 1¢ = ç 1 ÷ v1 + ç ÷ v2
è m1 + m2 ø è m1 + m2 ø
10 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

æ m - em2 ö æ m1 + em1 ö
v 2¢ = ç 2 ÷ v2 + ç ÷ v1
è m1 + m2 ø è m1 + m2 ø
where, m1 = mass of body 1
m2 = mass of body 2
v 1 = velocity of body 1
v 2 = velocity of body 2
v 1¢ = velocity of body 1 after collision
v 2¢ = velocity of body 2 after collision
where e = coefficient restitution
Separation speed
e=
Approach speed
v 1¢ - v 2¢
e=
v2 - v1
● In case of head-on elastic collision
e =1

In case of head-on inelastic collision
0<e <1

In case of head-on perfectly inelastic collision
e=0
If e is coefficient of restitution between ball and ground, Ou=0
then after nth collision with the floor, the speed of ball will
h
remain e nv 0 and it will go upto a height e 2n h.
O
v n = e nv 0 = e n 2 gh
u0 = 2 gh
h0 = e 2 n h
Collision of a ball
with floor
Oblique Collision
In case of oblique collision linear momentum of
y
individual particle do change along the common v
normal direction. No component of impulse act
along common tangent direction. So, linear
momentum or linear velocity remains unchanged
along tangential direction. Net momentum of both x
the particle remain conserved before and after Oblique collision
collision in any direction.
Mechanics 11

Moment of Inertia
Momentum of inertia can be defined as
r = distance of the body of mass, m from centre of axis.
I = S mi ri 2
i

òr
2
I= dm
● Very thin circular loop (ring)
I = MR 2 R A¢
where, M = mass of the body
R = radius of the ring
I = moment of inertia
A
æ R 2 + R22 ö
● Uniform circular loop I = M ç 1 ÷
è 2 ø Thin circular ring

R1 A¢

R2

Uniform circular loop

MR 2

Uniform solid cylinder I =
2
A
R


Uniform solid cylinder
12 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Uniform solid sphere


A
Uniform solid sphere
2
I= MR 2
5
● Uniform thin rod
(AA’) moment of inertia about the centre and perpendicular axis to the rod
moment of inertia about the one corner point and perpendicular (BB’) axis
to the rod.
A


Uniform thin rod

Ml 2 1 2
I= Þ I= Ml
12 3

Very thin spherical shell

A
Thin sperical shell

2
I= MR 2 A¢
3
R

Thin circular sheet
MR 2
I=
4

Thin circular sheet
Mechanics 13

● Thin rectangular sheet


æ a2 + b 2 ö
I=Mç ÷
è 12 ø

a
b

A
Thin rectangular sheet
● Uniform right cone

R
A A¢

Uniform right cone

3
I= MR 2
10

Uniform cone as a disc

R
M
O

A part of uniform cone as a disc


1
Suppose the given section is th part of the disc, then mass of disc will
n
be nM.
Inertia of the disc,
1
Idisc = ( nM ) R 2
2
Inertia of the section,
1 1
Isection = Idisc = MR 2
n 2
14 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Torque and Angular Acceleration of a Rigid Body


For a rigid body, net torque acting
t = Ia
where, a = angular acceleration of rigid body
I = moment of inertia about axis of rotation
● Kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating about fixed axis
1
KE = Iw2 (w = angular velocity)
2
● Angular moment of a particle about same point
r p = mv
L=r ´p q
L = m (r ´ v) Angular moment
where L = angular displacement
● Angular moment of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis. L = Iw
A
w

r
O
P

B
Angular moment of a rigid body

Angular moment of a rigid body in combined rotation and translation
L = LCM + M (r0 ´ v0 )

CM V0
w
r0

O
Combined rotation and translation in a rigid body

Conservation of angular momentum
dL
t=
dt
dL
=r ´F + v´p
dt
Mechanics 15

● Kinetic energy of rigid body in combined translational and rotational


motion
1 1
K = mvCM 2
+ ICM w2
2 2

Uniform Pure Rolling


Pure rolling means no relative motion or no slipping at point of contact
between two bodies.

v
CM P
w v
Rw
Q
Uniform Pure Rolling
If v P = vQ Þ no slipping
v = Rw
if v p > vQ Þ forward slipping
v > Rw
if v P < vQ Þ backward slipping
v < Rw

s = 2pR
Pure Rolling

No slipping s = 2pR
Forward slipping s > 2pR
Backward slipping s < 2pR

Accelerated Pure Rolling


A pure rolling is equivalent to pure translation and pure rotation. It follows a
uniform rolling and accelerated pure rolling can be defined as
F + f = Ma
( F - f ) × R = Ia
16 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

a F

C a

f
Accelerated pure rolling

F = force acting on a body, f = friction on that body

Angular Impulse
The angular impulse of a torque in a given time interval is defined as
t2
òt1 t × dt
t2
òt1 t × dt = L2 - L1

where, L2 and L1 are the angular momentum at time t 2 and t 1 respectively.

Key Points
✦ A force, whose line of action does not pass through centre of mass, works as
force to produce translational acceleration.
✦ Different types of collisions are examined, whether they possess kinetic
energy or not.
✦ The radial component of the force, which goes through the axis of rotation,
has no contribution to torque.
2

Strength of Materials
Engineering Mechanics
The branch of physical science that deals with the state of rest or the state
of motion is termed as Mechanics. Starting from the analysis of rigid
bodies gravitational force and simple applied forces, the mechanics has
grown to the analysis of robotics, air crafts etc. is known is Engineering
Mechanics.

Stress
When a material in subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up
within the component. The internal resistance force per unit area acting on
a material is called the stress at a [Link] is a scalar quantity having unit.
Force
Stress =
Area

Strain
It is the deformation produced in the material due to simple stress. It
usually represents the displacement between particles in the body relative
to a reference length.
DL
Tension strain (et ) =
L
Change in length
=
Initial length
18 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Stress-Strain Relationship
The stress-strain diagram is shown in the figure. In brittle materials there is
no appreciable change in rate of strain. There is no yield point and no
necking takes place.

F F
E B
Loading A Loading E

Stress
Stress

ading
Unlo
e C D
Elastic Plastic
Elastic recovery
Strain (e) Residual strain
Strain (e)
(a) (b)
Graph between stress-strain

In figure (a), the specimen is loaded only upto point A, is gradually


removed the curve follows the same path AO and strain completely
disappears. Such a behaviour is known as the elastic behaviour.
In figure (b), the specimen is loaded upto point B beyond the elastic limit E.
When the specimen is gradually loaded the curve follows path BC,
resulting in a residual strain OC or permanent strain.

Properties of Materials
Some properties of materials which judge the strength of materials are given
below

Elasticity
Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material is deformed under the
load and is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is
removed.

Plasticity
Plasticity is the converse of elasticity. A material in plastic state is
permanently deformed by the application of load and it has no tendency to
recover. The characteristic of the material by which it undergoes inelastic
strains beyond those at elastic limit is known as plasticity.
Strength of Materials 19

Ductility
Ductility is the characteristic which permits a material to be drawn out
longitudinally to a reduced section, under the action of a tensile force (large
deformation).

Brittleness B

Brittleness implies lack of ductility. A material is

Stress
said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by A
tension to smaller section.

Strain (e)
Stress-strain relation
Malleability
Malleability is a property of a material which permits the material to be
extended in all directions without rapture. A malleable material possess a
high degree of plasticity, but not necessarily great strength.

Toughness
Toughness is the property of a material which enable it to absorb energy
without fracture.

Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or surface
abrasion. Brinell hardness test is used to check hardness.
P
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) =
pD
( D - D2 - d 2 )
2
where, P = Standard load, D = Diameter of steel ball
d = Diameter of the indent.

Strength
The strength of a material enables it to resist fracture under load.

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve


The stress-strain diagram is shown in figure. The curve start from origin.
Showing thereby that there is no initial stress of strain in the specimen.
The stress-strain curve diagram for a ductile material like mild steel is shown
in figure below

Upto point A, Hooke’s Law is obeyed and stress is proportional to strain.
Point A is called limit of proportionality.
20 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

True curve
Stress

Upper yield
point
Ultimate strength
F
D Fractrure
E G
se B
sp Lower yield point
A
Elastic limit
Limit of proportinality

O ey 1.5 % eu ecu
Strain
Stress-strain diagram for mild steel


Point B is called the elastic limit point.
● At point B the cross-sectional area of the material starts decreasing and
the stress decreases to a lower value to point D, called the lower yield
point.

The apparent stress decreases but the actual or true stress goes on
increasing until the specimen breaks at point C, called the point of
fracture.

From point E ownward, the strain hardening phenomena becomes
predominant and the strength of the material increases thereby requiring
more stress for deformation, until point F is reached. Point F is called the
ultimate point.

Hooke’s Law (Linear elasticity)


Hooke’s Law stated that within elastic limit, the linear relationship between
simple stress and strain for a bar is expressed by equations.
s µ e, s = Ee
P Dl
=E
A l
where, E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
P = Applied load across a
cross-sectional area P
D l = Change in length l
Dl
l = Original length.
Elastic deformation
Strength of Materials 21

Elongation of Bodies
Elongation of a body is defined as the transformation of a body from a
reference configuration to a current configuration. A configuration is a set
containing the positions of all particles of the body. The following cases will
be considered

Bars of Varying Sections of Different Materials


It can be shown below

P1 A1 E1 A2E2 A3 E3 AnEn P2

l1 l2 l3 ln
Diagram for different materials
The total deformation for such a bar is given by
P l P l P l
D= 1 1 + 2 2 ¼+ n n
A1 E1 A2 E2 An En

Uniformly Tapering Circular Bar


x
Let us consider a uniformly
tapering circular bar subjected to
an axial force P. The bar of length d2
P d1 dx P
l has diameter d 1 at one end and
d 2 at other end.
x
d - d1
dx = d 1 + 2 ×x fx
l
Tapering bars
4 Pl
Change in length D l =
p E d1 d2

Elongation of Bar of Uniform Section due to Self


Weight
Small deformation of small cross section length dx
w f
fx = x x
A E
L fx
where, w x = Weight of portion below the section.
Total change in length
x
wL
Dl=
2 AE Elongation of bar
where, w = Total weight of bar.
22 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Elongation of Bar of Uniform


Tapering Section
Total change in length
fx
rg L2 L
Dl=
sE x

Tapering section

Compounded Bars
Consider a solid box enclosed in the
hollow tube and subjected to a 2 Tube
compression force P through rigid P
1 Rod
collars as shown in the figure. P
2 Tube
Let P1 and P2 are force applied on rod
and tube respectively. L
Total force P = P1 + P2 Compound bars
Change in length for rod = change in length for tube
D l1 = D l2
P 1L1 P2 L2
=
A1 E1 A2 E2

Stress in Bolts and Nuts


Stress in bolts and nuts are shown as in the figure.
Let stress in steel bolt is s s across the Washer
cross-sectional area A s and stress in
copper tube is sc across cross-sectional
area Ac. Bolt Bolt
sc A c = s s A s
where, sc = Stress in copper Tube
Nut
sc = Stress in steel
Stress in bolt and nut
Since the final length of bolt and tube is
same.
Total extension of bolt + Total compression of tube = Moment of nut
s sL sc L
+ = moment of nut (Pitch of thread ´ total turn)
Es Ec
Strength of Materials 23

Temperature Stresses in Uniform Bars


Consider a bar of length L subjected to uniform temperature D t increase.
A B A B

L D L
Bar free to expand Bar constrained

Increase in length of bar when bar free to expand


D l = et L = aD tL
et = thermal strain = a Dt
where, a = coefficient of the thermal expansion.
If the bar is constrained, net thermal stress
DlE E
st = = La Dt Þ st = E a D t
L L
Suppose in one of supports yields by an amount a. The total amount of
expansion checked will be ( D l - a ).
E
st = ( D l - a )
L
E
st = ( L a D t - a ) L a
L
Expansion in rod
Key Points
✦ The stress will be compressive when the change in temperature is
positive.
✦ The stress will be tensile when the change in temperature is negative.

Temperature Stresses in Composite Bar


Suppose composite bar made of two materials with different coefficient of
thermal expansion assume a 1 < a 2.
Tensile force in 1= tensile force in 2
P1 = P2 = P1
Final extension of 1= final extension of 2
D l1 = D l2 = D l
From geometry, D l1 = D l1¢ + D l1¢¢
D l2 = D l2¢ + D l2¢¢
24 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

D l1¢ = Free expansion of 1 due to temperature rise


D l2¢ = Free expansion of 2 due to temperature rise
D l1¢¢ = Expansion of 1 due to temperature stress (tensile)
D l2¢¢ = Compression of 2 due to temperature stress (compression)
D l1¢ + D l1¢¢= D l2¢ - D l2¢¢
D l1¢¢+ D l2¢¢ = D l2¢ - D l1¢
PL PL
+ = LDt (a 2 - a 1) …(i) Dl 1¢ Dl1¢¢
A1 E1 A2 E2 Final portion
Dt (a 2 - a 1)
or P=
1 1
+
A s E s Ac Ec Dl Dl1¢¢
Dl 2¢¢
(a 1A1E1 + a 2 A2E2 ) LDt
Dl = Expansion in composite bar
A1 E1 + A2 E2

Complementry Shear Stress


t
A shear stress in a given direction B C B C
cannot exist without a balancing
shear stress of equal intensity in a t t t
direction at right angles to it.
A D A t D
Complementary shear stress
B C
A state of simple shear produces pure tensile and
compressive stresses across planes inclined at 45° to
P
those of pure shear and intensities of these direct P
stresses are each equal to the intensity of the pure P P
shear stress. Linear strain of the diagonal is equal to
half the shear strain ( f ). A D
f Compressive stress
e=
2

Poisson’s Ratio
When an axial force is applied along the longitudinal axis of a bar, the
length of a bar will increase but at the same time its lateral dimension
(width) will be decreased so, it is called as Poisson’ ratio.
Lateral strain
m=
Longitudinal strain
Value of Poisson’s ratio is same in tension and compression.
Strength of Materials 25

Volumetric Strain
It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the initial volume.
Mathematically,
Change in volume DV
Volumetric strain, e v = =
Initial volume V

Volumetric Strain Due to Single Direct Stress


The ratio of change in volume to original volume is called volumetric
strain.
eV = e1 + e2 + e3 b
P
DV fL fb ft P
= + + t
V L b t
P L
e1 =
E Volumetric strain
P P
e 2 = - m, e 3 = - m
E E
DV P
Volumetric strain, e V = , e V = (1 - 2m )
V E
p 2
For the circular bar of diameter d, V = d L
4
fV f L 2 fd D L P
= + , = e1 =
V L d L E
Dd P
= e2 = - m
d E
P Pæ 2ö æ 1ö
eV = (1 - 2m ), e = ç1 - ÷, çQm = ÷
E E è mø è mø

Volumetric Strain due to Three Mutually


Perpendicular Stress System
P3
When a body is subjected to identical pressure in E F
three mutually perpendicular direction, then the
body undergoes uniform changes in three C
D P1
directions without undergoing distortion of shape.
P2
P P + P3
e1 = 1 - m 2 A B
E E Three stress system
26 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

P2 P + P1
e2 = -m 3
E E
P P + P2
e3 = 3 - m 1
E E
eV = eV + e2 + e3
æ P + P2 + P3 ö
e V = (1 - 2m ) ç 1 ÷
è E ø
æ 2 ö æ P + P2 + P3 ö æ 1ö
or e V = ç1 - ÷ ç 1 ÷ çQm = ÷
è mø è E ø è mø
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
shear stress t
Modulus of rigidity G= =
shear strain f

At principal planes, shear stress is always zero.

Planes of maximum shear stress also contains normal stress.

Relationship between E, G, K and m


E
Modulus of rigidity G=
2 (1 + m )
E 9 KG
Bulk modulus K = or E =
3 (1 - 2m) 3K + G
3K - 2G
m=
6K + 2G

Analysis of Stress and Strain


We will derive some mathematical expressions for plains stresses and will
study their graphical significance in 2 D and 3 D.

Stress on Inclined Section PQ due to Uniaxial


Stress
Consider a rectangular cross-section and we have to calcutate the stress
on an inclined section as shown in figure.

Normal stress s n = s cos 2 q


Strength of Materials 27

A P B sn
st
q q
s s

n
Q
Stress on an inclined section
s
Tangential stress st = - sin 2q
2
Resultant stress s r = P cos q

Stress Induced by State Simple Shear


Induced stress is divided into two components which are given as
Normal stress, s n = t sin 2q
Tangential stress, st = t cos 2q
t
A

st A sec q
q q
t q t t sn A sec q

B C
t t
Stress simple shear

Stress Induced by Axial Stress and Simple Shear


Normal stress
s2
s n = s 1 cos 2 q + s 2 sin2 q + t sin 2q Y
s1 + s2 s1 - s2 t
or sn = +
2 2 t
s1
s1
cos 2q + t sin 2q t
X
Tangential stress t
æs + s2 ö Z s2
st = - ç 1 ÷ sin 2q + t cos 2q
è 2 ø Induced stress body diagram
28 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes


The plane carrying the maximum normal s2
t q
stress is called the major principal plane and
normal stress is called major principal s¢2 s¢1
qP qP t
stress. The plane carrying the minimum
normal stress is known as minor principal s1 s¢1 s1
s¢2
stress.
q
Major principal stress (s ¢1),
s2
2
s1 + s2 (s 1 - s 2 ) Principal stress and planes
s ¢1 = + + t2
2 2
2
s1 + s2 æs - s2 ö 2
Minor principal stress (s ¢2 ), s ¢2 = - ç 1 ÷ +t
2 è 2 ø
2t
tan 2q P =
s1 - s2 R
t
s 1¢ + s 2¢ = s 1 + s 2 2qP
When 2 qP = 0 s1 – s2
2
Þ s 1¢ = s 1 and s 2¢ = s 2
2 q P triangle

Across maximum normal stresses acting in plane shear stresses are zero.

Computation of principal Stress from Principal Strain


The three stresses normal to shear principal planes are called principal
stress, while a plane at which shear strain is zero is called principal strain.
For two dimensional stress system, s 3 = 0
E ( e + me ) E (me 1 + e 2 )
s1 = 1 1 2 2 , s2 =
1- m 1 - m2

Maximum Shear Stress


The maximum shear stress or maximum principal stress is equal of one half
the difference between the largest and smallest principal stresses and acts
on the plane that bisects the angle between the directions of the largest
and smallest principal stress, i.e., the plane of the maximum shear stress is
oriented 45° from the principal stress planes.
(s 1 - s 2 )2
t¢ = + t2
2
Strength of Materials 29

s 1¢ - s 2¢
t¢ =
2 R
t
s - s2 1
tan 2q s = - 1 =- 2qs
2t tan 2q P s1 – s2
2
2q s = 2q P ± 90°, q s = q P ± 45°
2q s triangle

Principal Strain
For two dimensional strain system,
2
e1 + e2 e1 - e2 æ f ö
e 1, 2 = ± +ç ÷
2 2 è2 ø
where, e 1 = Strain in x-direction
e 2 = Strain in y-direction
2qPs f/2
f = Shearing strain relative to OX and OY.
f/2 (e1–e2 )/2
tan 2q PS =
e1 - e2 2q PS triangle
2
f
tan 2q PS =
e1 - e2

Maximum Shear Strain


The maximum shear strain also contains normal strain which is given as
2 2
fmax æ e - e2 ö æ fö
= ç 1 ÷ +ç ÷
2 è 2 ø è2 ø

45° Strain Rosette or Rectangular Strain Rosette


Rectangular strains Rosette are inclined 45° to each other.
1 1 y ec
e a = ( e1 + e2) + ( e1 - e2) cos 2q
2 2
1 1
e b = ( e1 + e2) - ( e1 - e2) sin 2q C eb
2 2
1 1 45º B
e c = ( e1 + e2) - ( e1 - e2) cos 2q
2 2 45º
e + eb 1 x
Principal strains e12 = a ± ea
2 2 A
45° strain Rosette
= ( e a - e b ) 2 + ( e b - e c) 2
2e b - e a - e c
tan 2q pe =
ec - ea
30 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Mohr’s Circle
Graphically, variation of normal stress and shear stress are studied with the
help of Mohr’s circle. A two dimensional Mohr’s circle can be constructed,
if the normal streses s 1 and s 2.
s + s2 s1 - s2
Normal stress s n = 1 + cos 2q
2 2
s - s2
Shear stress t = - 1 sin 2q
2

D
sr
st
s2 q 2q
O x
B C A
sn R
q s2
q
s1 s1 s1

s1+ s2 s1– s2
s2 2 2
Different stress diagram Mohr’s circle for plane stress and strain

General State of Stress at an Element


The following procedure is used to draw a Mohr’s circle and to find the
magnitude and direction of maximum stresses from it.
sy

tyx t (–ve) (sy, – txy) P(sav, tmax)


A B
B
t
q sn txy
q
O A¢
sx sx
N B¢ C M s (+)
tyx sav
D C
A
txy P (sx, txy)
t (+ve)
sy
Mohr’s circle approach as state of stress Mohr’s circle for plane stressed and
plane strain
Strength of Materials 31

Observations from Mohr’s Circle


The followings are the observations of Mohr’s circle as
● At Point M on Circle s n is maximum and shear stress is zero.
\ Maximum principal stress º coordinate of M
● At Point N on Circle s n is minimum and shear stress t is zero.
\ Minimum principal stress º coordinate of N
● At Point P on Circle t is maximum.
\ Maximum shear stress º ordinate of P (i.e., radius of circle)
Also, normal stress on plane of maximum shear stress
æ s x + sy ö
º abscissa of P ç i.e., s n = s av = ÷
è 2 ø
where, s n º Average stress

Mohr’s circle becomes zero at a point if radius of circle has the following
consideration.
2
æs - s ö 2
Radius of circle = ç ÷ + t xy
è 2 ø

If s x = s y , then radius of Mohr’s circle is zero and t xy = 0

Centroid and Moment of Inertia of Different Sections


Plane Areas Properties

y¢ y Rectangle A = b × d ; x = b /2 ; y = d /2
1 1
x Ix = bd 3 ; I y = db 3 ; I xy = 0
12 12
d G x
y 1 1 b 2d 2
I x¢ = bd 3 ; I y¢ = db 3 ; I x ¢y ¢ =
x¢ 3 3 4
b

1 ( b + c) d
Triangle A = bd ; x = ;y =
2 3 3
1 bd 2
y Ix = bd 3 ; I y = ( b - bc + c 2)

y 36 36
– bd 2
d x I xy = ( b - 2c)
x 72
G –
y 1 bd
x¢ I x¢ = bd 3 ; I y ¢ = (3b 2 - 3bc + c 2)
b 12 12
bd 2
I x ¢y ¢ = (3b - 2c) ;
24
32 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Plane Areas Properties


y ( a + b) d æ 2a + b ö
Trapezoid A = d ;y = ç ÷
2 3 èa+ bø

a d 3 ( a 2 + 4 ab + b 2) d 3 (3a + b)
d Ix = ; I x¢ =
x 36 ( a + b) 12
b

y p 2 d
Circle A = d ;y = ;x = 0
4 2
G x p 4 5p 4
Ix = d = I y ; I xy = 0 ; I x¢ = d

y 64 64

d x¢

pr 2 4r
Half circle A = ;y =
2 3p
(9p 2 - 64) r 4 pr 4
G x Ix = = 01098
. r 4 ; Iy = ; I xy = 0 ;

y 72 p 8

r r pr 4
I x¢ =
8
pr 2 4r
y¢ Quarter circle A = ;x = y =
y 4 3p

x (9p 2 - 64) r 4 pr 4
r x Ix = Iy = = 0.05488 r 4 ; I x¢ = I y¢ =
– 144 p 16
G y
r x¢

Vertex Parabolic semi-segment y = f ( x) = h (1 - x 2 / b 2) ;



y = f (x) 2 3 2
– A = bd ; x = b; y = d
x y 3 8 5
d 16 2 1 2 2
3
G – x Ix = bd ; I y = db 3 ; I xy = b d
y 105 15 12
b x¢

Vertex Semi segment of nth degree y = f ( x) = h (1 - x n / b n),



y=f (x) æ n ö b (n + 1) dn

x y n > 0, A = bd ç ÷,x = ;y =
d è n + 1ø 2 (n + 2) 2n + 1
G –
y
x 2bd 3n 3 db 3n
Ix = ; Iy =
b x¢ (n + 1) (2n + 1) (3n + 1) 3 (n + 3)
Strength of Materials 33

Plane Areas Properties

y¢ y=f (x) Parabolic spandrel y = f ( x) = d ( x 2 / b 2)


y A = ( b × d) /3 ; x = 3b / 4 ; y = 3d / 10
Vertex


x d bd 3 db 3 b 2d 2
x Ix = ; Iy = ; I xy =
G –
y 21 5 12
b x¢

y¢ y=f (x) Spandrel of nth degree y = f ( x) = d ( x n / b n), n > 0


y bd b (n + 1) d (n + 1)
A= ;x = ;y =
Vertex


x d n+1 (n + 2) 2 (2n + 1)
x
G –
y bd 3 db 3 b 2d 2
Ix = ; Iy = ; I xy =
b x¢ 3 (3n + 1) (n + 3) 4 (n + 1)

Shear Force and Bending


Moment Diagram
A Shear Force Diagram (SFD) indicates how a force applied perpendicular
to the axis (i.e., parallel to cross-section) of a beam is transmitted along the
length of that beam. A Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) will show how the
applied loads to a beam create a moment variation along the length of the
beam.

Statically Determinate Beam


A beam is said to be statically determinate if all its reaction components
can be calculated by applying three conditions of static equilibrium i.e.,
S V = 0, S H = 0 and SM=0

Statically Indeterminate Beam


When the number of unknown reaction P1 P2
components exceeds the static conditions of A B
equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically
indeterminate. Indeterminate beam

Shear Force
Shear force has a tendency to slide the surface, it acts parallel to surface.
S Fvert = 0
V - q dx - (V + dV ) = 0
34 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

dV B B

dx
= -q Þ òA dV = - òA q dx
B
VB - V A = - òA q dx
only for distributed load not for point load.

Bending Moment
Any moment produced by forces acting on the beam must be balance by
an equal opposite moment produced by internal forces acting in beam at
the section. This moment is called bending moment.
SM=0
æ dx ö
- M - qdx ç ÷ - (V + dV ) dx + M + dm = 0
è zø
dM
=V Þ MB - M A = ò V dx
dx
only for distributed and concentrated load not for couple.

Bending Moments and Shear Stress


Distribution
Bending stress and shear stress distribution are classified in the following
groups

Bending Moment in Beam


When beam is subjected to a bending moment or bent there are induced
longitudinal or bending stress in cross-section.

M M
A dx sb
A¢ R C¢
y P Q s P¢ Q¢
R¢ S¢
B¢ D¢
B D
Bending stress in beam Inertia about neutral axis

I = Moment of inertia about neutral axis.


sa M E
= =
y I R
Strength of Materials 35

At the neutral axis, there is no stress of any kind. At one side of the neutral
axis, there are compressive stresses, whereas on the other side there are
tensile stresses.

Modulus of Section
Section modulus is a geometric property for a given cross-section used in
the design of beams or flexural members.
I M s
z= Þ =
ymax I y
I
M = smax Þ M = smax ´ z
ymax
bd 3
Rectangular section I=
12
bd 2
Modulus of section z=
s
p 4
Circular section I= d
64
p 3
Modulus of section z= d
32

Shearing Stress
Shearing stress on a layer JK of beam at distance y from neutral axis.
VAy M M
t= J K
Ib
y y
where,
V = Shearing force
VQ
Ay = First moment of area t = .
Ib dx b
Shearing stress on a beam
Shear Stress in Rectangular Beam
Suppose, we have to determine the shear stress at the longitudinal layer
having y distance from neutral axis.
æ h ö
- y1 ÷
æh öç 2
Q = b ç - y1÷ ç y1 + ÷
è2 øç 2 ÷
è ø
36 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

b æ h2 ö
Q= ç - y12 ÷ t
2 è 4 ø h/2
J K
y
V æ h2 ö tmax
t= ç - y12 ÷
2I è 4 ø h/2
3V
tmax = b
2 A Rectangular beam
tmax = 15
. t av

Circular Beam
4r
Centre of gravity of semi-circle lies at distance from centre or base line.
3p
As it is symmetrical above neutral axis, hence at neutral axis shear stress
will be maximum.
( r 2 - y2 )
t=V
3I
pr 2 æ 4 r ö 2 r 3
Q = Ay = ç ÷ =
2 è 3p ø 3 J K t
y
b = 2r d tmax
3
2r
V
3 4V
tmax = =
pr 4 3 A Circular beam
(2 r )
4
For tmax substituting y = 0
pd 4
I=
64
4V 4
tmax = = t av
3A 3

Shears Stress in Hollow Circular Cross-Section


In hollow circular cross-section, if we have to calculate t at neutral axis by
the formula
4V æ r22 + r1 r2 + r12 ö
tmax = ç ÷
3 A è r24 - r14 ø
Strength of Materials 37

Shear Stress in Triangular Section


In a triangular cross-section, if we have to calculate t at neutral axis, then in
formula
V 3
t= ( hx - x 2 ) Þ tmax = t av
3I 2
Shear Stress in I-section
VX é B ( D2 - d 2 ) b æ d 2 öù
t= ê + ç - y2 ÷ ú
Ib êë 8 2 è 4 ø ûú
V éB 2 2 bd 2 ù
tmax = ê (D - d ) + ú
Ib ë 8 8 û
B

d/2
J K
D d

b d/2

I-Section diagram

Deflection of Beam
Deflection is defined as the vertical displacement of a point on a loaded
beam. There are many methods to find out the slope and deflection at a
section in a loaded beam.

Double Integration Method


This is most suitable when concentrated or udl over entire length is acting
on the beam.
d 2y
EI =-M
dx 2
dy
Integrating one time EI
dx
=- òM
Integrating again EI y=- òò M
38 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

where, M = Bending moment


I = Moment of inertia of the beam section
y = Deflection of the beam
E = Modulus of elasticity of beam material.

Torsion of Shaft and Combined Stresses


If t r be the intensity of shear stress, on any layer at a distance r from the
centre of shaft, then
t r T Gq
= =
r J l

A¢ T
T

q
A O A O

Torsion in shaft and combined stresses

æq ö q T
Rate of twist ç ÷ =
èlø l GJ
Tl
Total angle of twist q=
GJ
where, T = Torque, J = Polar moment of inertia
G = Modulus of rigidity, q = Angle of twist
L = Length of shaft, GJ = Torsional rigidity
GJ l
® Torsional stiffness; ® Torsional flexibility
l GJ
EA l
® Axial stiffness; ® Axial flexibility
l EA
pd 4 16T

For solid circular shaft, J= , tmax =
32 pd 3
p

For hollow circular shaft, J= (do4 - d i4 )
32
2 pNT

Power transmitted by shaft, P= kW
60000
where, N = Rotation per minute.
Strength of Materials 39

Compound Shaft
An improved type of compound coupling for connecting in series and
parallel are given below
1. Series connection Series connection of compound shaft as shown in
figure. Due to series connection the torque on shaft 1 will be equal to
shaft 2 and the total angular
q1 q2
deformation will be equal to the
sum of deformation of 1st shaft and T
2nd shaft.
q = q1 + q2
T = T1 = T2 Series connection
where,
q 1 = Angular deformation of 1st shaft
q 2 = Angular deformation of 2nd shaft
2. Parallel connection Parallel connection of compound shaft as shown
in figure. Due to parallel connection of compound shaft the total torque
will be equal to the sum of torque of shaft 1 and 1 T1
torque of shaft 2 and the deflection will be same T2
in both the shafts.
q1 = q2
2
T = T1 + T2
Parallel connection
Effect of Pure Bending on Shaft
The effect of pure bending on shaft can be defined by the relation

32 M
s=
pD3
where, s = Principal stress
D = Diameter of shaft M M
M = Bending moment
Pure bending on shaft
Effect of Pure Torsion on Shaft
It can be calculated by the formula, which are
given below
T
16 T
tmax =
pD3
where, t = Torsion
D = Diameter of shaft Pure torsion on shaft
40 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Combined effect of bending and torsion


16
Principal stress = [M ± M2 + T 2 ]
pD3 M
16
Maximum shear stress = M2 + T 2 D
T
pD3
Equivalent bending moment
1
Meq = [ M + M 2 + T 2 ] Bending and torsion effect
2
Equivalent torque Teq = T 2 + M 2

Thin Shell
1 1
If the thickness of the wall of a shell is less than th of th of its diameter,
10 15
it is known as a thin shell.

Stresses in Thin Cylindrical Shell


(a) Circumferential stress (hoop stress)
pd pd
sc = Þ sc =
2t 2t h
where, p = Intensity of internal pressure
d = Diameter of the shell
t = Thickness of shell
h = Efficiency of joint
pd pd
(b) Longitudinal stress sl = Þ sl =
4t 4t h

Change in Dimension of a Thin Cylindrical Shell due to an


Internal Pressure
pd æ 1 ö
Change in diameter dd = e 1 d = ç1 - ÷ ´d
2tE è 2mø
sc s 1
e 1 = Circumferential strain e 1 = - l Þ =m
E mE m
pd æ 1 1 ö
Change in length f l = e2 l = ç - ÷´l
2tE è 2 m ø
sl sc
e 2 = Longitudinal strain e2 = -
E mE
Change in volume dV = (2 e 1 + e 2 ) V
Strength of Materials 41

Thin Spherical Shell


1. Stresses in shell material,
pd pd
s= Þ s=
4t 4t h
Stresses on
2. Change in diameter d d = e ´ d , spherical shell
æs s ö
where e = ç - ÷
è E mE ø
pd æ 1ö
= ç1 - ÷ ´ d
4 te è mø
pd æ 1ö
Change in volume dV = V × 3 e = V × ç1 - ÷
4 tE è mø

Lake’s Theory
Lake’s theory is based on the following assumptions

Assumptions
1. Homogeneous material.
2. Plane section of cylinder, perpendicular to longitudinal axis remains
under plane and pressure.
Hoop stress at any section
b
sr = 2 + a
r
b
Radial pressure pr = 2 - a
r

Subjected to Internal Pressure ( p)
æ r2 + r2 ö
1. At r = ri , s ri = p ç 02 i 2 ÷
è r0 - ri ø
2 pri 2
2. At r = r0, s r0 =
r02 - ri 2

Subjected to External Pressure ( p)
- 2 pr02
1. At r = ri , s ri =
r02 - ri 2
æ r2 + r2 ö
2. At r = r0, s r0 = - p ç 02 i 2 ÷
è r0 - ri ø

Note Radial and hoop stresses vary hyperbolically.


Columns and Struts
A structural member subjected to an axial compressive force is called
strut. As per definition strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.
Vertical strut is called a column.

Euler’s Column Theory


This theory has the following assumptions
● Perfectly straight column and axial load apply.
● Uniform cross-section of the column throughout its length.
● Perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material.

Length of column is large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensions.
● The shortening of column due to direct compression is neglected.
● The failure of column occurs due to buckling alone.

Euler’s Buckling (or crippling load)


The maximum load at which the column tends to have lateral displacement
or tends to buckle is known as buckling or crippling load. Load columns
can be analysed with the Euler’ column formulas can be given as
n2p 2EI
pE = ( n = 1, 2, 3, ¼ )
l2
p 2EI
or pE = 2
leff
where, E = Modulus of elasticity
l = Length of column
I = Moment of inertia of column section.
Strength of Materials 43

Euler’s Buckling for Different Structures


1. For both end hinged P
n = 1, B
l =l
p 2EI
pE = 2
l
l

A
Both end hinged
2. For one end fixed and other free P
1 B
n=
2
l = 2l
p 2El
pE =
4l 2

A
One end fixed
3. For both end fixed P
n = 2,
l M0
l =
2
4 p 2EI
pE =
EI

M0

Both end fixed

4. For one end fixed and other hinged P


n= 2
B
l
l =
2
2p 2EI
pE =
l2

One end fixed and other hinged


44 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Rankine’s Formula for Columns


It is an empirical formula, takes into both crushing PCS and Euler critical
load (PR ).
1 1 1
= +
PR PCS PE
PR = Crippling load by Rankine’s formula
PCS = sCS A = Ultimate crushing load for column
p 2EI
PE = 2 = Crippling load obtained by Euler’s formula
leff
sCS A
PR = 2
, l = Ak 2
æ le ö
1+ a ç ÷
èkø
where, A = Cross-section area of column
k = Least radius of gyration
a = Rankine’s constant.

Strain Energy
The work done by the load in straining the body is stored within the strained
material in the form of strain energy.
1
Strain energy, U = P( Al )
2 A
P
P 2L
U=
2 AE
AE Al
Put P=
L
O
EA ( Dl )2 C
U= Dl
2L Strain energy diagram
s2
or U= ´V
2E

Proof Resilence
The maximum strain energy that can be stored in a material is known as
proof resilence.
1 P 2L
u= ´
V 2 AE
Strength of Materials 45

s2 P
u= , where s =
2E A
1
u = Ee 2
2
Strain energy of prismatic bar with varying sections
P 2L A1 L1
U=S
2 AE
P 2 é L1 L2 L ù A2 L2
= ê + ¼+ nú
2 E ë A1 A2 An û
An Ln

Prismatic bar
Strain energy of non-prismatic bar with varying
axial force
x
L Px2
U= ò0 2 EA x
dx
L
dx
A x = Cross-section of differential section.

Strain Energy in Torsion Non-prismatic bar


1 1 T 2L
U = Tq =
2 2 GJ
t2
For solid shaft, U= ´ volume of shaft
2G
t 2 æ D2 + d 2 ö
For hollow shaft, U= ç ÷ ´ volume of shaft
2 G è D2 ø

Castigliono’s First Theorem


If the strain energy of an elastic structure can be expressed as a function of
generalised displacement, then the partial derivative of the strain energy dU
with respect to generalised displacement dW, gives the generalised force d 1.
M 2dx
l
U= ò0
2 EI
[where M is function of W (load)]

dU l æ ¶M ö dx
dW1 ò0 è ¶W1 ø EI
Deflection d1 = = Mç ÷

¶U l æ ¶M ö dx
Slope q=
¶M1
= ò0 M çè ¶M1 ÷ø EI
46 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Theories of Failure
Theories of failure are defined as following groups

Maximum Principal Stress Theory


(Rankine theory)
According to this theory, permanent set takes place under a state of
complex stress, when the value of maximum principal stress is equal to
that of yield point stress as found in a simple tensile test.
For design critical maximum principal stress (s 1) must not exceed the
working stress ( t ) for the material.
s 12 £ t s y
s2
Note For brittle material, it give satisfactory result.
Yield criteria for 3D stress system, s1
s1 = sy or | s3 | = s¢y
where, sy = Yield stress point in simple tension
s¢y = Yield stress point in simple compression. Stresses on
rectangular section

Maximum Principal Strain Theory


(ST Venant’s theory)
According to this theory, a ductile material begins to yield when the
maximum principal strain reaches the strain at which yielding occurs in
simple tension.
e 1, 2, 3 £ e yp
s 1
For 3D stress system, e1 = 1 - (s 2 + s 3 )
e me
s 1
e2 = 2 - (s 3 + s 1)
e me
s 1
e3 = 3 - (s 1 + s 2 )
e me
sy
If e y = Yield point strain tensile
E
s y¢
e y¢ = Yield point strain compressive
E
Strength of Materials 47

According to theory, e 1 = e y
s1 1 sy s2
Yield criteria - (s 2 + s 3 ) =
e me E
and e3 = ey ¢
s3 1 (s 1 + s 2 ) s y¢
- = s1
E m E E
s1 s2 s y
For 2D system, - £
E mE E
s Rhombus
s1 - 2 £ sy
m
Note This theory over estimate the elastic strength of ductile material.

Maximum Shear Stress Theory


(Guest & Tresca’s theory)
According to this theory, failure of specimen subjected to any combination of
loads when the maximum shearing stress at any point reaches the failure
value equal to that developed at the yielding in an axial tensile or
compressive test of the same material. For 3D system
1 sy
Yielding criteria, tmax = (s 1 - s 3 ) =
2 2
s1 - s3 = sy
In case of 2D
Yielding criteria, s1 - s2 = sy

Note This theory give well estimation for ductile material.

Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s theory)


According to this theory, a body under complex s2
stress fails when the total strain energy on the body
is equal to the strain energy at elastic limit in
simple tension. For 3D stress system yield criteria,
2 (s 1 s 2 + s 2 s 3 + s 3 s 1) s1
s 21 + s 22 + s 33 - = s y2
m
2s 1s 2
For 2D stress system, s 21 + s 22 - = s y2
m Ellipse

Note This theory does not apply to brittle material for which elastic limit stress
in tension and in compression are different.
3

Theory of Machines
Basic Concepts of Theory of Machines
Theory of machine deals with the study of relative motion between the
various parts of a machine and forces which act on them.

Mechanism
A combination of rigid or restraining bodies so shaped and connected that
they move upon each other with definite relative motion is known as
mechanism.
e. g ., slider crank mechanism where the rotary movement of the crank is
converted through the connecting rod into the reciprocating motion of the
slider or vice-versa.

Machine
A mechanism or a combination of mechanism which transmit force from
the source of power to the resistance (load) to be overcome and thus
performs useful mechanical work. e. g ., In IC engine, force F available at the
piston is transmitted to the crank in the form of driving torque M, to
overcome the resistance MR at the crank shaft.

Link
A link is defined as a member or a combination of members, connecting
other members and having motion relative to them.

Joint
Joint is the physical realization of a kinematic pair.
Theory of Machines 49

Kinematic Pair
A joint of two links having relative motion between them is known as
kinematic pair

Grashof ’s Law for four Bar Chain c


P
d
Mechanism
It states that in a planar four bar chain mechanism,the
sum of the length of shortest and longest links should l q
not be greater than the sum of length of remaining two
links, if there is to be a continuous relative motion
between two links. b a
Hence, (S+l) < (P+q) S

Degree of Freedom
Number of independent coordinates needed to describe the relative
portions of pairing elements.
Degree of freedom = 6 - Number of restraints
Degree of Freedom of the Mechanism (3D)
F = 6 ( N - 1) - 5P1 - 4P2 - 3P3 - 2 P4 - P5
N = Total number of links in a mechanism
Pn = Number of pairs having n degree of freedom
Degree of Freedom of a Plane Mechanism (2D)
Grubler Criteria for Planar Mechanism
F = 3 ( N - 1) - 2 P1 - 1P2
Kutzback’s Criteria
Linkages with single degree of freedom P2 = 0
F = 3( N - 1) - 2 P1
Transmission Angle C
The angle m between the output link and the coupler 3 m
is known as transmission angle.
B g

If link BC and DC become coincident, the
transmission angle is zero and the mechanism
4
would lock or jam. 2 q

For double crank or crank-rocker mechanism. A D
Transmission angle m will be maximum. 1 d
Transmission angle in
Þ When q = 180°; m minimum Þ When q = 0° four bar mechanism
50 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Inversion of Mechanism
The method of obtaining different mechanism by fixing different links of the
same kinematic chain, is known as inversion of the mechanism. In the
process of inversion, relative motions of the links of the mechanism
produced remain unchanged.
Types of kinematic chains and their inversions.

The Four-Bar Chain


It consists of four rigid links which are connected in the form of
quadrilateral by four pin joints. It also consists of four turning pair
A link that makes complete revolution is known as crank. The fixed link is
known as frame of the mechanism.
Key Points
✦ Number of degree of freedom of a planar mechanism with n links, j lower
kinematic pairs and h higher kinematic pairs can also be expressed as
F = 3 (N - 1) - 2j - h
✦ For constrained motion
(Single degree of freedom and zero higher pair)
F =1
3 (N - 1) - 2j - h = 1
2j - 3 N + h + 4 = 0
✦ j can also expressed as
1
j = (2 n2 + 3 n3+ 1n4 )
2
✦ For planar mechanism degree of freedom can also be expressed as
F = N - (2 L + 1), L = Number of loops in a linkage
P1 = N + (L - 1)

Four-Bar Mechanism
a, b = Adjacent link to shortest link C
L
S = Shortest link
L = Longest link B
S + L£ a+ b (Grashaf’s law)
b
Case I If S + L £ a + b a

• If S fix Þ Double-crank mechanism


• If a or b fix Þ Crank-rocker mechanism A D
• If L fix Þ Rocker -rocker mechanism S
Four-bar mechanism
Theory of Machines 51

Case II S + L > a + b
Grashaf’s law do not satisfy and mechanism is Rocker-rocker mechanism
Case III S + L = a + b
• If length of S ¹ L ¹ a ¹ b
Þ Mechanism is same as case I
• If length of S = a and L = b
Þ (Parallelogram linkage) crank-crank mechanism
If S is fixed L
Þ Double-crank mechanism
or L is fixed. S S

Þ Double-crank mechanism
L mechanism
Double-crank
The Slider-Crank Chain
When one of the turning pairs of a four-bar chain is replaced by a sliding
pair, it becomes a single slider-crank chain or simply a slider-crank chain.

Double-Slider Crank Chain


It consists of four pairs out of which two are turning and two others are
[Link] the two pairs of same kinds are adjacent.

Velocity Analysis in Mechanism


Let a rigid link OA, of length r rotate about a fixed point O with a uniform
angular velocity w rad/s in a counter-clockwise direction OA turns through
a small angle d q in a small interval of time d t. Then, A will travel along the
arc AA¢ as shown in figure.
vao A 1
A¢ A
B
r b
dq a o

Intermediate points a and b


O O
Velocity Analysis
\ Velocity of A relative to O
arc AA ¢ r d q
v ao = =
dq dt
52 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

\ In the limits, when dt ® 0


dq
v ao = r = rw
dt
Thus, velocity of A is wr and is perpendicular to OA.

Velocity of Intermediate Point


If v bo represent the velocity of B with respect to O, then
b
v bo w OB OB a o
= =
v ao w OA AO Intermediate points b

i . e., b divides the velocity vector in the same ratio as B divides the link.
The magnitude of the linear velocity of a point on the rotating body at a
particular instant is proportional to its distance from the axis of rotation.

Velocity Images of Four Link Mechanism


Figure shows a four link mechanism (quadric cycle mechanism) ABCD in
which AD is fixed link and BC is the coupler. AB is the driver rotating at an
angular speed of w rad/s in the clockwise direction if it is a crank or moving
at angular velocity w at this instant if it is rocker.
F
c
C vcd

B E a,d
e
f

vba vcb

A D
b
Four link mechanism Velocity vector in four link mechanism

Velocity Images of Slider-Crank Mechanism


Consider a slider-crank mechanism in which OA is the crank moving with
uniform angular velocity w rad/s in the clockwise direction. At point B, a
slider moves on the fixed guide G.
From the given configuration, the coupler AB has angular velocity in the
v
counter-clockwise direction. The magnitude being ba .
BA
Theory of Machines 53

A
w
B

O
G
A'
vbg
o,g b

vao
vba

a
Velocity images of slider-crank mechanism

Velocity of Rubbing
Let us take two links of a turning pair, a pin is
fixed to one of the links whereas a hole is Pin
provided in the other to fit the pin. When joined Link 1
the surface of the hole of one link will rub on
the surface of pin of the other link. The velocity
of rubbing of the two surfaces will depend Hole
upon the angular velocity of a link relative to
Velocity of rubbing
the other.

Pin at A F

The pin at A joins links AD and AB. AD being C


fixed, the velocity of rubbing will depend upon
B E
the angular velocity of AB only.
Velocity of rubbing = ra w ra
where, ra = radius of pin at A
A D
Pin at B Velocity images
mechanism
wba = w ab = w (clockwise)
v
wbc = w cb = cd (counter-clockwise)
BC
rb = Radius of pin at B
Velocity of rubbing = rb ( w ab + w bc )
54 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Pin at C
wbc = w cb (counter-clockwise)
w dc = w cd (clockwise)
rc = Radius of the pin at C
Velocity of rubbing = rc( w bc + w dc )
Pin at D
where, rd = radius of pin at D
Velocity of rubbing = rd w cd

Instantaneous Centre of Velocity (I-centre)


The instantaneous centre of velocity can be defined as a point which has
no velocity with respect to the fixed link.
Suppose there are two link 1 and link 2

Link 1 may or may not be fixed. Rigid
body 2 is shown to be in plane motion 2
with respect to the link 1.
vA C
vC

In case of fixed link, (link 2) velocity of the q
A B
point A and B are proportional to PA and f
PB respectively. So, instantaneously, the vB
P
rigid body can be thought of as being
momentarily in pure rotation about the Instantaneous centre P of
point P. The velocity of any point C on the velocity v A and vB
v
body at this instant is given by vC = PC B
r2
in a direction perpendicular to PC .This point P is called the
instantaneously centre of velocity and its instantaneously velocity is
zero.

If both links 1 and 2 are in motion, we can define a relative instantaneous
centre P12 to be a point on 2 having zero relative velocity with respect to a
coincident point on 1. Consequently, the relative motion of 2 with respect
to 1 be appears to be pure rotation about P12. So, P21 and P12 are identical.

Centro
Instantaneous centre is also called centro. So, two coincident points
belonging to two rigid bodies having relative motion with the properties.

They have the same velocities.
Theory of Machines 55

● They form a point in one of the rigid bodies about which the other rotates
and vice-versa. Which is perhaps true for only an instant.
Primary Centro One which can be easily located by a mere observation
of the mechanism.
Secondary Centro Centros that cannot be easily located.
1

1200
1 2
2

(b)
(a)
Primary centro Secondary centro

Instantaneous Centre of Acceleration


It is defined as a point on a link having zero relative acceleration with
respect to a coincident point on the other link and is different from the
instantaneous centre of velocity.

Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem of Three Centre


It state that if three bodies are in relative motion with respect to one
another, the three relative instantaneous centers of velocity are collinear.

O2 P12 P13
O3
P23

Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem of
three centre 1, 2 and 3


P12-Instantaneous centre of fixed ground 1 and body 2.

P13-Instantaneous centre of fixed ground 1 and body 3.

P23-Instantaneous centre of body 2 and body 3.
56 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Number of Centros in a Mechanism


For a mechanism of n links, the number of centros (Instantaneous centre) N is
1
N = n ( n - 1)
2
Number of Lines of Centros
The number of lines of centros L for a mechanism with n links is
1
L = n ( n - 1) ( n - 2 )
6

Angular Velocity Ratio Theorem for I centre


When the angular velocity of a link is known and it is required to find the angular
velocity of another link,then locate their common I-centre.
The velocity of this I-centre relative to a fixed 3rd link is the same whether the I-centre
is considered on the first or the second link. First consider the I-centre to be on the first
link and obtain the velocity of the I-centre. Then, consider the I-centre to be on the
second link and find its angular velocity.
13

-34
3 C
B 23

180° 4
2

12 14
24 A D
1
Angular velocity ratio theorem
First imaginary link 2 to be in the form of a flat disc containing point 24 and revolving
about 12 or A. Then, v 24 = w 2 (T24 - T12).
Second imaginary link 4 to be large enough to contain point 24 and revolving about
14 or D.
w4 I - I12
v 24 = w 4 ( I 24 - I14 ); = 24
w 2 I 24 - I14

Acceleration Analysis in Mechanism


The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is known as acceleration
and acts in the direction of the change in velocity. Velocity can changed by
only changing its magnitude or its direction. Let a link OA, of length r, rotate
in a circular path in the clockwise direction as shown in figure. It has an
Theory of Machines 57

instantaneously angular velocity w and an angular acceleration a in the


same direction i . e., the angular velocity increases in the clockwise
direction.
A va
f tao
A' va¢ cos dq o1 oa
r a
w dq va¢ sin dq
vao f ca o
va¢
O (w + a dt)

a1
Acceleration analysis Tangential and radial acceleration
analysis

● Tangential acceleration of A relative O is defined as


æ dwö dv
f tao = a r = ç ÷ r =
è dt ø dt

Centripetal or radial acceleration of A relative to O is defined as
v2
f cao = w2r =
r

Total acceleration (net acceleration) = f tao + f c
ao

There are three cases occured in the net acceleration as given below
Case I When a = 0 Þ w = constant
Þ ¢ =0
fao
c v2
So, net acceleration = f ao =
r
Case II When w = 0 Þ A has linear motion as
c
fao =0 t
f ao
ao o1
t dv
Net acceleration = a ao =
dt c
f ao
Case III When a is negative or the link OA
decelerates, tangential acceleration will be
a1
negative or its direction will be as shown in Tangential acceleration
figure. as negative
58 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Coriol’s Acceleration Component


Consider a link AR rotates about a fixed point A on it. P is a point on a
slider on the link.
Here, w = Angular velocity of the link
a = Angular acceleration of the link
v = Linear velocity of the slider on the link
f = Linear acceleration of the slider on the link
r = Radial distance of point P on the slider.
v ¢ sin dq

v v ¢ cos dq

R

R P w¢r ¢ cos dq
dq
a
w w¢r ¢ sin dq
w¢r
dq a1 ¢
w1
A

Coriol’s acceleration analysis

Key Points
Direction of Coriol’s acceleration component (2w × v) is perpendicular to AR
Coriol’s component is positive if
✦ The link AR rotate clockwise and the slider moves radially outward.
✦ The link rotate counter clockwise and the slider moves radially inwards.
Acceleration of slider ( f ) is positive if
✦ Slider has a deceleration while moving in the inward direction.
✦ Slider has acceleration while moving in the outward direction.


Acceleration of P|| to AR
fP(|| AR ) = f - w2r
= acceleration of slider - centripetal acceleration

Acceleration of P ^ to AR.
fP( ^ AR ) = 2 w. v + a × r
= Coriol’s acceleration + tangential acceleration
Let Q be a point on the link AR immediately beneath the point P at the
instant, then
Theory of Machines 59

● Acceleration of P = acceleration of P|| to AR + acceleration of P^ to AR


fPa = ( f - w2r ) + (2 w v + ra )
= f + ( r a - w2r ) + 2 wv
= acceleration of P relative to Q + Acceleration
of Q relative to A + Coriols acceleration component
= fPq + fqa + fcr

Kinematic Synthesis of Mechanism


A mechanism is said to be kinematically simple if its acceleration analysis
can be carried out completely by applying successively the acceleration
equation A Q = A p + A QP combined, if necessary, with acceleration-image
principle.

Coupler Curve
Coupler curve is a curve traced by a point on one of the coupler links in a
mechanism.

Exact Straight Line Motion Mechanism and Condition


Exact straight line mechanism contain a
S
link in which a point describes a coupler T
curve as an exact straight line.
H X
Condition for straight line mechanism O

OS ´ OT
OX =
OH
OS, a exact straight line motion


Paucelier Mechanism A paucelier
P
mechanism consists of eight links. Q

Hart Mechanism It consists of 6 links. S

Scott-Russel Mechanism It consists of
O
4 links.
OQ QS
=
QS QP Scott-Russel mechanism
60 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Approximate Straight Line Motion Mechanism


The approximate straight line motion mechanisms are as follows.
Modified Scott-Russel Mechanism
In this, P will approximately traverse a straight line perpendicular to OS.
P
Q
S
q

Modified Scott-Russel mechanism

Gross-Hopper Mechanism
This mechanism is a derivation of the modified Scott-Russel mechanism in
which the sliding pair at S is replaced by a turning pair.

Pantograph Mechanism
A pantograph is a four bar linkage used to Q
produce paths exactly similar to the ones
traced out by a point on the linkage. The C D
3
P
paths so produced may be straight or
2 4
cured ones. It consists of 4 links.
OP OA O
= B 1 A
OQ OB Pantograph mechanism

Cams
A cam is a mechanical member used to impart desired motion
(displacement) to a follower by direct contact (either point or line contact).
A cam may be rotating or reciprocating whereas the follower may be
rotating, reciprocating or oscillating.

Cam mechanism belong to higher pair mechanism.

A driver member known as cam.

A driven member called the follower.

A frame is one which supports the cam and guides the follower.
Theory of Machines 61

Definitions Related to Cam


The following terminologies are used to draw cam profile

Base Circle
The base circle is the smallest circle (with its centre at the cam centre) that
can be drawn tangential to the cam profile.

Trace Point
A trace point is a theoretical point on the follower, its motion describing the
movement of the follower. e. g ., for a knife edge follower, the trace point is
at the knife edge.

Pitch Curve
It is the curve drawn by the trace point assuming that the cam is fixed and
the trace point of the follower rotates around the cam.

Pressure Angle
It represents the steepness of the cam profile. The angle between the
direction of the follower movement and the normal to the pitch curve at any
point is referred to as the pressure angle.

Key Points
✦ For a roller follower, the trace point is at the roller centre.
✦ For a flat-face follower, it is at the point of contact between the follower and
cam surface when the contact is along the base circle of the cam.
✦ During a complete rotation, the pressure angle varies from its maximum to its
minimum value.
✦ The greater the pressure angle, the higher will be side thrust and consequently
the chances of the translating follower jamming in its guide will increase.
✦ It is not desirable to increase the pressure angle.

Pitch Point and Circle


A pitch point correspond to the point of maximum pressure angle and a
circle drawn with its centre at the cam centre, to pass through the pitch
point is known as the pitch circle.
Prime Circle The prime circle is the smallest circle that can be drawn so as
to be tangential to the pitch curve.
62 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Cam profile
cle
e cir
im
Pr Base circle

Pressure
angle (f)
Pitch circle
Follower
motion
A schematic diagramatic view of pitch circle

Follower Displacement Diagram


The following terms are used with reference to the angular motion of the cam

Angle of Ascent ( f a ) It is the angle through which the cam turns during
the time the follower rises.

Angle of Dwell ( f ) Angle of dwell is the angle through which the cam
turns while the follower remains stationary at the highest or the lowest
position.
Rise Dwell Return Dwell

Follower Inferior
displacement point L(Ligt)

Ore one cycle Ore


(q) Cam rotation
Displacement diagram

Angle of Descent ( f d ) Angle of descent is the angle through which the
cam turns while follower returns to the initial position.

Angle of Action Angle of action is the total angle moved by the cam
during the time between the beginning of rise and the end of return of the
follower.
Theory of Machines 63

● In a specific interval of time, acceleration must be given to consider the


velocity.
● The dynamic effect of acceleration limit the speed and effect of jerk (rate
of change of acceleration) produce vibrations of the system.
● The angle made by follower to the surface of cam at the point of contact
cannot be reduced from a certain value. So, it exert minimum lateral
pressure on the bearing.
● The size of the base circle controls the pressure angle.

Cam with Specified Contours


Followings are the various types of cams, which are symmetrical cams or
specified contour cams.

Tangent Cam (with roller follower)


A tangent cam is symmetrical about the centre line.
where, rc = Least radius of cam, rn = Radius of nose, rr = Radius of roller
r = Distance between the cam and nose centre.
Roller on the Flank
The maximum and minimum velocity can be calculated. when the location
of roller on the flank as
where, rc = Least radius of cam
rn = Radius of nose
rr = Radius of roller
r = Distance between the cam and the
nose centre. k rn
Let q be angle turned by the cam from the
beginning of the follower motion. C
æ 1 ö r
x = ( rc + rr ) ç - 1÷
è cos q ø D

dx dx dq q
v= = b
dt dq dt B rc O
sin q
v = w ( rc + rc )
cos 2 q rr

sin b
vmax = w ( rc + rr )
cos 2 b
Cam contours
64 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

At q = b, (b be the angle turned by the cam when the roller loss the flank)
vmin = 0 At q = 0
Acceleration
dv dv dq
f= = ´
dt dq dt
(2 - cos 2 q )
f = w2( rc + r )
cos 3 q C
2
fmin = w ( rc + rr ) at q = 0° g rn
Q
Roller on the Nose n
N
x = r cos (a - q ) r
f
2 2 2
+ l - r sin (a - q ) - n
q
a
\ l = rn+ rr B O
rc
and n = rc + rr
dx dx dq rr
v= =
dt dq dt
dv dv dq
f= =
dt dq dt Roller on the nose
in cam contours

Circular Arc (convex) Cam (with flat-faced follower)


Follower Touching Circular Flank
x = ( rf - rc ) (1 - cos q )
dx dx dq
v= = Q
dt dq dt
E
v = w ( rf - rc ) sin q
C
vmin = 0 at q = 0
q F
vmax = w ( rf - rc ) sin b at q = b
D
Acceleration
rc q
f = w2( rf - rc ) cos q P
rf
2
fmax = w ( rf - rc ) at q = 0
Circular arc cam
fmin = w2 ( rf - rc ) cos b at q = b
Theory of Machines 65

Follower on the Nose E


x = rn - rc + r cos(a - q ) C
A
v = wr sin (a - q ) Q

vmin = 0 at q = a A
f
v is maximum when the follower just touches the
nose of the cam. q
D a F P
f = - w2r cos (a - q ) O

Circular Arc (Convex) Cam


(with roller follower) Follower on the nose
of the cam
Follower on the Flank
x = ( rf + rc ) cos f - ( rf + rc ) cos q - ( rc + rc )
A Q
2 C
é ( r - r ) sin q ù E
where, cos f = ê1 - c c
ë ( rf + rr ) úû f

or x = B2- A 2 sin2 q - A cos q - ( rc + rc ) B


q
D
where, A = rf - rc and B = rf + rr O
q
P
é A sin 2q ù
v = w A êsin q - ú
êë 2 B2- A 2sin2 q úû Circular arc cam with
follower on the flank

é A cos 2q A 3 sin 2q ù
f = w2 A êcos q - - 2 2 2 3 / 2 ú
êë B2 - A 2 sin2 q 4 ( B - A sin q ) û

Gears and Gear Trains


Gear is a positive drive which transmits exact velocity ratio from one shaft
to another shaft, gear drive is used when the distance between driver and
follower is very less, when two or more gears are made to mesh with each
other to transmit power from one shaft to another, the combination is called
gear trains.
66 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Gears
Gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another or between a
shaft and slide. It is a higher pair mechanism. Gear use no intermediate link
or connector and transmit the motion by direct contact.

Gear Terminology
The basic terms used in gears are

Circular Pitch (p)


It is a distance measured along the circumference of the pitch circle from a
point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.
pd
p=
T
where, p = circular pitch; d = pitch diameter; T = number of teeth.
Face width
Addendum
Circle
Top land
Circ
Pitch ular
p
circle Space itch Face
width To Flank
oth
thick Addendum
ness
Working depth
Bottom
Dedendum Working depth
land
circle (root) Dedendum clearance
clerance
A schematic gear diagram

Diametrical Pitch ( P )
It is the number of teeth per unit length of the pitch circle diameter in
inches.
T
P=
d
Module ( m)
It is the ratio of pitch diameter in mm to the number of teeth. The term is
used in SI units in place of diametrical pitch.
d
m=
T
Þ p= p m
Theory of Machines 67

Gear Ratio (G)


It is the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to that on the pinion.
T
G=
t
wheres, T = number of teeth on the gear; t = number of teeth on the pinion.
Velocity Ratio
The velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of the
follower to the angular velocity of the driver gear.
w N d T
VR = 2 = 2 = 1 = 1
w1 N1 d 2 T2

Addendum Circle
A circle bounding the ends of the teeth,in a normal section of the gear.

Dedendum circle
The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a normal section of
the gear.

Addendum
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.

Dedendum
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.

Standard Proportions for 20° Full Depth System


The following standard proportions are used in 20° full depth system
Standard Proportions
Addendum ha = m Dedendum h f = 1.25 m
Clearance C = 0.25 m Working depth h k = 2 m
Whole depth h = 2.25 m Tooth thickness (s) = 1.5708 m
Tooth space = 1.5700 m Fillet radius = 0.4 m

Form of Teeth
The form of teeth in a gear system can be as follows.

Conjugate Teeth
Two curves of any arbitrary shape that fulfill the law of gearing can be used
as the profiles of teeth. Such a gear are said to have conjugate teeth.
68 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The profiles of tooths which are generally used given as

Cycloidal Profile Teeth


As cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle that rolls
without slipping on a fixed straight line.
In this type, the faces of the teeth are epicycloids and the flanks the
hypocycloids.

Epicycloid Teeth
An epicycloid is the locus of point on the circumference of a circle that rolls
without slipping on a fixed straight line.
Arc PK = arc KJG
D
Pitch circle
A
H
Flank
C
face
L
P F
Hypocycloid
Epicycloid
J
K
E
B
G
Standardize gear teeth

Hypocycloid Teeth
A hypocycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle that
rolls without slipping inside the circumference of another circle.
Arc AC = Arc CD
Involute Profile Teeth
An involute is defined as the locus of a point on a B C
straight line which rolls without slipping on the
circumference of a circle. From figure at the start the F J
tracing point is at A as the line rolls on the E
circumference of the circle, the path ABC traced out H
A
by the point A is the involute. G
D is regarded as the instantaneous centre of rotation D
of B. The motion of B is perpendicular to BD. Since, BD
is tangent to the base circle, the normal to the involute
O
is a tangent to the base circle. Involute profile teeth
Theory of Machines 69

Comparison between Cycloidal Teeth and Involute Teeth

Cycloidal Teeth Involute Teeth


Pressure angle maximum at beginning of Pressure angle is constant throughout
engagement, then reduce to zero at pitch point the engagement of teeth.
and again maximum at end of engagement.
Less smooth running of gears. Smooth running of gears.
Involve double curve, epicycloid and Involve single curve
hypocycloid for the teeth
Costier manufacturing Cheaper manufacturing
Exact centre distance is required to transmit a A little variation in centre distance
constant velocity ratio. does not effect the velocity ratio
Phenomenon of interference does not Interference can occur if the
occur at all. condition of minimum number of
teeth on a gear is not followed.
Spreading flank teeth and strong. Radial flank teeth and weaker
compare to cycloidal.
Convex flank always has contact with a Two convex surfaces are in contact
concave face resulting in less wear. and thus there is more wear.

Methods of Gear Manufacturing


1. Casting, blanking, machining.
2. For power transmitting gears (made of steel), the following methods
generally used are milling, rack generation, hobbing, fellow gear shaper
method.
3. For good accuracy and surface finish following finishing process are
used grinding, lapping, sharing, barnishing.
The followings are the parameters used in manufacturing of gears as

Path of Contact (CD)


According to the figure, the path of the contact is given by the relation
CD = CP + PD
= (CF - PF ) + ( DE - PE )
= é Ra2 - R 2cos 2 f - R sin f ù + é ra2 - r 2 cos 2 f - r sin f ù
êë úû êë úû
70 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

sf D
co
R ra
R r sin f
f P r
A B
f
Ra
C r cos f

Path of contact diagram


where, r = pitch circle radius of pinion
R = pitch circle radius of wheel
ra = addendum circle radius of pinion
Ra = addendum circle radius of wheel

Arc of Contact
From the figure, the arc of the contact as given by
path of contact (CD)

Arc of contact =
cos f
CP

Arc of approach =
cos f
PD

Arc of recess =
cos f
CD 1

Number of teeth within the arc = (p = circular pitch)
cos f p
360

Angle of action d p = arc of contact ´
2 pr

Interference in Involute Gear


■ Meshing of two non-conjugate (non-involute) teeth is known as interference
because the two teeth do not slide properly and thus rough action and binding
occurs.
■ For equal addenda of the wheel and pinion, the addendum radius of the wheel
decides whether the interference will occur or not.
Theory of Machines 71

Minimum Number of Teeth


● Maximum value of the addendum radius of wheel to avoid interference
can be upto BE
( BE )2 = ( BF )2 + ( FE )2
æröær ö
BE = R 1 + ç ÷ ç + 2 ÷ - sin2 f
èRø èR ø
Addendum value of wheel £ BE - R
2 aw

1 æ1 ö
1 + ç + 2 ÷ sin2 q - 1
è
G G ø
æT ö
where, G = gear ratio ç ÷
èt ø
T and t are number of teeth on the wheel and pinion respectively.
When addendum is equal to one module aw = 1
2

1 æ1 ö
1 + ç + 2 ÷ sin2 f - 1
G èG ø

Interference between Rack and Pinion


The interference between rack and pinion is shown in the figure.
O
r cos f
ra f
Base circle E

Pitch circle

Pitch line
Addendum
circle G
D

Rack and pinion interference

To avoid interference GE ³ ar m
2 ar

sin2 f
2 2
For standard addendum, ar = 1; t ³ Þ tmin =
sin2f sin2f
72 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

To eliminate interference, there are following methods


● By using more teeth on gears (however, it can make gear noiser).
● By larger pressure angle.
● By using gears with shorter teeth.
● To eliminate the undercutting or interference, the pinion addendum may
be enlarged until the addendum circle of the pinion passes through the
interference point of gear.

Undercutting
When gear teeth are produced such that interference is eliminated then this
effect is called undercutting.

Long and Short Addendum System


In the long and short addendum system, there is no change in pitch circle
and consequently not in pressure angle. The pinion addendum enlarge
until the addendum circle of the pinion passes through the point of gear.
In long and short addendum system, recess action is obtained more than
approach action.

Gear Train
A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one
shaft to another. Gear trains are used to speed up or stepped down the
speed of driven shaft. The following are main types of gear trains

Simple Gear Train


Series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from one
gear to another is called a simple gear train.
N T

Train value = 3 = 1 1 2
N1 T3
Number of teeth on driving gears
= 3
Number of teeth on driver gear
1

Speed ratio =
Train value Simple gear train

The intermediate gears have no effect
on the speed ratio and therefore they are known as idlers.
Theory of Machines 73

Compound Gear Train


When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears
rotate about an axis with the same angular velocity.
2
4
3 5 6

Compound gear train

Product of number of teeth on driving gears



Train value =
Product of number of teeth on driven gears
N6 T1 T3 T5
=
N1 T2 T4 T6

Reverted Gear Train


If the axis of first and last wheel of a 2
compound gear coincide, it is called as 3
reverted gear train. 4
1
N4 T1 T3

Train valve, =
N1 T2 T4

If r is the pitch circle radius of a gear
r1 + r2 = r3 + r4
Reverted gear train

Planetary or Epicyclic Gear Train


A gear train having a relative motion of axes is called
a planetary or an epicyclic gear train. In an P
epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of the gears
also moves relative to the frame. a
If the arm a is fixed the wheels S and P constitute a
simple train. However if the wheel S is fixed so that S
arm a can rotate about the axis of S. The P would be
moved around S therefore it is an epicyclic train.
Epicyclic gear train
74 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● In general, gear trains have 2 degree of freedom.


æ T ö æ- T ö Arm
q ¢5/ 2 (q L / R ) = ç - 2 ÷ × ç 4 ÷ 2
è T4 ø è T5 ø
w5/ 3
= 3 4 5
w2/ 3
æ - T2 ö æ - T4 ö w5 - w3
ç ÷ç ÷= First order kinematic coefficient
è T4 ø è T5 ø w2 - w3
wL - wa
So, q ¢L / F =
wF - wa

Torque in Epicyclic Trains


Let NS , Na , NP , and N A be the speeds and TS , Ta , TP and TA the external
transmitted by S , a, P and A
ST = 0
TS + Ta + TP +TA = 0
Since planet P can rotate on its our pinfixed to a but is not connected to any
thing outside.
TP = 0
TS + Ta + TA = 0
Assuming no loss in power transistor
STw = 0
TS NS + Ta Na + TA N A = 0
If efficiency h to deliver power to S.
Ta¢ æ actual torque at output ö
Ta = ç ÷
h è h ø
power input
TS =
2 pN / 60
ì T¢
ïTS NS + a Na + TA N A = 0
So, í h
ïîand TS + Ta¢ + TA = 0

Tabular Method
In tabular method, we apply following procedure
Assume gear makes m revolution and arm makes n revolution. Consider
clockwise rotation is positive and anticlockwise rotation is negative.
Theory of Machines 75

Analysis of Tabular Method


Step Operation Revolution of elements (N)

Arm C Gear A Gear B

1. Fix the arm and give + 1 revolution to 0 +1 NB -t A


=
gear A clockwise. NA tB
-t A
NB = ´1
tB

2. Now, multiplying by m (It means m 0 +m tA


-m.
rotation is given to gear A in clockwise.) tB

3. Add n (It means + n rotations are given to n n n


all elements of gear train in clock wise)
4. Total motion n m+n tA
-m + n
tB

On the basis of given condition, we can determine the values m and n.


For example, if gear A is at rust, then
NA = 0
\ m+n=0 …(i)
and arm is given +k revolution, then
n=k …(ii)
By solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we can find the values of m and n. Once we find
out m and n then number of revolutions and direction of gear B can be
determined.
t
as NB = - m A + n
tB

Static and Dynamic Force Analysis


If components of a machine accelerate, inertia forces are produced due to
their masses. However, if the magnitudes of these forces are small
compared to the externally applied loads, they can be neglected while
analysing the mechanism. Such an analysis is known as static force
analysis. When the inertia effect due to the mass of the components is also
considered, it is called dynamic-force analysis.
76 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The static and dynamic force analysis define by the following forces.

Constraint Force
A pair of action and reaction forces which depend upon the nature of
connection and constraint two connected bodies to behave in a particular
manner are known as constraint forces.

Applied Forces
Forces which acting from outside on a system of bodies are called applied
forces.

Static Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium if it remains in its state of rest or motion. If the
body is at rest, it tends to remain at rest and if in motion, it tends to keep
the motion.
In Static Equilibrium
The vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is zero.
SF=0
The vector sum of all the moments about any arbitrary point is zero.
ST = 0

Principle of Virtual Work


It can be stated as the work done during a virtual displacement from the
equilibrium is equal to zero.
Virtual displacement may be
T
defined as an imaginary dq
infinitesimal displacement of the q F
system.
The following symbols in the figure fx
is defined as Imaginary infinitesimal displacement
T = torque system
w = angular velocity of the crank
v = linear velocity of the force
F = applied force
Tw + Fv = 0
-F
or T= v
w
Theory of Machines 77

D’Alembert’s Principle and Dynamic Equilibrium


The vector sum of all external force and inertia forces acting on a rigid body
is zero and that the vector sum of all external moments and inertia torques
acting on a rigid body is also separately equal to zero.
Here, aG = rectilinear acceleration of the centre
of gravity
a = angular acceleration e
R = externally applied force aG
I = moment of inertia of the about the
R a
same axis G
Re = Ia
According to D’Alembert principle the vector
sum of forces and torques (or couples) has
to be zero i . e., Rigid body
SF + Fi = 0
ST + Ci = 0

Dynamic Analysis of Slider-Crank


Mechanism
The dynamic analysis of slider-crank mechanism describe by the diagram
as given below
A
l y r
B B1
b q
x A1

Slider-crank mechanism
Let, x = displacement of piston from inner dead centre
l = length of the connecting rod
r = crank radius
l
=n
r
The various parameters used in dynamic analysis of slider-crank mechanism
is given below

Displacement of Piston It can given by
x = r [(1 - cos q ) + ( n - n2 - sin2 q )]
78 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

1
cos b = n2 - sin2 q
n
x = r (1 - cos q ) (assume n large Þ n2 - sin2 q = n)
● Velocity of Piston It may be given by
dx dx dq
v= =
dt dq dt
é sin 2q ù
v = r w êsin q +
ë 2 n úû
sin 2q
v = r w sin q ( n large Þ tend to zero)
2n
● Acceleration of Piston It may be given by
dv dv dq
f= =
dt dq dt
æ cos 2q ö
f = r w2 çcos q + ÷
è n ø
f = r w2 cos q ( n ® large )

Angular Velocity of Connecting Rod ( wc) It may be defined as
sin q
l sin b = r sin q Þ sin b =
n
cos q
wc = w
n2 - sin2 q

Angular Acceleration of Connecting Rod It can be defined as
dw c
ac =
dt
é n2- 1 ù
a c = - w2 sin q ê 2 2 3/ 2 ú
ë ( n - sin q ) û
The negative sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the
rod is such that it tends to reduce the angle b.

Piston Effort (Effective driving force) Piston effort is termed as the net or
effective force applied on the piston.
Let, A1 = area of the corner end
A2 = area of the piston rod
p1 = pressure on the corner end
p2 = pressure on the rod end
m = mass of the reciprocating parts
Theory of Machines 79

● Force on piston due to gas pressure,


= Fp = p1 A1 - p2 A2
æ cos 2 q ö
Inertia force Fb = mr w2 çcos q + ÷
è n ø
Friction resistance = Ff
Weight of piston = mg
Net force on piston F = FP + mg - Fb - Ff
● Force (thrust) Along the Connecting Rod (Fc ) Thrust force along the
connecting rod is given by
F
Fc cos b = F Þ Fc =
cos b
Fr (q+b) Ft
D
A
Fc
r b
B q
F b
O

Fn
Thrust along the rod


Thrust on the Sides of the Cylinder ( Fn ) The normal reaction on the
cylinder walls are given below
Fn = Fc sin b
Þ Fn = F tan b

Crank Effort ( Ft ) It is the net effort applied at the crank pin perpendi-
cular to the crank.
Ft ´ r = Fc r sin (q + b )
F
Ft = sin (q + b )
cos b

Thrust on the Bearings ( Fr ) The force acting along the crank which
applied a thrust on the bearings.
It is known as thrust on the bearings.
The thrusting on the bearings is given by
Fr = Fc cos (q + b )
F
Þ Fr = cos (q + b )
cos b
80 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Turning Moment on Crank Shaft The turning moment on the crank


shaft is defined by the relation as given below
T = Ft ´ r
F
T= r sin (q + b )
cos b
T = F ´ OD
æ sin 2q ö
T = Fr çsin q + ÷
ç 2 n2 - sin2 q ÷ø
è
● Correction Couple of Connecting Rod ( DT ) The correction couple of
the connecting rod is given by the relation.
DT = mb a c( l - L ) (taking b + d = L)
l
G
B A
b a
G D
B A
mb b d md M = mb + md
L

Correction Torque at Crank Shaft (Tc ) It may be defined by the formula
cos q æ DT = Fy l cos b ö
Tc = DT ç ÷
2
n - sin q 2 è = mb a c( l - L )ø

Turning Moment Diagram Flywheel


Turning moment diagram is a diagram which shows the variation of turning
moment (or torque) on a crank for various position of the crank. Hence
turning moment diagram is a graph between M and q. The turning moment
(M) is taken along y axis and crank angle (q) along x-axis.
During one revolution of the crank shaft of a steam engine or IC engine the
torque on it varies and is given by
æ sin 2q ö
M = Ft ´ r = Fr çsin q + ÷
ç 2 n2 - sin2 q ÷ø
è
where, ft = Tangential force
r = Crank radius
fr = Net force acting on the system
Theory of Machines 81

q = Angle turned by crank.


n = Ratio of the length of connecting rod to crank radius

Note M = Ft ´ r a plot of Ft versus q is identical to a turning moment


(M versus q) diagram.

Turning Moment Diagram for Single Cylinder Double


Acting Steam Engine
For a complete revolution of a crank-shaft, the variation of turning moment
(or torque T) for various value of q is plotted
g k

+ +
e f h j l e f
M

p
O a b p c d q 2p a
q
Graph between M and q

Mean torque against which the engine works, is given by


Area ogpkq
Tmean =
2p
The magniated of the Turning moment is given by
sin 2 q
M = FP ´ r ´ (sin q + )
2n
where, Fb = net force exerted by steam on piston

TMD for Single Cylinder Four Strokes Engine


Four strokes engine with single cylinder graph vary in the following manner

O Crank angle
p 2p 3p 4p
Suction Compression Expansion Exhaust
Stroke stroke stroke stroke
Single cylinder four strokes engine
82 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Multi-cylinder Engine
For multi cylinder engine, the turning moment diagram is obtained by
combining the turning moment diagram for each cylinder. The
multi-cylinder engine’s displacement diagram is given below

c a1 d a3 f g a5 h b
e
a a2 a6
a4
Turning
moment
0 Crank angle 2p
Multi-cylinder engine

Note As the number of cycle increases the variation of turning moment


decreased.

Fluctuation of Crank Shaft Speed


For most engines, the load torque or the resisting moment MR (which
opposes the motion of the crank shaft) remains constant over cycle where
the turning moment M varies.

+ B C + D (E-A)
A

M

q
One cycle
Crank shaft speed

Energy output of the engine in one cycle E = ò Md q
E 1 q
q q ò0

Average turning moment in this cycle = Md q Mav =

The work done in one cycle against the load is MR q.
E

If MR - Mav =
q
Then condition refer to stable operation MR < Mav
and there is no net energy input in the MR = Mav
crank shaft and so the speed remains M
the same at the beginning and at the MR > Mav
end of the cycle. Time
Speed from cycle to cycle
Theory of Machines 83

● If MR > Mav Þ Speed decreases from cycle to cycle.


● If MR < Mav Þ Speed increases from cycle to cycle.
The difference between the maximum and minimum kinetic energy is
known as maximum fluctuation of energy.
q1
( DKE)max = òq 2
( M - MR ) dq
● The coefficient of fluctuation of energy in a cycle is defined as
( DKE)max
ke =
E
● The coefficient of fluctuation of speed in a cycle
w - wmin
k s = max
w av

Flywheel
A flywheel is used to control the variations in speed during each cycle of an
operation. A flywheel acts as a reservoir of energy which stores energy
during the period when the supply of energy is more than the requirement
and releases the energy during the period when the supply energy is less
than the requirement.

Maximum fluctuation of energy (e ),
1
e = ( DKE) = I ( w2max - w 2min )
2
æ w + w2 ö
e = Iw ( w1 - w2 ) ç w = 1 ÷
è 2 ø
é w1 - w2 ù
e = Iw2k s êks =
ë w úû
e e
ks = , ks =
1 2 2 E
Iw ´ 2
2
where, wmax and wmin are the maximum and minimum angular speed
respectively.
E = kinematic energy of the flywheel at mean speed.
The equation of motion for the angular oscillation of the flywheel,
d 2q
I = M - MR
dt 2
where, MR is resistsing moment
84 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Flywheel in Punching Press


Generally, flywheel is used to reduce fluctuation of speed where the load
on the crank shaft constant while the applied torque varies.
However, the flywheel can also be used to reduce fluctuation of speed
when the torque is constant but load varies during the cycle e. g ., in
punching press in rivetting machine.
Let E be the energy required for one punch energy supplied to crank shaft
æq - q1ö
from the motor during punching = E ç 2 ÷
è 2p ø
● The valance energy require for punching q=0

æq - q1ö
= E1 - E1 ç 2 ÷ q
è 2p ø q1 2

If, t = thickness of job r


v = velocity of tool
s = stroke of the punch (2r )

Maximum fluctuation of energy,
q2 - q1 t t
» = Tool
2p 2 s 4r
æ q - q1ö
e = ( DKE)max = E ç1 - 2 ÷ Job t
è 2p ø
1
= I ( w2max - w2min ) = Iw2k s
2 Flywheel with punching press

Balancing
Balancing is defined as the process of designing a machine in which
unbalance force is minimum. The rotating and reciprocating parts of a high
speed engine if are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces will be
setup.

Balancing of Rotating Masses


If the centre of mass of rotating machines does not lie on the axis of
rotation, the inertia force is given by FI = mw2e
where, m = mass of the machine
w = angular speed of the machine
e = eccentricity i.e., the distance from the centre of mass to the axis
of rotation.
Theory of Machines 85

Internal and External Balancing


Let a shaft carry an unbalanced mass m1 with the centre of mass located at
distance e from the axis of rotation. The shaft can be completely balancing
by adding a mass m1 at a distance e 1 from the axis of rotation diametrically
opposite to m so that, m
mw2e = m1 w2e 1 e

(where, w = speed of rotation of the shaft)


A e1 B
me = m1 e 1 m1
In this case R A = 0, RB = 0 Balancing diagram

The shaft will also be free from dynamic bending stress. This situation is
referred to as internal balancing.
The dynamic reactions R A and RB can be reduced to zero, by adding two
balancing masses m1 and m2 at distances e 1 and e 2 respectively from the
shaft in the same axial plane as m but on the opposite side of the axis of
rotation. a m
me = m1 e 1 + m2 e 2 e
a1
m e a = m1 e 1 a1 + m2 e 2 a2 e1 e2
e2
This situation is referred as external m1 m2
balancing where the entire length of the a2
shaft is not free from dynamic bending Describe balancing diagram
stresses.

Static Balancing
If a shaft carries a number of unbalanced masses such that the centre of
mass of the system lies on the axis of rotation, the system is said to be
statically balanced.
Statically balancing is defined as below
z
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + mc rc = 0
S m r + mc rc = 0 m2
w r1 m1 m3 r3
m2 r2

S m r cos q + mc rc cos q = 0 r2 q2
q3 q1 m1 r1
x
S m r sin q + mc rc sin q = 0
- S m r sin q r3
tan q c = mc rc
- S m r cos q m3 mc

y
Static balancing system
86 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Balancing
A system of rotating masses in dynamic m1
balance when there does not exist any
w r1
resultant centrifugal force as well as resultant
couple.
r2
m1 r1 = m2 r2 l

m1 r1 l 1 = m2 r2 l 2 m2
S m r l + mc rc lc = 0 Dynamic balancing system

Balancing of Several Masses in Different Planes


Let there be a rotor revolving with a uniform angular velocity w, m1, m2 and
m3 are the masses attached to the rotor at radii r1, r2 and r3 respectively. The
masses m1, m2 and m3 rotate in planes 1, 2, 3 respectively. In order to
complete balancing, Let introduce two counter masses mc1 and mc 2 at
radii rc1 and rc 2 respectively.

m1r1l1
mc 2 m2r2 l2
q qc2 c
c2 2
mc2rc2lc2
qc2

3 3
m3 m3
m1 r2 2 2
m 1 r1
m m2r2 mc1rc1
r1 q1 2 m1
1 qc1 1 m 3 r3 qc1
c1 c1
q
mc2rc2

Balancing in different planes with masses



Balancing Forces According to figure, the balancing forces are
defined as
m1 r1 w2 + m2 r2 w2+ m3 r3 w2 + mc1 rc1 w2 + mc 2 rc 2 w2 = 0

or m1 r1 + m2 r2+ m3 r3 + mc1 rc1 + mc 2 rc 2 = 0


Smr + mc1 rc1 + mc 2 rc 2 = 0

Balancing Couples Let mc1 be placed in reference plane and mc 2 be l 2
from reference plane
m1 r1 l1 w2 + m2 r2 l2 w2+ m3 r3 l3 w2 + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 w2 = 0 ( lc1 = 0)
Theory of Machines 87

or S m r l + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 = 0
S m r l cos q + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 cos q c 2 = 0
S m r l sin q + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 sin q c 2 = 0
S m r l sin q
tan q c 2 = -
- S m r l cos q
- ( S m r l sin q + mc 2 rc 2 sin q c 2 )
tan q c1 =
- ( S m r cos q + mc rc 2 cos q c 2 )
By complex method,
m1 r1 l1 Ð q 1 + m2 r2 l2 Ð q 2 + m3 r3 l3 Ð q 3 + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 Ð q c1 = 0
S m r l Ð q + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 Ð q c 2 = 0
and m1 r1 Ð q 1 + m2 r2 Ð q 2 + m3 r3 Ð q 3 + mc1 rc1 Ð q c1 + mc 2 rc 2 Ð q c 2 = 0
S m r < q + S mc rc < q = 0

Balancing of Reciprocating Mass


This diagram shows the condition of the balancing of reciprocating mass
w A

q
mrw2 B
cos q mrw2 cos q
m Primary force
mrw2
cos q
mrw2 sin q
Balancing of reciprocating mass
Force required to accelerate mass is
cos 2 q
F= m r w2 cos q + m r w2
14 4244 3
144244 n3
Primary accelerating force
Secondary accelerating force


Primary Balancing of Reciprocating Mass If c is the fraction of the
reciprocating mass, primary force balanced by the mass
= c m r w2 cos q
Primary force unbalanced by the mass
= (1 - c ) m r w2 cos q
Vertical component of centrifugal force which remains unbalanced
= c m r w2 - sin q
88 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Resultant unbalanced force at any instant


= [(1 - c ) m r w2 cos q )]2 + (c m r w2 sin q )2
1
The resultant unbalanced force is minimum when c =
2
Secondary Balancing of Reciprocating Mass
The secondary balancing of reciprocating mass is defined as the given
below.
cos 2q cos 2q
Secondary force = mrw2 = mr (2 w)2
h 4h

Key Points
✦ Primary forces must balance i .e., primary force polygon is enclosed.
✦ Primary couples must balance i .e., primary couple polygon is enclosed.
✦ Secondary force must balance i .e., secondary forces polygon is enclosed.
✦ Secondary couples must balance i .e., secondary couple polygon is enclosed.

Balancing of Inline Engine


The in-line engine is a multi-cylinder engine in which the line of stroke of all
reciprocating parts are placed parallel to each [Link] net force acting
on inline is equal to zero. For this, the line of action of the forces must be
same, or in other words, the centre of mass of the system lie on the line.

Primary force = m r w2 [cos q + cos (180° + q )] = 0

Primary couple = mr w2 l cos q
Maximum value at q = 0° and 180°
1
q
l/2
l/2 Reference plane
(180º+q)
2

Primary crank
Theory of Machines 89

2 m r w2
● Secondary force = cos q 2q
n
Maximum value at
q = 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°
360º+2q
● Secondary couple

m r w2 é l æ - lö ù
= ê cos 2 q + çè ÷ø cos ( 360° + 2q ú
qn ë 2 2 û Secondary crank
=0

Balancing of V-Engines
Consider a symmetrical two cylinder V- engine as shown in figure.

Primary Force

Total primary force along x-axis
A B1
= 2 m r w2 cos 2 a cos q

Total primary force along z-axis q
a
= 2 m r w2 sin2a sin q a x

Resultant primary force

= (cos 2 a cos q )2 + (sin2 a sin q )2 2 m r w2 B2


2
sin a sin q
tan b =
cos 2a cos q Balancing of V-engines

In case of 2a = 90°
tan b = tan q
and resultant force = m r w2 i . e.,b = q or it acts along the crank and it can be
complete balance volume by diametrically opposite mass such that
mr rr = mr
For a given value of a, the resultant primary force is maximum when q is 0°.

Secondary Force
2 mr w2

Total secondary force along x-axis = cos a cos 2q cos 2a
n
2 mr w2

Total secondary force along z-axis = sin a sin 2q sin2 2a
n
90 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Resultant secondary force


2 m r w2
= (cos a cos q cos 2a )2 + (sin a sin q sin 2a )2
n
sin a sin 2q sin 2a
tan b ¢ =
cos a cos 2q cos 2a
● If 2a = 90° or a = 45°
2 m r w2
Secondary force = sin 2q
n
tan b ¢ = ¥ Þ b ¢ = 90
This means that at a = 45°, the force out along z-axis and is a harmonic
force and special methods are needed to balance it.

Balancing of Radial Engine


Crank rotating in the direction of engine rotation is known as the direct
crank and imaginary crank rotating in the opposite direction is known as
reverse crank.
A

O
B

w 2w m
C
m 2
A r
2
4n
q 2q
mrw2 cos 2q
O q mrw2 cos q O 2q h
r
m 4n m
A¢ C¢
2 2
w 2w
Balancing of radial engine system
OA = primary direct crank
OA¢ = primary reverse crank
OC = secondary direct crank
OC¢ = secondary reverse crank
Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke
are given below
m
Due to mass at A= r w2 cos q
2
Theory of Machines 91

m 2
Due to mass at A ¢ = r w cos q
2
Thus total force along line of stroke = m r w2 cos q
Which is equal to the primary force.
æ r ö
● Secondary accelerating force ç m (2 w)2 cos 2 q ÷
è 4n ø
Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke
are given below
mæ r ö 2 m r w2
● Due to mass at c = ç ÷ (2 w) cos 2q = cos 2q
2 è 4n ø 2n
mæ r ö 2 m r w2
● Due to mass at c ¢ = ç ÷ (2 w) cos 2q = cos 2q
2 è 4n ø 2n
● Total secondary force along line of stroke
mæ r ö 2 m r w2
=2 ´ ç ÷ (2 w) cos 2q = cos 2q
2 è 4 nø n

Governors
The function of a governor is to maintain or regulate the speed of an engine
within specified limits whenever there is variation of load.
Flywheel and governor both are used to maintain the speed of an engine
but the difference between governor and flywheel is that governor maintain
the speed due to variation over a number of revolution while flywheel
maintain the speed of engine due to variation each revolution (cyclic
variation).

Types of Governors
The broadly classification of the governors are given below.

Centrifugal Governor

In this type of governor, the action of governor depends upon the
centrifugal effects produced by the masses of two balls.

The balls are operated by actual change of engine speed in case of
centrifugal governor.
92 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Inertia Governor
● In this type of governor, positions of the balls are effected by the forces set
up by an angular acceleration or deceleration of the given spindle in
addition to centrifugal forces on the balls.
● The balls are operated by the rate of change of speed.
So, response of inertial governors is faster than that of centrifugal types.

Types of Centrifugal Governor


The centrifugal governors are the following types as given below

Pendulum Type Watt Governor (simple conical governor)


Assume sleeve is frictionless and link is T cos q
massless. q q h
T
m = mass of each ball mrw2
w = weight of each mass (mg) T sin q
T = tension in the arm mg
r = radial distance of ball centre and
spindle axis.
B C
So, height of each ball Simple conical governor
g
h= 2
w
895 Dh2
h = 2 (metre)
N Dh1
N = speed in rpm
Height h is independent of mass of ball.
DN1DN2
As the speed increases, sensitivity N
decreases. Variation of height Dh with
speed
Porter Type Governor
Porter governor can be shown as
895 æ 2 mg + ( Mg ± f ) (1 + k ) ö
h= 2 ç ÷
N è 2 mg ø
where, g = 9.8 m/s 2, N = rpm, h = rpm
M = mass of sleeve
m = mass of each ball
f = force of friction at the sleeve
Theory of Machines 93

c b
From figure, tan q = , tanb =
a a
tan b
k=
tan q
O
O
q
T h

A D A
mrw2
m m r

a
M
B C G
l
c Fh
b
(Mg ± f/2)
Porter governor Variation of height with speed

Proell Type Governor


Proell gavernor can be shown below
r¢ O
O
E q
E m m F h

mg
A D r
e
a
M
B C
l Fh
c b (Mg+f )/2

Proell governor Variation of height with speed


Taking r ¢ = r
895 a é mg + ( Mg ± f ) ù
h= 2 ê ú
N e ë mg û
94 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Hartness Governor
In this type, balls are controlled by a spring as shown in figure.
By neglecting obliquity effects of the arms of the ball crank levers (assume
q small)
a1 = a2 = a, b1 = b2 = b, c 1 = c 2 = 0
C1
Spring F1mr1w2
C r1

m m q mg a1
b
a A
Ball

b Roller
Mg + Fs1 + f
2
C2 r
r2
C
Sleeve a2
q2 B
Spindle mg

A
Mg + Fs2 + f
2
Hartness governor Force analysis in hartness governor
2
Centrifugal force F = mr w
Spring force = Fs
1
F1 a1 = (Mg + Fs1 + f ) b1 + mg c 1
2
1
F2 a2 = ( Mg + Fs2 + f ) b2 + mg c 2
2
ì a1 = a2 = a ü
2a ï ï
Fs 2 - Fs1 = ( F2 - F1) í b1 = b2 = bý
b ïc = c = 0 ï
î 1 2 þ
Let s = Stiffness of the spring, h = Moment of the sleeve
2a
Fs2 - Fs1 = h1s = ( F2 - F1)
b
r2 - r1 2a
´bs= ( F2 - F1)
a b
a 2 æ F - F1 ö
s=2 ´ 2 ç 2 ÷
b è r2 - r1 ø
Theory of Machines 95

Wilson Hartness Governor


This type of governor can be shown below
s Main spring
F Ball
Fs F
Fs

Auxiliary
Ball crank spring
lever
F¢s

Radial spring governor

Let, s = stiffness of each of main spring


sa = stiffness of auxiliary spring
1æ y ö

F1 a1 - Fs1 a1 = ç Mg + Fs¢1 + f ÷ F1 r
2 è x ø
Fs 1
b1 + mgc 1
1æ y ö q1 mg a1
F2 a2 - Fs2 a s = ç Mg + F s¢ + f÷
2 2 è 2 x ø
A
b2 + mgc 2

Net main spring force b1
1 y
Fs2 - Fs1 = 4s ( r2 - r1) 2
(Mg + F ¢ s1 x +f )

Net auxiliary spring force r2
æ yö s c2
Fs¢2 - Fs¢1 = h2 - sa = ç h1 ÷ F2 Fs 1
è xø a b2
q2 a2
b y mg
= ( r2 - r1) sa
a x
A

If obliquity effects are neglected, 1 y
(Mg + F ¢s2 x +f )
a1 = a2 = a, b1 = b2= b 2
c1 = c2 = 0 h1 = movement of sleeve
2 h2 = deflection of the
F2 - F1 s æ b yö
= 4s + a ç - ÷ auxiliary spring
r2 - r1 2 è a xø Force analysis in radial spring
governor
96 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Pickering Governor
Let, m = mass fixed to each spring
e = distance between spindle axis and centre of mass when the
governor is at rest
w = angular speed of the sleeve
f = deflection of the centre of the leaf spring for spindle speed w.
Centrifugal force F = m (e + f ) w2

Spindle
Horizontal
nut Leaf spring

Flymass F
e e+f

Sleeve
Pickering governor

m (e + f ) w2l 3
f=
192 EI
where, E = modulus of elasticity of the spring material
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section of the spring about
neutral axis

Inertial Governor
This type of governor is a rotating governor. The inertial governor can be
shown in the figure
r = radial distance OG
mdv
w = angular velocity of the disc dt
v = tangential velocity of G y x
Centrifugal force of the rotating mass mrw2
Q
F = m r w22 G
r
O
If the engine shaft is accelerated due to increase
w
in speed, the ball mass does not get accelerated
at the same amount on account of its inertia, the
inertia force being equal to Inertial governor
Theory of Machines 97

dv
Fi = mf = m
dt
dw
Torque on the arm = Ic
dt
Sensitiveness of a Governor
● The governor is said to be sensitive when it readily responds to a small
change of speed.
● Sensitiveness of a governor is defined as the ratio of difference between
the maximum and minimum speeds to the mean equilibrium speed.
range of speed ( N - N1)
Sensitiveness = =2 2
mean speed N1 + N2
where, N = mean speed
N1 = minimum speed corresponding to full load conditions
N2 = maximum speed corresponding to no load conditions.

Hunting
Sensitiveness of a governor is a desirable quality. However, if a governor is
too sensitive, it may fluctuate continuously. This phenomenon of fluctuation
is known as hunting.

Isochronism
If a governor is at equilibrium only for a particular speed, it is called
isochronous governor, for which w1 = w2 = w we can say that an
isochronous governor is infinitely sensitive.
dF
= m w2
dr

Stability
A governor is said to be stable if it brings the speed of the engine to the
required value and there is not much hunting. Obviously, the stability and
sensitivity are two opposite characteristics.

Effort and Power of a Governor


The effort of the governor is the mean force acting on the sleeve to raise or
lower it for a given change of speed capacity.
rmax rmax E
E = 2ò F × dr = 2 ò F ( r ) dr Þ Effort =
rmin rmin 2
98 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The power of governor is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a given
percentage change of speed.
Power = Mean effort ´ lift of sleeve

Controlling Force
When the balls of a governor rotate in their circular path, the centrifugal
force on each ball tends to move in outwards. This is resisted by an equal
and opposite forces acting radially inwards and is known as the controlling
force.
\ Controlling force,
FC = m. w2. r
The controlling force is provided by the Controlling force (FC) A
weight of the sleeve and balls as in Porter
governor and by the spring and weight as in
Hartness governor (or spring controlled
governor). f
When the graph between the controlling O Radius of rotation (r)
force (FC ) as ordinate and radius of rotation Controlling force diagram
of the balls (r) as abscissa is drawn, then the
graph obtained is known as controlling force diagram.

Key Points
✦ Controlling force curve for spring loaded governor as shown below
Unstable governor
+b
ar
= Isochronous governor
Fc
ar
=
Controlling F c
Stable governor
force –b
ar
c
=
F

Radius
æ a > 0ö
ç ÷
è b > 0ø
✦ Controlling force curve is parabolic curve in case of dead weight governor.
✦ Controlling force curve is straight line in case of spring loaded governor.
Vibrations
Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. In its
simplest form, vibration can be considered to be the oscillation or repetitive
motion of an object around an equilibrium position.
Vibrations or mechanical oscillations are of many types as given below
● Free Vibration (Natural vibration) Vibration over an interval of time
during which the system is free from excitation is known as free vibration.
● Damped Vibration Energy of a vibrating system is gradually dissipated
by friction and other resistance.
● Forced Vibration When a repeated force continuously acts on a
system, the vibrations are said to be forced.
● Harmonic Vibration Vibration in which the motion is a sinusoidal
function of time.

Fundamental Vibration Harmonic component of a vibration with the
lowest frequency.

Steady State Vibration When the particles of the body move in steady
state condition or continuing period vibration is called steady state
vibration.

Transient Vibration Vibratory motion of a system other than steady
state.

Longitudinal Vibration Vibration parallel to the longitudinal axis of a
member.

Transverse Vibration Vibration in a direction perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis or central plane of a member.

Torsional Vibration Vibration that involves torsion of a member.

Mode of Vibration Configuration of points of a SHM is called the mode
of vibration.

Natural Frequency Frequency of free simple harmonic vibration of an
undamped linear system.

Time Period Time taken for one oscillation is called time period.

Simple Pendulum If time period of the pendulum is 1s, then pendulum
is called simple pendulum.
q l æ d 2q ö
= çç where , a = 2 ÷÷
a g è dt ø
100 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Time period is given by


q q
T = 2p
a

A
l C
T = 2p (for small amplitude sin q » q ) Simple
g
pendulum
l æ q 20 ö
T = 2p çç1 + ÷÷ [large amplitude (q 0 )]
g è 16 ø

Key Points
✦ If the time period of a simple pendulum is 2s, it is called second pendulum.
✦ If a simple pendulum is in a carriage which is accelerating with acceleration
a, then g = g - a.
✦ If the acceleration a is upward
g =g + a
l
T = 2p
g eff
✦ If the acceleration a is downward g eff = g - a a = g sin q
✦ If the pendulum moves on edge which makes q
g cos q
angle q from horizonal. q
g = g cos q
l Block diagram with angle q
T = 2p
g cos q
✦ Simple pendulum consists of small sphere of mass m with Fe = q e
charge q suspended by a thread of length l
w -fe mg - qe
= =
m m
l
T = 2p w = mg
qe
g -
m Small sphere

Spring Block System


This type of system can be shown in the figures.
F
ma = - k x m

x m m
= Þ T = 2p
a k k Spring block system
Theory of Machines 101

● Equivalent force constant ( k ) is given by


1 1 1
= +
k k1 k2 k k1
1
k1k2
k= k1 k2 m
k1 + k2
k2
k2
k = k1 + k2
k = k1 + k2 m m

Spring block system

● If spring has a mass m s and a mass m is suspended from it,


ms
m+
T = 2p 3 m1 m2
k
● If block oscillated by massless spring,
me l/2, 2k
T = 2p
k l1k Þ
l/2,2k
m1 m2
me =
m1 + m2 Before cut After cut

If spring cut new ke = 2 k
x
Oscillation of a fluid column time period is
A
given by
q1 q2 x
m
T = 2p
rg A (sin q 1 + sin q 2 ) Fluid column

The time period of the physical pendulum is
given by
q q
T = 2p l
a
I G
T = 2p
mg I mg sin q q
mg cos q
and moment of inertia I = IG + ml 2 mg
IG = mk 2, k = Radius of gyration
I = m ( k 2+ l 2 ) Physical pendulum
102 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

k k

k m

m m
(a) (b) (c)
Pulley spring-block system

m 4m m
(a) T = 2p (b) T = 2 p (c) T= 2 p
k k 4k

F = kx0 + mg sin q
5m
2F = mg Þ T = 2p
4k

a
A

q B

k2
k x
m
a l
m

Block spring system Spring wheel system


2

keq = kcos a

m a2
T = 2p Þ k1e = k1
k cos 2 a l2
1 1 1 l2 1
= + = 2
+
ke k1e k2 k1a k2
k1e
k1 k2a 2
ke =
k1 a 2 + k2l 2
k2

m
Rod block-spring system
Theory of Machines 103

m k1 k2a 2
Time period T = 2p and natural Frequency wn =
ke m( k1 a 2 + k2 l 2 )
Geared torsional system can be shown in the figure
k2
Gear ratio q2
q1 n= w2 P1 I2
w1
Brake point k1 k2
k1 I1e= n
2

l I I2
I1 I1e= n1
2
Geared torsional system
I1
I1 e =
n2
I w2
I1 e = 12 = I1 12
n w2
1 w21
k1e = k1 = k1
n2 w22

Damping
Any influence which tends to dissipate the
energy of a system. C
mx cx kx
Single degree of freedom system with
viscous damping can be shown in the m m
figure below 1-Degree of freedom system
mx&& + cx& + x = 0
&&x + c x& + k x = 0
m m
2 c k
a + a+ =0
m m
2 2
-c æ c ö ækö
a 12 = ± ç ÷ -ç ÷
2m è2m ø è mø

Damping Factor or Damping Ratio


It is the ratio of actual to critical damping coefficient

(c / 2 m )2 c
x= =
k/m 2 mk
104 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Damping Coefficient
Coefficient of proportionality between the damping force and relative
velocity
k l
c = 2 x mk = 2 x mwn, wn = = 2 x
m wn

x = 1, the damping is known as critical under critical damping condition.
Critical damping coefficient
cc = 2 mk
Þ cc = 2 m wn

x > 1 i . e., the system is over damped
a 1, 2 = ( - x ± ( x 2 - 1)) wn
x 2 - 1) wn t x 2 - 1) wn t
x = Ae( - x + + Be( - x -
Motion is a periodic (non-oscillatory). In practice, no mechanical
systems have over damping.

x < 1 i . e., system is underdamped.
a 1, 2 = ( - x ± i 1 - x 2 )wn
1 - x 2 )wnt 1 - x 2 ) wnt
x = Ae( - x + i + Be( - x - i

If the system oscillates with x=1
frequency x>1
Displacement

Damped frequency
wd = 1 - x 2 wn
Time
(w d is always less than wn)
The above equation can be x<1
written as
2p
x = X e - xwnt (sin w d t + f ) T=
wn Ö1- x2
X = constant Damping-time coefficient

wd 2p
Linear frequency fd = ; Time period Td =
2p wd
where, C = actual damping coefficient
Cc = critical damping coefficient
wd = damped frequency
x = damping factor
wn = natural frequency
Theory of Machines 105

Logarithmic Decrement
In an underdamped system, natural logarithmic ratio of two successive
oscillations is called logarithmic decrement (constant).
Xn X X X
Since, = e xwnTd = 0 = 1 = 2
Xn + 1 X1 X2 X3
Logarithmic decrement,
æ X ö
d = ln çç n ÷÷ = ln e( x wnTd ) d = xwnTd
è Xn + 1 ø
2 px 1 æ X0 ö
or d= or d= ln ç ÷
1- x 2 n è Xn ø

Forced Vibration
Equation of forced vibration can be given as
mx&& + kx = F0 sin wt kx k mx
F0 / k
x = X sin ( wn t + f ) + 2
sin wt
æ wö m
1- ç ÷
è wn ø
F0 sin wt
mx&& + cx& + kx = F0 sin wt
Forced vibration
- xwn t
x = Xe sin ( w d t - f 1)
F0 sin ( wt - f ) cx kx mx
+ c
2 2 2
( k - mw ) + (cw)
m m
In the case of steady state response first
term zero (e -¥ = 0). F0 sin wt F0 sin wt

F0
x= sin ( wt - f )
( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2
The amplitude of the steady state response is given by
F0
A=
( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2
F0 / k æ cw ö
A= tan f = ç ÷
é
2 è k - mw2 ø
æ wö ù
2 2
æ wö
ê1 - ç ÷ ú + ç2 x ÷
ê è wn ø ú è wn ø
ë û
106 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Magnification Factor
Ratio of the amplitude of the steady state response to the static deflection
under the action force F0 is known as magnification factor.
F0
( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2 k
MF = =
F0 / k ( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2
1
=
2
é æ wö ù
2
æ wö
2
ê1 - ç ÷ ú + ç2 x ÷
ê è wn ø ú è wn ø
ë û
w
Let frequency ratio r =
wn
1
MF [Function H( w)] =
(1 - r ) + (2 x r )2
2 2

For small values of damping, the peak can be assumed to be at w = wn


which define the quality factor.
5

x=0
4
x = 0.1
3
H(w)
2 x = 0.2

x = 0.3
1

O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0


Response of the damping ratio
1
H( w)max =
2x
For x ¹ 0, the peak amplitudes occur at
d
[(1 - r 2 ) + (2 xr )2 ] = 0 , r = 1 - 2 x 2
dr 2
w
r=
wn
Theory of Machines 107

Transmissibility
Transmissibility is defined as the ratio of the force transmitted to the force
applied. It is measure of the effectiveness of the vibration isolating material.
Ft 1 + (2 x r )2
Transmissibility e= =
F0 (1 - r 2 )2 + (2 x r )2

x=0
1.0
0.2
y Ft
x or F 0.3
0
1.0

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0


Transmissibility curve using damping ratio

1 + (2 x )2
At resonance r = 1; e =
2x
When no damper is used x = 0
1 w
e= p e = 0.1 g = p
é æ wö ù
2
0.2
± ê1 - ç ÷ ú
ê è wn ø ú 3.0
ë û p
2 1.0
Frequency response and phase
relationship of single degree of
freedom system with base 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
excitation transmissibility and Transmissibility curve with x = 0.1 to 1
phase relatively of a system.

Key Points
✦ At w = 2 wn ( e = 1,) the response is same as the magnitude of the excitation
amplitude for the values of damping.
✦ For w > 2wn ,( e < 1,
) the maximum experiences lower amplitude of vibration
than the base excitation.
✦ For w < 2 wn ( e > 1,) Ft > F0 damping is not useful, actually it increases the
amplitude for a given system.
✦ At resonance w = wn , the phase angle is not 90°.
108 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

A Single Degree of Freedom System Excited by


Support Motion

Y 1 + (2 x r )2
= H( w) = m
X (1 - r )2 + (2 x r )2 y my
2x r3 c k
tan f =
1 - r 2 + (2 x r )2
H( w) is maximum when c(y-x) k(y-x)
1 x = x cos wt
r= 1 + 8x - 1
2
Support motion diagram
2x

Critical Speed
Critical or whirling or whipping speed is the speed at which the shaft tends
to vibrate violently in transverse direction.
For equilibrium, ky = m ( y + e ) w2
e
y= 2
æ wn ö w2
ç ÷ -1 m(y + e)
e y
è wø
Rotor
y ® ¥, when wn = w G
Critical speed,
k g Shaft with vibrate
wc = wn = =
m D
where, w = Angular velocity of shaft
k = Stiffness of shaft
e = Initial eccentricity of centre of mass of rotor
m = Mass of rotor
y = Additional of rotor due to centrifugal force
Dynamic force on the bearings, ky = m w2n y

Critical speed for Simple Shaft


Bending Critical Speed We can also write function as total displacement
rw = Re i ( wt - f )
mw2a
where, R =
( k - mw2 ) + (cw)2
Theory of Machines 109

Hence, dynamic magnifier and phase angle.


R r2
H( w) = =
a (1 - r 2 )2 + (2 x r )2
æ 2x r ö
q = tan-1 ç ÷
è1- r2 ø
For an undamped rotor resonance occurs,
when w = wn
Also at resonance, f = 90°
2
mw a = cwR
R mw 1
= =
a c 2x
a
or Rmax =
2x
Distance of the centre of gravity from the bearing axis or whirl amplitude
RG2 = R 2 + a 2 + 2 Ra cos f
1 + (2 xr )2
and RG = a
(1 + r 2 )2 + (2 xr )2

Critical Speed for Multi-mass System


Bending Critical speed
The synchronous whirl frequency increases with the rotational speed
linearly and can be represented 1´ rev excitation frequency, whenever, this
excitation line intersects the natural frequencies, critical speeds occur.
IV Natural frequency

cy
III Natural frequency en
qu
fre
n
Frequency

a tio
cit
v ex II Natural frequency
re
IX
I Natural frequency
I critical speed

Rotor speed
Campbell diagram
110 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Durkerley’s lower bound approximation,


m1 m2 mi mn

x1 x2 xi xn

Durkerley’s lower bound approximation

Considering n degree of freedom,


1 1 1 1
= + ¼ + 2 = Sa ii mi
w2n w2n11 wn222 wnn
1
where influence coefficient a ii =
kii
S mi xi
Rayleigh’s upper bound approximation, w2n = g
S mi xi2
4

Machine Design
Cotter and Knuckle Joints
A cotter joint is a temporary fastening and is used to connect rigidly two
co-axial rods or bars which are subjected to axial tensile or compressive
forces. It is used in steam engine to connect piston rod end crosshead of a
steam engine, piston rod and tail or pump rod.

Socket and Spigot Cotter Joints


In a socket and spigot cotter joint, one end of the rods is provided with a
socket type of end as shown in figure and the other end of the rod is
inserted into a socket. The end of the rod which goes into a socket is also
called spigot.
P/2 P/2
P P
P P
P/2 P/2

Socket Cotter Spigot

d1 d d2 P d d4
P

c a
b c t
Socket Cotter Spigot
Socket cotter and spigot layout
112 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Failure
In order to design the cotter joint and find out the above dimensions, failure
in different parts and different cross-sections are considered.

Design of Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint


Let, P = Load carried by the rods
d = Diameter of the rods
d 1 = Outside diameter of socket
d 2 = Inside diameter of socket
d 3 = Outside diameter of spigot collar
t 1 = Thickness of spigot collar
d 4 = Diameter of socket collar
C = Thickness of socket collar
b = Mean width of cotter
t = Thickness of cotter
l = Length of cotter
a = Distance from the end of the slot to the end of rod
st = Permissible shear stress for the rods material
t = Permissible shear stress for the cotter material
sc = Permissible crushing stress for the cotter material
Failures in Socket and Spigot Cotter Joints
Failure Cases Tensile Force
p 2
Failure of the rod in tension P = ´ d ´ st
4
Failure of spigot in tension across the weakest P = é p ( d ) 2 - d ´ t ù s
section êë 4 2 2 úû t

Failure of the rod or cotter in crushing P = d2 ´ t ´ s c


p
Failure of the socket in tension across the slot P = ìí [( d 1) 2 - ( d 2) 2 ] - ( d1 - d 2) t üý s t
î4 þ
Failure of cotter in shear P = 2b ´ t ´ t
Failure of the socket collar in crushing P = ( d 4 - d 2) t ´ s c
Failure of socket end in shearing P = 2 ( d 4 - d 2) C ´ t
Failure of rod end in shear P = 2a ´ d 2 ´ t
p
Failure of spigot collar in crushing P = [( d 3) 2 - ( d 2) 2 ] s c
4
Failure of the spigot collar in shearing P = p d2 ´ t1 ´ t
Machine Design 113

Failures in Sleeve and Cotter Joint


Failure Cases Tensile Force
p
Failure of the rods in tension P = ´ d 2 ´ st
4
é p
Failure of the rod in tension across P= ( d ) 2 - d2 ´ t ù s t
the weakest section êë 4 2 úû

Failure of the rod or cotter in crushing P = d2 ´ t ´ s c

p
Failure of sleeve in tension across the slot P = ìí [( d 1) 2 - ( d 2) 2 ] - ( d 1 - d 2) t üý s t
î4 þ
Failure of cotter in shear P = 2b ´ t ´ t
Failure of rod end in shear P = 2a ´ d 2 ´ t
Failure of sleeve end in shearing P = 2 ( d 1 - d 2) C ´ t

Failures Gib and Cotter Joint


Failure Cases Tensile Force
Failure of the strap in tension P = 2B1 ´ t 1 ´ s t
Failure of the gib and cotter in shearing P = 2B ´ t ´ t
Failure of the rod in tension P = x2 ´ s t
Failure of the strap end in tension at the P = 2 [x ´ t1 - t1 ´ t ] s t
location of gib and cotter
Failure of the strap or grib in crushing P = 2t 1 ´ t ´ s c
Failure of the strap end in shearing P = 4 l2 ´ t 1 ´ t

where, P = Load carried by the rod


d = Diameter
B1 = Width of the strap
B = Total width of gib and cotter
t = Thickness of cotter
t 1 = Thickness of the strap at the thinnest part
st = Permissible tensile stress for the material of the strap
t = Permissible shear stress for the material.

Knuckle Joint

It is used to connect two rods whose axis either coincide or intersect and
lie in one plane.

This joint generally found in the link of a cycle chain tie rod joint for roof
truss, valve rod joint with eccentric rod tension link in bridge structure,
lever and rod connection of various types.

It is sometimes also called forked pin joint.
114 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Rod A
P/2

P P/2 P
P/2 P P

Fork P/2 Eye

Pin
Knuckle joint

Failures in Knuckle Joint


Failure Case Tensile Force
p 2
Failure of the solid rod in tension P = ´ d ´ st
4
p
Failure of the knuckle pin in shear P =2 ( d 1) 2t
4
Failure of the single eye or rod end in tension P = ( d 2 - d 1) t ´ s t
Failure of the single eye or rod end in shearing P = ( d 2 - d 1) t ´ t
Failure of the forked end in tension P = ( d 2 - d 1) 2t 1 ´ s t
Failure of the forked end in crushing P = d 1 ´ 2t 1 ´ s c


To connect the transmission shaft to rotating machine elements like
pulley, gear, sprocket or flywheel.

Cotter and knuckle joints are not used for connecting shafts that rotate
and transmit torque.

Welded Joints

It is a permanent joint.

When the two parts are joined by heating to a suitable temperature with or
without application of pressure.

It is lighter than riveted joint, great strength, maximum efficiency.

Welding Processes
If two rods have to joined then we have to adopt the welding process with
which two or more rods can be joined together. Some types of welding are
given below
Machine Design 115

Fusion Welding
In case of fusion welding, the parts to be jointed are held in position while
the molten metal is supplied to the joint. The molten metal may come from
the parts themselves (i.e., parent metal) or filler metal which normally have
the composition of the parent metal. The joint surface become plastic or
even molten because of the heat from the molten filler metal or other source.
Thus, when the molten metal solidifies or fuses, the joint is formed. The
types of fusion welding are given below

Thermit Welding
In thermit welding, a mixture of iron oxide and aluminium called thermit is
ignited and the iron oxide is reduced to molten iron. The molten iron is
poured into a mould made around the joint and fuses with the parts to be
welded.

Gas Welding
A gas welding is made by applying the flame of an oxy-acetylene or
hydrogen gas from a welding torch upon the surfaces of the prepared joint.

Electric Arc Welding


In electric arc welding, the work is prepared in the same manner as for gas
welding. In this case the filler metal is supplied by metal welding electrode.
The operator, with his eyes and face protected, strikes an arc by touching
the work of base metal with the electrode. The base metal in the path of the
arc stream is melted, forming a pool of molten metal, which seems to be
forced out of the pool by the blast from the arc

Forge Welding
In this type of welding, first the parts are to be heated about a suitable
temperature and then they hammered to form a joint.

Types of Welded Joints


There are two types of welded joint

Lap joint or fillet joint ● Butt joint

Lap Joint or Fillet Joint


In lap joint, overlapping the plate and welding the edge of the plates takes
place in welding process. The strength of different types of fillet joint can be
given according to their welding process as
116 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Strength of Parallel Fillet Joint


t = h cos 45°, t = 0.707 h
Shear strength in parallel fillet weld,
P 45º
P
t= or P = 0707. hlt l
t
0707
. hl
where, P = Tensile force on the plates P h
h = Leg of the weld
l = Length of the weld h
Parallel fillet joint
t = Permissible shear stress
For double parallel fillet weld, P = 1 . 414 hlt

Strength of Transverse Fillet Weld


p = Throat area ´ Allowable tensile stress
= 0 . 707 s ´ l ´ st
For double transverse fillet joint l
P = 1414
. hlst h 67.5º

t
h
Transverse fillet weld

Special Cases of Fillet Welded Joint


The following are the considerations when the fillet welded joints are
subjected to some forces (i . e., torsion and bending)
Circular Fillet Weld Subjected to Torsion
2T
Shear stress t=
p td 2
2 .83 T
or tmax =
phd 2
d T
where, T = Torque acting on rod
h = Size of weld
t = Throat thickness
t
h
Torsion in circular fillet weld
Machine Design 117

Circular Fillet Weld Subjected to Bending Moment

Bending stress
4M
sb =
p td 2
5.66 M
s b (max) = Mt
phd 2

t
h
Bending moment in circular fillet weld

Long Fillet Weld Subjected to Torsion Z


3T
Shear stress t = 2 T
tl
4.242 T
tmax =
hl 2 l
h

h h
Butt Joint Torsion in long fillet weld


The butt joint is the joint between two plates lying on same plane.

In this type of joint, cutting the members to the appropriate length and
butting them together.

Strength of Butt Joint


For single V - butt joint, P = t ´ l ´ st
For double V -butt joint, P = (t 1 + t 2 ) l ´ st
where, t 1 = Throat thickness at the top, t 2 = Throat thickness at the bottom

l l

P t P P t2 t1 P

Single V-butt joint Double V-butt joint


118 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Axial Loaded Unsymmetrical Welded Joints


Figure shows an angle section welded to a vertical beam by means of two
parallel fillet weld 1 and 2, G is centre of gravity of the angle section.
l = l1 + l2 l1
P = P1 + P2 P1
y1
l1y1 = l2 y2 y2
G P
P2
l ´ y1 l ´ y2
l1 = and l2 =
y1 + y2 y1 + y2 l2
Unsymmetrical welded joints

Eccentric Loaded Welded Joints


When the shear and bending stresses are simultaneously present in a joint.
s 1
Maximum normal stress stmax = b + (s b )2 + 4 t 2
2 2
1
Maximum shear stress tmax = (s b )2 + 4 t 2
2

Direct or primary shear stress e


P
Load P h A
t1 = = P1
r2 t
t1 q 2
Throat area 2tl b
P2 r1 t1 t2
P
t1 =
1 . 414 hl

l
Eccentric loaded welded joints

T ´ r2
Secondary shear stress t2 = and T = P ´ e
JG
P ´ e ´ r2
t2 =
JG
é l2 ù
JG = JG + Ar12, JG = A ê + r12 ú
ë 12
1
û
where, G1 = Centre of gravity of weld
G = Centre of gravity of group of weld
Resultant shear stress at A t A = t 21 + t 22 + 2 t 1t 2 cos q
Machine Design 119

Threaded Joints
Separable joint of two or more machine parts that are held together by
means of a threaded fastening such as bolt and nut is called threaded joint.

Bolts
● Bolts are generally subjected to shock and impact loads.
● Resilience (ability to absorb and release energy when loaded and
unloaded) of the bolt can be increased by length of shank portion of bolt
and reduce the shank diameter to the core diameter of threads.

Major
Pitch Minor
diameter
d diameter diameter

Root
Crest Thread
angle
Terminology of thread

Key Points
✦ Through bolts used in threaded joints are simply a bolt or a nut type bolt.
✦ Top bolt is turned into threaded hole in one of the parts being connected and
not into nut.
✦ Through bolt is turned into nut form a cap screws.
✦ Cylindrical rod threaded at both ends forms a stud.
✦ The locking devices are Jam nut and lock nut.
✦ Castle nuts used for joints that are subjected to vibrations mostly in
automobile industry.
✦ Spring washers are used to prevent loosing of threads.

Strength of Bolted Joint


Maximum tensile stress in the bolt
P
st =
æ p 2ö
ç dc ÷ P P
è4 ø
dc
where, dc = Core diameter P P
d
syt P
=
fs p
dc2
4 Bolted joint
120 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Acting Force in Bolted Joints


The following are the considerations to find out the forces acting on a bolted
joint
e F1
F1 P
P1 R1
2
1 PS
1 2
l1 l2 F2
PS
F2 R2
PS PS
F4 l4 l3
4
3 F4
P2 4 3

PS F3 PS R4 F3 PS
PS R3
Acting forces in bolted joints
P
● Direct shear force Ps =acting parallel to load P.
n
Pe × l1

Secondary shear forces F1 = 2
l1 + l22 + l32 + l42
Pe l2
and F2 =
l12 + l22 + l32 + l42
Pe l3
where, n = Number of bolts F3 =
l12 + l22 + l32 + l42
Pe l4
and F4 =
l12 + l22 + l32 + l42

Resultant of forces R1 = ( Ps )2 + F 2 + 2 Ps ´ F1 cos q
q = Angle between the primary or direct shear load ( Ps ) and secondary
shear load ( F ).
Similarly, calculate R2, R3, R4.
Torque Requirement for Bolt Tightening
Pi d m æ m sec q + tan a ö
Mt = ç ÷
2 è 1 - m sec q tan a ø
where, Pi = Pretension in bolt, d m = 0.9 d
d = Nominal diameter
For ISO metric screw thread q = 30°
For ISO metric a = 2.5°
Machine Design 121

Eccentric Load on Bracket with Circular Base


Let L1, L2, L3, L4 = Distance of bolt centre from tilting edge
R = Radius of the column flange
r = Radius of bolt pitch circle
w = Load per bolt per unit distance from the tilting edge
L = Distance of the load from the tilting edge
L
W
3
2
R
R
L3 r L2

r a
4 1
L4 L1

Eccentric Load w on bracket Circular base

L1 = R - r cos a, L2 = R + r sina
L3 = R + r cos a, L4 = R - r sina
If there are n number of bolts, then
2 wL ( R - r cos a)
load in a bolt w b1 =
n (2 R 2 + r 2 )
In above case when n=4
w × L ( R - a cos a)
wb =
2 (2 R 2 + r 2 )
Maximum load in bolt is given by
2 wL æ R + r ö
( w b1 )max = ç ÷
n è2R2 + r 2 ø
where, cos a = - 1
Factor of Safety (FOS) in Bolted Joints
It is defined as the ratio of failure stress to allowable stress.
Failure stress
FOS =
Allowable stress
S yt

For ductile material, FOS =
s
S

For brittle material, FOS = ut
s
122 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

where, S yt = Yield strength of component material


Sut = Ultimate tensile stress of components material
s = Allowable stress.

Stress Concentration of Joints


It is defined as the localisation of high stresses due to the irregularities
present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross-section.

Stress concentration Factor


It is defined as the ratio of highest value of actual stress near discontinuity
to nominal stress obtained by elementary equations for minimum
cross-section. It is denoted by kt .
Highest value of actual stress near discontinuity
kt =
Nominal stress obtained by elementary equations
smax tmax
or kt = =
s0 t0
where, s 0, t 0 = Nominal stresses
The magnitude of stress concentration factor depends upon the geometry
of the component.
In this case, kt = 1 + 2 ( a / b )

Design against fluctuating load

where, a = Semi-axis of ellipse perpendicular to the direction of load


b = Semi-axis of ellipse parallel to the direction of load
If b = 0 then, hole is like as very sharp crack then,
kt = ¥
If a = b then, hole becomes a circular hole then,
kt = 1+ 2 = 3
Machine Design 123

Fluctuating Load
It is defined as the load, of which
magnitude and direction both changes

Stress
sa
with respect to time. The stresses
induced due to these forces are called smax
sm
fluctuating stresses. smin

O Time
(a) Fluctuating load
Stress

Stress

smin = 0
sa sm = 0
+
smax sa
sm
O
Time
(b) Repeated load Time

s m = Mass stress, s a = Stress amplitude



Mass stress and stress amplitude
1
s m = (smax + smin )
2
1
s a = (smax - smin )
2
s s

For repeated stress, smin = 0, s m = max and s a = max
2 2
1

For reversed stress, s m = (smax - smax ) = 0
2
1
s a = (smax + smax ) = smax
2
Clutch
A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven
shaft so that the driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without
stopping the driving shaft. A clutch is a mechanical device that provides for
the transmission of power (and therefore usually motion ) from one
component (the driving member ) to another (the driven member) when
engaged, but can be disengaged.

Friction Clutch
The friction clutch is used to Friction surfaces
transmit power of shafts and
machines which must be started
and stopped frequently. r2 r1 r dr
Friction surfaces of a clutch
remain in contact to each other
by applying an axial thrust or
load w. Disc
Disc is subjected between friction surfaces

where, r2 = External radius of friction faces


m = Coefficient of friction
p = Intensity of axial pressure.

Considering Uniform Pressure


Let us consider r1 and r2 are the external and internal radius of friction faces
respectively. The axial thrust w with which the friction surfaces held
together, then the uniform pressure p can be evaluated as.
w
p=
p ( r12 - r22 )
Total frictional torque given in this case,
2 æ r3 - r3 ö
T = m w ç 12 22 ÷ = mw Rm
3 è r1 - r2 ø
where, Rm = Mean radius of friction surfaces
2 æ r3 - r3 ö
Rm = ç 12 22 ÷
3 è r1 - r2 ø
Machine Design 125

Considering Uniform Wear


Assume, p is the pressure on friction surfaces at a distance r from the axis
of the clutch.
According uniform wear theory,
w
pr = constant = c Þ p =
2 p r ( r1 - r2 )
● Total frictional torque acting on clutch
1
T = mw ( r1 + r2 ) = mwRm
2
r +r
where, Rm = Mean radius of friction surfaces = 1 2
2
● In uniform wear theory, Maximum pressure acts at the inner radius and
minimum pressure acts at the outer radius.
pmax ´ r2 = c, pmin ´ r1 = c
pmax r1
=
pmin r2

Average pressure on the friction surfaces
w
pav =
p ( r1 - r22 )
2

Multiple Disc Clutch


In multiple disc clutch, the inside discs are fastened to the driven shaft to
permit axial motion. The outside discs are held by bolts and are fastened to
the housing which is keyed to the driving shaft.
Number of pairs of contact surfaces
n = n1 + n2 - 1
where, n1 = Number of discs on the driving shaft
n2 = Number of discs on the driven shaft

Total frictional torque acting on the frictional surface
T = hmwRm
2 æ r13 - r23 ö
where, Rm = ç 2 2
÷ [in case of uniform pressure]
3 è r1 - r2 ø
1
= ( r1 + r2 ) [in case of uniform wear]
2
where, r1 and r2 are outer and inner radii of the friction plates.
126 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Cone Clutch
In cone clutch, the driver is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has
an inside conical surface or face which exactly fits into the outside conical
surface of the driven.
b
● Total torque on the clutch,
r1
2 é r3 - r3 ù
T= mw cosec ê 12 22 ú a
r2
3 ë r1 - r1 û a w
(for uniform pressure)
1
= mw cosec a ( r1 + r2 ) dr
2
(for uniform wear) Cone clutch
a = Semi angle of cone or face angle of the cone
w
wn =
sin a

where, w = Axial load or thrust



Axial force required for engaging the clutch,
= w n (sin a + m cos a)

Axial force required to disengaged the clutch
wd = w n (m cos a - sin a )

If face width b and mean radius of cone clutch is Rm .
ær + r ö
Then, Rm = ç 1 2 ÷
è 2 ø
w
Then, Pn = , T = 2pm × PnRm b
2 pRm b sin a
2 pNT

Power transmitted by clutch =
60
where, N = Speed of shaft (rpm), T = Frictional torque

Centrifugal Clutch
It consists of number of shoes on the inside of a rim of the pulley. The outer
surface of the shoes are covered with a friction material. These shoes,
which can move radially in guides, are held against the boss on the driving
shaft by means of spring. The springs exert a radially inward force which is
assumed constant.
Machine Design 127

Let M = Mass of each shoe Shoes


r = Distance between centre of
gravity of the shoe and the
centre of spider
N = Running speed of the pulley
m = Coefficient of friction
between the shoe and rim
R = Inner radius of pulley rim Spider Spring
n = Number of shoes in the
pulley rim Centrifugal clutch

● When engagement starts then, the spring force equal to the centrifugal
force acts at shoe at that time. L
Ps = m ( w1)2 r
PC
where, w1 is the speed of rim when
G
engagement starts.
PS R

Centrifugal force acting on each shoe
at running speed Pc = mw2r r

æ 2 pN ö
where, w = ç ÷
è 60 ø A section view of centrifugal clutch


Friction force acting on each shoe = m ( Pc - Ps )
The direction of force is perpendicular to the radius of the rim pulley.

Frictional torque on each shoe = m ( Pc - Ps ) ´ R
Total torque transmitted= Number of shoes ´ m ( Pc - Ps ) R
= nm ( Pc - Ps ) R
Arc = Angle (in radian) ´ Radius
l = qR
where, area of contact = lb

Force exerted on each shoe = plb
\ Pc - Ps = lbp
where, l = Contact length of the shoe
b = Width of the shoe
p = Pressure intensity on shoe
q = Angle made by shoe at the centre of spider in radian
R = Contact radius of shoe = inside radius of the rim of the pulley
Brake
A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied
to a moving machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a
machine. The most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy
into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed.

Single Block or Shoe Brake


It consists of a block or shoe which is passed against the rim of revolving
brake wheel drum. The block is made of a softer material than the rim of the
wheel.
Let, P = Force applied at the end x P
of the lever
r = Radius of the wheel
RN = Normal force pressing the F1
block on the wheel RN
Ft = Tangential braking or frictional 2q
force acting at the contact sur r
face of the block and wheel
2q = Angle of contact surface of Wheel
the block A schematic diagram of shoe brake
m = Coefficient of friction
If the angle of contact is less than 60° then, it may be assumed that
normal pressure or force between the block and the wheel is uniform.
The following are cases to describe the location of line of action of
tangential braking force with respect to fulcurm point O.
Case I
When the line of action of tangential braking force passes through the
fulcrum O of the lever.
Then, there are two cases

If wheel is rotating in clockwise direction then, Free Body Diagram (FBD)
of wheel and block is
RN
Ft l
x P

r RN
F1
O
Wheel is rotating anti-clockwise direction
Machine Design 129

● If wheel is rotating in anticlockwise direction then, FBD of wheel and block is


RN

Ft l
x P

RN
r
O F1

Wheel is rotating anti-clockwise direction

Now, taking moment about fulcrum O of the lever when wheel is rotating in
clockwise direction.
RN ´ x = P ´ l
Pl
RN =
x
mPl
● Braking force = mRN =
x

Braking torque ( TB ) = r ´ Braking force
mPlr
TB =
x
When wheel is rotating in anticlockwise direction then, the braking
torque is same as above
mPlr
TB =
x
Case II
When the line of acting of the tangential braking force (Ft ) passes through a
distance a below the fulcrum O.
Then, there are two cases
If wheel rotates in clockwise direction then, the FBD of block is
Pl
RN = l
x + ma x P

mPl

Braking force Ft = mRN =
x + ma O a
RN

mPlr F1

Braking torque TB =
x + ma FBD of block
130 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

If wheel rotates in anticlockwise direction then, FBD of block is given as


Pl l
\ RN = x P
x - ma
mPl
● Braking force Ft = RN
x - ma O a
mPlr F1
● Braking torque TB =
x - ma FBD of block
(as TB = Ft ´ r )
Case III
When the line of action of tangential braking force (Ft ) passes through a
distance a above the fulcrum O.
Then, there are two cases
When wheel rotates in clockwise direction, then, FBD of block is Taking
moment about point O, FBD of
Pl RN block
we get RN = F1 P
x - ma a
m P l

Braking force Ft = x
x - ma l
FBD of block
mPlr

Braking troque TB =
x - ma
(TB = Ft ´ r )
When wheel rotates in anticlockwise direction then, FBD of block is
Pl
RN = x
l
P
x - ma
mPl RN

Braking force Ft = F1
x + ma a
mPlr O

Braking torque TB = FBD of block
x + ma
When the frictional force helps to apply the brakes then, such type of
brakes are said to self energising brakes.
When P is negative or equal to zero then, these are known as self
locking brakes.
RN RN
Bearing pressure on shoe Pb = =
Projected area (2 r sin q) w
where, w = Width of shoe
2r sinq = Projected length of shoe
Machine Design 131

Pivoted Block or Shoe Brake


When the angle of contact is greater l
x
than 60° then, the unit pressure normal
to the surface of contact is less at ends Ft
than at the centre. In this case, the RN
2q
block or shoe pivoted to the lever gives a
the uniform wear of the brake lining in O¢
O
the direction of the applied force.

In this case,
Shoe brake diagram
Braking torque TB = m ¢ RN r
4m sin q
= (where, 2q > 60° )
2 q + sin 2 q
where, m¢ = Equivalent coefficient of friction
m = Actual coefficient of friction
These brakes having more life and provides a higher braking torque.

Simple Band Brake


A band brake consists of a flexible band of leather, one or more ropes, or
a steel lined with friction material, which embraces a part of the
circumference of the drum is called simple band brake.

When wheel rotates in the l P
clockwise direction then, the O B
end of the band attached to B is C
T2 b
in tight side and end of the band
T1
attached to fulcrum O is in slack
P
side.

When wheel rotates in the Q
t O¢
anticlockwise direction then, r Drum
the end of the band attached to
B is in slack side and end of the Angle of
Band
band attached to the fulcrum O lap
is in tight side. Simple band brake

Let, T1 = Tension in the tight side of the band


T2 = Tension in the slack side of the band
t = Thickness of the band
q = Angle of lap
m = Coefficient of friction between band and the drum
132 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

r = Radius of the drum


re = r + t / 2 =Effective radius of the drum

We know, l P
T1 O B
= emq T2
C
T2 b

(q = 360° - q ¢ ) P T1

æT ö
or 2.3 log ç 1 ÷ = m ( 360° - q ¢ )
è T2 ø t

Q
Drum
= mq Angle
r
of lap
● Braking force on the drum
Band
= (T1 - T2 )
Simple band brake
● Braking torque on the drum
(TB ) = (T1 - T2 ) ´ r
● When wheel rotates in the clockwise direction and taking moment about
fulcrum O
Pl = T1 ´ b
Pl
T1 =
b

For anticlockwise rotation of the drum Pl = T2b
Pl
T2 =
b
where, b = Perpendicular distance from O to the line of action T1 or T2
l = Length of the lever from the fulcrum
T1 = st wt
w = Width of the band
t = Thickness of the band
st = Permissible stress in the band
Design of Friction Drives

Coupling
Coupling is basically done in shafts to join permanently two rotating shafts
to each other.

Types of Coupling
Coupling can be classified as

Rigid Coupling
The rigid coupling used to connect two shafts which are perfectly aligned
and these coupling widely use for transmitting large torque. The rigid
coupling are classified as
● Sleeve or muff coupling

Clamp or split-muff or compression coupling ● Flange coupling

Flexible Coupling
These couplings are used to connect two shafts having both lateral and
angular misalignment. The flexible coupling is further classified as

Bashed pin type coupling ● Universal coupling ● Oldham coupling

Calculations of Parameters in Coupling


Muff Coupling or Sleeve Coupling or Box Coupling
It is the simplest type of rigid coupling, made of cast-iron. It consists of a
hollow cylinder whose inner diameter is the same as that of the shaft. It is
fitted over the ends of the two shafts by means of a gib head key.
L = 3sd
Calculating Diameter
Key
60 ´ 106 (kW)
Mt =
2p n d

16 Mt Output shaft
and t= Input shaft
pd3 D = 2d + 13 Sleeve
Sleeve coupling
Length of key = half length of sleeve
L
l=
2
134 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

2 Mt
● Shear stress in key t =
dbl
4 Mt
● Compressive stress in key sC =
dhl

Clamp Coupling
It is also known as split muff coupling. In this case, the muff or sleeve is
made into two halves and are bolted together.
p
Clamping force of each bolt P1 = d 12st
4
where, P1 = Tensile force on each bolt
d 1 = Core diameter of clamping bolt
st = Permissible tensile stress
For sleeve halves D = 2 .5 d , L = 3.5 d
where, D = Outer diameter of sleeve halves
L = Length of sleeve
d = Diameter of shaft
n = Total number of bolt
f = Coefficient of friction
fdP1 n 2 Mt
Mt = , P1 =
2 fdn
Clamping bolt
Input Output
shaft shaft

Clearance

Location of input and output shaft in


Clamp coupling diagram
clamp clamp coupling

The torque ( t ) for a hub is given by
p æ D4 - d 4 ö
t= ´ tc ç ÷
16 è D ø

The torque ( t ) for a flange is given by
p D2
t= ´ tc ´ t f
2

The torque ( t ) for a bolts is given by
D1
t = ( n ´ d 1 ´ t f ´ scb )
2
Machine Design 135

Flange Coupling
A flange coupling usually applies to a coupling having two separate cast
iron flanges. Each flange is mounted on the shaft and a keyed to it. The
face are turned up at right angle to the axis of the shaft. One of the
flanges has a projected portion and the other flange has a corresponding
recess.
tf tf
Flange
d1
Hub
Key
Shaft
1.5 d
d
D2 = 4 d
D = 2d
Key D1 = 3d
A
B

L = 1.5 d L = 1.5 d
Flange coupling diagram

Belt Drives
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by
means of pulleys which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds.

Types of Belts
The belts can be classified as
Flat Belt
These belt use when distance between pulleys are not more than 8 m.
Mostly use in factories and workshop where moderate power is required.
V-Belt

Use when two pulleys are very near to each other.

Use in factories where high power is required.
136 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Circular Belt
● Use when two pulleys are more than 8 m apart.
● Use where high power is required.

Parameters used in Belt Drives


The basic parameters used in belt drives are discussed below

Velocity Ratio of a Belt Drive


It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower or driven.
Let, d 1 = Diameter of driver, d 2 = Diameter of follower
N1 = Speed of driver in rpm, N2 = Speed of follower in rpm
N2 d 1
=
N1 d 2
When thickness of belt t is considered.
N2 d 1 + t
Velocity ratio =
N1 d 2 + t

Slip of the Belt


Sometimes due to insufficient frictional grip driver moves forward without
carrying the belt. This is called slip of the belt .It reduces the velocity ratio
of the system.
S 1 = % slip between driver and belt
S 2 = % slip between belt and follower
N2 æ d 1 + t ö é æ S1 + S2 ö ù N2 æ d 1 + t ö é æ S öù
=ç ÷ 1- ç ÷ or =ç ÷ 1- ç ÷
N1 è d 2 + t ø êë è 100 ø úû N1 è d 2 + t ø êë è 100 ø úû
S = S1 + S2

Creep of the Belt


When there is relative motion between the belt and pulley surfaces due to
extension and contraction of belt. This relative motion is termed as creep of
the belt. It reduces slightly the speed of driven pulley or follower.
N2 d 1 é E + s 2 ù
= ´ê ú
N1 d 2 ë E + s 1 û
where, s 1 and s 2 = Stress in the belt on tight and slack side respectively.
E = Young modulus for the material of the belt.
Machine Design 137

Length of an Open Belt Drive


In this open belt drive both the pulleys rotate in the same direction.
An open belt drive is shown in figure below
E
F
a
q1 a q2
a
J
O1 O2 K
H
G

r1 x r2
Open belt drive
The dimension of open belt drive are as follow
where, a = Wrap angle for pulley, r1 = Radius of big pulley
r2 = Radius of small pulley, r = Centre distance
( r - r )2
● Length of belt (L) L = p ( r1 + r2 ) + 1 2 + 2 x
x
r1 - r2 ær - r ö
sin a = or a = sin-1 ç 1 2 ÷
x è x ø
Angle of contact on smaller pulley q 2 = 180°- 2a
Angle of contact on larger pulley q 1 = 180° + 2a

Length of a Cross Belt Drive


A cross belt drive are shown in figure below
Angle of contact on smaller pulley q 1 = 180° + 2a
Angle of contact on larger pulley q 2 = 180° + 2q
( r1 + r2 )2
L = p ( r1 + r2 ) + + 2x
x
e
q1 a q2
a
q1
J q2
O1

r1 x r2
Cross belt drive
r2 + r1
a=
x
138 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Power transmitted by belt P = (T1 - T2 ) v


where, v is the velocity of the belt.

Ratio of Driving Tension


T1
● For flat drive, ratio of driving tension = emq
T2
mq
T
● For V-belt, ratio of driving tension 1 = e sin a
T2
where, a = Cone angle
q = Angle of contact in radians
m = Coefficient of friction
T1 = Tension in belt on tight side
T2 = Tension in belt on slack side.

Centrifugal Tension
The belt continuously runs over the pulleys. Therefore, some centrifugal
force is caused, whose effect is to increase the tension on both the tight as
well as the slack sides. The tension caused by centrifugal force is called
centrifugal tension.

Centrifugal tension is given by
Tc = mv 2
where, m = Mass of belt per unit length
v = Belt velocity

Maximum tension in belt T = T1 + Tc

Condition for transmission of maximum power T = 3 mv 2 = 3Tc

Initial Tension in Belt


When the pulleys are stationary then the belt which was running over those
pulley subjected to some tension. This tension is called initial tension in the
belt.
Let the consider initial tension to cut on belt
T +T

Neglecting centrifugal tension T0 = 1 2
2
T + T2 + 2Tc

Considering centrifugal tension T0 = 1
2
Machine Design 139

Chain Drives
The chains are generally used to transmit motion and power from one shaft
to another, when the centre distance between their shafts is short. The
chains may also used for long distance of up to 8 m centre.
Larger sprocket

O1 O2

Smaller
sprocket
P
x
Schematic diagram of chain drives

Let, T1 = Number of teeth on smaller sprocket


T2 = Number of teeth on larger sprocket
P = Pitch of chain
x = Centre distance

Length of chain L = K × P
where, K = Number of chain links
P = Pitch of chain
2
T1 + T2 2 x é T2 - T1 ù P

Number of chain links K = + +
2 P êë 2p úû x

Pé T - T1 ö ù
2 2
T +T T +T

Centre distance x = ê K - 1 2 + æç K - 1 2 ö÷ - 8 æç 2 ÷ ú
4ê 2 è 2 ø è 2p ø ú
ë û
w ´v

Power transmitted by chains, P = B
n ´ Ks
where, w B = Breaking load in Newton
v = Velocity of chain
n = Factor of safety
K s = Service factor = K 1K 2K 3
K 1 = Multiple strand factor
K 2 = Tooth correction factor.
140 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Power Screw
● The power screw is used to convert rotary motion into translatory motion.
● Hand press, screw jack, hosting screw, lead screw are applications of screw.

Types of Screw Threads Used for Power Screw


There are three types of screw threads which are given below

Square Thread
The square thread is used for transmission of power in either direction.
The thread results in maximum efficiency and minimum radial or bursting
pressure on the nut.
Acme or Trapezoidal Thread
● Use where a split nut is required and where provision is made to take up
wear as in the lead screw of a lathe.
● It is a modification of square thread with lower efficiency than square
thread and more bursting pressure on nut than square thread but
increases its area in shear.
Buttress Thread

Use when large forces act along the screw axis in one direction.

Higher efficiency, stronger than other thread because of greater thickness
at the base of thread.

Employed as the thread for light jack screw.
0.37P P
P/2 0.125 P
P P
29° 45° h
h h

h = 0.5 P h = 0.5 P + 0.25 mm h = 0.75 P


(a) Square thread (b) Acme thread (c) Buttress thread

Multiple Thread
Power screw with multiple threads such as double, triple etc., are
employed when, it is desired to secure a large lead with fine threads or high
efficiency. Such types of threads are usually found in high speed actuators.

Torque Required to Raise Load by Square Threaded Screws



Effort applied at the circumference of the screw to lift the load (P)
P = w tan (a + f )
where, w = Load to be lifted
Machine Design 141

m = Coefficiency of friction between screw and nut


= tan f , where f is friction angle
P = Pitch of the screw
P
a = Helix angle tan a =
pd
d = Mean diameter of the screw
● Torque required to overcome friction between screw and nut
d d
T1 = P ´ = w tan (a + f )
2 2
● Torque required to overcome friction at the collar
2 æ R13 - R23 ö
T2 = m1 w ç 2 2
÷
3 è R1 - R2 ø
æ R + R2 ö
= m1 w ç 1 ÷ = m1 w R
è 2 ø
(Assuming uniform pressure condition)
R1 and R2 = Outside and inside radii of collar
R + R2
R = Mean radius of collar = 1
2
2 æ R 1 - R2 ö
3 3
= ç ÷
3 è R 2 1 - R2 2 ø
m 1 = Coefficient of friction for the collar

Total torque required to overcome friction (i.e., to rotate the screw)
T = T1 + T2

If an effort P1 is applied at the end of lever of arm length l then total torque
applied to overcome friction must be equal to the torque applied at the
end of lever.
T = P1 ´ l

Mechanical Advantages (MA)
It is ratio of load lifted to the effort applied P1 at the end of lever.
æ d ö
MA =
w w ´ 2l
= çT = T1 = P ´ , T2 = 0 ÷
2
P1 P ´ d ç ÷
èneglect friction of collar ø
2l
=
d tan (a + f )
142 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Note In the case torque required to lower loudly regular threaded screw effort
P = tan(f - a) if f > a torque required to overcome friction between
d
screw and nutT1 = P ´ ,T = T1 + T2 = P1 ´ l
2

Efficiency of Square Threaded Screw


The efficiency of the square threaded screw may be defined as,
Ideal effort
In the case of lifting the load h =
Actual effort
● If only screw friction consider
P w tan a tan a
h= o = =
P w tan (a + f ) w tan (a + f )
(ideal effort Po = w tan a ( f = 0))
● If both screw friction and collar friction consider
Po ´ d / 2
h=
d
P ´ + m 1wR
2
Maximum Efficiency of Square Thread
f
2a = 90 - f, a = 45° -
2
1 - sin f
hmax =
1 + sin f
where, f = Angle of friction.

Self Locking Screw


In case of self locking f > a i.e., the torque required to lower the load will be
positive indicating that an effort is applied to lower the load, such a screw is
known as self locking screw.
tan f 1
Efficiency of self locking h = <
tan (a + f ) 2
1
Þ efficiency of self locking is less thanor 50%. If the efficiency is
2
more than 50% than the screw is said to be over hauling.
Gears
Gear can be defined as the mechanical element used for transmitting
power and rotary motion from one shaft to another by means of
progressive engagement of projections called teeth.

Classification of Gears
● Spur Gear ● Helical Gear ● Bevel Gear ● Worm Gear

Spur Gear
In spur gears, teeth are cut parallel to axis of the gear.
pd
● Circular pitch P = O1
z Pinion driver
z
● Diametrical pitch P = Pt
d
d PN

Module m = Pr a
z
where, z = Number of teeth PN
a
d = Pitch diameter Pt Gear driver

Torque transmitted by gear
60 ´ 106 (kW )
Mt = O2
2 pn
where, Mt = Torque transmitted by gear
n = Speed of rotation Spur gear
kW = Power transmitted by gear
d Pt
Pt ´ = Mt Pr = Pt tan a PN =
2 cos a

Beam strength of gear tooth S b = mbs b Y
where, s b = Permissible bending stress, Y = Lewis form factor
m = Module.

Dynamic load or incremental dynamic load
21v (ceb + Pt )
Pd =
21v + ceb + Pt
where, v = Pitch line velocity, c = Deformation factor
b = Face width of tooth, Pt = Tangential force due to rated torque.
e = Sum of errors between two meshing teeth
144 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Estimation of module based on beam strength


1/ 3
é ì üù
ê 60 ´ 106 ïï ( kw ) c s ( fs ) ïï ú
m=ê í ýú
ê p ï z n c v æç ö÷ æç W ö÷ Y ï ú
b S
êë ïî è m ø è 3 ø ïþ ûú
where, c s = Service factor, c v = Velocity factor
fs = Factor of safety, n = Speed (rpm)
● Wear strength of gear tooth
S w = bQd p K
where, K = Load stress factor
b = Gear width
2 zg
Q = Ratio factor = d p = Pitch diameter
zg + zp

Estimation of module based on wear strength
1/ 3
é ì üù
ê 60 ´ 106 ïï ( kw ) c ( f ) ïï ú
m=ê í
s s
ýú
ê p ï zp npc v ç b ö÷ rK ï ú
2 æ
êë ïî è m ø ïþ úû

Helical Gear

The teeth of helical gear cut in the form of helix or an angle on the pitch
cylinder.
P
Pn =
cos y
where, Pn = Normal diametrical pitch, P = Transverse diametrical pitch
y = Helix angle
mn = m cos y, mn = Normal module
m = Transverse module
P zmn

Axial pitch Pa = ●
Pitch circular diameter d =
tan y cos y

Tooth proportions
Addendum ha = mn
Dedendum hf = 1.25 mn
Clearance c = 0. 25 mn
Machine Design 145

z mn
● Addendum circle diameter d a = d + 2 ha or d a = + 2 mn
cos y
z mn
● Dedendum circle diameter d f = - 2 .5 mn
cos y
Force analysis in helical gears is given below

A
Pr
Y Pr
an
Pt Pa B P
B
Pa
Y
D C

Pitch cylinder
2M t
Component of tooth forces Pt =
dp
é tan a n ù
Pr = Pt ê ú
ë cos y û
Pa = Pt tan y

Beam strength of helical gear S b = mn b s b Y
where, m = Module, s b = Permissible bending stress
y = Lewis form factor

Dynamic load or incremental dynamic load Pd
21 v (ceb cos 2 y + Pt ) cos y
Pd =
21v + (ceb cos 2 y + Pt )
where, e = Sum of errors, C = Deformation factor
bQ d p K

Wear strength of helical gear S w =
cos 2 y

Herringbone Gear
In order to avoid an axial thrust on the shaft and the bearings, the double
helical gears or Herringbone gears are used.

Bevel Gears

Use to transmit power between two intersecting shafts.

High speed high power transmission.
146 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Classification of Bevel Gear


˜ Mitre Gear When two bevel gears are mounted on shafts that are
intersecting at right angle.
˜ Crown Gear In pair of bevel gear, when one of the gear has a pitch
angle of 90°.
˜ Internal Bevel Gear When the teeth of bevel gear are cut on the inside
of the pitch.
˜ Skew Bevel Gear Mounted on non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts.
It constant of straight teeth.
˜ Hypoid Gear Similar to skew bevel gear, non-parallel and
non-intersecting shafts. It consists of curved teeth.
˜ Zerol Gear Spiral bevel gear with zero spiral angle.
˜ Face Gear Consists of a spur or helical pinion meshing with a conjugate
gear or disk form.
Terminologies in Bevel Gear
D

Pitch circle radius rb = where, g = Pitch angle
2 cos g
z

Formative number of teeth z ¢ = ,
cos g
zp
tan g =
zg
where, z = Actual number of teeth

C F
B
a Pt P
r
Pitch cone A
A Ps of pinion
A F
Pa Pr
O P Ps g
E
a
C Pt D E Ps D
Apex of pitch
cone

Cone distance in bevel Component of tooth face


gear section
Machine Design 147

2 2
æ Dp ö æ Dg ö
● Cone distance A o = ç ÷ + ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø

é Dp b sin g ù
● Mean radius rm = ê -
ë 2 2 úû
60 ´ 106 (kW ) Mt

Mt = l
Pt =
2 p np rm

Pr = Pt tan a cos g Pa = Pt tan a sin g
l

where, Tangential component of force-Pt


Radial component-Pr , Thrust component-Pa

é b ù
● Beam strength of bevel gear S b = mbs b Y ê1 - ú
ë Ao û
é bù
where, ê1- = bevel factor.
ë Ao úû
075
. b Q Dp K
Wear strength of bevel gears S w =
cos g
2
æ BHN ö
where, K = Material constant, K = 016
. ç ÷
è 100 ø

Worm Gear
Worm gears are used to transmit power between two non-intersecting
shafts which are in general at right angle to each other.

High speed reduction, compact with small size self locking operation.

Drawback low efficiency.
Terminologies in Worm Gear
There are four terminology in worm gear system as given below
where, z1 = Number of starts on the worm
z2 = Number of teeth on worm wheel
q = Diametrical quotient
d
m = Module (mm) q = 1
m
z1 p
Lead angle ( g ) tan g = , Helix angle ( y ) g + y =
q 2
148 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Properties of Worm Gear


For involute helicoidal tooth form ha1 = m
hf1 = (2 . 2 cos g - 1) m, c = 0. 2 m cos g
ha1 = Addendum hf1 = Dedendum
c = Clearance, d a1 = d 1 + 2 ha1 = qm + 2 m
Outside diameter of worm d a1 = m (q + 2 )
Root diameter of worm d f1 = m (q + 2 - 4.4 cos g )
Effective face width F = 2 m q + 1
é F ù
Length of the root lr = (d a1 + 2c ) sin-1 ê ú
d
ë a1 + 2 c û
Force Analysis in Worm Gear
The forces in worm gears are given by
● Tangential force, Pt = P cos a sin g
● Axial force, Pa = P cos a cos g
● Radial force, Pr = P sin a
B
F
g
E Pr a
P
A B E B
PN a g
Pt PN
Pt Pr
D P Pa
C A F

Force analysis in worm gear


A worm gear drive is said to be self locking if the coefficient of friction (m) is
greater than tangent of lead angle.
i . e., m > tan g
cos a - m tan g
Efficiency h=
cos a + m cot g

Strength Rating of Worm Gear


Maximum permissible torque can be calculated by the lower of the following
two valves
( Mt )1 = 17.65 X b 1 S b 1 mlr d 2 cos g
( Mt )2 = 17.65 X b 2 Sb2 mlr d 2 cos g
Machine Design 149

where, ( Mt )1 ( Mt )2 = Permissible torque on the worm wheel


X b , X b 2 = Speed factors for strength of worm and worm wheel
1
S b1 , S b 2 = Bending stress factors of worm and worm wheel
m = Module
lr = Length of root of worm wheel teeth
d 2 = Pitch circle diameter of worm wheel
g = Lead angle of worm.

Wear Rating of Worm Gear


Maximum permissible torque is given by the lower of the following two valves
. XC1 SC1 Yz (d 2 )1. 8 m
( Mt )3 = 1864
. XC 2 SC 2 Yz (d 2 )1. 8 m
( Mt )4 = 1864
where, ( Mt )3, ( Mt )4 = Permissible torque on the worm wheel
XC1 , XC 2 = Speed factors for the wear of worm and worm
wheel
SC1 , SC 2 = Surface stress factors of the worm and worm
wheel
Yz = Zone factor.

Wire Rope

Wire rope is used in hoisting and materials handling equipments.

It consists of high strength to weight ratio and greater reliability.

Lay in Wire Rope



Refer to the manner in which the wires are helically laid into strands and
strands into the rope.

Key Points
✦ Regular Lay When the wires in the strands are twisted in a direction opposite
to that of strands.
✦ Lang’s Lay When the wires in strands are twisted in the same direction as
strand.
✦ Regular lay are more popular due to more structural stability and resistance to
crushing and distortion.
150 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Stresses in Wire Rope


Bending stress in one of the individual wire
M y d
s b = b and y = w
I 2
Mbd w
Therefore, sb =
2I
Mb 2 E dw
Þ = Þ sb =
EI D D
where, D = Shear diameter
E = Modulus elasticity of rope
d w = Diameter of individual wire.

Force Per Unit Area of the Wire Rope


2P
FX = dr
dr D
where, P = Tension in the rope
d r = Nominal diameter of wire rope
D = Shear diameter. P
D P

Stress in wire rope


Bearing
A bearing is a mechanical element that permits relative motion between
two components or parts, such as the shaft and housing, with minimum
friction.
Bearing

Rolling contact bearing Sliding contact bearing


or or
Anti-friction bearing Plain bearing
or or
Simply ball bearing Journal bearing
or
Deep groove ball bearing Sleeve bearing
Cylindrical roller bearing
Angular contact bearing
Self aligning bearing
Taper roller bearing Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic
bearing bearing
Classification of bearing
Machine Design 151

Dynamic Load Carrying Capacity


The dynamic load carrying capacity bearing can be defined as the thrust
load in thrust bearing or radial load in radial bearing that can be carried for
minimum life in one million revolutions. It is denoted by C.

Bearing Life
The life of an individual bearing is defined as the total number of revolutions
(or the number of hours at a given constant speed) which the bearing can
complete before the first evidence of fatigue failure develops on the ball or
races.
The bearing life can be defined by either of the following terms

Fatigue Life
It is the number of revolutions that the bearing runs before the first evidence
of fatigue crack in balls or races.

Rating Life
It is the number of revolutions that 90% of the bearings will complete or
exceed before the first evidence of fatigue crack.
Comparison Between Ball and Roller Bearings
Comparison
S. No. Ball Bearing Roller Bearing
Parameter
1. Rolling In ball bearings, spherical balls In roller bearings, cylindrical
Element are used as the rolling elements. rollers, or spherical rollers are
used as the rolling elements.
2. Nature of In ball bearings, the contact In roller bearings, the contact
contact between the inner race and ball between the inner race and
or the outer race and ball is roller or the outer race and
point contact. roller is line contact.
3. Load Carrying Because of point contact, the Because of line contact, the
Capacity load carrying capacity of the load carrying capacity of the
ball bearing is low. roller bearings is high.
4. Radial For ball bearings, the radial For roller bearings., the radial
Dimensions dimension is more. dimension is less. Hence,
roller bearings are used where
compactness is required in
radial direction.
5. Axial For ball bearings, the axial For roller bearings, the axial
Dimensions dimension is less. dimension is more.
152 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Load Life Relationship


n
The bearing life is given by L 10 = æç ö÷
C
èPø
where, L 10 = Rated bearing life (in million revolutions)
C = Dynamic load capacity
n = 3 (for ball bearing) = 10 / 3 (for roller bearing)
60n p L 10 h
L10 =
106
where, L 10 h = Rated bearing life (hours)
n p = Speed of rotation (rpm)

Equivalent Bearing Load


It can be defined as the constant radial load in radial bearing that if applied
to the bearing would give same life as which the bearing will attain under
actual conditions of forces. It is denoted by P.
Equivalent dynamic load P = X V Fr + Y Fa
where, Fr = Radial load
Fa = Axial or thrust load
V = Race rotation factor
X = Radial factor
Y = Thrust factor
N1P13 + N2P23 +¼

Design for cyclic load Pc = 3
N1 + N2 +¼

Bearing with a probability of survival other than 90 per cent
1
æ æ 1ö öb
ç loge ç ÷ ÷
L èRø
=ç ÷ , where R = Reliability
L10 ç log 1 ÷
ç e ÷
è R90 ø

Needle Bearing

In Needle bearing cylindrical rollers of very small diameter and relatively
long length.

Large load carrying capacity.

Use in oscillatory motion such as pipson pin bearings, rocker arm and
universal joint.
Machine Design 153

Sliding Contact Bearing


Use lubrication between rubbing surfaces of bodies have relative motion.
This bearing supports the load in radial direction. The portion of shaft
inside the bearing is know as journal.

Hydrodynamic Bearing
In this system, load supporting fluid film is created by shape and relative
motion of sliding surface.

Hydrostatic Bearing
In this system, load supporting fluid film separating the two surfaces is created
by an external source like pump supplying sufficient fluid under pressure.

Bearing Characteristic Number (BCN)


The transition from thin film lubrication B A
to thick film hydrodynamic lubrication Thin film Thick film D
can be understood with the help of curve (unstable) (stable)
mN
called curve.
P
coefficient of C
mN
BCN = friction (f)
P K
where, m = Absolute viscosity of lubricant O
N = Speed of journal Bearing characteristic number (mN/p)
p = Unit bearing pressure

Hydrostatic Step Bearing


The hydrostatic step bearing is shown in figure and following notations are
used in analysis
Let, w = Thrust load (N)
Ro = Outer diameter of shaft (mm)
Ri = Radius of the recess or pocket (mm)
pi = Supply of inlet pressure (N / m 2 ) (MPa)
Po = Outlet or atmospheric pressure (N / mm 2 )
ho = Fluid film thickness (mm)
Q = Flow of lubricant (mm 3 / s)
m = Viscosity of the lubricant (MPa-s)
154 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Ri
Ro

Ri
Ro
po ho

pi p
pi
po
Hydrostatic step bearing

p pi ho3
Flow of lubricant Q=
æR ö
6 m loge ç o ÷
è Ri ø
é ù
ê 2 2 ú
p p R - Ri
Thrust load w= i ê o ú
2 ê æ Ro ö ú
ê e çè R ÷ø ú
log
ë i û

(kw)t
(kw)p
(kw)

(kw)f

ho
Total power loss in hydrostatic bearing

Energy Losses in Hydrostatic Bearing



Power Loss in Pumping
( kw )p = Q ( pi - p0 ) ´ 10-6
1 m n2 ( Ro4 - Ri4 )

Frictional Power loss ( kw )f = 6
58.05 ´ 10 ho

Total power loss ( kwt ) = ( kw )p + ( kw )f
Machine Design 155

Raimondi and Boyd Method of Bearing


In Raimondi and Boyd method performance of bearing is expressed in terms of
dimensionless parameter.
Radial clearance c = R - r
where, R = Radius of bearing
r = Radius of journal e O
e
Eccentricity ratio E = r R
c
where, e = Eccentricity Bearing
ho
h
Minimum film thickness variable = o
c
h o = Minimum film thickness Raimondi and Boyd Method

2
ærö m ns
● Sommerfield number S = ç ÷ ´
èc ø p
where, m = Viscosity of lubricant
p = Unit bearing pressure (load per unit of projected area)
n s = Journal speed

Coefficient of Flow Variable
ærö
CFV = ç ÷ f, f = Coefficient of friction
èc ø
2 p n s fwr

Frictional power ( kw )f =
106
Q

Flow Variable FV =
r c ns l
where, l = Length of bearing
Q = Flow of lubricant
8.3 p (CFV)

Temperature rise Dt =
FV
æ Dt ö

Average temperature Tav = Ti + ç ÷
è2 ø
where, Ti = Inlet temperature
5

Fluid Mechanics

Basic Concept of Fluid Mechanics


Fluid mechanics describes the behaviour of water under various static and
dynamic conditions. This gives the information about an ideal liquid, a
frictionless inelastic liquid whose particles follow smooth flow paths.

Solid
Its molecules are very closely spaced. Intermolecular cohesive force is high
between its molecules. Solid undergoes static deformation.

Fluid
The space between fluid molecules is relatively large e.g., liquid and gas.
Their intermolecular force is low. Fluid undergoes continuous deformation.

Ideal Fluid
It has no viscosity, no surface tension and incompressible.

Real Fluid
It possesses the properties like viscosity, surface tension and compressibility.
Fluid Mechanics 157

Properties of Fluid
The material properties of a fluid, which may vary, sometimes
sensitively with temperature, pressure and composition; determine its
mechanical behaviour.
Some of the properties of fluids are given below

Density
Mass of liquid in unit volume is known as density.
Mass
Density r =
Volume
Weight m. g
Specific weight = = =r×g
Volume V

Specific Weight
It is defined as the weight per unit volume.

Specific Gravity or Relative Density


It is the ratio of specific weight of fluid to the specific weight of a
standard fluid. Standard fluid is water in case of liquid and H2 or air in
case of gas.
g r×g r
Specific gravity = = =
g w rw × g rw
where, g w = Specific weight of water
r w = Density of water specific.

Specific Volume
Specific volume of a liquid is defined as volume per unit mass. It is also
defined as the reciprocal of specific density.
V 1
Specific volume = =
m r

Fluid Pressure at a Point


If a fluid is stationary, then force acting on any surface or area is
perpendicular to that surface.
dF
p=
dA
158 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

If force is uniformly distributed over surface, then


F
p=

Shear stress
A Thixotropic
Ideal plastic
Its unit is pascal. Rheoplastic
1 Pa = 1 N/m 2
and 1 bar = 100 kPa = 105
Pseudoplastic
Pa = 105 N/m 2 Newtonian
Initial Dialatant
dA stress
Ideal fluid

dF Stress-fluid graph
Force over surface

Pascal’s Law
It states that pressure or intensity of pressure at a
point in a static fluid (fluid is in rest) is equal in all
directions. If fluid is not in motion then according to
Pascal’s law, px
px = p y = pz
where, px, py and pz are the pressure at point x, y, z py
pz
respectively.
Pressure at a point

Hydrostatic Law
It states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to
weight density of fluid at that point. e.g., if fluid is in rest, then balancing the
force acting on small element of fluid is
¶p p.A
= rg or dp = rg dz z
¶z
Now, integrating from z = 0 to z = h depth,
(dm)g Dz
then pressure at h depth from free surface
is
p h
ò0 dp = rg ò0 dz p+
¶p . Dz . DA
p ¶z
p = rgh and h=
rg
Pressure-density diagram
where, h is known as pressure head.
Fluid Mechanics 159

Archimedes’ Principle
It states, ‘when a body is immersed completely or d
partially in a fluid, it is lifted up by a force equal to
weight of fluid displaced by the body.
Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced by body
h
x
Buoyant force on cylinder x
= Weight of fluid displaced by cylinder
= VSin r l g
Cylinder-fluid system
VSin = Value of immersed part of solid
or FB = r water ´ g ´ Volume of fluid displaced
= r water ´ g ´ Volume of cylinder immersed inside the water
p
= rwg d 2 x (Q w = mg = rVg )
4

Concept of Buoyancy
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by fluid on
the body which is equal to weight of fluid displaced by body. This upward
force is known as buoyancy.

Principle of Floatation
According to this principle, if weight of body is equal to buoyant force then, body will
float.
FB = mg
VS in r l g = VSr S g
p p
r w g d 2x = r g d 2h
4 4
rwx = r rh

Centre of Buoyancy
The point at which force of buoyancy acts is
called centre of buoyancy. It lies on centre of
gravity of volume of fluid displaced or centre of
gravity of the part of the body which is inside the h G
water. Point B is the centre of buoyancy.
h x
B
2 x /2

Centre of buoyancy diagram


160 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Metacentre of a Floating Body


If a body which is floating in liquid is given small angular displacement,
it starts oscillating about some point M. This point is called
metacentre.

G G
B B¢

w F B¢
Body floating in liquid

The equilibrium of a submerged body in


a liquid requires that the weight of the M
body acting through its centre of gravity
should be colinear with an equal
hydrostatic lift acting through the centre G FB
of buoyancy. Let us suppose that a
body is given a small angular w
displacement and then released. Then it Gravity centre and metacentre
will be said to be in distance MG is
called metacentric height (it is the distance between gravity centre and
metacentre).

Stability of Submerged Body


It is classified into the three groups, which defined as

Stable Equilibrium
When centre of buoyancy lies above the centre of B
gravity, submerged body is stable.
G
Stable equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium
When B lies below G, then body is in unstable
G
equilibrium.
B

Unstable equilibrium
Fluid Mechanics 161

Neutral Equilibrium
When B and G coincide then, body is in neutral B
equilibrium.
G
Neutral equilibrium
Stability of Floating Bodies
When the body undergoes an angular displacement about a horizontal
axis, the shape of the immersed volume changes and so the centre of
buoyancy moves relative to the body.

Stable Equilibrium
M
When a body is given a small angular displacement by
external means and if body comes to its original position G
due to internal forces then, it is called stable equilibrium.
It occurs, when metacentre lies above centre of gravity. Stable position
G
Unstable Equilibrium
In the above case, if body does not come in its original M
position and moves further away then, it is known as
unstable equilibrium. M lies below centre of gravity. Unstable position
Neutral Equilibrium
When a body is given a small angular displacement and M
G
it sets on new position then, body is called in neutral
equilibrium. In this, M and G coincide. Neutral position
1
Relation between B, G and M is GM = - BG
V
Here, .I = Least moment of inertia of plane of body at water surface
G = Centre of gravity
.B = Centre of buoyancy

M = Metacentre
Y
d Y
X
X X
X X
Y
Front view Top view
p 4
I = 64 d
162 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

X X Y
b
Y h
h Xd X
d
b b
Y
3-d view Front view Top view
Different views of rectangular and circular cross-sections

bd 3 db 3
l = min ( l xx, l yy ), l xx =
, l yy =
12 12
V is volume submerged inside the water can be given as
V = bdx
where b,d and x are the length, width and depth of the section or body.
BG is distance between centre of gravity and
centre of buoyancy. (In other words, BG =
distance between centre of gravity of whole body
h
and centre of gravity of submerged part of body) x
When we find out GM then, we can determine
d
the status of body as GM > 0 (stable b
equilibrium), GM < 0 (unstable equilibrium), Submerged part of body
GM = 0 (neutral equilibrium).

Viscosity
It is property of fluid by which it offers resistance
to deformation under the action of shear force. u + du
As shown in figure, upper layer moves with dy
u
higher velocity relative to lower layer. Upper
y
layer tries to move lower layer but lower layer
moves with smaller velocity so, it opposes the Viscosity at different layers
motion of upper layer. Shear stress between
two joining layers is proportional to velocity
gradient
du du
tµ , t=m×
dy dy
m is the coefficient of viscosity.
Unit of viscosity = pascal-s (Pa-s) = N-s/m 2
1 poise = 0.1pascal-s (Pa-s) = 0.1 N-s /m 2
Kinematics and Dynamics of Fluids
Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion
of bodies and systems without consideration of the forces the cause the
motion.
Dynamics is that branch of mechanics which treats the motion of bodies
and the action of forces in producing or changing their motion. Dynamics is
also closely related to Newton’s second law.
Kinematics deals with motion of particles without considering the forces
causing the motion.
Steady versus Unsteady Flow

Steady Flow Unsteady Flow


The flow in which characteristics of fluid If velocity pressure and density changes
like velocity, pressure, density etc., at a with time then flow is unsteady flow.
point, do not change with time is called as
steady flow.
¶v ¶p ¶p ¶v ¶p ¶p
= 0, = 0, =0 ¹ 0, ¹ 0, ¹0
¶t ¶t ¶t ¶t ¶t ¶t

Uniform versus Non-uniform Flow


Uniform Flow Non-uniform Flow
The flow in which velocity at any given In this flow, velocity at any given time
time does not change with respect to changes with respect to distance.
distance.
æ ¶v ö æ ¶v ö ¹0
ç ÷ =0 ç ÷
è ¶s ø t = c è ¶s ø t = c

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow


Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
The flow in which the adjacent layers do The flow in which adjacent layers cross
not cross each other and move along well each other and do not move along well
defined path. defined path.
164 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Rotational versus Irrotational Flow


Rotational Flow Irrotational Flow
If the fluid particles flowing along stream If fluid particles do not rotate about their
lines, also rotate about their own axes, then own axes, then flow is irrotational.
flow is rotational.

Compressible versus Incompressible Flow


Compressible Flow Incompressible Flow
If density of fluid varies from point to point In incompressible flow, density remains
then fluid flow is compressible flow constant r = constant
r ¹ constant

Continuity Equation
This equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. According
to this equation, mass flow rate is constant.
A1v 1 A2v 2
By continuity equation, r 1A1v 1 = r 2 A2v 2 or =
V1 V2
where, V1 and V2 are the specific volume for inlet and outlet flows
respectively.
Here, V is specific volume.
If fluid is incompressible, then
r1 = r2
\ A1v 1 = A2v 2
Quantity Av is known as discharge Q.

Continuity Equation in 3-D


Continuity equation in 3-D can be derive from the diagram
¶ ¶ ¶ ¶r Z Z
(r × u ) + (r × v ) + (r × w ) + =0
¶x ¶y ¶z ¶t

¶r
If flow in steady then, =0 d dz
z
¶t ww
vv X
X
Continuity equation will be uu
d y
dy
d x
dx
Y
¶ ¶ ¶ Y
(r × u ) + (r × v ) + (r × w ) = 0
¶x ¶y ¶z 3-D body diagram

If fluid is incompressible then, r = constant


Fluid Mechanics 165

Continuity equation will be


¶u ¶v ¶w
+ + =0
¶x ¶y ¶z

Velocity of Fluid Particle


Let v R is resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow. Let u, v and w are
velocity components in X , Y and Z directions.
Resultant velocity v = ui + vj + wk
vR = u 2 + v 2 + w 2
where u, v and w are the resultant vectors in X, Y and Z directions,
respectively.

Acceleration of Fluid Particle


Let a x, ay , az are the accelerations in X , Y and Z directions, respectively.
¶u ¶u ¶u
For stead flow, ax = u +v +w
¶x ¶y ¶z
¶v ¶v ¶v
ay = u +v +w
¶x ¶y ¶z
¶w ¶w ¶w
az = u +v +w
¶x ¶y ¶z

Stream Function
The partial derivative of stream function with respect to any direction gives
the velocity component at right angles to that direction. It is denoted by y.
¶y ¶y
= v, = -u
¶x ¶y
Continuity equation for two-dimensional flow is
¶ 2y ¶ 2y
- + =0
¶ x ¶ y ¶ y¶ x

Equations of Rotational Flow


As y satisfies the continuity equation hence, if y exists then it is a possible
case of fluid flow. Rotational components of fluid particles are
1 æ ¶w ¶v ö
wx = ç - ÷
2 è ¶y ¶z ø
166 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

1 æ ¶u ¶wö
wy = ç - ÷
2 è ¶z ¶x ø
1 æ ¶v ¶u ö
wz = ç - ÷
2 è ¶x ¶y ø

Equations of Irrotational Flow


If wx = wy = wz then, flow is irrotational.
For irrotational flow, wz = 0
1 æ ¶v ¶u ö
wz = ç - ÷=0
2 è ¶x ¶y ø
¶ æ ¶y ö ¶ æ ¶y ö
ç ÷- ç- ÷=0
¶x è ¶x ø ¶y è ¶y ø
¶ 2y ¶ 2y
2
+ =0
¶x ¶y 2
This is Laplace equation for y.
It can be concluded that

If stream function ( y ) exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow. But we can’t
decide whether flow is rotational or irrotational.

But if stream function y satisfies Laplace equation then, it is a possible
case of irrotational flow otherwise it is rotational flow.

Velocity Components in Terms of y


The velocity components in cylindrical polar coordinates in terms of stream function
1 ¶y - ¶y
in u r = , uq = .
r ¶q ¶r
where, u r = Radial velocity, u q = Tangential velocity

Velocity Potential Function


It is a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative
with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction. It is
denoted by f.
¶f ¶f ¶f
- = u, - = v, - =w
¶x ¶y ¶z
Fluid Mechanics 167

We know that continuity equation for steady flow is


¶u ¶v
+ =0
¶x ¶y
¶ æ ¶f ö ¶ æ ¶f ö
ç- ÷+ ç- ÷=0
¶x è ¶x ø ¶y è ¶y ø
¶ 2f ¶ 2f
2
+ =0
¶x ¶y 2
If f satisfies the Laplace equation, then it is a possible case of fluid flow.
Rotational component wz can be given by

1 æ ¶v ¶u ö 1 é ¶ æ - ¶f ö ¶ æ ¶f ö ù
wz = ç - ÷ = ê ç ÷- ç- ÷ú
2 è ¶x ¶y ø 2 ë ¶x è ¶y ø ¶y è ¶x ø û

1 æ - ¶ 2f ¶ 2f ö
= ç + ÷=0
2 è ¶x × ¶y ¶y × ¶x ø

It shows that f exists then, flow will be irrotational.

Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Potential


¶f ¶f
We know - = u, - =v
¶x ¶y
¶y ¶y
and = v, - =u
¶x ¶y
¶f ¶y ¶f ¶y
\ = and =-
¶x ¶y ¶y ¶x

Stream versus Velocity Function


Stream Function Velocity Potential
¶y ¶f
=v - =u
¶x ¶x
¶y ¶f
= -u - =v
¶y ¶y
If y exists then, a possible case of fluid If f exists then, flow is irrotational.
flow.
If y satisfies Laplace equation then, flow is If f satisfies the Laplace equation then, a
irrotational. possible case of fluid flow.
168 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Equipotential Line versus Stream Line


Equipotential Line Stream Line
It is the line along which velocity potential It is the line along which stream function y
f is constant. is constant.
df ¶f ¶y ¶y
df = × dx + × dy = 0 dy = × dx + × dy = 0
dx ¶y ¶x ¶y
Þ - u × dx - v × dy = 0 Þ v dx - u dy = 0
dy -u dy v
Þ = Þ =
dx v dx u

Vorticity
Vorticity W is two times of value of rotation.
Vortex flow It is defined as the flow of a fluid along a curved path or the
flow of rotating mass of fluid is known as vortex flow.
Forced Vortex versus Free Vortex Flow
Forced Vortex Flow Free Vortex Flow
In this flow, some external torque is In this flow external torque is zero.
required to rotate the fluid mass.
w = constant d
T = (mvr)
v dt
or = constant
r As T =0
d
\ (mvr) = q
dt
So, mvr = constant
As m is constant
So, v × r = constant
Examples Examples
(a) Flow of liquid inside the impeller of (a) Flow of liquid around a circular bend in
centrifugal pump. pipe.
(b) A vertical cylinder containing liquid (b) A whirlpool in river.
which is rotated about its central axis
with constant angular velocity w.

Dynamics of Fluid Flow


In this, we study the forces acting on the fluid. According to Newton’s law of
motion acceleration of fluid in a direction is the ratio of net force acting in
that direction to mass of fluid.
F
a=
m
Fluid Mechanics 169

Energy Equations
The common fluid mechanics equations used in fluid dynamics are given
below
Let, Gravity force Fg Pressure force Fp
Viscous force Fv Compressibility force Fc
Turbulent force Ft
Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Fc + Ft
(a) If fluid is incompressible, then Fc = 0
\ Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
This is known as Reynolds equation of motion.
(b) If fluid is incompressible and turbulence is negligible, then
Fc = 0, Ft = 0 \ Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv
This equation is called as Navier-Stokes equation.
(c) If fluid flow is considered ideal then, viscous effect will also be
negligible. Then, 2 v2
Fnet = Fg + Fp
This equation is known as Euler’s equation. ds
Euler’s equation can be written as dz
1

dp
+ gdz + vdv = 0
r v1
Incompressible flow

Bernoulli’s Equation
It is based on law of conservation of energy. This equation is applicable
when it is assumed that
1. Flow is steady and irrotational
2. Fluid is ideal (non-viscous)
3. Fluid is incompressible
Bernoulli’s equation can be obtained by Euler’s equation
dp
+ v dv + g dz = constant
r
As fluid is incompressible, r = constant
dp
ò r + ò v dv + ò g dz = constant
170 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

p v2
or + + z = constant
rg 2g
¯ ¯ ¯
Pressure Kinetic Potential
head head head

Energy
where, Head =
Weight
But, real fluids are viscous and hence, offer resistance to flow. Bernoulli’s
equation can be modified by taking head loss into consideration.
Between points 1 and 2,
p1 v 12 p v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 + hL
rg 2 g rg rg

Flow Measurement
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can
be measured in a variety of ways. Positive displacement flow meters
accumulate of a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times
the volume is filled to measure flow.
Some flow measuring instruments are given as

Venturimeter
It measures the rate of flow of fluid flowing through a pipe. Applying
Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2.
v 2 - v 12 1
\ Venturi meter head, h= 2 2
2g
d1 d2
where, v 1 = Velocity at inlet section
v 2 = Velocity at throat Inlet Throat
In term of discharge, venturimeter head,
SL
Q 2th æ 1 1 ö
h= ç 2 - 2÷
2 g è A2 A1 ø SHg
Qact = Cd × Q Venturimeter
Cd is coefficient of discharge (Cd < 1)
æ SHg ö
If SHg > S L h = x ç - 1÷
è SL ø
æ SHg ö
If S L > SHg h = x ç1 - ÷
è SL ø
Fluid Mechanics 171

Hg is liquid filled in manometric tube while L is liquid flowing inside


venturimeter.

Pitot Tube
Pitot tube is used to measure mean
velocity of flow.
Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation h
between points 1 and 2,
Stagnation pressure = static pressure 2
+ dynamic pressure H
1
2
p1 v 1 p
+ = 2
rg 2 g rg
Actual velocity, vactual = Cv 2 gh Pitot tube

Force Exerted by Fluid Flow on Bend


The net force exerted on fluid on X-direction is equal to rate of change of
momentum in the X-direction i . e., net force on fluid in X-direction = rate of
change of momentum in X-direction
Þ FX = rQ( v 2 cos q - v 1) + p2 A2 sin q - p1A1
Net force in Y-direction = Rate of charge of momentum in Y-direction
FY = rQ ( v 2 sin q ) + P2 A2 sin q
Net force, F = FX2 + FY2
Here FX and F Y are forces exerted by fluid flow on the bend.
p2A2 sinq
p2A2
2
Y

FY p2A2 cosq
1 v2
2

p1A1 v1

q
X
FX
1
Fluid flow through bend pipe
172 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Discharge through Large Rectangular Orifice


With a large rectangular orifice, the velocity of the liquid particles is not
constant, because there is a considerable variation of effective pressure
head over the height of a orifice.
Area of strip = b × dh

h1
h
h2
dh d

Large rectangular orifice


2
Discharge, Q= b 2 g ( h23/ 2 - h13/ 2 )
3
If Cd is coefficient of discharge then,
2
Qactual = Cd × b 2 g ( h23/ 2 - h13/ 2 )
3

Notches and Weirs


A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a
small channel. A weir is a concrete or masionary structure placed in the
open channel over which the flow occurs. It is generally in the form of vertical
wall, with a sharp edge at the top running all the way across the open
channel. The notch is of small size while the weir is of bigger size.

Discharge over a Rectangular Notch or Weir


Consider a rectangular notch in one side of a tank over which water is
flowing as shown in figure.
Nappe Nappe

H h H
dh

Rectangular Notch Rectangular Weir


Fluid Mechanics 173

Total discharge for the whole notch or Weir


2
Q = Cd ´ L ´ 2 g H 3/ 2
3
where, H = Head of water over the crest , L = Length of notch or weir.
Time required to empty a reservoir or a tank with a
rectangular weir or notch
3A é 1 1 ù
T= ê - ú
Cd L 2 g ë H2 H1 û
where, L = Length of crest of weir or notch
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
H1 = Initial height of liquid above the crest of notch
H2 = Final height of liquid above the crest of notch
T = Time required in seconds to lower the height of liquid from H1 to H2.
Time required to empty a reservoir or a tank with a triangular weir or notch.
5A é 1 1 ù
T= ê 3/ 2 - 3/ 2 ú
q
4 Cd ´ tan 2 g ë H2 H1 û
2
q = Angle of notch

Discharge over a Triangular Notch or Weir


A triangular notch is also called a V-notch. Consider a triangular notch, in
one side of the tank, over which water is flowing as shown in figure.

A C
A B dh
C H
H–h

q/2 q

O
Triangular notch
Let H = Head of water above the V notch, Q = Angle of notch
Discharge over a triangular notch or weir
8 q
Q= Cd tan ´ 2 g H 5/ 2
15 2
174 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Hydraulic Jump
1 2
The rise of water level which takes place
due to the transformation of the
unstable shooting flow (super-critical) to
the stable streaming flow (subcritical
flow) is known as hydraulic jump.
Dam
Depth of flow after the jump, Hydraulic jump

d1 d 12 2 v 12d 1 d 1
d2 = - + + = ( 1 + 8 (Fe )21 - 1)
2 4 g1 d2
Depth of hydraulic jump = d 2 - d 1
v 1 = Velocity of flow on the upstream side
d 1 = Depth of flow on upstream side
v1
Fe =
gd 1
Fe = Fraud number, d 2 = Depth of flow after the hydraulic jump.

Length of Hydraulic Jump


It is total length between two section taking one before hydraulic jump and
two after hydraulic jump. Its value for a rectangular channel is
approximately, 5 to 7 times to the height of the jump.
Energy loss due to hydraulic jump
æ v2 ö æ v 2 ö (d - d 1)2
hL = çd 1+ 1 ÷ - çd 2 + 2 ÷ = 2
è 2g ø è 2g ø 4 d1 d2

Flow through Syphon


It is a long bent pipe which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at
higher level to another reservoir at lower level when these two are
separated by a hill or high level ground. At point C in given figure,
p C < pA( pa )
because pA = pD = pa and C is h is distance above D then obviously at C,
pressure will be less than atmospheric pressure Applying Bernoulli’s
equation to points A and B, we get
pA v 2A p v2
+ + z A = B + B + zB + ( hf )
rg 2 g rg 2 g
e.g., ( hf )between A and B ( pA = pB ± v A = v B = 0)
Fluid Mechanics 175

4f × Lv 2
z A - zB = hf = …(i)
d × 2g

Pa

zA

zB

Flow through syphon


Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation between A and C,
pA v 2A p v2
+ + z A = C + C + zC + ( hf ),
rg 2 g rg 2 g
pC v2 4fLv 2
( hf )between A and C 0 + 0 + z A = + + zA + h +
rg 2 g d ´ 2g
pC v2 4fLv 2
+ +h+ =0 (Q pA = 0, v A = 0, vC = v )
rg 2 g d ´ 2g

Note As f is given, so we have to consider friction loss in Bernoulli’s equation

Momentum Correction Factor (b)


It is defined as the ratio of momentum per second based on actual velocity
to the momentum per second based on average velocity.
1
ò u dA
2
b=
Av 2
where, v = Average velocity; u = Local velocity at distance r
For laminar flow b = 1. 33 ; for turbulent flow b = 1. 2.

Kinetic Energy Correction Factor (a)


It is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy per second based on actual
velocity to the kinetic energy/second based on average velocity.
1
ò u dA
3
a=
A × v3
For laminar flow a = 2 , for turbulent flow a = 1.33
Boundary Layer Theory
When a real fluid flows over a solid body, the velocity of fluid at the
boundary will be zero. If boundary is stationary. As we move away from
boundary in perpendicular direction velocity increases to the free stream
æ du ö
velocity. It means velocity gradient ç ÷ will exist.
è dy ø
Boundary layer is a thin layer where the variation of velocity from u = 0 at
solid boundary to u = u ¥ free stream velocity in perpendicular direction to
boundary.

du
Note Velocity gradient does not exist outside the boundary layer as
dy
outside the boundary layer velocity is constant and equal to free stream
velocity.

Development of Boundary Layer


Development of boundary layer can be divided in three regions—laminar,
transition, turbulent.
rv × x v×x
Reynolds number = (Re) x =
m v

For laminar boundary layer
(Re) x < 5 ´ 105(For flat plate) and if (Re) x > 5 ´ 105
where Re = Reynold number.
Then, flow is turbulent.

Free stream

u = u¥

d (Boundary layer)
u=0

Boundary layer theory


Fluid Mechanics 177

Transient Turbulent region


boundary
layer
Laminar boundary
layer

u=0
Loading
edge
X

Boundary layer development


Here, x is distance from leading edge in horizontal direction.

Boundary Layer Thickness (d) u¥


0.99 u¥
It is the distance from the boundary to the point
where velocity of fluid is approximately equal to
99% of free stream velocity. It is represented
d
by d.
u=0
Displacement Thickness (d* )
Boundary Layer thickness d
It is observed that inside the
boundary layer velocity of fluid is
less than free stream velocity
hence, discharge is less in this
region. To compensate for dy
reduction in discharge the
U
boundary is displaced outward in y
perpendicular direction by some
distance. This distance is called x Plate
displacement thickness ( d* ). u(y)
d
æ uö
d* = ò ç1 - ÷ dy
è Uø
b
dy
0
Boundary layer displacement thickness (d*)

Momentum Thickness (q)


As due to boundary layer reduction in velocity occurs so, momentum also
decreases. Momentum thickness is defined as the distance measured
178 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

normal to boundary of solid body by which the boundary should be


displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of flowing fluid.
d u æ uö
q=ò ç1 - ÷ dy
0 U è Uø

Energy Thickness (d** )


It is defined as distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of solid
body by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for
reduction in kinetic energy of flowing fluid (KE decreases due to formation
of boundary layer)
d u æ u2 ö
d** = ò0 U çè1 - U 2 ÷ø dy

Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profile


Boundary conditions are as
du du
(a) At y = 0, u = 0, ¹0 (b) At y = d, u = U, =0
dy dy

Laminar Flow
A flow in which fluid flows in layer and no intermixing with each other is
known as laminar flow. For circular pipe, flow will be laminar.
rvD
If Re = < 2000
m
where, r = Density of fluid, v = Velocity of fluid
D = Diameter of pipe, m = Viscosity of fluid,

For flat plate, flow will be laminar.
rvL
If Re = < 5 ´ 105
m
where L is length of plate.

Turbulent Flow
In this flow, adjacent layer of fluid cross each other (particles of fluid
move randomly instead of moving in stream line path), for flow inside
pipe. If Re > 4000, the flow is considered turbulent, for flat plate,
Re > 5 ´ 105.
Fluid Mechanics 179

Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation


t0 dq
=
rU 2 d x
where, q = momentum thickness
æ du ö
● Shear stress t0 = m ç ÷
è dy ø y = 0

where, U = Free stream velocity; r = Density of fluid.

Local Coefficient of Drag (C *D )


1
It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress t 0 to the quantity rU 2.
2
t0
It is denoted by C*D =
1 2
rU
2

Average Coefficient of Drag (C D )


1
It is defined as the ratio of the total drag force to the r AU 2.
2
FD
CD =
1
r AU 2
2
where, A = Area of surface; U = Free stream velocity
r = Mass density of fluid.

Blassius Experiment Results


f 5.48

For laminar flow, =
x Re x
0664
.
Coefficient of drag Cfx =
Re x
146
.
Average coefficient of drag CD =
Re L
f 0.37

For turbulent flow, = 1
, where x = Distance from leading edge
x
(Re x ) 5

Re x = Reynold number for length x


180 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Re x = Reynold number at end of plane


0.059
Coefficient of drag Cfx = 1
(Re x ) 5
0.072
Average coefficient of drag CD = 1
(Re L ) 5
For laminar flow, f µ x
1
f = Boundary layer thickness, t 0 µ
x
t 0 = Shear stress at solid surface
x = Distance from where solid surface starts.
● Velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer is
1
u æ yön 1 1
=ç ÷ Þ =
U èfø n t
Þ 5 ´ 105 < Re < 107

Conditions for Boundary Layer Separation


Let us take curve surface ABCSD where fluid flow

Separation stream line


Reverse flow causing
C S
D eddies
B
A

dp dp
<0 <0
dx pmin dx

A B C S D
Separation boundary layers ABCSD

æ du ö
Separation print S is determined from the condition ç ÷ = 0
è dy ø y
æ du ö æ dp ö

If ç ÷ = - ve, the flow is separated ç > 0÷
è dy ø y = 0 è dx ø
Fluid Mechanics 181

æ du ö æ ¶p ö
● If ç ÷ = 0, the flow is on the average of separation ç = 0÷
è dy ø y = 0 è ¶x ø

æ ¶u ö
● If ç ÷ = +ve, the flow will not separate or flow will remain attained
è ¶y ø y = 0
æ dp ö
ç < 0 ÷.
è dx ø

Methods of Preventing Separation of Boundary Layer


● Suction of slow moving fluid by a suction slot
● Supplying additional energy from a blower.
● Providing a bypass in the slotted?.
● Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
● Providing small divergence in a diffuser.

Providing guide blades in a bend.
● Providing a trip wire ring in the laminar region for the flow over a sphere.

Flow Through Pipes


It is clear them when fluid flows through a pipe, the fluid experience some
resistance due to which some energy of fluid is lost. Energy loss is
categorised as
Major loss Minor loss
¯ ¯
Due to friction Due to
(a) sudden expansion of pipe
(b) sudden contraction of pipe
(c) bend in pipe
(d) any obstruction in pipe
Major Loss
It is calculated by Darcy Weisbach formulas
4fLv 2
Loss of head due to friction hf =
d × 2g
where, L = Length of pipe, v = Mean velocity of flow
d = Diameter of pipe, f = Coefficient of friction
f ' Lv 2 '
or hf = f = 4f = friction factor
d2 g
182 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

for laminar flow 64


f¢ =
frictional factor (4f ) Re
16
Coefficient of friction f =
Re
0.079
For turbulent flow, coefficient of friction f = 1
Re 4

Chezy’s Formula
In fluid dynamics, Chezy‘s formula describes the mean flow velocity of
steady, turbulant open channel flow.
q
● Mean velocity of flow, p hf
1
p
rg rg 2
v = c mi , c = Chezy constant = rg
f'
i = Loss of head per unit length of pipe
h
= f (hydraulic slope tanq)
L Chezy's formula of steady flow
Area (A)
m = Hydraulic mean depth =
Wetted perimetr ( p)

Relation Between Coefficient of Friction and Shear Stress


2t
We get, f = 02 1 2
rv
where, f = Coefficient of friction p1 p2 d
t 0 = Shear stress
L

Minor Loss Coefficient of friction and shear stress

The another type of head loss in minor loss is induced due to following
reasons
Loss due to Sudden Enlargement
( v - v 2 )2
Head loss, hL = 1
2g

Loss due to Sudden Contraction


0.5v 12
Head loss, hL =
2g
Fluid Mechanics 183

Remember v 1 is velocity at point which lies in contracted section.


Loss of Head at Entrance to Pipe
v2
Head loss, hL = 0.5 1
2g

Loss at Exit from Pipe


v 12
Head loss, hL =
2g

Note In case 1 and 2, flow occurs between pipe to pipe, while in case 3 and 4,
flow occurs between tank and pipe. We are taking entry or exit w.r.t
pipe. So, be careful.

Combination of Pipes
Pipes may be connected in series, parallel or in both. Let see their
combinations.

Pipes in Series
As pipes are in series, the
discharge through each pipe
will be same. H
d1
Q = A1v 1 = A2v 2 = A3v 3 d2
Total loss of head = d3
Major loss + Minor loss L1

H = hL1 + hL2 L1
L3
Major loss = Head loss
Pipe in series
due to friction in each
pipe
hL1 = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
f1L1v 12 f L v2 f L v2
= + 2 2 2 + 3 3 3
d1 × 2 g d2 × 2 g d3 × 2 g
While, minor loss = Entrance loss + Expansion loss
+ Contraction loss + Exit loss
0.5v 12 2
( v 2 - v 1) 0.5v 32 v 32
hL2 = + + +
2g 2g 2g 2g
184 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

If minor loss are neglected then,


f1L1v 12 f L v2 f L v2
H= + 2 2 2 + 3 3 3
d1 × 2 g d2 × 2 g d3 × 2 g
f1L1Q 2 f2L2Q 2 f3L3Q 2
H= + +
12 × 1d 15 12 × 1d 25 12 × 1d 35
Entrance
loss Contraction
loss
v1
v2
v3
Expansion
loss
Exit loss
Head loss when minor loss are neglected

Q1
Pipes in Parallel
In this discharge in main pipe is equal to Q A B Q
sum of discharge in each of parallel pipes.
Hence, Q = Q1 + Q2
Q2
Loss of head in each parallel pipe is same
Pipes in parallel
hf1 = hf2
f1L1v 12 f L v2 f L Q2 f L Q2
= 2 2 2 or 1 1 1 5 = 2 2 25
d1 × 2 g d2 × 2 g 12 × 1d 1 12 × 1d 2
where, hf1 and hf 2 are head loss at 1 and 2 respectively.

Equivalent Pipe
A compound pipe which consists of several pipes of different lengths and
diameters to be replaced by a pipe having uniform diameter and the same
length as that of compound pipe is called as equivalent pipe.
hLe = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
2 2
fLQ f1L1Q f2L2Q 2 f3L3Q 2
= + + (where, L = L1 + L2 + L3)
12.1d 5 12.1d 15 12.1d 25 12.1d 35
If f = f1 = f2 = f3
L L1L3 L2 L L L L
Then, 5
= 5 + 5 + 5 Þ 5
= 15 + 25 + 35
d d1 d2 d3 d d1 d2 d3
Fluid Mechanics 185

Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) and Total Energy Line (TEL)


● HGL ® It joins piezometric head
æ p ö
TEL
ç = z ÷ at various points. 2
v2 /2g
è rg ø HGL p2/rg

● TEL ® It joins total energy head


1 2
at various points. HGL and TEL
z1 z2
æ p v2 ö
ç + z+ ÷ Datum
è rg 2g ø
Equivalent pipe diagram

Note HGL is always parallel but lower than TEL.


Power Transmission through Pipe (P) Through pipe
Pideal = rgQH H
Wheel
Pactual = rgQ ( H - hf )
hf = Head loss
H - hf
Efficiency h =
H Power transmission through pipe

Power delivered by a given pipe line is maximum when the flow is such
that one third of static head is consumed in pipe friction. Thus, efficiency
is limited to only 66.66%
H

Maximum efficiency, hmax =
3

Water Hammer
When a liquid is flowing through a long pipe fitted with a vale at the end of
the pipe and the valve is closed suddenly a pressure wave of high intensity
is produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high intensity is having
the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe. This phenomenon
is known as water hammer.

Intensity of pressure rise due to water hammer,
rLv
p= -
t

When valve is closed gradually when valve closed suddenly with rigid
pipe.
p = v Kr
186 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

When valve closed suddenly with plastic pipe


p
p= v ´
1 D
+
K Et
● If the time required to close the valve
2L
t> Þ Valve closur is said to be gradual.
C
2L
t< Þ The valve closur is said to be sudden.
C
where, L = Length of pipe
D = Diameter of pipe
K
C = Velocity of pressure wave produced due to water hammer
r
v = Velocity of flow
K = Bulk modulus of water
E = Modulus of elasticity for pipe material
t = Time required to choose the valve.

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is a flow regime characterised by the following points as given
below

Shear stress in turbulent flow
du du
t = t v + tt = m +h
dy dy
where, t v and tt = shear stress due to viscosity and turbulence.
h = eddy viscosity coefficient.

Turbulent shear stress by Reynold.
t = r u¢ v¢
u¢ and v ¢ fluctuating component of velocity.

Shear stress in turbulent flow due to Prandtle is
2
æ du ö
t = rl 2 ç ÷
è dy ø
where, l = Mixing length.

The velocity distribution in the turbulent flow for pipes is given by the
expression
Fluid Mechanics 187

y
u = umax + 2.5 u * loge
R
umax = centre velocity
where, y = Distance from the pipe wall, R = radius of the pipe
æ t ö
u * = Shear velocity ç 0 ÷.
è r ø
● Velocity defect is the difference between the maximum velocity (umax ) and
local velocity (u ) at any point is given by
R
umax - u = 5.75 u * log 10
y
● Karman-Prandtle velocity distribution equation.
Hydrodynamically pipe
u æ u* y ö
= 5.75 log 10 ç ÷ + 5.5 (for smooth pipe)
u* è n ø
æ yö
= 5.75 log 10 ç ÷ + 8.5 (for rough pipe)
èkø
where, u = velocity at any point in the turbulent flow
t0
u* = shear velocity =
r
n = Kinematic viscosity of fluid
y = Distance from pipe wall
k = Roughness factor.

Velocity distribution in terms of average velocity
u u*R
= 5.75 log 10 + 5.5 (for smooth pipe)
u* n
R
= 5.75 log 10 + 4.75 (for rough pipe)
k
u -u y
= 5.75 log 10 + 3.75 (for both rough and smooth pipe)
u* k
16

Coefficient of friction f = (for laminar flow)
Re
0.0791
f= 1
, 4000 £ Re < 105 (for smooth pipe)
(Re) 4
188 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

0.05525
= 0.0008 + 0.257
, 4 ´ 107 £ Re £ 105 (for smooth pipe)
Re
1 æRö
= 2 log 10 ç ÷ + 1.74 (for rough pipe)
4f èkø

Dimensional and Model Analysis


One of the most useful applications of dimensional and model analysis is
in designing physical and numerical experiment, and in reporting the
results of such theorem.

Buckingham p Theorem
It states that if all the n-variables are described by m fundamental
dimensions, they may be grouped into ( n - m ) dimensionless p term.
f ( p 1, p 2¼ p n - m ) = 0
p 1 = X 2a1 X 3b1 X c41 X 1
p 2 = X 2a2 X 3b 2 X c4 2 X 5
M M M M
a b
p n - m = X 2 n - m X 3 n - m X c4 m X n
where, X 2, X 3 and X 4 ® repeating variables.
Different Numbers and their Equations in Fluid Mechanics
Number Equation Signification
Fi rvl
Reynold number = Flow in closed conduit pipe
Fn m
Fi v For free surface where
=
Fraude number Fg gL gravity predominant e. g .,
weir spillway, channel
Fi v
=
Euler number Fg p In cavitation studies
r
Fi v
Mach number = For compressible fluid
Fe C
Fi v
=
Weber number F6 6 In capillary studies
rl
Fluid Mechanics 189

Model Laws or Similarity Laws


The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are
called model laws or laws of similarity.

Reynold’s Model Law


Use where viscous force predominant
(Re)m = (Re)p
where, v m = Velocity of fluid in model, r m = Density of fluid in model
Lm = Length in model, m m = Viscosity of fluid in model
v p , r p , Lp and m p are corresponding values of velocity, density, linear
dimension and viscosity of fluid in prototype.
r m v m Lm r p v p Lp r r v r Lr
= , = 1
mm mp mr

Fraud’s Model Law


Use where gravity force is predominant
vm vp
=
g m Lm g p Lp

Scale ratio for velocity v r = Lr (Lr is the scale ratio for length)
Time Tr = Lr
l Acceleration ar = 1
l Discharge Q r = L2.5
r
l Force Fr = L3r
l Scale ratio for power pr = L3.5
r
l Scale ratio for energy, work torque moment
Ship partially submerged in rough and turbulent sea.

Euler’s Model Law


Use where the pressure force are dominant force
vm vp
=
pm pr
rm rp
190 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

pm and pp are pressure of fluid in model and prototype.


If same fluid for model and prototype,
rm = rp
vm vp
=
pm pp

Weber Model Law


Use where the surface tension is predominant.
vm vp
=
sm sp
r m Lm r p Lp
where, s m = Surface tensile force in model.

Mach Model Law


Use where the elastic force is predominant.
vm vp
=
Km Km
rm rp
where, K m = Elastic stress for model.

Hydraulic Turbine and Pumps


Hydraulic machines (turbines) are defined as those machines which
convert either hydraulic energy into mechanical energy or mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy.

Head
Head is defined as energy content of fluid per unit weight of fluid.
Total energy
Head H = specific energy of liquid =
Weight of liquid
Its unit is metre or centimetre.
Fluid Mechanics 191

Dynamic Head
It is also known as kinetic head. It is the ratio of kinetic energy to weight of
fluid.
1
mv 2
2 v2
Dynamic head = =
mg 2g

Potential or Static Head


It is the ratio of potential energy of fluid to its weight.
mgh
Static head = =h
mg

Pressure Head
It is the ratio of pressure energy to its weight.
Pressure energy
Pressure head =
Weight
p×V p×V p
= = =
w r × V × g rg
p
\ Pressure head =
rg
Key Points
✦ Hydraulic turbines extract energy from water which has a high head.
✦ These turbines are basically of two types
(a) Reaction turbines (b) Impulse turbines
✦ Reaction turbines are smaller than impulse turbines
✦ Reaction turbines are low head, high-flow devices.

Piezometric Head
It is the sum of pressure head and potential head.
p
Piezometric head = + h
w
192 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Centrifugal Head
When liquid particles rotate, a centrifugal force 2 R2
acts on these particles which increases 1
pressure forces on the liquid particles. In
figure, an annular ring is shown which is w R1
rotated with angular velocity w . Consider a thin
ring of thickness dr at r distance from centre.
Then, net force due to pressure difference =
change in centrifugal force Angular ring
Þ ( p + dp) × dA - p × dA = (dm ) × r × w2 p +dp
1 2 R2
Þ
r ò1
dp = w2 ò r × dr
R1
dr
p2 - p1 w2 æ R22 R12 ö
= ç - ÷
rg g è 2 2 ø r
p
u 22- u 12
Þ hc = (\u = rw) Thin ring
2g
It can be said that centrifugal head represents the energy per unit weight of
fluid which is lost or gained by the fluid due to displacement of fluid caused
by centrifugal force.

Impact of Jet
When a jet strikes to plate, its momentum is changed. Hence, it exerts force
on the plate (Newton’s second law) i . e.,
dv m
As m = constant, F =m× or F = ( v 2 - v 1) = r × Q × ( v 2 - v 1)
dt t
Q is volume flow rate of fluid.

Force due to Impact of Jet on a Flat Fixed Plate


We assume that plate is smooth (friction between v=0
jet and plate is neglected), there is no loss of
energy during impact of jet and velocity of jet is Nozzle
uniform throughout. v

Let, v = Velocity of jet


A
r = Density of fluid
As plate is fixed, its velocity v = 0
Jet on a flat fixed plate
Fluid Mechanics 193

Force = Rate of change of momentum


é& m & A´l ù
Þ F = m( v 1 - v 2 ) ê m = ,m = r = r × A × v = r ×Qú
ë t t û
v 1 = v, v 2 = 0
Þ F = r Av 2
Work done = 0, as plate is stationary

Force on Moving Flat Plate in Direction of Jet


Here, v = Velocity of jet
u
u = Velocity of plate
v
F = m ( vinitial - v final )
m = r × A( v - u )
A
F = rA (V – u )[(V - u ) – 0]
\ F = r A ( v - u )2
Flat plate in direction of jet
( v - u ) is the relative velocity with which water
strikes to plate
vinitial = v - u
v final = 0
As we are taking jet velocity in X-direction after striking to the plate
Rate of work done = Fn ´ Distance moved by plate per second
= r A × ( v - u )2 × u

If Jet Strikes at Centre of a Stationary Symmetrical


Curved Plate
Symmetrical curved plate means equal v v vs i sin
n q
v c o sq q
blade angles. Blade angles are v cos
achieved by drawing tangent at end of
blade.
q
q
Jet

v c o sq
v cos
q
v
vv v sin q
Symmetrical curved plate
194 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

If Plate is Moving with Some Velocity (u)


Fn = m ( vinitial - v final ) …(i)
m = r A( v - u )
As plate is single and moving with velocity u,
vinitial = v - u, v final v–u (v – u) sin q
q
= -( v - u )cos q (v – u) cos q
By Eq. (i) Fn = r A ( v - u )
[( v - u ) - { - ( v - u ) cos q }] u q
= rA ( v - u )2 (1 + cos q ) v q

Rate of work done = Fn × u


= rA ( v - u )2 (1 + cos q ) × u (v – u) cos q q
v–u (v – u) sin q
Series of Moving Vanes Moving plate

This is the case of impulse turbine as


shown in figure, Fn = m = ( vinitial - v final )
m = rAv (as series of plate)
vinitial = v - u
v final = - ( v - u ) cos q
= r Av ( v - u ) (1 + cos q ) w

Work done per second
W = Fn × u = rAv ( v - u ) (1 + cos q ) u v
1 1 u

KE supplied = ( rAv ) v 2 = rAv 3
2 2
Work done per second Moving vanes

Efficiency, h =
KE per second
2 ( v - u ) (1 + cos q ) × u
h=
v2
dh
For maximum efficiency, =0
du
We get v =2u
1 + cos q
hmax =
2
(for q = 0) hmax = 100%
Fluid Mechanics 195

Impact of Jet on a Single Unsymmetrical Moving


Curved Vane Tangentially
Here, q = Inlet angle of vane ,f = Outlet angle of vane
These are obtained by drawing tangent at the tip.
where, a = Angle at which jet strikes the vane
b = Angle at which jet leaves the vane
v 1 = Absolute velocity of jet at inlet
u vw2
f b
v2
vr2 vf2

u f
q

v1
vr vf1
1
a q
u
Nozzle vw1
Unsymmetrical moving vane
v 2 = Absolute velocity of jet at outlet, v r1 = Relative velocity at inlet
v r2 = Relative velocity at outlet
vw u vw = 0
2
u 2
b b = 90°

v2 vf v2 = v f2
vr 2 vr
2 2

u
vw
2 b
vf v2
vr 2
2

Graphs at different angle


196 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

vinitial = v w1 , v final = - v w 2
Fx = rAv r1 ( v w1 + v w 2 )
where, v w 2 is in opposite direction if b < 90°. v w 2 is in direction of
v w1 , if b > 90°.
v w1 , is zero, if b = 90°.
● Work done per second = F × u = r × A × v r1 ( v w1 + v w 2 ) × u
Work output per second rAv r1 ( v w1 + v w 2 ) × U 2 v r1( v w1 + v w 2 ) × u
h= = =
Input KE per second 1
rA × ( v 1) × v 12 v 13
2

Force Exerted on a Series of Moving Radial Curved Vanes


This is the case of reaction turbine. In this case, velocity of tip of inlet and
outlet of vane is different.
u 1 = R1w and u 2 = R2w
2 pN
where, w = rad/s
60
vw1
u1
a q
v r1
v1 vf 1

R1

vf R2
2
2
vr

v
f b2
u2 vw
2

Moving radial vanes

m = rAv 1 [Don’t take v r1 as it is series of moving vanes]


Rate of angular moment of jet at inlet = mv w1 × R1 = Av 1 × v w1 × R1
Rate of angular moment of jet at outlet = mv w 2 - R2 = rAv 1 × v w 2 × R2
dJ
We know, torque =
dt
T = rAv 1 × v w1 R1 - rAv 1 ( - v w 2 ) × R2
= rAv 1 ( v w1 × R1 + v w 2 × R2 )
Fluid Mechanics 197

W = F ×u = T ´ w
= rAv 1 ( v w1 × u 1 + v w 2 × u 2 )
Rate of work done 2( v w1 × u 1 + v w 2 × u 2 )
h= =
KE per second v 12

Impulse Turbine
It works on the principle of impulse. In Water from dam
this turbine, the whole pressure energy
Bucket vane
of water is converted into kinetic
energy. Fluid is brought out by a Runner
penstock from dam. w
At end it is ejected through a nozzle.
The fluid coming out of the nozzle in
Jet
the form of a free jet strikes on a Nozzle
series of buckets mounted on the Pelton wheel
periphery of the wheel. Pelton wheel
is the example of impulse turbine.

Velocity Diagram of Pelton Wheel


By inlet velocity diagram,

Hydraulic efficiency
Work done per second
hh =
KE supplied per second u vw2
2( v w1 + v w 2 ) × u q
v2
b
hh = vf
v 12 vr
2
2


Maximum efficiency,
1 + cos f
\ hmax =
2
u vr1 q

Mechanical efficiency u
Power available at v1 = vw 1
turbine shaft
hmech =
Power developed
by runner
Intel velocity diagram
198 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Power developed by runner = power available at turbine shaft + Friction


loss (mechanical)
Actual volume of water striking the bucket
● Volumetric efficiency hvol =
Volume of water issued by jet
Shaft power (Ps )
● Overall efficiency hoverall =
Power input by water jet
2 pNT
● Power input by jet = rQ × gH, Ps =
60 ´ 1000
where, N is rpm of wheel hoverall = hvol × hhydraulic hmech

Some Important Terms belonging to Pelton Wheel


■ Velocity of jet v 1 = C v 2gH
where, C v is coefficient of discharge. u
H is net head on turbine.
D D 2p N
■ Velocity of wheel u = ×w = ´ , H D
2 2 60 2 w
p DN
u= (Here, N is in rpm) v
60
Ratio of runner speed u
■ Speed ratio K u = =
Velocity of jet v1
Turbine Runner wheel
Diameter of wheel D
■ Jet ratio m = =
Jet diameter d
■ Number of jets Total flow rate of water = (Number of jet) ´ (Discharge through a
single nozzle)
Q d
Number of jet =
p 2 D
d ´ v1
4
■ Specific speed It is the speed of a geometrically Jet with wheel
similar turbine which would produce unit power
N P
under a unit head Ns = 5/ 4
H

Reaction Turbine
It is based on impulse reaction. In this turbine, a part of pressure energy is
converted into kinetic energy before entry to runner. Remaining part of
pressure energy is gradually converted into KE until pressure is reduced to
atmospheric pressure. This pressure difference and impulse action causes
reaction which rotates the runner and produces mechanical work.
e.g., Francis Turbine, Kaplan Turbine.
Fluid Mechanics 199

Francis Reaction Turbine


It is radially inward flow turbine. In this turbine, water enters at the outer
periphery of runner and flows radially inwards towards the centre of runner.
Water inlet from penstock
Guide vane
Moving vanes

Guide wheel
Scroll
casing Runner
Francis reaction turbine

Its main components are as follow


● Scroll casing It surrounds the guide vanes, the runner, the shaft etc. It is
necessary in reaction turbine because in reaction turbine water flows
under pressure over the runner.

Guide vanes It consists of a stationary ring in the form of wheel. It’s
function is to make the shockless entry of water from casing to moving
vanes. It also regulates the discharge according to load on turbine.

Runner It consists of blades of airfoil section so that water enters and
leaves the blades without shock.

Draft tube After passing over the runner blades water is discharged to tail
race through a tube which has gradually increasing area. This tube is
known as draft tube. Its function is as
It converts the kinetic energy of water into useful pressure energy so
water discharged into tail race or at exit of draft tube at very low velocity.
So, draft tube increases the pressure head.
Key Points
✦ Reaction turbines are acted on by water.
✦ They must be encased to contain the water pressure.
✦ They must be fully submerged in the water flow.
✦ Newton’s third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
200 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Velocity Diagram of Francis Reaction Turbine


Water enters at outer periphery and exists to centre of runner. We know
vw1
u1
a q
v r1
v1 vf1

R1

vf2 R2

v2
2
vr

b
f v w2
u2
Velocity diagram of Francis

If b > 90°, then W = m ( v w1 × u 1 - v w 2 × u 2 )


If b = 90°, then absolute velocity at exit is radial ( v w 2 = 0).
Power developed by runner

Hydraulic efficiency =
Hydraulic power input
v w1u 1 ± v w 2 u 2
hH =
gH
Shaft power

Mechanical efficiency =
Power developed by runner
2 pNT
hm = rQ ( v w1u 1 ± v w1u 2 )
60 ´ 1000
Output

Overall efficiency =
Input
2 pNT
´ 1000
h0 = 60
rQ gH
Fluid Mechanics 201

Important Terms belonging to Reaction Turbine


u1 u1
■ Speed ratio k u = = D1 Inlet
v1 2gH
B1
v f1 v f1
■ Flow ratio k f = = t
v1 2gH
■ Blade thickness and width Let widths of blade at
inlet and outlet are B1 and B 2 respectively and
thickness is t. B2
■ Discharge Q = Area of flow ´ flow D2
velocity = ( pDB) ´ v f
t
or Q = pD1B1v f1 = p D2B 2v f 2
■ If thickness of blade is considered then number
of blades affect the discharge. If number of blades Blade at inlet and outlet
is n1, then Q = ( pD1 - n1 t ) × B1 × v f1

Specific Speed of Turbine


Specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed at which a turbine runs
when it is working under a unit head and develops unit power.
N P
NS =
H 5/ 4
where, P = Shaft power in kW, H = Net head on the turbine.

Unit Quantities of Turbine


Unit quantities are the quantities which are obtained when the head on
turbine is unity. They are unit speed ( Nu ), unit power ( Pu ) and unit
discharge (Qu )
N Q P
Nu = , Qu = , Pu = 3/ 2
H H H

Centrifugal Pump
A pump is a device which transfers the mechanical energy given by motor
or engine into pressure energy or KE or both of fluid. In centrifugal pump,
the rotating impeller of pump impresses a centrifugal head or pressure on
the liquid which leaves the impeller at high velocity.
In centrifugal pump, a certain mass of liquid is made to rotate along the
impeller from central axis of rotation. Centrifugal head causes the water to
move radially outwards at higher velocity and causes the water to rise to a
higher level.
202 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Velocity Diagram of Centrifugal Pump


For best efficiency, liquid enters the impeller vane radially so,
a = 90°
\ v 1 = v f1 and v w1 = 0
● Outlet diagram
b v f
f2 vr 2
v2
u2
vw2
f w
b
R2
vf 2 vr 2
v2

v1 = vf R1
1
vr
1
u1

Outlet diagram Outlet diagram


Inlet diagram,
vr v1 = vf1
1

u1
Inlet diagram

Work done by impeller on water = rQ ( v w 2 × u 2 - v w1u 1)
As entry is radial v w1 = 0
\ W = ( v w 2 u 2 ) × rQ

Discharge rate = Area ´ Velocity of flow
Q = ( p D1B1) v f1 = pD2B2 × v f2
B1 and B2 are widths of impeller.

Key Points
✦ There are no drive seals, therefore the risk of leaks is completely eradicated.
✦ No heat transfer from the motor.
✦ Magnetic coupling can be broken, if the load of the pump is too great.
✦ Liquids containing ferrous particles are problematic when a magnetic drive
pump is used.
Fluid Mechanics 203

Schematic Diagram of Centrifugal Pump


Let, hs = Suction lift, h d = Delivery lift
H s = Static head = hs + hd
æ v2 v2 ö
HG = Gross head = H s + ( hfs + hfd ) + ç s + d ÷
è2g 2g ø
Manometric head Hm is defined as the minimum amount of head against
which the pump has to work to deliver the required discharge
v2
Hm = d + H s + hfs + hfd
2g
vg2 /2g
h fd

hd

Hm Hs

Pump
hs

hfs

vs2
2g
Centrifugal pump

Power available at impeller



Mechanical efficiency hm =
Shaft power
P
hm =
Pshaft
Manometric head ( Hm )

Manometric efficiency =
Head imparted by impeller
Hm gHm
hmano = =
æ v w2 × u2 ö v w2 u2
ç ÷
è g ø
Power output rQgHm

Overall efficiency ho = =
Shaft power Ps
204 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Cavitation
It is defined as the phenomenon of formation
of vapour bubbles in the region of flowing
liquid where its pressure falls below the
A
vapour pressure of liquid. In this
phenomenon, liquid vaporises and flow does
not remain continuous. A schematic view of
centrifugal pump is shown. vs hs
Assume, p a = Atmospheric pressure
p s = Pressure at eye of impeller pa
h s = Suction lift
B
h fs = Friction loss in suction pipe
v s = Velocity in suction pipe
Cavitation
By Pascal’s law, pB = patm
By Bernoulli’s theorem between A and B,
pa p v2
= s + hs + s + hfs
rg rg 2g
ps pa æ v 2ö
So, = - ç hs + hfs + s ÷
rg rg è 2g ø

NPSH (Net Positive Section Head)


It is the absolute pressure head at the inlet to the pump to force the liquid
into the pump.
pa pv v2
= + hs + s + hfs + NPSH (\ w = rg )
w w 2g
(minimum value of ps is pvapour )
æ v2 ö æ pö
NPSH = h a - ç h v + h s + s + h fs ÷ ç i . e., h = ÷
è 2g ø è rg ø

Reciprocating Pump
In reciprocating pump, mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy
by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating which
exerts the thrust on the liquid and increases its hydraulic energy.
Fluid Mechanics 205

Discharge Through a Pump Per Second


ALN
Q= (for single acting)
60
2 ALN
Q = (for double acting)
60
Delivery pipe

Delivery valve
hd Cylinder
Piston Connecting
rod B

Piston rod D
hs Suction valve
Suction pipe
Pump level

Reciprocating pump

p
A = Cross-sectional area of the piston or cylinder = D2
4
L = Length of stroke = 2 ´ radius of crank (2r )
N = Rpm of crank.
hs = Height of the axis of cylinder from water surface in pump
hd = Height of delivery outlet above the cylinder axis.

Work done by Reciprocating Pump
rg ALN
W= ( hs + hd ) [for single acting]
60
2rg ALN
W= ( hs+ hd ) [for double acting]
60
206 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Slip
Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical
discharge and actual discharge of the pump.
Comparison between Centrifugal Pump and Reciprocating Pumps
S. No. Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump
Continuous and smooth and can Fluctuating and pulsating and can
1.
handle large quantity of liquid handle small quantity of liquid only.
Used for large discharge and small Used for small discharge and large
2.
head. head.
3. It runs at high speed. It runs at low speed.
4. Efficiency of centrifugal pump is high. Low efficiency.
5. It run smoothly without much noise. It run with much noise.

Fluid System
Fluid system is defined as the device in which power is transmitted with the
help of fluid which may be liquid or a gas under pressure.

The Hydraulic Press


It is a device used for lifting heavy weights by the application of a much
smaller force. F
F w
=
a A
where,
W
w = Weight to be lifted
RAM Plunger
F = Force applied on the plunger
a = Area of plunger
p = Pressure intensity produced
F
by force = .
a Hydraulic press

Mechanical Advantage (MA)


The ratio of weight lifted to force applied on the plunger is defined as
mechanical advantage.
w
MA =
F
Fluid Mechanics 207

The Hydraulic Ram


The hydraulic ram is a pump which raises water without any external power
for its operation. It works on the principle of water hammer.
Energy delivered by ram
● Efficiency of hydraulic ram h =
Energy supplied to the ram
w´H
=
W´h
where, W = Weight of water flowing per second into chamber
w = Weight of water raised per second
h = Height of water in supply tank above the chamber
H = Height of water raised from the chamber.

The Hydraulic Lift


The hydraulic lift is a device used for carrying passenger of goods from one
floor to another in multi-storied building.

The Hydraulic Crane


Hydraulic crane is a device used for raising or transferring heavy loads. It is
widely used in work shop, warehousing and clock siding.

The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling


The fluid or hydraulic coupling is a device used for transmitting power from
driving shaft to driven shaft with the help of connection between the two
shafts.

The Hydraulic Torque Converter


It is a device used for transmitting increased torque at the driven shaft. The
torque transmitted at the drive shaft may be more or less than the torque
available at the driving shaft.
6

Heat and Mass


Transfer
Steady and Unsteady State Conductions
Steady state conduction is the form of conduction that happens when the
temperature difference driving the conduction are constant, so that, the
spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not
change any further.
In general, during any period in which temperatures are changing in time at
any place within an object, the mode of thermal energy flow is termed
transient conduction or non-steady state conduction.

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction


The rate of heat flow through homogeneous solid is directly proportional to
the area measured normal to the direction of heat flow and the temperature
gradient in the direction of heat flow.
dT
Q = - kA
dx
where, Q = Heat transfer in given direction
A = Cross-sectional area perpendicular to heat flow direction
dT = Temperature difference between two ends of a block of
thickness dx
dx = Thickness of solid body
dT
= Temperature gradient in direction of heat flow.
dx
Heat and Mass Transfer 209

General Heat Conduction Equation


(i) Cartesian Coordinates (side parallel to x, y and z-directions)
Let q g = Internal heat generation per unit volume per unit time
t = Temperature at left face of differential control volume
k x, ky , kz = Thermal conductivities of the material in x, y and z-directions
respectively
c = Specific heat of the material
r = Density of the material
æ k ö
a = Thermal diffusivity ç ÷
è rc ø
dt = Instantaneous time.
¶ æ ¶t ö ¶ æ ¶t ö ¶ æ ¶t ö ¶t
çkx ÷ + ç ky ÷+ ç kz ÷ + q g = rc
¶x è ¶x ø ¶y è ¶y ø ¶z è ¶z ø ¶t

For homogeneous and isotropic material,
k
k x = ky = kz = k, a =
rc
¶2 t ¶2 t ¶2 t qg 1 ¶t
+ + + =
¶x 2
¶y 2
¶z 2 k a ¶t

For steady state condition (Poisson’s equation),
¶2 t ¶2 t ¶2 t qg
+ + + =0
¶x 2 ¶y 2 ¶z 2 k

For steady state and absence of internal heat generation (Laplace
equation),
¶2 t ¶2 t ¶2 t
2
+ 2
+ =0
¶x ¶y ¶z 2

For unsteady heat flow with no internal heat generation,
¶2 t ¶2 t ¶2 t 1 ¶t
+ + =
¶x 2
¶y 2
¶z 2
a ¶t

(ii) Cylindrical Coordinates



For homogeneous and isotropic material,
é ¶ 2 t 1 ¶t 1 ¶2 t ¶2 t ù qg 1 ¶t
ê 2 + + 2 2
+ 2ú + =
ë ¶r r ¶r r ¶f ¶t û k a ¶t
210 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● For steady state unidirectional heat flow in radial direction with no internal
heat generation,
¶ 2t 1 ¶t
+ =0
¶r 2
r ¶r
1 d æ dt ö dt
çr ÷ = 0 Þ r = Constant
r dr è dr ø dr

(iii) Spherical Coordinates


● For homogeneous and isotropic material,
1 ¶ 2t 1 ¶ æ ¶t ö 1 ¶ æ 2 ¶t ö q g 1 ¶t
+ çsin q ÷+ çr ÷+ =
2 2
r sin q ¶f 2
r sin q ¶q è
2
¶q ø r 2 ¶r è ¶r ø k a ¶t
● For steady state unidirection heat flow in radial direction with no internal
heat generation,
1 d æ 2 dt ö
çr ÷=0
r 2 dr è dr ø

Thermal Resistance of a Hollow Cylinders


Let, r1 = Internal radius of cylinder
r2 = Outer radius of cylinder
L = Length of cylinder.
Thermal resistance of a hollow cylinders is given as
r r
loge 2
r1
R= r2
2p k. L r

Ti - T0 DT
Heat transfer Q= = Hollow cylinder
R R

Thermal Resistance of a Hollow Sphere


Consider a hollow cylinder of internal radius r1 and external radius r2 with
respective internal and external temperatures of Ti and T0 as shown in figure
r -r
R= 2 1
4p k r1 r2
where, k = Thermal conductivity r1
DT
Q=
R
r2

A hollow sphere
Heat and Mass Transfer 211

Heat Transfer through a Composite Cylinder


Assume heat transfer coefficient for liquid and inner surface of cylinder is hi
and for gas and outer surface of cylinder is ho then heat transfer will be as
Convection ® conduction ® conduction ® convection

r2 R2
r1 k1 Ti R1 R2 R3 R4 To
r3 Ti

Heat transfer through a composite cylinder


Ti - T0
Q=
Req
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
1 ln r2 / r1
R1 = , R2 =
hi 2 pr1l 2 pk1l
ln r3/r2 1
R3 = , R4 =
2 pk2l ho 2 pr2l

Heat Transfer through a Composite Sphere


All the arrangements are same as given in composite cylinder only
resistance will change.

k2 r3

r2
Ti R1 R2 R3 R4 T0
r1 k 1

Heat transfer through a composite sphere


1 1
R1 = =
hi Ai hi 4p r12
r2 - r1 r -r
R2 = , R3 = 3 2
4p k r1 r2 4p k r2 r3
1 Ti - T0
R4 = , Q=
ho 4p r22 R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
212 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Critical Thickness of Insulation


Critical thickness of insulation graph is shown in adjoining figure.
k
In case of cylinder, rc = 0
h
where, k0 = Thermal conductivity
h = Heat transfer coefficient
2 k0
In case of sphere, rc =
h

Key Points
✦ In critical radius of insulation, total resistance first decreases and attain a
minimum value and then increases.
✦ Critical radius is independent of pipe radius.
✦ For purpose of insulation to the radius, the heat transfer rate for tube,
Outside radius > critical radius (rc )
✦ For purpose of insulation to the increase, the heat transfer rate for tube.
Outside radius < critical radius (rc )
✦ Heat transfer will always reduce on application of insulation of wall as
convective resistance will remain unchanged while conductive resistance
will increase with thickness of insulation.

Heat Transfer from Extended Surface (Fin)


A fin is a surface that extends from an object to increase the rate of heat
transfer to or from the environment by increase convection. Adding a fin to
an object, increases the surface area and can sometimes be an
economical solution to heat transfer problems.
The rate of heat transfer from a solid surface to atmosphere is given by
Q = hA D T where, h and DT are not controllable.
So, to increase the value of Q surface area should be increased. The
extended surface which increases the rate of heat transfer is known as fin.

Steady Flow of Heat along a Rod


Circular fin tc

p = pd d
l
p wall
Ac = d 2
4
Circular fin diagram
Heat and Mass Transfer 213

Generalised Equation for Fin


Perimeter
Rectangular fin P = 2 (b + d)
d 2q 1 dAc dq h dA s tc l
2
+ - q=0 d
dx Ac dx dx kAc dx
Q
where A c and A s are cross-sectional and surface wall
Cross-section arc
area. Ac = b d
And q ( x) = t ( x) - ta Rectangular fin diagram
Heat balance equation if Ac constant and As µ P( x ) linear
d 2t hp
- (t - t a ) = 0
dx 2 k Ac
d 2q
- m 2q = 0
dx 2
hp
m=
k Ac
General equation of 2nd order q = c 1 e mx + c 2 e - mx
Heat dissipation can be takes place on the basis of three cases.
Case 1 Heat Dissipation from an Infinitely Long Fin ( l ® ¥)
In such a case, the temperature at the end of Fin approaches to
surrounding fluid temperature t a as shown in figure. The boundary
conditions are given below
At x = 0, t = t 0 t0
q = t0 - ta = q 0
at x = l ® ¥ t
t = t a, q = 0
t - ta t = ta
= e - mx
t0 - ta
x
x=0 x = l’
q = q 0 e - mx Heat dissipation curve
Heat transfer by conduction at base
Q fin = kAc Ph (t 0 - t a )

Case 2 Heat Dissipation from a Fin Insulated at the End Tip


Practically, the heat loss from the long and thin film tip is negligible, thus
the end of the tip can be. considered as insulated.
214 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

At x = 0, t = t 0 and q = t 0 - t a = q 0
t0
dq
at x = l, Q = 0 i . e., =0
dx t
q t - t a cosh m ( l - x ) q = t – ta
= =
q 0 t0 - ta cosh m l t = ta
Q fin = Phk Ac (t 0 - t a ) tanh ml

Case 3 Heat Dissipation from a Fin loosing Heat at the End


Tip
The boundary conditions are given below. t

At x = 0, t = t 0 and q = q 0 t¥
at x = l, Qconduction = Qconvection
æ dt ö
- kA ç ÷ = h A s (t - t a )
è dx ø x = l
x= 6
æ h ö
ç cosh m ( l - x ) + sinh m ( l - x ) ÷
q = q0 ç mk ÷
ç h ÷
cosh ml + sin h ml
è mk ø
h
tan h ml +
Q fin = hPkAc q 0 mk
h
1+ tan h ml
mk

Fin Efficiency
Actual heat rate from fin Q
Fin efficiency is given by h =
Maximum heat transfer rate Q max
hPkAc q 0 1 kAc

If l ® ¥ (infinite length of fin), h = =
h ( Pl + b d ) q 0 l hP
q0 hPkAc tanh ml

If fin is with insulated tip, h =
hPlq 0
é h ù
ê tan h ml + mk ú
q0 h PkAc ê ú
h
ê1+ tan h ml ú

If finite length of fin, h = ë mk û
h ( Pl + bd ) q 0
Heat and Mass Transfer 215

Fin Effectiveness
Fin effectiveness is dented by e.
Actual heat transfer from fin surface (Q )
e=
Rate of heat transfer without fin
Q q PhkAc tanh ml tanh ml
e= = 0 = (if l ® ¥)
hAq 0 h A q0 h Ac
Pk
Pk
If £ 1, then e £ 1 Þ It means there will be reduction in rate of heat
hAc
transfer due to its very high convective coefficient of heat transfer. (in case
of boiling condensation and high velocity fluid).

Key Points
✦ Heat conduction is along the x-axis under steady state.
✦ There is no internal heat generation within the fin.
✦ Base temperature is maintained constant at T0 .
✦ Convective heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the entire surface of fin.

Unsteady State
If temperature of a body does not vary with time, it is said to be in steady
state. But if there is an abrupt change in its surface temperature, it attains
an equilibrium temperature or a steady state after some period. During this
period, the temperature varies with time and body is said to be in unsteady
or transient state. This phenomenon is known as transient heat conduction.
æ dt ö
Heat conduction (Transient heat conduction) ç ÷ ¹ 0
è dt ø
Let V = Volume of body
c = Specific heat of body
r = Density of body T¥
V
R = Thermal conductivity of T
material
h = Convective heat transfer
A (surface area)
coefficient
t i = Initial temperature of body Heat conduction body
t a = Surrounding temperature.
216 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

- hAt
dt t - ta rVc
- rVc = hA (t - t a ), =e
dt ti - ta
Total heat flow rate,
é æç - hAt ö÷ ù é æç - hAt ö÷ ù
ê
Q = - rVC (t i - t a ) e è dVC ø ú ê
= rVC (t i - t a ) e è rVC ø
- 1ú
ê ú ê ú
êë úû êë úû
l
Internal conductive resistance c
Biot number Bi = kA
æ 1ö
Surface or convective thermal resistance ç ÷
è hA ø
hlc
Bi =
k
where, lc = Characteristic length
at æ k ö t - ta
Fourier number Fo = 2 ça = ÷, = e( - Bi Fo )
lc è rc ø t i - t a
Q = - hA (t - t a ) e( - Bi Fo ) or Q = rVc (t i - t a )[e -Bi Fo - 1]


Temperature of a body in unsteady state can be calculated at any time
only when Biot number < 0.1.

Characteristic Length
Characteristic length is denoted by lc .
Volume (V )
lc =
Surface area exposed to surrounding ( A )

Characteristic Length for different Section


4
p R3
Characteristic length for sphere 3 R
lc = =
4 pR 2 3
pR 2L R
Characteristic length for solid cylinder lc = if l > > R, lc =
2pR (L + R) 2
L3 L
Characteristic length for cube lc = =
6L2 6
lbt t
Characteristic length for rectangular plate lc = =
2lb 2
p ( r02 - ri2) l
Characteristic length for hollow cylinder lc =
2pr0 l + 2pri l + 2p ( r02 - ri2)
Convection
Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as air or water
when the heated fluid is caused to move away from the source of heat,
carrying energy with it. Convection can be qualified in terms of being
natural, forced, gravitational, granular or thermomagnetic. Generally, it
occurs between a solid surface and fluid in motion.

Forced Convection
If fluid motion is imparted by external means like pump, fan, compressor
etc., the convection is called forced convection.

Natural or Free Convection


When the fluid moves due to density difference caused by the heat transfer
between solid surface and fluid. It is said to be natural or free convection.

Mean Bulk Temperature (t b )


It denotes the equilibrium temperature that would result if the fluid at a
cross-section was thoroughly mixed in an adiabatic container.

Mean Film Temperature (t f )


It is the arithmetic mean of the surface temperature t s of a solid and the
undisturbed temperature t ¥ of the fluid which flows.
t +t
tf = s ¥
2
Average Heat Transfer Convective Coefficient
1 l
l ò0
It is given by h= hx dx

Dimensionless Number
There are following types of dimensionless number

Nusselt Number (Nu) It is defined as


Rate of heat transfer by convection h × A × DT
Nu = =
Rate of heat transfer by conduction DT
kA
l
hl
Nu =
k
218 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Nu measure energy transfer by convection occurring at the surface. Larger


the value of Nu, larger will be the rate of heat transfer by convection.

Reynold Number (Re)


Inertia force
Reynold number is defined as, Re =
Viscous force
rvl
Re =
m
vl
Re =
n
where, r = Density of fluid
v = Velocity of fluid passing through length (l)
m = Kinematic viscosity
æm ö
n = Dynamic viscosity ç ÷
èr ø

Critical Reynold Number


It represents the number where the boundary layer changes from laminar
to turbine flow.
For flat plate, Re < 5 ´ 105 (laminar)
Re > 5 ´ 105 (turbulent)

For circular pipes, Re < 2300 (laminar flow)


2300 < Re < 4000 (transition to turbulent flow)
Re > 4000 (turbulent flow)

Prandtl Number (Pr)


It provides a measure of relative effective of momentum and energy
transport by diffusion in velocity and thermal boundary layers respectively.
Higher Pr means higher Nu and it shows higher heat transfer (Nu µ h )
Momentum diffusivity through the fluid
Pr =
Thermal diffusivity through the fluid
n m/ r m cp
Pr = = Þ Pr =
a k / rc p k
For liquid metal, Pr < 0.01 For air and gases, Pr » 1
For water, Pr » 10 For heavy oil and grease, Pr > 105
Heat and Mass Transfer 219

Stanton Number (St)


Heat transfer coefficient
It is defined as St =
Heat flow per unit temperature rise
Nu
St =
Re ´ Pr

Grashof Number (Gr)


It is used for free convection.
Inertia force ´ buoyancy force
Gr =
viscous force
r b g Dt l 3
2
Gr =
n2
1
where, b = Coefficient of volumetric expansion =
T

Rayleigh Number (Ra)


It is product of Grashof number and Prandtl number. It is used for free
convection.
g b l 3 Dt
Ra = Gr × Pr ; Ra =
n ×a
where, g = Acceleration due to gravity
b = Thermal expansion coefficient
n = Kinematic viscosity
a = Thermal diffusivity
Pr = Prandtl number
Gr = Grashof number
If free or natural convection
104 < Ra < 109 (laminar flow)
Ra > 109 (turbulent flow)

Empirical Correlation for Free Convection


(a) Heated surface up or cooled surface down
Laminar flow 2 ´ 105 < [Link] < 2 ´ 107
Nu = 0.54 (Gr Pr )0.25

Turbulent flow 2 ´ 107 < Gr Pr < 3 ´ 1010


Nu = 0.14 (Gr Pr )0. 33
220 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

(b) Heated surface down or cooled surface up


Laminar flow 3 ´ 105 < Gr Pr < 7´ 108
Nu = 0.27 (Gr Pr )0. 25

Turbulent flow 7 ´ 108 < Gr Pr < 11 ´ 1010


Nu = 0.107 (Gr Pr )0.33

Long cylinder l/d > 60


Laminar flow 104 < Gr Pr < 109
Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr )0.25

Turbulent flow 109 < Gr Pr < 102


Nu = 0.13 (Gr Pr )0.33

(c) For horizontal wire,


D < 0.005 cm
Nu = 0.4
Vertical plates and Large cylinder
Laminar flow 104 < Gr Pr < 109
Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr )0.25

Turbulent flow 109 < Gr Pr < 1012


Nu = 0.13 (Gr Pr )

Empirical Correlation for Forced Convection


Laminar Flow over Flat Plate
1 1
hx
Nu x = = 0.332 (Re x ) 2 Pr 3 T¥
k k
(average of Nu)
1 1
hl 3 Ts
Nu = = 0.64 (Re ) 2 Pr
k l
Rectangular plate
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness
5x
r=
Re x
Heat and Mass Transfer 221

Laminar Flow over Inside Tube


hd T + Ti
Nu = , T¥ = o To
k 2
For constant heat flux, Nu = 4.36
Ti
For constant wall temperature,
Cylindrical tube
Fully developed flow Nu = 3.66
Slug flow Nu = 5.18
● Turbulent flow over flat plate
Nu x = 0.0292 (Re)0.8 (Pr )0. 33
N u = 0.036 (Re)0.8 (Pr )0. 33
0.37 x
d= 1
(Re x ) 5
● Turbulent flow in tubes
Nu = 0.023 (Re )0.8 (Pr)n
where, n = 0.4 if fluid is being heated, = 0.3 if fluid is being cooled.
N u = 0.0036 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n

Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer


d 1 u x
Over flat plate = , Re x = ¥
x Re x v
u = 0.99u¥ = u¥
Re = 3 ×105 Re = 5.5 ×105
Transition


d
Turbulent y
Laminar
flow

Transition Laminar
point sublayer
x
Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer

Blassius solution gives the ratio


d 5
= (for laminar flow)
x Re x
222 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

tw æ ¶u ö
local skin friction coefficient Cfx = , where t w = m ç ÷
1
d Kt Pu ¥2 è ¶y ø y = 0
2
0.664
d kt = (for laminar flow)
Re x
Average skin coefficient upon total length l of the plate (for laminar flow)
1.328
Cf =
Re x
d 0.576
For turbulent flow = 1
x 5
(Re x )
0.059
Cfx = 1
(Re x ) 5
0.074
Cf = 1
5
(Re x )

Diagrammatic Representation of Thermal Boundary


Layer over a Plate
tream
u¥ ,t¥ frees
ft Temperature profile
Region t(y)
t(y)
affected by
y heating
plate surface (t s)
t t
x Laminar
Thermal boundary layer during flow of
cool fluid over a warm plate
t¥ – ts B

t – ts
ft

A
Temperature profile during flow of warm
(Thermal boundary layer) fluid over a cool plate.
Heat and Mass Transfer 223

Relation between d and d t


d and dt graph can be shown in the figure.
Thermal boundary layer
thickness y Thermal
d mics boundary
dt = dyna
Pr<1 hydro ary layer layer
(Pr)1/ 3 bou n
d
Pr=1
d ® Hydrodynamic boundary
layer thickness
(i) When Pr = 1, d t = d d, dt Pr >1
(ii) When Pr > 1, dt < d
(iii) When Pr < 1, dt > d x
Various Prandtl curve

Key Points
✦ The heat is conducted by conduction.
✦ The thermal gradient is set up in the fluid layers, thereby a temperature profile
is developed on the fluid flow.
✦ In the boundary layer region, the temperature of fluid varies from surface up
to the thermal boundary layer thickness.

Some Important Equations


At the surface of the plate, there is no fluid motion and the heat transfer can occur
only through conduction, then heat flux is
ta ty
Q æ dt ö
= h x (t s - t a) = - k ç ÷ dt
A è dy ø y =0
y
2
¶t
(a) at y = 0, t = t s (b) at y = 0, =0
¶y 2
dt
(c) at y = d, t = t a (d) at y = d, =0
dy
t = Temperature of fluid at y distance measured in normal direction from the plate.
224 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Reynolds Analogy
The following equations are used for Reynold analogy
du
tw = m …(i)
dy
dt
Q=-kA …(ii)
dy
m Cp
=1 …(iii)
k
tw
Cfx = …(iv)
1 2
ru ¥
2
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get
hx C
= fx
rC p u ¥ 2
2
hx Dt C
Since, St = , St x (Pr) 3 = fx
rCp u ¥ Dt 2

Heat Exchangers
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer
from one medium to another. Biolers and condensers in thermal power
plants are example of large industrial heat exchangers. Heat exchangers
are also abundant in chemical and process industries.

Fouling Factor
The phenomenon of rust formation and deposition of fluid impurities on
surface which responsible to increase thermal resistance with a
corresponding drop in the performance of the heat exchange equipment.
Fouling factor
1 1
Rf = -
vdirty vclear
where, v = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Heat and Mass Transfer 225

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)


LMTD is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in
flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers. LMTD is a logarithmic
average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold streams at
each end of the exchanger.

Temperature
th th
1 1
Hot fluid q1 Hot fluid
Temperature

th th 2
2

q1 A q2
q2 tc
1
tc
1 t B
c2 Cold fluid t B
c2
Cold fluid
A
Length Length
Parallel flow Counter flow
Temperature distribution for parallel and counter flow heat exchanger

q1 - q2
Heat transfer, Q = UA = UAq m
æq ö
loge ç 1 ÷
èq2 ø
q1 - q2
LMTD q m =
q
loge 1
q2
q 1 = t h1 - tc1
q 2 = t h2 - tc 2
If the heat capacity of two fluid equal
qm = q1 - q2
where, q 1 = Temperature difference between two streams at end A
q 2 = Temperature difference between two streams at end B.
q m = Logarithmic mean temperature difference

Capacity Ratio
The capacity ratio is defined as the ratio of the minimum to maximum
capacity rate.
Capacity ratio c = mc, where c = Specific heat
mc cc
If mh c h> mc cc , R =
mh c h
mh c h
If mh c h < mccc , R =
mc cc
226 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger


The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of the energy
actually transferred to the maximum theoretical energy transfer.
(Qact ) actual heat transfer
e=
(Qmax ) maximum possible heat transfer
Qact = mh c h (t h 1 - t h2 )
= mc cc(tc 2 - tc1 )
Qmax = cmin (t h 1 - tc1 )
If mc cc < mhc h Þ cmin = mc cc
Þ Qmax = mccc( t h 1 - tc1 )
mc cc(tc 2 - tc1 ) tc 2 - tc1
e= =
mccc (t h1 - tc1 ) t h1 - tc1

If mc cc > mh c h Þ cmin = mh c h
Þ Qmax = mh c h(t h 1 - tc1 )
mh c h (t h 1 - t h2 ) t h1 - t h 2
e= =
mh c h (t h1 - tc 1 ) t h1 - tc1

where, Ch = Heat capacity rates for hot fluids


Cc = Heat capacity rates for cold fluids t h1 , t h2 , tc1 and tc 2 are the
temperature streams for hot and cold fluids
mh = Mass of hot fluid
mc = Mass of cold fluid

Number of Transfer Units (NTU)


NTU is a measure of the size of heat exchanger, it provides some
indication of the size of the heat exchanger.
UA
NTU =
cmin
where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
A = Surface area
Cmin = Minimum capacity rate
If mh c h > mc cc Þ cmin = mc cc
UA
Þ NTU =
mh cc
Heat and Mass Transfer 227

If mh c h < mc cc
Þ cmin = mh c h
UA
NTU =
mh c h

Effectiveness for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger


1 - exp [ - NTU (1 + R )]
It is given by e=
1+ R
cmin
where, R =
cmax
UA
NTU =
cmin

th1 th1

th2 tc2 th2


tc2
tc1
tc1

Parallel flow Counter flow


Heat exchanger for parallel and counter flow

Effectiveness for the Counter Flow Heat Capacity


1 - exp [ - NTU (1 - R )]
It is given by e=
1 - R exp [ - NTU (1 - R )]

Radiation
Radiation is the process in which energetic particles or energetic waves
travel through a medium or space.

Surface Emission Properties


Emission of radiation by a body depends upon the following factors
(a) Temperature of the surface
(b) The nature of the surface
(c) The wavelength or frequency of radiation
228 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The parameters which deals with the surface emission properties are as
given below

Total Emissive Power ( E)


It is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit time
and area.
or E = sT 4 W/m 2
s = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 ´10-8 W / m 2 K 4
Eb = sAT 4

Monochromatic (Spectral) Emissive Power ( El )


It is defined as the rate of energy radiated per unit area of the surface per
unit wavelength.
¥
E= ò0 Eldl W/m 2

Emission from Real Surface


The emissive power from a real surface is given by
E = es AT 4 W
where, e = Emissivity of the surface
T = Surface temperature

Emissivity (e)
It is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of any body to the emissive
power of a black body of same temperature.
E
e=
Eb

For black body, e = 1

For white body, e = 0

For gray body, 0 < e < 1

Reflectivity (r)
It is defined as the fraction of total incident radiation that are reflected by
material.
Energy reflected (Q r )
Reflectivity (r ) =
Total incident radiation (Q )
Heat and Mass Transfer 229

Absorptivity (a)
It is defined as the fraction of total incident radiation that are absorbed by
material.
Energy absorbed (Q a )
Absorptivity (a) =
Total incident radiation (Q )

Transmissivity (t)
It is defined as the fraction of total incident radiation that are transmitted
through the material.
Energy transmitted (Qt )
Transmissivity ( t ) =
Total incident radiation (Q w )
Q 0 = Q a + Q r + Qt
Q 0 Q a Q r Qt Q0 (incident Qr
= + + energy flux) (reflected)
Q0 Q0 Q0 Q0
a +r +t=1 Qa
(absorbed)

For black body a = 1, r = 0, t = 0
Qt

For opaque body t = 0, a + r = 1 (transmitted)

For white body r = 1, a = 0 and t = 0 Diagram for Q o , Q r , Q a, Q t

Kirchoff’s Law
The emissivity e and absorptivity a of a real surface are equal for radiation
with identical temperature and wavelength.
E
a =e=
Eb

Stefan Boltzmann Law


Emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature. Eb = sT 4
Eb = Emissive power of a black body
s = Stefan Boltzmann constant

Wien’s Displacement Law


Wien’s displacement law state that the product of lmax and T is constant.
lmaxT = constant
where, lmax = Wavelength at which the maximum value of monochromatic
emissive power occurs.
230 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Planck’s Law
Planck suggested following formula, monochromatic emissive power of a
black body.
2 p c 2hl-5
( El )b =
æ ch ö
exp ç ÷ -1
è lkT ø
¥
Total missive power Eb = ò ( El )b dl
0

where, c = Velocity of light in vacuum = 2.998 ´ 108 m/s


h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 ´ 10-34 J-s
l = Wavelength, k = 1.3805 ´ 10-23 J / K, T = absolute temperature.
( Elb ) = monochromatic emissive power of a black body.

Electrical Network Approach for


Radiation Heat Exchange
Consider the radiant heat exchange between two non-black surfaces. An
electric network representing space and surface resistance to radiation are
following
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb 2

1 – e1 1 1 – e2
A1 e1 A1 F1 – 2 A2 e2
An electrical network between two non black surfaces

Eb1 - Eb 2
(Q 1- 2 )net =
1 - e1 1 1 - e2
+ +
A1 e 1 A1 F1- 2 A2 e 2
or (Q 1- 2 )net = ( Fg )1- 2 A1 s b (T14 - T24 )
Here, New Gray Body Factor
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 - e1 1 1 - e2
+ +
A1 e 1 A1 F12 A2 e 2
where, E1 = Emissivity for body 1
E2 = Emissivity for body 2
Heat and Mass Transfer 231

Cases
● In case of black surfaces, e 1 = e 2 = 1 , ( Fg )12 = F1 - 2
Qnet = F1 - 2 A1 s (T14 - T24 )
● In case of parallel planes, A1 = A2 and F1 - 2 = 1
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 1
+ -1
e1 e2
● In case of concentric cylinder or sphere, F1 - 2 = 1
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 - e1 1 - e 2 A1
+ 1+
e1 e 2 A2
A1 r1
where, = (for concentric cylinder)
A2 r2
A1 r12
= (for concentric sphere)
A2 r22

When a small body lies inside a large enclosure
A1
F1 - 2 = 1, A1< < A2 Þ =0
A2
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 - e1
+1
e1

Radiation shield
Radiation Shield
Radiation shields reduce the radiation heat
transfer by effectively increasing the surface
resistance without actually removing of heat
from overall system. e1 e3 e2

1 3 2
Radiation shield diagram

Eb 1 J1 J3 Eb 3 J3 J2 Eb 2

1 – e1 1 1 – e1 1 – e1 1 1 – e2
A1 C 1 A1 F1–3 A1 e3 A3 e3 A3 F3–2 A3 e2
232 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Radiation network for 2 parallel infinite places separated by one shield


(Q 1 - 3 )net = (Q 3 - 2 )net ( A1 = A3 = A2 )

A s (T14 - T34 ) A s (T34 - T24 )


=
1 1 1 1
+ + -1
e1 e3 - 1 e3 e2
A s (T14 - T24 )
(Q 1 -2 )net =
æ1 1 ö æ 1 1 ö
ç + - 1÷ + ç + - 1÷
è e1 e3 ø è e3 e2 ø
æ1 1 ö
ç + - 1÷
[(Q 1 - 2 )net ] with shield è e1 e2 ø
=
[(Q 1 - 2 )net ] without shield æ 1 1 ö æ 1 1 ö
ç + - 1÷ + ç + - 1÷
è e1 e3 ø è e3 e2 ø
If e1 = e2 = e3
1
Then, (Q 1 - 3 )net = (Q 3 - 2 )net = (Q 1 - 2 )net
2
1 4
and T34 = (T1 + T24 )
2

n Shields having Equal Emissivities


In general case when there are n shields with equal emissivities (e1 = e2¼= eh ). There
will be (n + 1) spaces resistance and shape factor (F1 - 2 = 1) is unity for each infinite
parallel plans.
1
Qn shield = A s (T14 - T24 )
æ2 ö
(n + 1) ç - 1÷
èe ø
1 T1 T2
Q without shield = A s (T14 - T24 )
2
-1
e
Qn shield 1
=
Qn without shield n + 1 1 2 3 n

\ It provide that reduction in heat flow due to insertion of shield does not affect the
wall temperature.
7

Thermodynamics

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics


Thermodynamics is a physical science that studies the effects on material
bodies and on radiation in regions of space of transfer of heat and of work
done by the bodies. Thermodynamics is built on the study of energy
transfers that can be strictly resolved into two distinct components, heat
and work.

Thermodynamics System
It is defined as the quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
The mass and region outside the system is called surrounding. Real or
imaginary surface (mathematically thickness zero) that separates the
system from the surrounding is called the boundary.

Closed System (Control Mass)


It consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass can cross its boundary
or leave or enter a closed system. However, energy in the form of heat or
work can cross the boundary and the volume of closed system does not
have to be fixed. e. g ., piston cylinder device.

Open System (Control Volume)


It is a properly selected region in the space and both mass and energy
region can cross the boundary. The boundary of a control volume is called
a control surface and they can be real or imaginary. e. g ., compressor,
turbine, nozzle.
234 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Note A control volume can be fixed in size and shape as in case of nozzle or it
may involve moving boundaries as shown in Fig. (b). Most control
volume, however have fixed boundaries and thus do not involve any
moving boundaries.

Imaginary
boundary Fixed red
boundary

Moving boundary
CV
(a nozzle) Fixed boundary

(a) Nozzle (b) Pistion

Key Points
✦ In closed system, energy transfers but mass does not transfer across the
boundary.
✦ In open system, both mass and energy transfer across the boundary.
✦ In isolated system, neither mass nor energy transfer across the boundary.

Properties of a System
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. It can be independent
or dependent.

Intensive and Extensive Properties of a System


Intensive properties are those that are independent of the size of system
such as temperature, pressure and density.
Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size or extent
of the system such as mass m, volume V and total energy E.
An easy way to determine whether the property is intensive or extensive is
to divide the system into two equal parts with a partition.

1m 1m
m 2 2 Extensive
V 1V 1V properties
T 2 2
P T T
r Intensive
P P
properties
r r

Distribution of extensive and intensive properties


Thermodynamics 235

Generally, upper case letters are used to denote extensive properties


(exception m) and lower case letters are used for intensive properties
(exception P, T).

Specific Properties of a System


Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.e.g.,
V
Specific volume v =
m
E
Specific energy e =
m
Term specific gravity (or relative density) is used to define the density of a
substance with respect to density of some standard substance at a
specified temperature.
(Usually, water at 4°C, rH 2O = 1000 kg/m 3)

Key Points
✦ Such properties which can be measured by simple instrument and sensed by
human eye are known as macroscopic properties.
✦ Such properties which cannot be sensed by human eye and are observed at
molecular level are known as microscopic properties.

Continuum
Continuum is defined as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes.
The continuum idealisation allows us to treat properties as point function
and to assume properties to vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.

State
State of system is described by its properties. At a given state, all the
properties of a system have fixed values. However, there is no need to
specify all the properties in order to fix a state. The number of properties
required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulates. It
means that properties should be independent to each other i . e., when one
property varies, other should be held constant. In other words, the
condition of a system at any instant of time is called its state.

Equilibrium
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state,
there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
236 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

A system in equilibrium experience has no changes when it is isolated from


its surrounding. Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
● A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is same
throughout the entire system.
● In mechanical equilibrium, there is no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
● In chemical equilibrium, no chemical reactions occur.

Processes
Any change that a system goes from one State 2
equilibrium state to another equilibrium Property A
state is called a process and series of
states through which a system passes
during a process is called the path of the
State 1
process.
Property B

Quasi Equilibrium Process Changes in states

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains


infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi
static or quasi equilibrium process.

Slow compression Very fast compression


(quasi equilibrium) (Non-quasi equilibrium)

Key Points
✦ Quasi equilibrium is an idealised process and is not a true representation of
an actual process.
✦ Quasi equilibrium process are easy to analyse.
✦ Quasi equilibrium process are work producing devices deliver the maximum
work when they operate on quasi equilibrium processes.
✦ Quasi equilibrium processes as standards to which actual processes can be
compared.

Cycle
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the
end of process i . e., for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.
Thermodynamics 237

Steady Flow Process


Steady flow process is defined as a process during which a fluid flows
through a control volume steadily. It means at any fixed point in the control
volume, fluid properties remain the same during the entire process.
However, they can change from point to point.

Temperature
The temperature is a measure (degree) of hotness or coldness. Generally,
we express the level of temperature qualitatively with words like freezing
cold, warm hot.
e. g ., a metal chair will feel much colder than a wooden one, even both are
at the same temperature.

Temperature Scales
A scale of temperature independent of the thermometric substance is
called a thermodynamic temperature scale. The temperature scales used in
the SI and English system today are the celsius scale and the fahrenheit
scale, respectively. They are related to absolute temperature scales.
(i) Kelvin scale is related to celsius scale by
T(K ) = T(C ) + 273.16
(ii) Rankine scale is related to fahrenheit scale by
T(R ) = T(F ) + 459.67
The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by
T(R ) = 1.8 T(K )
T(° F ) = 1.8 T (° C ) + 32
Þ DT° (F ) = 1.8 DT(K ) = DT(R )

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak
of pressure only when we deal with gas or liquid. The counterpart of
pressure is stress i . e., force per unit area.
1 pascal = 1N/m 2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
1 kg f/cm 2 = 9.807 N /cm 2
= 9.807 ´ 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar
= 0.96788 atm
238 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The actual pressure at a given position is called absolute pressure and it


is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i . e., absolute zero pressure)
pgauge = pabs - patm
(for pressures above patm) pgauge
pvac = patm - pabs
(for pressures below patm) pvac pabs
patm patm
where, pgauge = gauge pressure
pabs
pabs = absolute pressure
patm = atomic pressure Absolute pabs = 0
vacuum

Key Points
✦ Isolated system is special case of closed system in which mass and energy
both are not allowed to cross the system.
✦ Concepts of continuum is valid only from the macroscopic point of view (not
macroscopic point of view). It is not valid for similar dimensions of system
and molecules and valid only when size of system is large relative to space
between the molecules.
✦ Thermal equilibrium between two or more bodies exists when they are
brought together, there is no change of temperature, density pressure.

Laws of Thermodynamics
The four laws of thermodynamics define fundamental physical quantities
(temperature, energy and entropy) that characterise thermodynamic
systems. The laws described how these quantities behave under various
circumstances and forbid certain phenomena.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics


The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if In thermal
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a 1st equilibrium 2nd
third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
In

al
rm
th

ium
eq

with each other. It may seem silly that such an


e

e
uil

rm

th

ibr

obvious fact is called one of the basic laws of


ibr

al

In

uil
iu m

eq

thermodynamics. By replacing the third body 3rd


with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
Representation of zeroth
restated as “two bodies are in thermal law of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics 239

equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not
in contact”.

Heat and Work


Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two
systems (or system and its surrounding) by virtue of a temperature
difference.
And if energy interaction between two systems (or system and its
surrounding) is not caused by a temperature difference then it is called work.

First Law of Thermodynamics


It is based on conservation of energy according to which total amount of
energy in any thermodynamics system remains constant. Energy cannot
be destroyed or produced, it can only be converted from one form to
another form.
It states that whenever a closed system executes a cyclic process, the
algebraic sum of work transfer is proportional to algebraic sum of heat
transfers.
Mathematically, ò dQ = ò dW

Heat is given to a closed system is equal to sum of work done by a system


and change in internal energy of the system.
DQ = DU + DW
where DQ and DW are infinitesimal amounts of heat supplied to the system
by its surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings,
respectively and DU is an infinitesimal change in internal energy.

Key Points
✦ If heat is given to the system then in equation we put DQ as positive. In case
of heat is given by the system we put DQ as negative.
✦ If work is done by system then we take DW as positive. However, if work is
done on the system then we put DW as negative.
✦ DU is known as internal energy. It is path independent and it depends on the
final stage (temperature) and initial stage (temperature).
DU = mCV ( DT )
240 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Work Done in Moving the Boundaries of a Closed


System 1
Suppose a gas contained in piston cylinder expands
from position 1 to 2, then work done by the gas p
V2 2
DW = òV
1
p dV dV
V
Piston cylinder
expands from 1 to 2
Constant Volume Process (Isochoric Process)
In isochoric process, volume is constant during
process.
Work done dW = p dV = 0 1 2
Heat supplied to system dQ = mCV dT p
DQ = mCV(T2 - T1)
where, Cv = Specific heat for constant volume
V
process Constant pressure
Change in internal energy of system process
dU = mCV dT
DU = mCV (T2 - T1)
Constant Pressure Process (Isobaric Process)
In isobaric process, pressure is constant
throughout process
1
DW = p2V2 - p1V1
= mR (T2 - T1) p
2
DQ = mCp(T2 - T1)
DU = mCV(T2 - T1) V
Constant volume
Constant Temperature (Isothermal Process) heating process
In isothermal process, temperature is constant during process. If an ideal
gas follows a constant temperature process, then
Boyle’s law is 1
pV = constant
p
V 2
DW = p2V2 ln 2
V1
V
V Isothermal process
or DW = mRT ln 2
V1
Thermodynamics 241

DU = 0 (as T2 = T1)
V V V
DQ = DW = p2V2 ln 2 = p2 V2 ln 2 = mRT ln 2
V1 V1 V1

Reversible Adiabatic Process


In reversible adiabatic process there is no heat
1
transfer between the system and the surrounding
i.e., Q = 0 p
Cp 2
pV g = constant, g=
CV V
Reversed adiabatic
where, r = adiabatic index
process
Cp = specific heat for constant pressure
p V - p2V2 mR (T1 - T2 )
DW = 1 1 =
g -1 g -1
DQ = 0 (No heat transfer from surrounding)
DU = - DW , (0 = DU + DW)
Reversible Polytropic Process
In polytropic process, both heat and work transfers take place. The
process equation is represented by p. V n = C where n is called the index of
process or polytropic index.
p V - p2 V2 mR (T1 -T2 )
DW = 1 1 = 1
n-1 n-1
p
DU = mCV (T2 - T1) 2
g-n
or DQ = ´ DW V
g -1 Reversible polytropic
where, n = polytropic index process

Second law of Thermodynamics


Second law has been mentioned by two statements “Clausius and Kelvin-
Planck statement”. Each statement is based on irreversible process.

Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device operating on a cycle whose sole
effect is the transfer of heat from a low temperature body to high
temperature body.
242 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible to construct a device operating on a cycle whose sole
effect is transfer of heat energy from a single heat reservoir and deliver
equivalent amount of energy by work.

Perpetual Motion Machines (PMM)


Any device that violates either first law or second law of thermodynamics is
known as perpetual motion machine.
These machines are of two types given in table
Perpetual Motion Machines
S. No. PMM 1 PMM 2
1. PMM 1 is that machine which violates PMM 2 is that machine which violates
first law of thermodynamics. second law of thermodynamics.
2. It produces continuous work without This machine exchange heat from a
receiving energy from other systems single reservoir and do equal amount
Q = 0 ® PMM1 ® W of work Q ® PMM1 ® W

Note Violation of Kelvin-Planck statement leads to violation of Clausius


statement and vice-versa.

Third Law of Thermodynamics


It states that entropy of all perfect crystalline solids is zero at absolute zero
temperature. It means zero entropy datum is chosen at 0°C or 273 K.

Free Expansion Process


The expansion of a gas against vacuum is called free expansion.
DW = 0, DQ = DU
In case of reversible adiabatic free expansion process,
DW = 0 ; DQ = 0 ; DU = 0
Reversible Polytropic Process
Processes in which pV n = constant
These material should be given before second law of thermodynamics
(after reversible polytropic process)
n = ± ¥ (V = C )
Thermodynamics 243

n=±¥ n = g, n = ± ¥ (V = C)
n=g n = –2
n = –1 n = –1
n=1
n = 0 (p = C )
n = – 0.5
p n = 0(p=0) T n=1
n = 1 (T=constant)
n = g (d=C)

V S
p-V and T-S diagrams
dp p
pV n = C, =- n
dV V
The slope of curve increases in the negative direction with increase of n
for Isobaric process ( p = C ) n = 0
Isothermal process ( p = C ) n = 1
Isentropic process (S = C ) n = g
Isometric or isochoric process (V = C ) n = ¥
Ideal Gas Equation (IGE)
m
pV = nRT, pV = RT
M
where, m = Weight of gas, M = Molecular weight
(R = 8.3143 kJ /kg mol-K)
æRö
or pV = m ç ÷ T
èMø
R
pV = mRT Þ R =
M
8.3143 8.3143
Rair = = 0.287 kJ /kg-K Þ RO 2 = = 0.262 kJ/kg-K
28.96 32

Key Points
✦ For calculating heat transfer in reversible polytropic process, if change in
n-g
potential energy is given use, formula DQ = ( DU)
n -1
g -n
If work done is given, use formula DQ = ( DW )
g -1
✦ In case of reversible adiabatic free expansion process DW = 0, DQ = 0, DU = 0
✦ For an isolate system DQ = 0, DW = 0
DU = 0
Þ U = constant
✦ Internal energy is function of temperature only U = f (T )
244 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Steady Flow Open System


If mass and energy both transfer across the boundary of system. Then, the
system is categorised as open system.
Flow
2 out
m2
Flow 1 Steady flow
in device Z2
CS
m1
Z1 Control volume
Datum

Steady flow open system

In case of steady flow, there is no accusation of mass or energy within the


control volume and property at any location within the control volume are
steady with time.
So, min = mout
where, min = Mass flow rate within the system
mout = Mass flow rate outside the system
Many flow processes, such as filling up and evacuating gas cylinders, are
not steady. Such processes can be analysed by the control volume
technique.
Let A1, A2 ® Cross-sections of stream ( m 2 )
· ·
m 1, m 2 ® Mass flow rate (kg/s)
p1, p2 ® Absolute pressure (N/m 2)
V1, V2 ® Specific volume (m 2/kg)
u 1, u 2 ® Specific internal energy (J/kg)
V1, V2 ® Velocities in m/s
Z 1, Z 2 ® Elevation above an arbitrary datum, (m).
dQ
® Net rate of heat transfer through the control surface (J/s)
dt
dWx
® Net rate of work transfer through the control surface (J/s)
dt
For steady flow process,
· · A1V1 A2V2
Mass balance m1 = m2 Þ =
v1 v2
Thermodynamics 245

Energy balance
· æ v2 ö dQ · æ v2 ö dW
m 1 ç h1 + 1 + Z 1 g ÷ + = m 2 ç h2+ 2 + Z 2 g ÷ +
è 2 ø dt è 2 ø dt
Steady Four Energy Equation (SFEE)
v 12 dQ v2 dW
h1 + + Z1 g + = h2 + 2 + Z 2g +
2 dm 2 dm

Key Points
✦ The first law of thermodynamics may be applied to flow processes.
✦ A control surface is the boundary of a control volume which is a fixed region
in space upon which attention is concentrated in the analysis of a problem.
✦ A steady flow process is a process in which all conditions within the control
volume remain constant with time.

Variable Flow Process


Consider a device through which a fluid is flowing under non-steady state
conditions. The rate at which dQ
the mass of fluid within the dt
control volume is accumulated 2
is equal to the net rate of mass m2
flow across the control surface 1
CV
as given below. m1
dmV
= m1 - m2 dW
dt dt
dmV dm1 dm2 Variable flow process
= -
dt dt dt
where mV is the mass of fluid within the control volume at any instant over
any finite period of time.]
DmV = Dm1 - Dm2
where mV = Mass of fluid within the control volume
The rate of accumulation of energy within the control volume is equal to the
net rate of energy flow across the control surface. If EV is the energy of fluid
within the control volume at any instant.
Rate of energy increases
= Rate of energy inflow - Rate of energy outflow
dEV æ v2 ö dQ æ v2 ö dW
= m1 ç h1 + 1 + Z 1 g ÷ + - m2 ç h2 + 2 + Z 2 g ÷ -
dt è 2 ø dt è 2 ø dt
246 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

æ mv 2 ö
EV = çU + + mgZ ÷
è 2 øV
where, EV = Energy of fluid within the control volume at any instant.
d æ m v2 ö æ v2 ö dm1 dQ
çU + + mg Z ÷ = ç h1 + 1 + Z 1 g ÷ +
dt è 2 øV è 2 ø dt dt
æ v2 ö dm2 dW
- ç h2+ 2 + Z 2 g ÷ -
è 2 ø dt dt
æ v 2 ö æ v 2 ö
or DEV = Q - Wx+ ò ç h1+ 1 + Z 1 g ÷ dm1 - ò ç h2+ 2 + Z 2 g ÷ dm2
è 2 ø è 2 ø
The above equation is general equation for steady flow
dEV
=0
dt
For closed system, m1 = 0, m2 = 0
dEV dQ dW
= - Þ dEV = dQ - dW
dt dt dt

Carnot Cycle
The carnot cycle can be described that it is the most efficient cycle for
converting a given amount of thermal energy into work, or conversely,
creating a temperature difference by doing a given amount of work.
The cycle consists of two isothermal and two irreversible adiabatic
processes.
Isothermal expansion Isothermal compression
p 1 p 1
2 2

Adiabatic Adiabatic
expansion Adiabatic compression
Adiabatic 4 expansion 4
compression 3 3
Isothermal compression Isothermal expansion

V V
Carnot engine Carnot heat pump

In process (1-2), heat Q, is gained by fluid at constant temperature. In


process (3-4), heat Q 2 is rejected by fluid at constant temperature.
For Carnot engine,
Thermodynamics 247

Thermal efficiency,
Q - Q 2 æ Work done ö
hthermal = 1 ç ÷
Q 1 è Heat supplied ø
T2
hthermal = 1 - is called the efficiency of Carnot cycle.
T1

Carnot’s Theorem
It states that any heat engine operating on a cycle between two heat
reservoirs at different fixed temperature limits cannot be more efficient than
a reversible engine.

Corollary of Carnot’s Theorem


Efficiency of all reversible heat engines operating between the same
temperature level is the same.

The Inequality of Clausius


Inequality of Clausius provide criterion of the reversibility of cycle.
dQ
ò T £0
where dQ = Heat transfer at a part of system boundard
T = Absolute temperature
dQ
If ò T = 0 Þ the cycle is reversible
dQ
ò T < 0 Þ the cycle is irreversible and possible
dQ
ò T > 0 Þ the cycle is impossible since it violates the second law.
Note For an irreversible process, change in entropy
dS ³ æç
dQ ö
÷
èT ø

S 2 - S1 > æç ò
2 dQ ö
Þ ÷
è 1 T øirreversible path

S 2 - S1 = æç ò
2dQö
Þ ÷
è 1 T øreversible path
where, S = Strength of the inequality
Entropy
Entropy is a function of a quantity of heat
Reversible path
which shows the possibility of conversion of which replaces the
that heat into work. In other words, entropy irreversible path
shows the randomness of molecules. So, i R
entropy of solid is almost equal to zero while T
f
entropy of gases is large. Entropy is property
dS
of system and it is an extensive property.
Mathematically, Si Sf
æ dQ ö S
dS = ç ÷ (R ® Reversible process)
è T øR T-S diagram

dS is an exact differential because S is point function.


Integration can be done only on a reversible path
f dQ
Sf - Si = ò rev
= ( DS )rev path
i T
In the case of process reversible and adiabatic,
dQrev
dS = Þ dS = 0 (dQrev = 0)
T
So, a reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.

Entropy shows the randomness of molecules.

Entropy of solid is considered almost zero and gases have greater
value of entropy.

The increment in entropy is greater when heat is added at low
temperature.

Principle of Increase of Entropy


Entropy change of system and surrounding during a process between two
equilibrium states is always equal to or greater than zero.
( DS )system+ ( DS )surrounding ³ 0
DSuniverse ³ 0, - DSuniverse = 0
If process is reversible, DSuniverse = 0
If process is irreversible, DSuniverse > 0

Entropy Changes for a Closed System


Let m kg of gas at pressure p1, volume V1, temperature T1 and entropy S 1 be
heated and these state variable quantities become final pressure p2,
volume V2, temperature T2 and entropy S 2, respectively.
Thermodynamics 249

æT ö æV ö
S 2 - S 1 = mCV ln ç 2 ÷ + mR ln ç 2 ÷
è T1 ø è V1 ø
p2 V
or DS = mCV ln + mCp ln 2
p1 V1
T2 p2
or DS = mCp ln - mR ln
T1 p1

Important Formulae
T2
■ In constant volume process, DS = mC V ln
T1
T2
■ In constant pressure process, DS = mC p ln
T1
V2
■ In isothermal process, DS = mR ln
V1
■ In adiabatic process (reversible), DS = 0
æ n - g ö T2
■ In polytropic process (reversible), DS = mC V ç ÷ ln
è n - 1 ø T1

Applications of Entropy Principle


The principle of increase of entropy is one of the most important laws of
physical science. The higher the entropy increase of the universe, the
higher will be irreversibility of the process.
The few applications of the entropy principle are illustrated in the following

Transfer of Heat through a Finite Temperature


Difference
Let Q be the rate of heat transfer from reservoir A at T1 to reservoir B at
T2 (T1 > T2 ).

T1 T2

Reservoir A Reservoir B
Transfer of heat in reservoirs A and B

DSuniversal = DS A + DS B
Q Q
DSuniversal = - +
T1 T2
250 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Mixing of Two Fluids


Subsystem 1 having a fluid of mass m1, specific heat C1 and temperature t 1
and subsystem 2 consisting of mass m2, specific heat C2 and temperature
t 2 comprise a composite system in an adiabatic enclosure.

m1 m2
C1 C2 t1 > t 2
Subsystem 1 t1 t2 Subsystem t 2

Mixing of two fluids of mass m1 and m2


m1 C1 t 1 + m2 C2 t 2
tf =
m1 C1 + m2 C2
Tf T
DSuniversal = m1 C1 ln + m2 C2 ln f
T1 T2
T T
DSuniversal = m1 C1 ln f + m2 C2 ln f
T1 T2
DSuniversal will be positive definite and mixing process is irreversible.

Two Finite Bodies at Temperatures T1 and T2


Maximum work obtainable from two finite bodies at temperature T1 and T2.
Body 1
T1®Tf
Q1

HE W =Q1 –Q2

Q2
Body 2
T2®Tf

Two bodies at temperatures T1 and T2


W = Q 1- Q 2
W = Cp(T1+ T2 - 2Tf )
Tf T
DSuniversal = Cp ln + Cp ln f ³ 0
T1 T2
For Wmax Tf ,
Tf = T1T2
Wmax = Cp ( T1 - T2 )2
Thermodynamics 251

Maximum Work Obtainable from a Finite Body


and a TER

T0 Q - W Body T
DSuniversal = Cp ln +
T T0 Q
é Tù
Wmax = Cp ê(T - T0 ) - T0 ln ú HE W
ë T0 û
Here, TER stands for Thermal Energy Q–W
Reservior. TER
T0
Work W obtained from a
finite body and TER

Entropy Generation in a Closed System


The entropy of any closed system can increase in two ways

By heat interaction in which there is entropy transfer.

By internal irreversibilities or dissipative effects in which work is
dissipated into internal energy increase.
Entropy production
2 dQ
Sgen = S 2 - S 1 - ò
1 T
Entropy
change Entropy
transfer
dQ dQ
dS gen = dS - or dS = dSgen +
T T
On a time rate basis, the entropy balance can be written as
dS Qj
=S + Sgen
dt Tj

Entropy Generation in an Open System


From the second law inequality
dS Q
³ S mi S i - S meSe +
dt T
Rate of increase Net rate of
of entropy entropy transfer
dS Q
= S miS i - S meSe + + S gen
dt T
252 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

At the steady state,


S mi = S me = m
i e
Q
0= + S miS i - S meSe + Sgen
T e

1 æ Q ö Sgen
S2 - S1 = ç ÷+
m èT ø m

First and Second Law Combination


From first and second law equation we can relate the properties of the
system.
From the second law,
dQrev = T × dS
From first law ,
For a closed non-flow system,
dQ = dU + pdV ; T dS = dU + pdV
The enthalpy H = U + p×V (for reversible process)
dH = dU + pdV + V dp
dH = T dS + V dp {dU + pdV = dQrev }
T dS = dH - V dp
or T ds = dh - V dp

Reversible Adiabatic Work in a Steady Flow


System
Reversible adiabatic work can be find out by using equation given as,
2
Wx = h1 - h2 = - ò V dp = Area 12 ab
1

where, h1 and h2 are the enthalpy at 1 and 2, respectively.

1
p b

a
2

V
Reversible adiabatic work
Availability and Irreversibility
The sources of energy can be divided into two groups i . e., high grade
energy (mechanical work, electrical energy, water power, wind power) and
low grade energy (heat or thermal energy, heat derived from nuclear fission
or combustion of fossil fuels). That part of the low grade energy which is
available for, conversion is referred to as available energy, while the part
which is not available is known as unavailable energy.

Availability
When a system is subjected to a process from its original state to dead
state the maximum amount of useful work that can be achieved under ideal
conditions is known as available energy or availability of the system.

T1 y

Q1 T Available
Qxy energy
e Wmax = AE x Wmax = Wxy

Q2 = UE T0 unavailable
energy
T2
S
Availability and unavailability of energy

Wmax = AE = Q xy - T0(S y - S x )
Unavailable Energy UE = T0 (S y - S x )
where, S x and S y are the entropy at x and y, respectively.
The Available Energy (AE) is also known as exergy and the Unavailable
Energy (UE) as anergy.

1
Available Energy from a mg T
Finite Energy Source
p Q1
Let us consider a hot gas of mass mg at mf WE= AE
temperature T when the environmental
3 2
temperature is T0.
Q2
Let us gas be cooled from state 1 to state
3 and heat given by the gas Q 1 be utilised
in heating up reversibly a working fluid of 5 V 4
mass mwf from state 3 to state 1. The Availability of an energy
254 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

working fluid expands reversibly and adiabatically in an engine or turbine


from state 1 to state 2 and then return to state 3 to complete heat engine
cycle.
Available energy of a finite energy source
Available energy = Wmax = Q 1- Q 2
T
= mg Cpg (T - T0 ) - T0 mg Cpg ln
T0
é Tù
= mg Cpg ê(T - T0 ) - T0 ln ú
ë T0 û

Law of Degradation of Energy


First law states that energy is always conserved quantity wise while second
law emphasises that energy always degrades quality wise. Second law is
called the law of degradation of energy. Energy is always conserved but
its quality is always degraded.
éall the energy ù éall the energy ù é the gain inù é the gain in ù
ê that enters ú = ê that leaves ú + êreversible ú + êirreversible ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
êë the system úû êë the system úû êëenergy úû êëenergy úû
Reversible work by an open system exchanging heat only with the
surroundings.
æ v2 ö æ v2 ö
dWmax = dm1 ç h1 - T0 S 1 + 1 + gZ 1÷ - dm2 ç h2 - T0 S 2 + 2 + gZ 2 ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
æ m v2 ö
- d çU - T0 S + + mgZ ÷
è 2 ø
where, Z 1 and Z 2 are the elevation at 1 and 2, respectively.
For steady flow process, Þ dm1 = dm2 = dm
dEV = 0
The maximum reversible work,
éæ v2 ö æ v2 öù
dWmax = dm ê ç h1 - T0 S 1 + 1 + gZ 1÷ - ç h2 - T0 S 2 + 2 + gZ 2 ÷ ú
êë è 2 ø è 2 ø úû
The expression ( H - T0 S ) is called Kennan function B. In term of per unit
mass (h - T0 &) is called Kennan function B.
æ mv 12 ö æ mv 22 ö
Wmax = ç b1 + + mg Z 1÷ - ç b2 + + mgZ 2 ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
= y1 - y2
Thermodynamics 255

where, y is called the availability function of a steady flow process


given by
mv 2
y=b+ + mgZ
2
If DKE = 0 and DPE = 0
Wmax = b1 - b2 = ( h1 - h2 ) - T0 (S 1 - S 2 )
Maximum reversible work for a closed system,
dm1 = dm2 = 0
é mv 2 ù
dWmax = - d êU - T0 S + + mgZ ú
ë 2 û
= - d [ E - T0 S ]
2
mv
where, E = u + + mgZ ; Wmax = ( E1 - T0 S 1) - ( E2 - T0 S 2 )
2
DKE = 0, DPE = 0; Wmax = (U1 - T0 S 1) - (U2 - T0 S 2 )
where, DKE = Change in kinetic energy
DPE = Change in potential energy
Maximum reversible work for unit mass of fluid,
Wmax = (U1 - T0 S 1) - (U1 - T0 S 2 )

Useful Work
Maximum useful work (Wu )max = Wmax - p0(V2 - V1)
V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes of the systems and p0 is the
atmospheric pressure.

Useful Work for Unsteady Open System


æ v2 ö æ v2 ö
(dWu ) = dm1 ç h1 - T0 S 1+ 1 + gZ 1÷ - dm2 ç h2 - T0 S 2+ 2 + gZ 2 ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
é mv 2 ù
- d êU + p0V - T0 S + + mgZ ú
ë 2 û
Useful Work for Unsteady Closed System
é mv 2 ù
(dWu )max = - d êU + p0V - T0S + + mgZ ú
ë 2 û
= - d [ E + p0V - T0S ]
(Wu )max = E1 - E2 + p0(V1 - V2 ) - T0 (S 1 - S 2 )
256 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

DKE = 0, DPE = 0
(Wu )max = U1 - U2 + p0 (V1 - V2 ) - T0 (S 1 - S 2 )
(Wu )max = (U1+ p0V - T0S 1) - (U2 + p0V2 - T0S 2 )
(Wu )max = f 1 - f 2
f is called the availability function for a closed system,
f = U + p0V - T0 S
or f = u + p0v - T0s (per unit mass basis)
Maximum useful work obtainable when the system exchanges heat with
a thermal reservoirs in addition to the atmosphere
æ mv 12 ö æ mv 22 ö
(Wu )max = ç h1 - T0 S 1 + + mgZ 1÷ - ç h2 - T0 S 2 + + mgZ 2 ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
æ mv 2 ö æ T ö
- çU - T0 S + + mgZ ÷ + Q R ç1 - 0 ÷
è 2 ø è TR ø
æ TR ® Temperature of reservoir ö
ç ÷
èQ R ® Heat received by system ø
Dead State
When the system is in equilibrium with surrounding with temperature T0 and
pressure p0 and the system also in chemical equilibrium with zero velocity
and minimum potential energy. Then, it is called the dead state. All
spontaneous processes terminates at the dead state.

Irreversibility
The actual work done by a system is always less than idealised reversible
work and the difference between the two is called the irreversibility of the
process.
I = Wmax - W
I = T0 ( DSsystem + DSsurrounding )
I = T0( DS )universal
T0( DS )universal represent an increase in unavailable energy.

Goby-Stodola Theorem Insulation


1 2
It states that the rate of loss of available energy
or exergy in a process is proportional to the
rate of entropy generation Sgen
I = Wlost = T0 DSuniversal
I = T0 Sgen
where, I = irreversibility Goby-Stodola theorem
Thermodynamics 257

Irreversibility for adiabatic flow of an ideal gas through the segment of pipe
with friction decreases in availability and is proportional to pressure drop
and mass flow rate.
Dp
I = Wlost = T0 Sgen Þ I = mRT0
p1

Key Points
✦ The term Kennan function B ( = H - To S) is used in steady flow process and
availability function is given by
mv 2
Y =B + + mgZ
2
✦ For closed system availability function is given by
ò = U + p0V - T0 S and a = ò - ò 0 where ò 0 = U0 + p0 V0 - T0 S 0
✦ Property Helmholty function F-be defined by the relation F = U - TS
✦ Given function G is defined as G = H - TS = U + pV - TS

Properties of Pure Substance


A pure substance is a material with homogeneous and invariable composition.
Pure substances can have multiple phases, an ice water mixture is still a pure
substance but an air-steam is not a pure substance.

Pure Substance
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a
pure substance i.e., water, nitrogen, helium,
and CO 2. Substances which are mixture of Vapour Vapour
various elements or compounds also qualifies
as a pure substances as long as mixture is Liquid Liquid
homogeneous. (a) H O (b) Air
2

Saturation Temperature and Saturation


Pressure
At given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat . Likewise at a given
temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase is
258 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

called the saturation pressure psat . e.g., for water at a pressure of 101.325
kPa, Tsat is 100°C, conversely at a temperature of 100°C, psat is 101.325
kPa.

Latent Heat
The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase change
process is called the latent heat. More specifically, the amount of energy
absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of vaporisation. Similarly,
the amount of energy absorbed during vaporisation is called latent heat of
vaporisation and is equivalent to the energy released during condensation.

Liquid-Vapour Saturation Curve


From the figure, it is clear that Tsat increases with psat . Thus, a substance at
higher pressure will boil at higher temperatures.
Tsat = f ( psat )
Psat
kPa
600

400

200

0
50 100 150 200 Tsat ºC
A liquid-vapour saturation curve of a pure
substance

Key Points
✦ In the kitchen, higher boiling temperature means shorter cooking time and
energy saving.
✦ The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature of water,
decreases with elevation. Therefore, it takes longer time to cook at higher
altitudes than it does at sea level.
Thermodynamics 259

Property Diagrams for Phase-change


Process
The T -V Diagram
● Consider a piston cylinder device containing liquid water at 20°C and
1 atm.
● Water will start boiling at a much higher temperature (179.9°C) at inside
pressure of the cylinder reaches at 1 MP.
● The specific volume of the saturated liquid is larger and the specific
volume of the saturated vapour is smaller than the corresponding
values at 1 atm pressure. That is, the horizontal line that connects the
saturated liquid and saturated vopour states is much shorter.
● As the pressure is increased further, this saturation line will continue to
get shorter as shown in figure and it will become a point when the
pressure reaches 22.09 MPa for the case of water. This point is called
the critical point and it is defined as the point at which the saturated
liquid and saturated vapour state are identical.
For water, critical pressure pcr = 22.09 MPa
critical temperature Tcr = 374.14° C
critical volume Vcr = 0.003155 m 3 / kg

At pressure above the critical pressure, there will not be a distinct phase
change. Instead, the specific volume of the substance will continually
increase and at all times there will be only one phase present. It is
T ºC
Pa
M

Critical pcr = 22.09 MPa


25

point
=

p = 15 MPa
p

374.14º p = 8 MPa

p = 1 MPa
p = 0.1 MPa
p = 0.01 MPa

Saturated
Saturated vapour
liquid
0.003155 V, m3/kg
T - V diagram of constant pressure phase-change process of a
pure substances at various pressures.
260 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

customary to refer to the substance as superheated vapour at


temperature above the critical temperature and as compressed liquid at
temperatures below the critical temperature.

The p-V Diagram


The general shape of the p -V diagram of a pure substance is very much
like the T -V diagram but the T = constant lines on this diagram have a
downward trend.
Consider again a piston cylinder device that contains liquid water at 1 MPa
and 150°C, water at this state exists as a compressed liquid. Now, the
weights on top of the piston are removed one by one so that the pressure
inside the cylinder decreases
Critical
gradually. The water is p
point
allowed to exchange heat Superheated
with the surroundings so its Compressed vapour
liquid region
temperature remains region
constant. As the pressure T2 = constant>T1
decreases, the volume of the T1 = constant
Saturated
water will increase slightly, liquid-vapour
when the pressure reaches region
the saturation pressure V
volume at the specific p - V diagram of pure substance
temperature, the water will
start to boil.
During this vaporisation process, both the temperature and the pressure
remain constant but the specific volume increases. Once the last drop of
liquid is vaporised further reduction in pressure results in a further increase
in specific volume.
If the process is repeated for other temperatures similar paths will be
obtained for the phase change processes.

Triple Phase
When all three phases of a pure substance co-exist in equilibrium. It is
called triple phase.
Triple phase states form a line called the triple line. The triple line appears
as a point on the p -T diagram and therefore is often called the triple point.
Thermodynamics 261

p Critical
point
Liquid
Solid Vapour
+
Liquid

Triple line
Solid

V
For triple phase

Key Points
✦ No substance can exist in the liquid phase in stable equilibrium at pressure
below the triple point pressure.
✦ The same can be said for temperature for substance that contract on freezing.
✦ Substances at high pressure can exist in the liquid phase at temperatures
below the triple point temperature.

The p-T Diagram


Solid - Liquid = Fusion
Liquid - Vapour = Vaporisation
Solid - Vapour = Sublimation
Substances that Substances that
expand on contract on
freezing freezing
p
lting
Me

Critical
ltin

Me

Liquid point
g

Solid

ti on Triple
ma point Vapour
bli
Su
T
p -T diagram of pure substances

Enthalpy
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It
includes energy required to create a system and the amount of energy
required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing
its volume and pressure.
262 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

For certain type of processes particularly in power generation and


refrigeration. We define the new combination property enthalpy.
Enthalpy, H = U + pV (kJ)
or per unit mass h = u + pV (kJ / kg )
Professer Richard Mollier recognised the importance of the group (u + pV )
in the analysis of steam turbine and in the representation of properties of
steam in tabular and graphical form.

Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapour States


Subscript f ® properties of saturated liquid
Subscript g ® properties of saturated vapour
Vf ® specific volume of saturated liquid
Vg ® specific volume of saturated vapour
Vfg ® difference between Vg and Vf
Vfg = Vg - Vf
hfg ® enthalpy of vaporisation or latent heat of vaporisation (amount of
energy need to vaporise a unit mass of saturated liquid at a given
temperature of pressure).

Key Points
✦ The magnitude of latent heat depends on temperature and pressure at which
phase change occurs.
for e.g., at 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and
latent heat of vaporisation is 2257.1 kJ/kg.
✦ At below triple point pressure, substance begins to change directly gas.
✦ Enthalpy of vaporisation decreases as the temperature or pressure increases
and become zero at the critical point.

Saturated Liquid Vapour Mixture


During vaporisation process, a p or T
substance exists as part liquid
and part vapour. A new Vfg
property quality x is the ratio of
Vav-Vf
mass of vapour to the total
A B C
mass of the mixture
Quality or dryness fraction
mvapour
x= V
mtotal Vf Vav Vg

p-V diagram
Thermodynamics 263

where, mtotal = mliquid + mvapour


= mf + mg
where, mf = mass of the saturated liquid
mg = mass of the saturated vapour
Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only. It has no meaning in
the compressed liquid or superheated region. Its value lie between 0
(saturated liquid) and 1 (saturated vapour).

Note The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists
alone or in a mixture with saturated vapour. During vaporization
process, only the amount of saturated liquid changes not its properties.
The same can be said about a saturated vapour.

AB Vav - Vf
Quality x= Þ x=
AC Vfg
Vav = (1 - x ) Vf + xVg or Vav = Vf + x Vfg
Similarly, Uav = Uf + x Ufg
Þ hav = hf + x hfg

Superheated Vapour
Since, the superheated region is a single phase region (vapour phase only)
temperature and pressure are no longer dependent properties and they
can conveniently be used as the two independent properties.
Superheated vapour is characterised by
Lower pressures ( p < psat at a given T )
Higher temperatures (T > Tsat at a given p)
Higher specific volumes (U > Vg at a given p or T )
Higher internal energies (U > Ug at a given p or T)
Higher enthalpies ( h > hg at a given p or T )

Compressed Liquid
A compressed liquid may be approximated as a saturated liquid at the
given temperature. This is because the compressed liquid properties
depend on temperature much more strongly than they do on the pressure.
So, given p and T V @ Vf
u @ uf
h @ hf
264 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

In general, a compressed liquid is characterised by


Higher pressures ( p > psat at a given T )
Lower temperatures (T < Tsat at a given p)
Lower specific volumes (V < Vf at a given p or T )
Lower internal energies (U < Uf at a given p or T )
Lower enthalpies ( h < hf at a given p or T )

Specific Heat
Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by one degree. When this energy is required at
constant volume then it is denoted by CV . Similarly, when energy is
required at constant pressure then it is denoted by Cp .

Note C p > CV
Because at constant pressure, the system is allowed to expand and the
energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system.

Key Points
¶U
✦ CV = æç ö÷ = the change in internal energy with temperature at constant
è ¶T øV
volume.
¶h
✦ C p = æç ö÷ = the change in enthalpy with temperature at constant pressure.
è ¶T ø p
✦ These two equations are property relations and as such are independent of the
type of processes. They are valid for any substance undergoing any process.

Internal Energy
For an ideal gas internal energy is a function of the temperature only.
U = U (T )
However, for gases that deviate significantly from ideal gas behaviour,
the internal energy is not a function of temperature only.
Using definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an ideal gas
h = U + pV h = U + RT
pV = RT
So, h = h (T )
So, we can express the change in internal energy
dU = CV(T ) dT
Thermodynamics 265

2
DU = U2 - U1 = ò1 CV (T ) dT
2
and Dh = h2 - h1 = ò Cp (T ) dT
1
Since, h = U + RT ; dh = dU + R dT
Replacing dh = Cp dT, dU = CV dT
Cp dT = CV dT+ R dT
Cp = CV + R (kJ/kg K)
Cp
Specific heat ratio k =
CV
Air at 300 K CV = 0718
. kJ / kg-K
R = 0.287 kJ / kg-K
Cp = 1005
. kJ/ kg-K
or on molar basis Cv = 20.80 kJ / k mol - K
Ru = 8.314 kJ / k mol-K
Cp = 29114
. kJ / k mol-K

The Ideal Gas Equation of State


Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and specific volume of
a substance is called an equation of state. Property relations that involve
other properties of a substance at equilibrium states are also referred to as
equation of state.
Ideal gas equation of state
pV = RT,
where, p = Absolute pressure, T = Absolute temperature
V = Specific volume

Key Points
✦ Gas and vapour are often used as synonymous words.
✦ The vapour phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it is above
the critical temperature.
✦ Vapour usually implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation.

Gas Constant
It has been experimentally observed that the ideal gas relation given
closely approximately the p-V -T behaviour of real gases at low densities. At
266 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

low pressure and high temperature, the density of a gas decreases and the
gas behaves as an ideal gas under these conditions.
R
R= u
M
where, Ru = Universal gas constant, M = Molar mass, R = Gas constant.

Compressibility Factor
Compressibility factor (correction factor) is measurement of deviation of
gases from ideal gas behaviour.
pV
Compressibility factor, z= or pV = zRT
RT
It can also be expressed as
V RT
z = actual , where Videal =
Videal p
For ideal gases Þ z = 1
For real gases Þ z is away from unity ( > 1or < 1)
Reduce Pressure and Temperature
Gases behave differently at a given T Non-ideal
temperature and pressure, but they gas behaviour
behave very much the same at
temperature and pressures normalised
with respect to their critical temperatures
and pressures.
The normalisation is done as introducing Ideal gas
new terms, behaviour

p V
Reduce pressure pR = The deviation of a gas from ideal
pc r
gas behaviour
T
and reduce temperature TR =
Tcr
where, Tcr = critical temperature
pcr = critical pressure
z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same reduced
pressure and temperature is greatest in the vicinity of the critical point.

Gases deviate from the ideal gas behaviour most in the neighbourhood
of the critical point. So, we can say that at critical point. Compressibility
factor is constant for all substances.
Thermodynamics 267

● As mention above z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the
same reduced pressure and temperature.
pseudo reduced specific volume VR
Vactual
VR =
RTCr / pCr
VR is defined differently from pR and TR . It is related to TCr and pCr instead
of VCr .

Key Points
pcVc
✦ All substances have same critical compressibility factor Z c =
RTc
Experimental value of Z c for most substances fall within a narrow range of
. - 0.33.
020
✦ Z the compressibility factor is the same function of Pr and Tr for all gases.
✦ Specific heat at constant pressure and volume are the properties of the
Cp
substances and are always properties since Cp > CV , >0
CV

Other Equations of State


Some other equations of state are given below

Van der Waal’s Equation of State


æ aö
ç p + 2 ÷ (V - b ) = RT p
è V ø
Critical state
Two effects pc
a
(i) 2 , Inter molecular attraction
V
forces
T =Tc
(ii) b accounts for volume occupied
by the gas molecules
V
Above equation can also be written Vc
RT a Critical properties on p - V diagram
as p = -
V - b V2
pV 3 - ( pb + RT ) V 2+ aV - ab = 0
pr = 0 ; pr Vr = 0, 9
9 ( pr Vr ) - ( pr Vr )2
pr =
6
268 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Differentiating pr w.r.t. pr Vr
dpr
= 9 - 2 ( pr Vr ) = 0 ; pr Vr = 4.5
d ( pr Vr )

Tr = 2.8

Tr = TB = 2.54

prVr
Tr = 2
Locus passing through the
minima of the isotherms
Tr = 1.7
Tr = 1.0
Tr = 0.9
Tr = 0.8

O pr
pr versus pr Vr graph

9 ´ 4.5 - ( 4.5)2
pr = = 3.375
6
The parabola has the vertex at pr Vr = 4.5 and pr = 3.375 and it intersects
the ordinate at 0 and 9.

Boyle Temperature
Boyle temperature is the temperature at which a non-ideal gas behaves
most like an ideal gas.
Boyle temperature TB is determined by making
é ¶( pr Vr ) ù
ê ¶p ú = 0, when pr = 0
ë r ûTr = TB

Above the Boyle temperature, the isotherms slope upward and show no
minima.

Virial Equation of State


van der Waal’s equation of state can be expressed in the virial form as
given below
æ aö
ç p + 2 ÷ (V - b ) = RT
è V ø
Thermodynamics 269

æ a¢ ö æ bö
ç pV + ÷ ç1 - ÷ = RT
è V ø è Vø
-1
a æ bö
pV + = RT ç1 - ÷
V è Vø
æ b b2 b3 ö æ b ö
= RT ç1 + + 2 + 3 +¼÷ ç where < 1÷
è V V V ø è V ø
é æ a ö 1 b2 b3 ù
pV = RT ê1 + ç b - ÷ + 2 + 3 +¼ú
ë è ø
RT V V V û
This is called the virial equation of state.
a
The second virial coefficient B = b -
RT
The third virial coefficient C = b2
To determine Boyle temperature TB
é ¶( pV ) ù B
ê ¶p úT = c = 0 = RT
ë û p=0

B= 0
a
or TB =
bR
a
Because B= b-
RT
The point at which B is equal to zero gives the Boyle temperature.

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State


RuT æ C ö A
p= 2 ç
1- 3÷
(V + B) - 2
V è V T ø V
æ aö
where, A = A0 ç1 - ÷ and
è Vø
æ bö
B = B0 ç1 - ÷
è Vø
The above equation is known to be reasonably accurate for densities up to
about 0.8 rcr .
where, rcr is the density of the substance at the critical point.
270 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Benedict Webb -Rubin Equation of State


RuT æ C ö 1 b RuT - a
p= + ç B0RuT - A0 - 20 ÷ 2 +
V è T øV V
3

g
-
aa C æ g ö 2
+ 6
+ 3 2 ç1 + 2 ÷ e V
V V T è V ø
● Valid upto about 2.5 rcr .

Thermodynamics Relations and Joule


Thomson Coefficient
Thermodynamic relations is based on the condition of exact differentia.
If a relation exists among the variable x, y and z.
z = f ( x, y )
æ ¶z ö æ ¶z ö
dz = ç ÷ dx + ç ÷ dy
è ¶x ø y è ¶y ø x
æ ¶z ö æ ¶z ö
Let ç ÷ = M and ç ÷ = N
è ¶x ø y è ¶y ø x
æ ¶M ö æ ¶N ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷
è ¶y ø x è ¶x ø y
æ ¶x ö æ ¶z ö æ ¶y ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ = -1
è ¶y ø z è ¶x ø y è ¶z ø x
For thermodynamic variables p, V & T
æ ¶p ö æ ¶V ö æ ¶T ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ = -1
è ¶V ø T è ¶T ø p è ¶p ø V

Maxwell’s Equation
Using thermodynamics relations and applying to each of those relations
results in four equations that are known as Maxwell’s relation.
For a pure substance undergoing an infinitesimal reversible process,
dU = T dS - pdV
Thermodynamics 271

dH = dU + pdV + V dp
or dH = T dS + V dp
dF = dU - T dS - S dT
or dF = - pdV - S dT
dG = dH - T dS - S dT
or dG = V dp - S dT
æ dT ö æ ¶p ö
ç ÷ =-ç ÷ …(i)
è dV øS è ¶S ø V
æ ¶T ö æ ¶V ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ …(ii)
è ¶p ø S è ¶S ø p
æ ¶p ö æ ¶S ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ …(iii)
è ¶T ø V è ¶V ø T
æ ¶V ö æ dS ö
ç ÷ =- ç ÷ …(iv)
è ¶T ø p è ¶p ø T
of the four Maxwell’s relations, the last two Eqs. (iii) and (iv) are more
æ ¶S ö æ ¶S ö
valuable since they relate entropy derivatives ç ÷ and ç ÷ to
è ¶V ø T è ¶p ø T
æ ¶p ö æ ¶V ö
derivatives of pressure and volume ç ÷ and ç ÷ .
è ¶T ø V è ¶T ø V

TdS Equation
æ ¶p ö
First TdS equation, TdS = CV dT + T ç ÷ dV
è ¶T ø V
æ ¶V ö
Second TdS equation, TdS = CpdT - T ç ÷ dp
è ¶T ø p

Difference in Heat Capacity


2
æ ¶V ö æ ¶p ö
Cp - CV = - T ç ÷ ç ÷
1424 3 è ¶T ø è ¶V ø
+ ve 123p 123T
+ ve - ve

as T ® 0 Þ Cp ® CV or absolute zero expansivity


1 æ ¶V ö
b= ç ÷
V è ¶T ø p
Isothermal compressibility kT is defined as
272 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

1 æ ¶V ö
kT = - ç ÷
V è ¶p ø T
Adiabatic compressibility is defined as
1 æ ¶V ö
ks = - ç ÷
V è ¶p ø S
T V b2
Cp - CV =
kT

Joule Thomson Coefficient


If a real gas undergoes throttling process then its temperature changes.
Slope of curve drawn between pressure and temperature is known as
Joule Thomson coefficient generally denoted as m J .
æ ¶T ö
Sentropic curve and inversion curve - m J = ç ÷
è ¶p ø h
Here, m j < 0 Þ temperature increases
m j = 0 Þ temperature constant
m j > 0 Þ temperature decreases

T1 Constant enthalpy
curve
T – ve Inversion curve (m=0)
+ve
Heating region
T2
Liquid
p
p
A typicaI phase diagram

æ ¶T ö 1 é æ ¶V ö ù
mj = ç ÷ = êT ç ÷ - V ú
è ¶p ø h Cp êë è ¶T ø p úû
V
or mj = ( bT - 1 )
Cp
For an ideal gas, mj = 0
Thermodynamics 273

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
Clausius-Clapeyron equation is a way of characterising a discontinuous
phase transition between two phase of matter of a single constituent. On a
p-T diagram, the line separating two phases is known as the coexistence
curve.
dp S f - S i l l
= = =
dT Vf - Vi T (Vf - Vi ) TDV
where, dp / dT is the slope of tangent to the co-existence curve at any point,
l is the specific latent heat, T is the temperature and DV is the specific
volume change and S stands for specific entropy.
where, S f = entropy of the final phase
S 1 = entropy of the initial phase
Vf = volume of the final phase
Vi = volume of the initial phase
8

Power Plant
Engineering

Analysis of Steam Cycles


In steam cycles, the working fluid is water which is sometimes in liquid
phase and sometimes in vapour phase during its cycle of operation.

Rankine Cycle (Vapour Power Cycle)


In Rankine cycles, each process is assumed to ideal process. Rankine
cycle is an idealised thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts
heat into mechanical work.
Rankine cycle is a reversible cycle with following components.

Boiler
In steam boiler, steam is generated by reversible constant pressure &
heating process of water.

Turbine
In steam turbine, there would be reversible adiabatic expansion of steam.

Condenser
In the steam condenser, there would be reversible constant pressure heat
rejection as the steam condenses till it become saturated liquid.
Power Plant Engineering 275

Pump
In pump, the saturated liquid is compressed, and reversible adiabatically
ending at initial pressure.
● Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) for the boiler (as control volume)
h4 + Q 1 = h1 Þ Q 1 = h1 - h4
● SFEE for turbine (as control volume)
WT = h1 - h2
where, W T = work done by turbine.
● SFEE for the condenser
Q 2 = h2 - h3
Flue gas 1
Furnace
a
Superheater

WT
Fuel Air 6
Steam Electric
Evaporator turbine generator
Q1
5
2
Economiser Condenser
d River
or
Sea
Exhaust
3 Q2
gas
Pump
WP

4
A simple steam power plant representing cycle

SFEE for the pump (ds = 0)
4 4
WP = h4 - h3 ( ò dh = ò3 Vdp)
3
Wnet = WT - WP

Efficiency of the Rankine cycle,
Wnet WT - WP ( h1 - h2 ) - ( h4 - h3 )
h= = =
Q1 Q1 ( h1 - h4 )
1 kg

Steam rate =
Wnet k ws
276 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Q1 1 kJ
● Heat rate = = =
WT - WP h kWS
T
Critical Point l
t1
4s
Q1 p1 WT
p1 1
5 6 t1 4s
WP p2
3 2 x2 s
Q2
p2
3 2s
V
s

1
t1

h p1 WT
4s Q1
2
WP p2 s
3
Q2

s
Rankine cycle on p-V, T-s and h-s
coordinates
QEco = h5 - h4 (Economiser)
QEva = h6 - h5 = hfg (Evaporator)
QSH = h1 - h6 (Superheater)

Heat supplied - Heat rejected


h= L iq
uid
Heat supplied C.P.

T3 (S 3 - S 2 ) - T1) (S 4 - S 1) Vapour
= T
T2(S 3 - S 2 ) 4s
L+V

T1
= 1- (S 3 - S 2 = S 4 - S 1) 3 2s
T2
s
Rankine cycle with supercritical
boiler pressure
Power Plant Engineering 277

Reheating of Steam
In the reheat cycle, the expansion of steam from the initial state 1 to the
condenser pressure is carried out in
two or more steps depending upon T
the number of reheats used.
1 3
Cycle efficiency improves with reheat, p1
however the cycle efficiency in a single 7 p1
Prh
reheat plant is influenced by pressure p2
2s
at which steam is reheated. The 6s
efficiency increases as the reheat
pressure is lowered and reaches a 5 p2 4’s 4s
peak at a pressure ratio prh / p1
between 0.20 and 0.25 s
Reheating cycle
W T - WP ( h1 - h2 s + h3 - h4 s ) - ( h6 s - h5 )
h= =
Q1 h1 - h6 s + h3 - h2 s
Reheating steam also increase the net work output of turbine.

Key Points
✦ Internal irreversibility of Rankine cycle (Real cycle) is caused by fluid frictions
throttling and mixing.
✦ Externally, irreversibility of the Rankine cycle is caused due to the temperature
difference between the combustion gases and the working fluid on the same
side and the temperature difference between the condensing working fluid and
the condenser cooling water on the sink side.

Regeneration
The mean temperature of heat addition (and so efficiency) can also be
increased by reducing the
amount of heat added at low
1 kg l
temperatures in the economiser
10 1 kg
section of steam generator. In T 1 p1
8 9 m1 l – m1
the regeneration process energy 2 p2
is exchanged internally between 7 m2 3 p3 l – m1– m2
6
the expanding fluid in the turbine 5 l–m1–m2 4 p4
and the compressed fluid before
heat addition. s
Ideal regenerative cycle done not Regeneration cycle with two direct contact
affect work output from turbine, it feed water heaters
is more efficient with high steam rate.
278 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Efficiency of Steam Power Plant


Overall efficiency of the steam per plant is given by
hoverall = hboiler ´ hcycle ´ hturbine ´ hgenerator ´ haux
Power available at the generator terminals
h overall =
Rate of energy released by the combustion of fuel
Rate of energy absorption by water from steam
(a) h boiler =
Rate of energy released by combustion of fuel
Brake output of the turbine
(b) h turbine (mechanical) =
Internal output of the turbine
Net power transmitted by the generator
(c) ha uxili ary =
Gross power produced by plant
Net work output
(d) h cycle =
Heat supplied
Electrical output at generator terminal
(e) h generator =
Brake output of turbine

■ Reheating of steam improved the thermal efficiency of the plant, net work output of
turbine, reduction in blade erosion (or quality of steam improve)
■ By regeneration thermal efficiency of the plant can be increased but it does not
affect work output from turbine.

Combined Cycle Power Generation


It is an assembly of heat engines that works with the same source of heat.
The principle of combined cycle power generation is that the exhaust of
one heat engine is used as the source of heat for another heat engine. This
process increases the overall efficiency of a heat engine.

Characteristics of Ideal Working Fluid



The fluid should have high critical temperature and the saturation
pressure at the temperature of heat rejection should be above the
atmospheric pressure.

Specific heat of liquid should be small.

The saturated vapour line of T-s diagram should be steep, very close to
the turbine expansion process.

The freezing point of the fluid should be below the room temperature.

The fluid should be chemically stable, non-toxic, non-corrosive, not
excessively viscous and low in cost.
Power Plant Engineering 279

Binary Vapour Cycle


In the binary cycle, two cycles with different working fluids are coupled in
series and the heat rejected by one being
m kg
utilised in the other. a
Hg
WT = m ( ha - hb ) + ( h1 - h2 ) cycle
WP = m ( hd - hc ) + ( h4 - h3 ) d
1
c b
Q 1 = m ( ha - hd ) + ( h1 - h6 ) + ( h5 - h4 ) T
5 6
m = flow rate of binary in the necessary
cycle per kg of steam cycle. Steam cycle
4
W - WP
hcycle = T 3 2
Q1 s
T-s diagram of Rankine
m ( hb - hc ) = h6 - h5
binary cycle

Brayton Rankine Combine Cycle Plant


In this cycle, the Brayton and Rankine cycles are combined to increase the
efficiency.
c
Q1

b Brayton Cycle W1 = WT – WC
Helium d

1
a
5 6 Rankine Cycle W2 = WT – WP
Q2
H 2O
4
3 Q3 2

Combine cycle graph

When Plant in Series


Let us consider two cyclic pair plant coupled in series. The toppling plant
operating on Brayton cycle and boiling are operating on Rankine cycle.
h = h1 + h2 - h1h2 - h2 xL
W W
h1 = 1 , h2 = 2
Q1 Q3
æQ ö
xL = fraction of heat supplied which is loss ç L ÷
è Q1 ø
280 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

When Plants Operate in Parallel Q1


W + W2 W W Q2 Q4
h= 1 ,h1 = 1 and h2 = 2 B
Q1 Q2 Q4 CC
C CT W1 P T
He C
h = h1 - x1(h1 - h2 )
Q3
Q4 Q5
where, xL = Combine cycle plant when
Q 2 + Q4
plants operate in parallel

Advantages of Combined Cycle


● High overall plant efficiency ● Low investment costs
● Great operating flexibility ● Water required in small amount
● Simplicity of operation ● Low environmental impact.

Proximate Analysis of coal


It indicates the behaviour of coal when it is heated.
FC + VM + M + A = 100% by mass
FC = Fixed Carbon
where, VM = Volatile Matter
M = Moisture
A = Ash
Ultimate Analysis of coal
It gives the chemical elements that comprises the coal substances,
together with ash and moisture.
C + H + O + N + S + M + A = 100% by mass
where, C = Carbon, H = Hydrogen, O = Oxygen
N = Nitrogen, S = Sulphur, M = Moisture, A = Ash.

Heating Value by Using Bomb Calorimeter


Heating value is the heat generated when the products of complete
combustion of a sample of fuel are cooled to initial temperature of fuel air.
LHV = HHV - mw hfg
hfg = Latent heat of vaporisation
mw = Mass of water vapour
mw = M + gH + g AWA
where, M and H are the mass fractions of moisture and hydrogen in the
coal. g A is the specific humidity of atmospheric air and WA is the actual
amount of air supplied per kg of coal.
Power Plant Engineering 281

Dulong and Petit Formula


If the ultimate analysis is known, the HHV of anthracite and bituminous coals can be
determined approximately by using Dulong and Petit formula as
HHV = 33.83 C + 144.45 æçH - ö÷ + 9.38 S
O
è 8ø
where, C = Carbon, O = Oxygen, H = Hydrogen, S = Sulphur

Orsat Gas Analysis


Orsat gas analyser measures the volume or mole fraction of CO 2, CO and
O 2 in the dry flue gas.
CO 2 + CO + O 2 + N2 = 100% by volume

Height of Chimney
Height of chimney is given by following formula,
æ 1 m+1 1ö
h = 353 H çç - ÷ mm of water
è Ta m Tg ÷ø
where, H = Height of chimney above the fire grate in metres
h = Drought pressure in mm of water
m = Mass of air used for per kg of fuel
Ta = Absolute temperature of air outside the chimney (K )
Tg = Absolute temperature of air inside chimney (K )
Condition for maximum discharge through the chimney.
The drought in mm of water column
353 H 176.5 H
h= =
2Ta Ta

Turbine
A turbine is a rotatory mechanical device that extract energy from a fluid
flow and converts it into useful work. A turbine is a turbo machine with at
least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with
blades attached moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and
impart rotational energy to the rotor.

Steam Turbine
A steam turbine is prime mover which converts high pressure energy and
high temperature steam supplied by steam generator into shaft work with
the low temperature steam exhausted to a condenser.
282 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Impulse Turbines
● All pressure drops of steam occurs in the nozzles.
● No pressure drops as steam flow through the passage between two
blades.
Before entering nozzle p0, V1
After p1, V1
After deflection p2, V2

Gas turbines
These turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines
usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle in addition
to one or more turbines.

Momentum Conservation in Blades


Momentum of steam jet at inlet to the blades-momentum of steam jets at exit
from the blades = momentum absorbed by wheel in producing shaft work.

v r1 v1
b1 a
vb Dvw
Vw 1 vw2
Dva
vr1 v1
va
v r2 d
v r2 v2 b1 b2 v2
d > 90°
vb
Velocity diagrams

vw 1
vw 2
Dvw
Dva
vr1 vr2 v2
d

b1 b2 a
d < 90°
Velocity diagrams for impulse turbine

Dv w = velocity of whirl at inlet - velocity of whirl at outlet.


a = Nozzle angle subtended by nozzle axis with the direction of rotation
of wheel
Power Plant Engineering 283

b 1 = Inlet blade angle


b 2 = Exit blade angle
Dv w = v r1 cos b 1 (1 + kb ), blade friction factor
vr
kb = 2 = ( v 1 cos a - v b ) (1 + kb )
v r1
● For symmetrical blades b 1 = b 2
v b = mean peripheral velocity of the blades (mean blade velocity)
D N
=p m
60
Dm = mean diameter of the blade
● Tangential thrust impressed by jet on the blades Pt = Ws × DVw
Ws = steam flow rate
● Axial thrust pa = Ws × Dv a , where Dv a = v r1 sin B1 - v r2 sin B2

Area of the flow or blade annulus,
Ab = p( D2 + D1 / 2 ) × ( D2 - D1 / 2 ) = p Dm hb
D1 is the root diameter, D2 is the tip diameter, hb is the height of the
blades.

Blading or diagram efficiency
Rate of work done on the blades W Dv v v
hd = = s w b = 2 Dv w b2
Rate of energy input to the blades 1 2 v1
v 1 W3
2
v r21

Energy loss due to friction in the blades is equal to v 12 -
2
æ v ö

Optimum velocity ratio p ç = b ÷
è v1 ø
a
popt = cos and hd max = cos 2 a (1 + kb )
2

If the energy loss due to friction is small,
kb = 1, then nd max = (cos 2 a )

Nozzle angle has to be maintained within a certain range, which varies
from 16° to 22° in impulse turbine.

Compounding of Steam Turbines


Compounding of stream turbines is the method in which energy from the
steam is extracted in a number of stages rather than a single stage in a
turbine.
284 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● One row of nozzle followed by one row of blades is called a stage


(compounding) of a turbine.
● With a single stage, the velocity of steam at exit is sufficiently high and
there is considerable loss of kinetic energy with existing steam.
There are two methods of compounding which are given below

Pressure Compounding (Rateau staging)


The pressure compounding is used to solve the problem of high blade
velocity in the single stage impulse turbine.
● Series of nozzle and blades.
● Pressure drop only at nozzles.
● Kinetic energy of steam increases in the nozzle and it is absorbed by the
blades in each stage, in producing torque.
● The total enthalpy drop is divided equally in each stages.
● If n stages, isentropic enthalpy drop in per stages
( Dh)total
( Dh)stage =
n
vb vb vb
N MB N MB N MB

0 t0
Vo
D v6 1
po 2
h
D v6
Steam
3
po
4
p3
v6 s
Three pressure stages in series h-s diagram

The velocity of steam at exit from the first row of nozzle


. (h0 - h1 )1/ 2
v 1 = 4472
1/ 2
æ h ö
= 4472
. ç h0 - 4 ÷
è 4ø
æ 1ö
. (h0 - h4 )1/ 2
= ç ÷ 4472
è2 ø
where, h0 and h1 in kj/kg and velocity in m/s.
Power Plant Engineering 285

● If the kinetic energy of steam is neglected at inlet to each subsequent row


of nozzles, the velocity of steam leaving the nozzles at each row will be the
same.
● For 4 stages velocity leaving nozzle in each stage = 1/ 2 of single stage
● For 9 stages velocity leaving nozzle in each stage = 1/ 3 of single stage
● For each impulse stage operating at its maximum blade efficiency, the
blade velocity is given by v b = (cos a / 2 ) v 1
2
é vb ù
( Dh)stage = 4 ê
. cos a ) úû
ë ( 4472

Velocity Compounding (Curtis staging)


Velocity compounding is used to solve the problem of single stage impulse
turbine for use of high pressure and temperature steam.
● Pattern : nozzle moving blade ® stationary blades ® moving blades ®
stationary blade.

All the pressure drops (enthalpy drop) in a single row of nozzles.

Resultant kinetic energy of steam is absorbed by wheel in a number of
rows of moving blades with guided blades in between two such rows.
vr vr vr

Blade friction factor kb = 2 = 3 = 4
vr vr vr
1 2 3

Let,
a 1 = exit angle guide blade
b 1, b 2 = inlet and exit angle of the first row of moving blade
b 3, b 4 = inlet and exit angle of the second row of moving blades
Dv w1 , Dv w 2 = changes in velocity of whirl in the first row and second row
of moving blades
Dv a1 , Dv a2 = changes in axial component of velocity in the first row and
second row of moving blades

Fixed Fixed

Steam pressure

Steam speed

Curtis staging A two row curtis stage


286 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● The tangential thrust, Pt = WS ( Dv w1 + Dv w 2 )


● The axial thrust, Pa = Ws ( Dv a1 + Dv a2 )
● Blading or diagram work WD = Pt × v b
vb
● Blading or diagram efficiency, hd = 2 S ( Dv w ) ×
v 12
● Ratio of work done by the steam jets on the moving blades in row.
In 2-row Curtis stage, WD1 : WD2 = 3 : 1
It means 3/4 of the work done by the steam jets on the first row of
moving blades and 1/4 of the total work done on the second row of
moving blades.
In 3-row Curtis stage, WD1 : WD2 : WD3 = 3 : 2 : 1

Note As the number of rows of moving blade in a Curtis stage increases, the
effectiveness of the later rows decreases.

Optimum Velocity Ratio for a Curtis Stage


For a Curtis stage having z-rows of moving blade
cos a
p opt =
2z
where, z = number of rows
For a 2-row Curtis stage, n d = (cos a) 2
v b = (cos a / 4) v 1
2
é vb ù
( Dh)stage = 16 ê ú
ë (44.72 cos a) û
where, Dh = Change in drought pressure

Reaction Turbines
Pressure drops occur both in the nozzles or the fixed row of blades, as well
as in the moving row of blades. Moving blades also have nozzle shape.
Expansion of steam through the blades, increase in kinetic energy give rise
to reaction in the opposite direction. Rotation of blades due to both the
impulse effect of jets (change in momentum) and reaction force of the
existing jets impressed on the blades in the opposite direction. Also called
impulse reaction turbine.
The degree of reaction ( R ) = DhMB /( DhMB + DhFB )
DhMB = 0, R = 0 pure impulse turbine (no enthalpy drop in the moving
blades, all in nozzle)
DhFB = 0, R = 1(100% pure reaction turbine Hero’s turbine)
Power Plant Engineering 287

DhMB = Dhstage /2, FB MB FB MB


1
R = - ( 50% reaction turbine)
2
For manufacturing advantage, both
fixed blades and moving blades are Steam
made similar in shapes so that they po
can be extruded from the same set of
dies.
vo v4
Since, DhFB = DhMB , v 1 = v r2 p4
Turbine blade system
For similar geometry,
a = b 2 = 180° - g
v r1 = v 2
b 1 = 180° - d
b 1 is not equal to b 2 (the blades are unsymmetrical).
Dv a = 0 in 50% reaction turbine, there is no axial thrust.
However, there will be considerable axial thrust produced due to the
pressure difference across the blades in each rotor disc since there is
pressure drop of steam across the moving blades.

Key Points
✦ In reaction turbine, since both fixed and moving blades act as nozzle. So, we
refer fixed blades as stator and moving blades as rotor.
✦ Optimum efficiency for simple impulse, Curtis and reaction turbine blading
are all equal. However, when friction is taken into account, the reaction stage
found to be most efficient due to low flow velocity followed by Rateau and
Curtis in that order.
✦ Comparison of enthalpy drops in various stages
( Dhs ) 50%R : ( Dhs ) simple impulse stage : ( Dhs ) 2- row Curtis stage = 1 : 2 : 8

Dhfb

2s
Dhmb
3s

Enthalpy on various stages


288 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The diagram work per kg of steam, WD = Dv w × v b = (2 v 1 cos a - v b ) × v b


( v r21 - v r22 )
The energy input the blades per kg steam = v 12 / 2 +
2
v 12 - v b2 + 2 v 1v b cos a
=
2
A C
vr2
E Ñ
v a= 0
vr1 v2 a = b2 = 180° g
g d b1=180°- d

b1 b2 a
B D
Velocity diagram of a 50% reaction turbine
2 cos 2 a
popt = cos a or v b = v 1 cos a and hd max =
H cos 2 a
Specific blading work corresponding maximum blade efficiency
Wb = Dv w v b = v b2

Gas Turbine
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal
combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a
downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in between. The basic
operation of the gas turbine is similar to the steam power plant except that
air is used instead of water.

Gas Turbine Power Plant



For power generation, it is attractive due to its low capital cost and its high
reliability and flexibility in operation.

Because of its low weight per unit power, gas turbine is exclusively used to
drive aviation systems of all kind of aircraft.

Closed Cycle and Open Cycle Plants



In open cycle plant which is more common, where the combustion
products after doing work in the turbine are exhausted to atmosphere.

In a closed cycle plant, the working fluid (air, helium, argon, carbon
dioxide etc.) is externally heated (by burning fuel or by nuclear reactor)
and cooled and it operates in a closed cycle.
Power Plant Engineering 289

Analysis of Gas Turbine Power Plant


Heat supplied Q 1 = mac p (T3 - T2 )
Heat rejected Q 2 = mac p (T4 - T1)
Let ma = mass of air
æp ö
rp = pressure ratio ç 2 ÷
è p1 ø
1
hcycle = 1 - [( g - 1)/ g ] = 1 - (T1 / T4 s ) rp[( g - 1)/ g ]
rp
( rp )max = (T3 / T1)( y / y - 1) = (Tmax / Tmin )[ g( g - 1)]
1/ 2
( rp )opt = ( rp )max
Wnet = mac p [(Tmax )1/ 2 - (Tmin )1/ 2 ]2
If compressor and turbine efficiencies are
considered, 3
[ g ( g - 1)]
Q1 WT
( rp )opt = nc nT (T3 / T1)
T
The work ratio rw is defined as the ratio of 2
2s 4s
Wc
net work to work done in turbine.
1 Q2
Variation of cycle efficiency with rp
s Brayton cycle
T-s diagram

(Wnet)max
Wnet
h

rp (rp)max I (rp)opt (rp)max


Variation in cycle efficiency

Key Points
✦ The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop is the
Brayton cycle. (Isentropic compression, constant pressure heat addition,
isentropic expansion, constant pressure heat rejection).
✦ The advantages of the open cycle are the quick and easy starting.
✦ The advantages of the closed cycle plant are constant efficiency at all loads
and higher unit rating permitting the use of higher back pressure.
290 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Effect of Regeneration
Regenerator effectiveness e = (actual
temperature rise of air)/(maximum p2
temperature of rise possible) 3
= T5 - T2 / T4 - T2 5 p1
T

Q 1 and Q 2 both of which decreases 2
whereas Wnet remains unchanged 6 4
2s
4s
due to regeneration. Therefore,
efficiency of the cycle Wnet / Q 1 1
increases.
s
● In practice, the regenerator is costly, Effect of regeneration with cycle
heavy and bulky and causes efficiency
pressure losses which may bring
about a decreases in cycle efficiency. So, there may be balanced.

Effect of Intercooling
● By staging the compression process
with perfect intercooling, the cycle p2
5
efficiency decreases as shown in pL
figure, where the small cycle 1-2-3-4- 4 p1
T
4¢-1 is added to basic cycle 4
2 6
1- 4¢-5-6-1, without intercooling.
3 1

For minimum work of compression,
the intercooler pressure. s
pi = [ p1p2 ]1/ 2 T-s diagram for intercooling

where, p1 and p2 are suction and discharge pressures respectively.


Effect of Reheating

By staging the heat supply process with a combustor and a reheater, the
cycle efficiency decreases.

3 5 Pr
p2
T
2 4 p1
6

4

s
Effect of reheating on Brayton cycle
Power Plant Engineering 291

● But it permits more heat recovery from the turbine exhaust gases, with the
result that reheating along with regeneration may bring about an
improvement in cycle efficiency.
● It can be shown that the optimum reheat pressure for maximum work is
pr = ( p1 p2 )1/ 2

Components of Gas Turbine Power Plant


Gas turbines have a high power to weight ratio and are lighter and smaller
than internal combustion engines of the some power. Their characteristics
of high speed and high temperature operation require high precition
components and exotic materials.
Some of the various components are as follows

Compressor
The high flow rates of air through the turbine and the relatively moderate
pressure ratios necessitate the use of rotary compressors.

Losses in Compressor
There are three losses in compressor as given below

Profile drag (CDp )

Annulus drag (CDa )

Secondary loss (CDs )

For typical axial compressor design, the following empirical formulae
have been derived
CDs = 0.018 CL2 and CDa = 0.020 s / h
where CL is the lift coefficient and s and h are pitch and blade height of
blades respectively.
Compressor further can be classified as

Slip
The inertia of air trapped between the impeller blades, however, causes the
actual whirl velocity to be less than ideal whirl velocity. It is known as slip.
Under ideal conditions, Cw 2 = U2
Slip = U2 - Cw 2
Slip factor s = Cw 2 / U2 = Cw 2 /(U - cot b 2 )
= 1 - 063
. p/n
292 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Division of Loss between Impeller and Diffuser


The division of loss at various levels between impeller and diffuser is
shown below
Actual work input = h03 - h01 = ys U22 or T03 - T01 = y sU22 /Cp

¢ / T01)g /( g - 1)
For a stage, p03 / p01 = (T03
= [1 + hc (T03 - T01)/ T01]g /( g - 1)
Because hc = (T03
¢ - T01)/(T03 - T01)
T
Impeller Diffuser
Impeller
loss p02 p03
T02 = T03
T '02 Overall
C 22/2C p loss
T '03
p2
T2

p01

T01

s
T-s diagram

i.e., ¢ = T01 + hc (T03 - T01) = [1 + hc ysU 2 / CpT01]g /( g - 1)


T03

Stage Loading Factor (y )


The stage loading factor y is another important design parameter of a
compressor stage and is one which strongly affects the off-design
performance characteristics. It is defined by
(h - h )
y = W / u 2 = 03 2 01 = (c y 2 - c y1 )/ u = Dc y / u
u
With cy 2 = u - wy 2
[u - (c y1 + w y 2 )] æc ö
Hence, y= = 1 - ç x ÷ × (tan a 1 + tan b 2 )
u èuø
or y = 1 - h (tan a 1 + tan b 2 ) …(i)
cx
where, h = is called flow coefficient.
u
a 1 and b 2 are the fluid inlet and outlet angles.
Power Plant Engineering 293

Simplified Off-design Performance


Horlock (1958) has considered how the stage loading behaves with varying
flow coefficient, f and how this off-design performance is influenced by the
choice of design conditions. Now cascade data suggests that fluid outlet
angles b 2 (for the rotor) and a 1 ( = a 3 ) for the 4 stator do not change
appreciably for a range of incidence up to the stall point. In Eq. (i) the
quantity (tan b 2 + tan a 1) can be assumed constant in a wide range of
incidence up the stalling limit,
Writing A = tan b 2 + tan a 1 Hence, y = 1 - Ah

Work done Factor


For increased axial velocity c y 2 is less than and c y1 is more. Work capacity
of the stage is reduced with an increase of the axial velocity and vice-versa,
hence work capacity of the stage is reduced in central region. The
expected increase in the hub and tip region is not obtained in actual
practice on account of higher losses.
W = u (c y 2 - c y1 )
Casing

Actual
Flow
Mean Annulus height

First Last Hub


Estimation of work done factor
Therefore, stage work is less than that given by Euler’s equation.
W = h03 - h01 = wu (c y 2 - c y1 ); where w is called as work done factor and
its value varies between (0.98 to 0.85) depending on the number of stages.

Radial Equilibrium Flow


The flow in an annular passage in which there is no radial component of
velocity, whose streamlines lie in circular, cylindrical surfaces and which is
axisymmetric, is commonly known as radial equilibrium flow. An analysis
called the radial equilibrium method, widely used for three dimensional
design calculations in axial compressors and turbines is based upon the
assumption that any radial flow which may occur, is completed within a
blade row, the flow outside the row then being in radial equilibrium.
294 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Radial Equilibrium Equation


When hub-tip ratio is less than p + dp
0.8, radial velocities through a
blade row may become
appreciable. The basic equation dq/2
expressing the balance between P + 1 dp P + 1 dp
2 2
pressure force and inertial p
forces can be derived by
considering the forces acting on r dq
the fluid element as under.

Section to derive radial equilibrium equation

Radial Equilibrium of Fluid Element


Pressure forces balances the centrifugal forces
æ 1 ö C y2
( p + dp) ( r + dr ) dq - prdq - ç p + dp÷ dr dq = dm
è 2 ø r
Ignoring second order terms, we get
dp
(1/ r ) = Cq 2 / r …(i)
dr
Cy × r = constant

This is known as free vortex condition.

This condition gives air angle and reactions as shown in figure.
Cy

For forced vortex condition, = constant
r

Combustion Chamber
In an open cycle gas turbine plant, combustion may be arranged to take
place in one or two large cylindrical can type combustion chambers with
ducting to convey the hot gases to the turbine. Can type combustion
chambers are as follows

Can type combustion with swirl flow flame stabiliser

Can type combustion with bluff- body flame stabiliser

Gas Turbines

Like steam turbines, gas turbines are also of the axial flow type.

More stages are always preferred in gas turbine power plants, because it
helps to reduce the stresses in the blades and increases the overall life of
the turbines.
Power Plant Engineering 295

● The cooling of gas turbine is essential for long life as it continuously


subjected to high temperature gases.
● Blade angles of gas turbines follow the axial flow compressor blading,
where the degree of reaction is not 50%.
Degree of Reaction, R = v f (tan b 2 - tan b 1)/ 2 v b

Key Points
✦ The duct work consists of ducts between the compressor and the combustion,
combustion chamber to the turbine and the exhaust duct.
✦ The duct must be sized to minimise the pressure losses, as the loss in pressure
directly reduces the capacity of the plant.

Steam Condenser
A condenser where the exhaust the steam from the turbine is condensed
operates at a pressure lower than atmosphere.

Objective of Steam Condenser



To reduce turbine exhaust pressure so as increase the specific output of
the turbine and efficiency.

To recover high quality feed water in
the form of condensate and feed it 1
back to the steam generator without
any further treatment. T

Note Use of steam condenser increase 1 atm 3s 2


100°C
pcond 1.013 bar
the specific work output of
turbine from (h 1 - h 3 ) to 40.074 bar 2s 2 40°C
(h 1 - h 2 ) s
T-s graph of steam condenser
The steam condenser can be classified as

Direct Contact Type


Mixing of condensate and cooling water. It is of three types

Spray condenser
Spray of cooling water into the steam.
W2 h2 + W5 h5 = W3 h3
296 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Turbine exhaust
Non-condensable
Dry cooling tower 2 T 1

Condenser T 4

4 4 3 2s 2
–5
To plant feed water system
s
Direct contact type condenser T-s curve for direct contact type

Barometric Condenser Falling of cooling water on series of baffles (large


surface area) and direct contact with steam fed out from below.
Non-condensable to steam jet air ejector
Turbine exhaust
Cooling water
exhaust steam Cooling water
for turbine

Baffles Cascade Mixture


H Mixture

IT Diffuser
Barometric condenser
Jet condenser

patm - pcond + Dpf = dgh


Jet Condenser Similar as barometric but use diffuser.

Surface Condensers
These are shell and tube heat exchanger.

For the convenience of cleaning and maintenance, cooling water flows
through the tubes steam condenses outside the tubes.

Single pass condenser is good for overall plant efficiency and reduces
thermal pollution but require four times the pumping power and twice the
water flow.
Power Plant Engineering 297

Exhaust neck
Steam dome
Support Shell tube sheet
plates

Water in

Water out

Undivided
water box Hotwell Divided
water box
Condensate
Surface condenser

The tube materials: cupronickel (70% Cu, 30% Ni),aluminium brass
(76% Cu, 22% Zn, 2% Al),muntz metal (60% Cu, 40% Zn),admiralty alloy
(71% Cu, 28% Zn, 1% Sn).

Air Removal
Steam and Air
Leakage of air from condenser
shell, along with steam reduce
the condenser vacuum and
increases the turbine exhaust
pressure, thus reduces the
Air and
turbine output and also reduces steam
heat transfer (air low k). An air CW tubes Baffle
cooler section is provided in the Air cooler
condenser shell, having main
bank and smaller bank (air Condensate
cooler). A typical diagram of condenser

Important Formulae
Vacuum produced by steam at condenser inlet
■ Vacuum efficiency =
Barometric pressure - saturation pressure
at exhaust steam p
Actual temperature rise of cooling water
Condenser efficiency =
Maximum temperature rise of cooling water
298 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Feed Water Heaters


These are used in steam power plant to improve cycle efficiency. These
heaters can be classified in two ways
1. Closed feed water heater Shell and tube heat exchangers. They are
basically small condenser which operate at higher pressures than the
main condenser because blade steam is condensed on the shell side,
whereas feed water acting like circulating cooling water in the
condenser, is heated on tube side.
2. Open feed water heater (deaerator) Heating of feed water by direct
mixing with the steam blade from turbine.
It is of three types spray type, tray type, combined spray-tray deaerator.

Cooling Towers
These cool the warm water discharged from the condenser and feed the
cooled water back to the condenser. A cooling tower can be specified by

Wet Cooling Towers


Minimum temperature to which water can be cooled is the adiabatic
saturation or wet bulb temperature of the ambient air.

Dry Cooling Towers


These are used where scarcity of cooling water. Warm water from
condenser flow through finned tube over which the cooling air is passed.
Heat is rejected to the air as water is cooled. Ammonia is also used as the
coolant for condenser.
Turbine exhaust steam

Steam heater
Air Air

Fired turbine
Condensate
heater

Forced
Condensate pump draught fan

Food water to plant

Dry cooling towers


Isentropic Flow and Shock Waves
The second law of thermodynamics requires that the adiabatic and
frictionless flow of any fluid results in no change in entropy. Constant
entropy flow is called isentropic flow.
Isentropic condition implies absence of heat transfer and frictional effect.
In case of fluid in internal flow, heat transfer is absent while frictional losses
are always present. However, it can be neglected when the length of the
duct or pipe is small, such as in the case of a nozzle or diffuser.

Nozzle
A nozzle is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid increases
at the expense of pressure drop.

Diffuser
A diffuser is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid
decreases and causes a corresponding increase of pressure.

Stagnation Properties
The isentropic stagnation state is defined as the state a fluid in motion
would reach if it were brought to rest isentropically in steady flow,
adiabatic, zero work output device.
v2
Stagnation enthalpy h0 = h +
2
T0 g -1 2
= 1+ M
T 2
where, M = Mach number
p0 æ g - 1 2ö
= ç1 + M ÷ g -1
p è 2 ø
where p0 and T0 are the stagnation pressure and temperature respectively.

Velocity of Sound
Velocity of sound can be defined as
æ ¶p ö
c = g RT = ç ÷
è ¶r øS
300 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

æ ¶p ö
ç ÷ = Infinitesimal pressure change of fluid across section with respect
è ¶r øS
to density with reversible and isentropic process.
The bulk modulus or the change of density with pressure in a gas is
dependent on the process of compression.

Mach Number
It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity v to the sonic velocity c.
v
M=
c

Subsonic and Supersonic Nozzle


For isentropic flow through nozzle,
dA dp dA dv
= (1 - M 2 ) or = ( M 2 - 1)
A rv 2 A v
When M < 1 Þ Inlet velocity is subsonic as flow area A decreases. The
pressure decreases and velocity increases. So, convergent passage is
nozzle.
M > 1 Þ Inlet velocity is supersonic as flow area A increases pressure
decreases and velocity increases. So, divergent passage is nozzle.
1 2 1 2

M<1 M>1
M1 M2 M1 M2

M2 > M1 M2 < M1
Subsonic nozzle Supersonic nozzle
(M < 1and M (M > 1 and M
increase) increase)

Subsonic and Supersonic Diffuser


When M < 1(subsonic) Þ M decreases, A increases,
A increases, P increase v decreases
p increase, v decreases. Þ Divergent passage is diffuser.
A decrease, p increase v decreases
When M > 1 (supersonic) Þ M decreases, A decreases, p increases, v
Decreases. Þ Convergent passage is nozzle.
Power Plant Engineering 301

1 2 1 2

M1 M1
M2 M2
M1 < 1 M>1

M2 < M1 M2 < M1
Subsonic diffuser Supersonic diffuser
M < 1 and M decreases M > 1 and M decreases

Note The area dA is zero for sonic condition M = 1 indicating a minimum


cross-section and so called throat.

Limits of Incompressibility
If we set the limit that a flow is incompressible so long as the density
variation does not exceed two per cent.
M £ 0. 2 (Range of incompressible)

Isentropic Flow Through a Duct of Varying


Cross-Section
Let us consider the isentropic flow of an ideal gas through a
convergent-divergent nozzle.

p0 pB
M<1 M=1 M>1

pO Curve
pB2 II
pB3 III
M>1 pB4 IV
M<1 Shock
pB1 I
Isentropic flow for a duct of varying cross-section

The following cases will be considered here.


Case 1 pB2 > pB1 ( M < 1)
When the back pressure pB2 is higher than the value necessary for
supersonic exit i.e., pB1 (curve I), the flow will accelerate in the converging
portion, the throat Mach number will be less than one and the flow will
decelerate in the diverging portion. The flow will remain subsonic all along
the nozzle length. The pressure variation is shown by the dashed (curve III).
Case 2 pB3 > pB1 ( M = 1)
In this case, the flow in the diverging portion can become subsonic if the
exit area is not suitable for supersonic discharge (curve III).
302 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Case 3 pB4 > pB1 ( M > 1)


A strongly irreversible process known as shock may take place in the
supersonic portion of the nozzle flow resulting in secure losses and finally
subsonic discharge from the converging-diverging nozzle

Mass Flow Rate


Consider isentropic flow through a duct from a reservoir at p0 and T0. The
mass flow rate m = rAV .20
The flow rate per unit area
m g p0 M 1
= g+1
A R T0 g - 1 2ö
æ 2 ( g - 1)
ç1 + M ÷
è 2 ø
Flow rate per unit area is maximum, when the sonic condition M = 1 is
reacted.
g+1
æ mö p g æ 2 ö 2( g - 1)
ç ÷ = 0 ç ÷
è A ømax T0 R è g + 1ø
æ mö p kg / s
ç ÷ = 0.04044 0 (g = 14
. )
è A ømax T0 m 2
So, maximum mass flow rate per unit area
µ stagnation pressure
1
µ
stagnation temperature

Chocking in a Converging Passage


Imaging the discharge from a reservoir at p0 and T0 through a converging
nozzle in a region where the pressure pB is variable. The nozzle exit plane
pressure is pe.

0.04044
pe
p pe > p B M<1
0 pB M=1
T0 T0 pe > p* pe = p B
m
A p0
To pump
p*/p 0
0.0
pB
p0
Converging passage Response of converging passage
Power Plant Engineering 303


pB = pe = p0 there shall be no flow through the nozzle.
● As pB is gradually reduce, the flow rate shall increase. The exit plane
pressure pe shall remain equal to pB so long as the maximum discharge
condition is not reached.
æ mö
● By reducing back pressure pB when ç ÷ has attained its maximum value,
è Aø
the exit plane mach number shall be unity and pB = pe = p * (critical
pressure).
● Further reduction of back pressure pB will not accelerate the flow to
supersonic condition. As a result the exit pressure pe shall continue to
remain at p * even through pB is lower.
pB < pe ( pe = p*)

Frictional Effects on Nozzle


A is inlet stagnation condition at
pressure p0 and throat and exit p0
pt
pressures are respectively pt and pe.
Whereas AB is ideal isentropic pe
h A
process to exit pressure pe , AC is the
E
adiabatic expansion accounting for
C
friction in both converging & diverging B D
portion of nozzle.
s
A nozzle efficiency is defined as a ratio h-s graph for nozzle
of the actual kinetic energy in
presence of friction e.g., for expansion AC to the ideal one.
v2 h - hC
h= = A
2 ( hA - hB ) hA - hB
and nozzle velocity coefficient ò = h
m actual
Nozzle discharge coefficient CD =
m isentropic

Constant Area Adiabatic Flow


Here, we see the behaviour of the compressible flow of a perfect gas
through a constant area duct in the absence of heat transfer, but
accounting for frictional effect.
m = rAv constant
dr - dv
=
r v
dh = - v dv
304 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Mach Number for Different Flow Parameter


Supersonic
Flow parameter Subsonic M < 1

Velocity v increases ( ­) decreases ( ¯)


Mach Number M ­ ¯
Static pressure p ¯ ­
Total pressure p 0 ¯ ¯
Static enthalpy h ¯ ­
Temperature T ¯ ­
Density r ¯ ­
Entropy s ­ ­

Fanno Line
Fanno line show the state of fluid in
compressible flow through an
adiabatic duct. On enthalpy- M<
1 m decreasing
entropy diagram. A
v 2dr dp
Tds = - h
r r 1
M>
æ ¶p ö
ç ÷ = v 2 = a2 Þ M = 1
è ¶r øds = 0
s
Momentum equation Fanno line diagram
Lmax dx 1
Þ ò 4l = ò g ( M ) dM 1 2 1
0 D 0

where, l is frictional factor. D


L æ 4l L max ö æ 4l L max ö
4l =ç ÷ -ç ÷ 1 2 M=1
D è D øM è D øM Choked condition
1 2
Lmax1
L
Lmax2
Key Points
✦ The fanno flow model is often used in the design and analysis of nozzle.
✦ The fanno flow model is also used extensively with the Rayleigh model.
✦ These two models intersect at points on the Enthalpy-Entropy and Mach
number Entropy diagrams, which is meaningful for many applications.
Power Plant Engineering 305

Constant Area Frictionless Flow with Heat


Transfer
A frictionless constant area flow is also known as Rayleigh flow. It is an
adiabatic flow where the effect of heat addition or rejection is considered. It
can be applied to both compressible and incompressible flow models.
There are some equations in constant area frictionless flow with heat transfer
are given below

Continuity
The continuity equation is given as
pV = constant
dp dV
=-
p V

First Law of Thermodynamics


The first law of thermodynamics states that dQ = dh

Second Law of Thermodynamics


The second law of thermodynamics states that
dh0 = dh - Vdp = dh + VdV
dV - dp
= [rV 2 = kpM 2, = specific heat ratio]
V pV 2
dV 1 dp
=-
V kM 2 p

Momentum Equation
Impulse function p + rV 2 = constant

Equation of State
Equation of state is given as p = rRT
dp dr dT
= +
p r T

Rayleigh Line
It shows the state of the fluid on Enthalpy-Entropy diagram with constant
area frictionless flow with heat transfer. The locus of state point traces a
curve known as the Rayleigh line.
dT dp æ 1 ö
= ç1 - ÷
T p è kM 2 ø
306 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

where, k = specific heat ratio


Cp æ M 2 - 1ö dp
ds = ç ÷
k è M2 ø p

dM 1 + kM 2 dp
=- ×
M 2 kM 2 p
dp0 1 - M2 dp
= ×
p0 2 + ( k - 1) M 2 p

Effect of Heat Addition to Constant Area Frictionless Duct Flow


Low parameters M <1 M >1
Velocity v increases ­ decreases ¯
Mach number M ­ ¯
Static pressure p ¯ ­
Static temperature T 1
( ­ ) increases for M <
k
1
( ­ ) decreases for M >
k
Total pressure p 0 decreases decreases

Constant Area Isothermal Flow with Friction


1 1
Flow parameters M < (subsonic) M > (subsonic or supersonic)
K K
Velocity v increases ­ decreases¯
Mach number M ­ ¯
Static pressure p ¯ ­
Stagnation temperature T0 ­ ¯
Stagnation pressure p 0 ¯ 2
( ­ ) increases for M <
k +1
2
( ¯ ) decreases for M >
k +1

Constant Area Isothermal Flow with Friction


The flow in long pipe lines closely approximates isothermal conditions. The
pressure drop in such lines is often large compared to inlet pressure and
solution of this problem is outside the limitations of the Darcy equation.
dp - dV - kM 2 dx
= = 4l [l ® frictional factor]
p V 2 (1 - kM 2 ) D
Power Plant Engineering 307

dT0 k ( k - 1) M 4 dx
= 4l
T0 2 æ k - 1 2ö D
2 (1 - kM ) ç1 + M ÷
è 2 ø
æ k + 1 2ö
dp0 - kM 2 ç1- M ÷
dx
= ç 2 ÷ 4l
p0 2 (1 - kM )2 ç1+ k - 1 D
M ÷
2
è 2 ø

Shocks
Sudden changes occur in the flow properties across a flow discontinuity
termed shock.

Strength of a Shock
Strength of a shock wave is defined as the ratio of rise in pressure to
upstream pressure.
p - p1 p2
p= 2 = -1
p1 p1
2k
p= ( M12 - 1)
k +1
where, p2 - p1 = rise in pressure, p1 = upstream pressure

Normal Shock
The discontinuity is called a normal shock when it is perpendicular to the
flow of direction. The Mach number downstream of it is invariably subsonic
( M < 1.
)

Oblique Shock
A discontinuity inclined to the flow of direction is called as oblique shock
downstream of which the Mach number may still be higher than unit.

Governing Equation for Normal Shock


There are following equations for normal shock
h01 = h02 (for an ideal gas)
T01 = T02
r 1V1 = r 2V2
m (V2 - v 1) = ( p1 - p2 ) A
Impulse function p1 + r 1V12 = p2 + r 2V22 ; ds > 0
308 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Suffix 1 and 2 refer to conditions ne


n o li
before and after shock. Fan 2
k -1 2
1+ M1 <1
T1 2 p1 r 1 T1 M
. = ; =
T2 1 + k - 1 M 2 p2 r 2 T2 h
2 Rayleigh line
2
2 >1 1
M12 + M
p1 M2 T1 k -1
= ; M22 = s
p2 M1 T2 2 k M12
-1 Normal shock on h-s diagram
k -1
Flow is always subsonic after a normal shock.
k -1
M2 decreases as M1 increases for normal shock M22min =
2k
Oblique shocks equations v2n
Consider a supersonic flow at mach v 2t
M1 is made to flow along a corner v1n
v1t b
with a not too large deflection angle e v2
of v 1 and v 2 are the fluid velocities v1 e
before and after the shock v 1 makes
d
an angle e and v 2 an angle b with
Velocity diagram of Supersonic flow
the shock. e is known as the wave
angle.
v1n = v 1 sin e
v 1t = v 1 cos e and v 2n = v 2 sin b
v 2t = v 2 cos b ; b = ( e - d )
r v sin e
Mass flow rate, r 1v1n = r 2v 2n ; 2 = 1
r 1 v 2 sin b
Momentum change, m v1t = mv 2t ; v 1t = v 2t
v 1 cos b r 2 tan e p2 æ r ö
= ; = ; = 1 + kM12 sin2 e ç1 - 1 ÷
v 2 cos e r 1 tan b p1 è r2 ø
v 12n v2
CpT1 + = CpT2 + 2n
2 2
1 æk + 1 M12 ö
=ç - 1÷ tan e
tan d è 2 M1 sin e - 1 ø
2 2

where, k = specific heat ratio, e = wave angle


M1 = Mach number, d = angle with respect to ground
9

Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning
Refrigeration Cycle
Refrigeration is the process in which heat is removed from a body enclosed
space so that its temperature is reduced and then maintained at the
temperature below the surrounding temperature. The working substance
which is used to produce refrigeration is known as refrigerant.

Heat Pump
Heat pump is used to remove heat from a body at TH
lower temperature and transfer this heat to a body
having high temperature on the expense of external
TH > TL
work supplied. HP W
Coefficient of Performance;
Desired effect QL
COP =
Work input TL

Here, the desired effect is to give heat to higher Heat pump process
temperature body.
Q QH TH
COP = 1 = ; COP =
W QH - QL TH - TL
1
(COP) pump =
T
1- L
TH
where, TH = high temperature, TL = lower temperature
310 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Refrigerator
Working principle of refrigerator is same as heat pump, but its aim to keep
cool the body whose temperature is below atmospheric temperature.
Desired effect
COP =
Work input TH
QL QH
COP = TH > TL
W
R W
QL TL
COP = =
Q H - Q L TH - TL QL
1 TL
(COP)R =
æ TH ö
ç - 1÷ Principle of refrigerator
è TL ø
where TH and TL are higher and lower temperature respectively.
(COP)P = (COP)R + 1
where, Q L = heat at lower temperature
Q H = heat at higher temperature
Unit of Refrigeration
It has standard unit of TR (Ton of Refrigeration). 1 TR (one ton of
refrigeration) means capacity to freeze one ton of water form and at 0°C in
24 h.
1 TR = 211 kJ / min
= 3.517 kW
= 200 BTHU/min

Key Points
✦ A refrigerator is a device which, operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a
temperature lower than the temperature of the surroundings.
✦ There is performance parameter in a refrigerator cycle, called the coefficient
of performance.
✦ Heat pump is a device which operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a
temperature higher than the temperature of the surroundings.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 311

Reversed Carnot Cycle


When the processes of Carnot cycle is reversed, then it is called reversed
Carnot cycle.
Isothermal
p
compression T 1 4
1
4

Adiabatic
compression
2 3 2 3
Adiabatic Isothermal
expansion expansion
S
V
Reversed Carnot cycle Reversed Carnot cycle
on p-V coordinate on T-S coordinate

Heat absorbed
COP =
Work input
T2(S 3 - S 2 ) T2(S 3 - S 2 ) æS 4 = S 3 ö
= = ç ÷
[T1(S 4 - S 1) - T2(S 3 - S 2 )] (T1 - T2 ) (S 4 - S 1) èS 1 = S 2 ø
T2
COP =
T1 - T2
where T2 and T1 are the temperature at section 2 and 1 respectively and
S 1, S 2, S 3 and S 4 are the entropy at 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

Air Refrigeration System


In air refrigeration, Bell Coleman cycle is used which works on reversed
Brayton cycle while Brayton cycle is used for gas turbine.
Reversed Brayton cycle (Air refrigeration
Brayton cycle (Gas turbine)
system, Bell Coleman cycle )

p 2 3 p 3 2

1 4 1
4

V V

T 3 T 3
2 2

4 4
1 1
S S
312 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

COP of reversed Brayton cycle,


Refrigeration effect
COP = ( RE )
Winput
Heat absorbed by air in cold chamber
=
Winput
maCp (T1 - T4 )
=
[ maCp (T2 - T3 ) - ma Cp (T1 - T4 )]
(T1 - T4 )
COP =
(T2 - T3 ) - (T1 - T4 )
Let pressure ratio is rp , then
p p
rp = 2 = 3
p1 p4
T1 T4 ì T2 T3 ü
COP = = í = ý
T2 - T1 T3 - T1 î T1 T4 þ
1
COP = g-1
g
( rp ) -1
where, g = index, rp = pressure ratio

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System


In this system, refrigerant (like NH3, R -12, R-11 etc) changes its phase from
liquid to vapour and vice-versa. When liquid changes into vapour, it
produces refrigerating effect by absorbing latent heat from cold chamber.
This process is known as evaporation.
Expansion
Evaporator valve
4

Refrigerated space 3
1

Compressor
Condenser

Vapour compression refrigeration system


Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 313

p T
p2
3 2
3 2

4 p1 1
4 1

h S
P-h graph T -S graph

1® 2 ® compression process (Isentropic)


2 ® 3 ® condensation process (At constant pressure)
3 ® 4 ® expansion process (Isenthalpic process)
4 ® 1® evaporation process (At constant pressure)
Refrigeration effect
COP =
Work done by compressor
h - h4
COP = 1
h2 - h1
where h1, h2 and h4 are the enthalpy at section 1, 2 and 4 respectively.

Key Points
✦ COP of refrigerator working between two fixed temperature TL and TH
(TH > TL ) will have fixed COP.
✦ A reversible heat engine can work like a refrigerator or a heat pump.
✦ Vapour compression refrigeration cycle

3 2
Z
p

4 1

h
T2
✦ Entropy S 2¢ = S 2 + C p In
T2¢
h2 = h2¢ + C p (T2 - T2¢ )
For isentropic process, S 1 = S 2, S 3 = S 4
314 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Compressor
A compressor is used in refrigerator to increase the pressure of [Link]
compress the refrigerant’ we use reciprocating compressor generally in the
vapour compression refrigeration system.

p 1 4

2 3

VC VS
V
p-V curve
p 2
Stroke volume V s = d L
4
where, d = diameter of compressor
L = stroke length
Volume flow rate of refrigerant
p
V = n × d 2L hv × N
4
where, N = rotational speed
hV = volumetric efficiency
n = number of cylinders
Actual volume compressed
hV =
Stroke volume
Vc + V s - V1
hV =
Vs
where, Vc = clearance volume
V V V
c = clearance ratio = c = 1 + c - 1
Vs Vs Vs
1
æ p ög
= 1+ c - c ç 2 ÷
è p1 ø
1 æ p2 ö
çCompression ratio rp = ÷
= 1 + c - c ( rp ) g çç p1 ÷
÷
è g = Index of compression ø
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 315

Vapour Absorption System


This system utilises low grade form of heat energy to produce cold in
compression of vapour compression system. In vapour absorption system,
compressor is replaced by absorber pump and generator.

COP of an Ideal Vapour Absorption System


Schematic diagram of energy transfer in vapour absorption system is
shown below
Generator Evaporator
Pump
Tg Te
Q=0
w=0
Qg Absorption Qe
system
Qc

Condenser
Tc
Energy transfer in vapour absorption system
Q g = heat supplied to refrigerator in generator
Qe = heat is absorbed by refrigerator in evaporator
Qc = heat is rejected to condenser or atmosphere
Coefficient of Performance
Q g + Qe = Qc
- Q g Qe Q
For reversible cycle net entropy change is size + c =0
Tg - Te Tc
æ T ö æ Tg - Tc ö
COP = ç e ÷ ç ÷
è Tc - Te ø è Tg ø
COP = (COP) Carnot ´ (hCarnot )
Te
COP of Carnot refrigerator =
Tc - Te
Tg - Tc
Efficiency of Carnot engine =
Tg
Here, Tg = generator temperature
Tc = absorber temperature (Generally surrounding temperature)
Te = evaporator temperature.
Refrigerant
Refrigerant absorbs heat by vaporisation and reject it through
condensation in the condenser and so produces refrigerating effect.

Designation of Refrigerant
In International Standards, refrigerants are designated as R followed by
some numerals.
For a hydrocarbon Chemical formula is C r HS Ft Cl y
● If S + t + y = 2 r + 2, designation of refrigerant is R ( r - 1) (S + 1) t
● If S + t + y = 2 r, designation of refrigerant is R1( r - 1) (S + 1) t
For an Inorganic Refrigerant
Designation is R (700 + molecular weight)
e. g ., NH3 ® R (700 + 17 ) Þ R 717

Desirable Properties of a Good Refrigerant


● Low boiling point ●
Low freezing point

High latent heat of vaporisation ●
High thermal conductivity

Low viscosity ●
Low specific volume in vapour state

Uses and Properties of Some Refrigerant


■ In absorption refrigeration system, we use NH 3 ¾ H 2O or water lithium bromide or
water lithium chloride. In NH 3 ¾ H 2O system NH 3 is refrigerant while H 2O is
transport medium. In water lithium bromide or water lithium chloride water is
refrigerant.
■ In ice plant, primary refrigerant is NH 3 or freon while secondary refrigerant is brime
solution.
■ Freezing temperature of freon-12 is - 157.8° C, so it is not used for producing
temperature below the freezing temperature.
■ In dehydrator, silica gel (molecular sieve ® SiO2 + K 2O + NO2 + Al2O3) is used
with calcium chloride. (Not use sodium chloride).
■ Hermetically sealed reciprocating compressor is commonly used in room air
conditioner.
■ For passenger aircraft air is used as refrigerant.
■ Refrigerant CO2 has lowest specific volume.
Psychrometric Charts and Its
Applications
For comfort air conditioning, properties of air should be known so that we
can control the environment in the space. The study of properties of
ambient air is known as psychrometric.

Psychrometric terms
There are following terms used in psychrometric study.

Pressure
Pressure is the effect of a force applied to a surface, Pressure is the
amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol of pressure is p
Total pressure of air p = p v + pa
where, p v = partial pressure of water vapour
pa = partial pressure of dry air
Partial pressure of water vapour
- [ p - ( pv )wb ](tdb -t wb )
pv = ( pvs )wb
1527.4 - 1.3 t wb
. ´ p (tdb - t wb )
18
or pv = ( pvs )wb -
2700
where, ( pvs ) wb = saturation pressure of water vapour corresponding to
wet bulb temperature
p = atmospheric pressure of moist air
Twb = wet bulb temperature
tdb = dry bulb temperature.

Dry Air
It is the mixture of gases. Generally O 2 and N2 make up the major part of
the combustion.
It consists 21% O 2 and 79% N2 by volume.
It consists 23% O 2 and 77% N2 by mass.
Moisture
The water vapour present in the air is called moisture.

Moist Air
It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour.
318 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Absolute Humidity
The weight of water vapour present in unit volume of air is called absolute
humidity.
Weight of water vapour
Absolute humidity =
Volume of air (mixture)

Specific Humidity
It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in air (mixture) to mass of dry air in air
mixture.
Mass of water vapour in air
Specific humidity =
Mass of dry air in air
w = 0. 622
pv æ pv ö
= 0. 622 ç ÷
ps è p - pv ø

Relative Humidity
It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume to mass of water
vapour in the same volume of saturated air at same temperature.
m p
f = v, f = v
ms pvs
where mv and m s are the mass of water vapour and mass of saturated air
pv and pvs are the partial pressure of water vapour and partial pressure of
water vapour in saturated air at same temperature for saturated air relative
humidity is 1 or 100%.

Degree of Saturation (m)


It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a sample of air to mass of water
vapour in saturated air at the same temperature.
m /m w
m = v a,m =
mvs / ma ws
where w and w s are specific humidities of air and saturated air.

Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)


It is the normal temperature of air measured by an ordinary thermometer.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 319

Wet Bulb Temperature


It is the temperature measured by a thermometer when bulb is covered by
wet cloth.
Wet Bulb Depression (WBD) = DBT - WBT

Dew Point Temperature (DPT)


It is temperature at which water vapour in air start condensing.

DBT
(T )
WBT Pv
DPT

S
DBT, WBT and DPT graphs


For unsaturated air, DBT > WBT > DPT

For saturated air, DBT = WBT = DPT

Dew Point Depression


It is the difference between Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) and Dew Point
Temperature (DPT). i . e., DPD = DBT - DPT

Enthalpy of Air (h)


Enthalpy of air is defined as
H = Ha + HV , H = ma ha + mv hv
ha = Cp a(t )
h v = 2500 + 188
. t
mv
t = Dry Bulb Temperature in °C, h = ha + hv
ma
h = Cpa tdb + w [2500 + 180
. ° tdht ] kJ/kg dry air
or h = Cpm tdb + w ( hg - Cpv tdb )
where, Cpm = Cpa + Cpv w
Cpa , Cpv , Cpm are the specific heat of dry air water vapour and moist air
respectively.
hg ® enthalpy of saturated water vapour at DPT in kJ/kg.
320 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Psychrometric Chart
● Enthalpy is more or less constant with wet bulb temperature. Enthalpy
lines are also downward from left to right.
● Constant specific volume lines are more steeper inclined lines than wet
bulb temperature lines or enthalpy lines.
● Adiabatic lines on psychrometric chart are represented along constant
enthalpy lines.
Relative
humidity

Dew Moisture
point content
tem Wet w
O pe bul
ra b
tur
Alignment Specific e
circle volume
tDBT
Psychrometric chart

Sensible Heating
It is process of heating air at constant w.

Air in Air out

Heating coil
Heating process t1 t2
Sensible heating
Q = h2 - h1 = Cpm (tdbt 2 - tdbt 2 )
where, cpm = specific heating moist

Sensible Cooling
It is process of cooling air at constant w. For sensible cooling, the coil
temperature must be greater than dew point temperature and less than dbt.

2 c w

t2 t1
Sensible cooling
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 321

Humidification
The addition of moisture to air at a constant Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) is
knows as humidification.
It is process of increasing w at constant DBT.

2
w2

w1
1

DBT humidification

Dehumidification
The removal of moisture from air at a constant Dry Bulb Temperature is
called dehumidification. It is process of decreasing w at constant DBT.

Heating with Humidification


It is process in which air heated with humidification. The heating and
humidification process line (1 - 2 ) as shown in figure below. In this process,
Dry Bulb Temperature and specific humidity of incoming air increases.
1 2
h2 m1
m2
h1
2 h2
w1
h1 w2
t1
Air in Air out t2
1 2¢ w

t1 t2
DBT Heating
coil hf
water
Heating with humidification process

Addition of heat Q 1- 2 = ma[( h1 - h2 ) - ( w 1 - w 2 ) hf ]


h2 ¢ - h1 = sensible heat (S H )
h2 - h2 ¢ = latent heat ( LH )
Sensible heat added
Sensible heat factor =
Total heat added
SH h¢ - h1
= = 2
S H + LH h2 - h1
322 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Heating with Dehumidification


In this process, air is heated with dehumidification.

1
w1
2
w2

t1 t2
Heating with dehumidification graph

Cooling with Humidification


In this process, an air is cooled with humidification.
Adiabatic saturation
temperature
1
w2

2
w1

t2 t1
Cooling with humidification graph

Cooling with Dehumidification


In this process air is cooled below the down point with dehumidification. It
is necessary to maintain. In a cooling with dehumidification, both the
humidity ratio and temperature of most air decrease. Some water vapour is
condensed in the form of liquid water, called a condensate. This process is
shown by a curve in psychrometric chart.
h1
h3
h2
Chilled water
1
2 LH2

2'
2S SHL Air in Air out
W

DBT Cooling system


Dehumidification
Total heat load on cooling coil,
Q 1 - 2 = ma [( h1 - h2 ) - ( w 1 - w 2 ) hf ]
Since, ( w 1 - w 2 ) hf » 0
So, Q 1 - 2 = ma ( h1 - h2 )
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 323

h2¢ - h2
Sensible heat factor =
h1 - h2
where, h1 and h2 = enthalpy of moist air entering and leaving the coil
ma = mass flow rate of the condensate
h2¢ = enthalpy of condensate.

Adiabatic Mixing of Air Streams


Streams of air at different condition are mixed as shown in figure.
By mass balance,
ma1, h1, w1

ma3, h3, w3

ma2, h2, w2
Mixing of air streams

h1
ma1 + ma2 = ma3
ma1 w 1 + ma2 w 2 = ma3 w 3 (ma w = mv ) h3
1
w1
ma1 h1+ ma2 h2 = ma3 h3 h2 W
3 w2
ma1 h - h2
= 3
ma2 h1 - h2 w3
2
ma 1 t 3 - t 2
=
ma2 t 1 - t 3
DBT
Chemical Dehumidification DBT adiabatic graph
In chemical humidification DBT of air increases while specific humidity
decreases.

Saturation 1
line w2 w

w1
2

t1 t2
DBT
Chemical humidification
324 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Adiabatic Evaporative Cooling


In adiabatic evaporative cooling, the heat removed in lowering the Dry Bulb
Temperature of the air is absorbed by the moisture which evaporates and
raises the humidity of the air.

2
h
=
1
h

h w2S
2S 2
w2 w

w1
1

tab t2 t1
DBT
Evaporative cooling graph

By Pass Factor
Let Dry Bulb Temperature of coil surface is t coil and air temperature at entry
and exit is t 1 and t 2 respectively.
By pass

1 kg of air 1 kg
t2 a b t2
t coil

By pass factor system


By pass factor,
t 2 - t coil æ Temperature drop not achieved ö
m= ç ÷
t 1 - t coil è Temperature drop that could be achieved ø

Coil Efficiency
It is determined by the mass coming in perfect contact of coil.
h = 1 - m = 1 - BPF
t -t
From figure, h= 2 1 1 2 3
t3 - t1
h
t -t BPF
BPF = 3 2
t3 - t1 t t 1 3

Cooling efficiency diagram

Note If by pass factor is low then coil efficiency will be better.


Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 325

Summer Air Conditioning with Ventilation Air


● GSHF ® the line joining of inlet and exit condition of an A/C equipment
● RSHF ® the line joining supply conditions with inside room condition.
The point of interaction of GSHF and RSHF will give supply condition to room.
A/C Ground Sensible
room Heat Factor
(GSHF) 1
L
i
2 i
1 A/C 2
equipment
Outside air
Room Sensible
Heat Factor
(RSHF)
Air conditioning system

Apparated Dew Point (ADP) 1


The temperature at which cooling and
ADP 2
humidification lines meet saturated curve.
t 2 - t ADP
BPF =
t 1 - t ADP
tADP t2 t1
ADP diagram
Comfort Chart
Relative humidity lines are taken from chart. It is found that at an effective
temperature of 20°C, 99% of people where comfortable in winter and in
summer this temperature is found to be 21.6°C. The comfortable relative
humidity conditions are 50% to 60% and hence shaded region shows
comfort zone for year round conditioning.
22
70
21.6 60
50
21
WBT

40 (RH)
20

DBT
Comfort chart
10
Internal
Combustion Engine
Basic Concepts Related to Engine
An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another
form. Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a
fuel into thermal energy and utilises this thermal energy to perform useful
work. Heat engine can be classified as follows

Heat Engines

IC engine EC engine
(Internal Combustion engine) (External Combustion engine)

Rotary Reciprocating Reciprocating Rotary

Open cycle Wankel Gasoline Diesel Steam Stirling Steam Closed cycle
gas turbine engine engine engine engine engine turbine gas turbine
Classification of heat engines

EC and IC Engines
External Combustion (EC) engines are those in which combustion takes
place outside the engine whereas in Internal Combustion (IC) engines,
combustion takes place within the engine.
Internal Combustion Engine 327

Classification of IC Engine
IC engines can be classified as below

Two Strokes Engine


The thermodynamics cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or in
one revolution of the crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke is obtained in each
revolution of the crankshaft with uniform turning moment and light flywheel.

Four Strokes Engine


The thermodynamics cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston or in
two revolutions of the crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke is obtained in
every two revolutions of the crankshaft with non-uniform turning moment
and heavier flywheel.

Spark Ignition (SI) Engine


It works on Otto cycle or constant volume heat addition cycle. A gaseous
mixture of fuel air introduced during the suction stroke. A carburettor and
an ignition system are necessary. Modern engines have gasoline injection.

Compression Ignition (CI) Engine


It works on diesel cycle or constant pressure heat addition cycle. Fuel is
injected directly into the combustion chamber at high pressure at the end
of the compression stroke. A fuel pump and injector are necessary.

Performance Parameters of Engine


The basic parameters for measuring the performance of engines are given
below

Indicated Thermal Efficiency


The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion
chamber is called indicated power.
This efficiency give an idea of the output generated by the engine with
respect to heat supplied in the form of fuel. The indicated thermal efficiency
can be defined as indicated power.
Indicated power ip
hth = =
Energy in fuel per second mf ´ Cv
Here, ip = Indicated power
Cv = Calorific value of fuel
mf = Mass of fuel/second
328 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Brake Thermal Efficiency


It is defined as ratio of heat equivalent to brake power to heat energy
supplied to engine in fuel.
bp
hbth = , bp ® Brake power
mf ´ Cv

Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of brake power to indicated power.
bp bp
hm = = , f p ® frictional power
ip bp + fp

Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the success with which the air supply,
and thus the charge, is inducted into the engine. It is a very important
parameter, since it indicates the breathing capacity of the engine.
ma ma
hV = , hV =
ra V N r aVd
dis
2

Here, r a = Inlet density of air


ma = Mass of air
Vdis = Displaced volume of air
Vdis N = Volume flow rate for four strokes engine
2
Vd = Volume flow rate of air.

Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio


It is the ratio of indicated thermal efficiency to thermal efficiency to
theoretical cycle at same compression ratio.
Actual thermal efficiency
hrel =
Air standard efficiency

Key Points
✦ The indicated thermal efficiency is based on the i p (input or indicated power).
✦ The brake thermal efficiency is based on the bp (brake power).
✦ Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical losses in an engine.
Internal Combustion Engine 329

Mean Effective Pressure ( pm )


The parameter mean effective pressure is measured by the formula which
is given below
pim L AnK
ip =
60 ´ 1000
where, ip = Indicated power in kW
pim = Indicated mean effective pressure (N/m 2 )
L = Length of the stroke (m)
A = Area of the piston (m 2 )
N = Speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)
n = Number of power strokes N/2 for four strokes and N for
two strokes engine
K = Number of cylinders.
Mean Piston Speed
Mean piston speed can be given by
Sp = 2 L N
Specific Fuel Consumption
It is the ratio of amount of kilogram of fuel used per hour by engine to
power produced by the engine.
Fuel consumption per unit time
S fc =
Power

Fuel Air (F/A) or Air Fuel Ratio (A/F)


The ratio of actual fuel air ratio to stoichiometric fuel air ratio is called
equivalence ratio.
Actual fuel air ratio
ò = Stoichiometric fuel air ratio
Accordingly, ò = 1for stoichiometric mixture
ò < 1for lean mixture
ò > 1for rich mixture.
Cycles and their Analysis
A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occuring in a certain
order. In other words, any process or series of processes whose end states
are identical is termed as cycle.

Assumptions of Air Standard Cycle


● Assume working medium as perfect gas (Ideal gas).
● No change in mass of working period.
● Reversible processes.
● Supply of heat from a constant high temperature source (not from
chemical reactions) and rejection of heat to a constant low temperature
source.
● Not heat losses from the system to surroundings.

Constant specific heats through the cycle.

Cycles
There are different types of cycles which are given below

Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle in which all the processes constituting a
reversible cycle. This cycle consists of two isothermal and two reversible
adiabatic processes.

p
3 4
T3 =T4
3 4
T

2 1 T1 =T2
2 1

V s
p-V diagram for Carnot cycle T-s diagram for Carnot cycle


Process 1- 2 is isothermal compression process

Process 2 - 3 is adiabatic process (isentropic process)

Process 3 - 4 is isothermal expansive process

Process 4 - 1 is adiabatic process (isentropic process)
Internal Combustion Engine 331

All the processes are reversible.


T1
hc = 1 -
T3
where, T1 = Temperature at process 1
T3 = Temperature at process 3
Carnot cycle has a low mean effective pressure because of very low work
output.

The Stirling Cycle


It is modified form of Carnot cycle with high mean effective pressure. It
consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes.
P
p
3 isothermal 3 4
4 T3 =T4

2 T1=T2
2 1
isothermal 1

V s
p-V diagram for Stirling cycle T-s diagram for Stirling cycle

æ1® 2 ö

Isothermal process ç ÷
è 3 ® 4ø
æ2 ® 3 ö

Constant volume process ç ÷
è 4 ® 1ø
T1
hs = 1- (same as Carnot cycle)
T3

In practical Stirling cycle, efficiency will be less than Carnot efficiency.

For heat exchange efficiency
R (T3 - T1) loge r
hs =
RT3 loge r + (1 - E ) Cv (T3 - T1)

where, E = Heat exchanger effectiveness.


332 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The Ericsson Cycle


It consists of two isothermal and two constant pressure processes. The
processes are
● Process 1-2 is reversible isothermal compression
● Process 2-3 is constant pressure heat addition
● Process 3-4 is reversible isothermal expansion
● Process 4-1 is constant pressure heat rejection
The advantage of the Ericsson cycle is its small pressure ratio for given
ratio of maximum to minimum specific volume with higher mean effective
pressure. Ericsson cycle is applied by a gas turbine employing a large
number of stages with heat exchangers, insulators and reheaters.

p
2 3 3 4
Iso

T3=T4
Isothermal

the

Constant
rm

pressure
al

T1=T2
1 4 2 1

V s
p -V diagram for Ericsson cycle T-s diagram for Ericsson cycle
The thermal efficiency of Ericsson cycle is given by,
TH - TL é T ù
hth = = ê1 - L ú
TH ë THû

The Otto Cycle


The otto cycle is a set of processes used by spark ignition internal
combustion engines (2-stroke or 4-stroke cycles). Petrol engine works on
the otto cycle. In petrol engine fuel burnt by spark ignition. It consists two

QS Constant 3 2 3
p 3 T 4 1
Isentropic 3 volume
4
process 1 2 2
4
4
2
1
1
QR
V s
p-V diagram for Otto cycle T-s diagram for Otto cycle
Internal Combustion Engine 333

isentropic processes (reversible adiabatic) and two constant volume


proceses.
● Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression of air
● Process 2-3 is heat addition at constant volume.
● Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic expansion of air
● Process 4-1 is heat rejection at constant volume.
Q - QR T 1
hotto = s Þ hotto = 1 - 1 = 1 - g - 1
QS T2 (r )
V1 V4
Compression ratio r = =
V2 V3
where, Q s = Heat supplied during the isothermal process
Q R = Heat rejected during the isothermal expression process

Work Output (W)


It can be measures as (QS - Q R ) = hotto QS
where, QS = Heat supplied
Q R = Heat rejected
Heat supplied QS = m Cv (T3 - T2 )
Heat rejected Q R = mCv (T4 - T1)
p V
W = 1 1 ( rp - 1) ( r g - 1 - 1)
g -1
where, g = Specific heat ratio,
rp = Pressure ratio
p3 p4
Pressure ratio rp = =
p2 p1

Value of g (Ratio of Specific Heat)


For monoatomic gas g = 1.67
For air g = 1.40
For exhaust gas g = 1.30
Mean Effective Pressure
It is defined as the ratio of the net work done to the displacement volume of
the piston.
Work output
pm =
Swept volume
Swept volume = V1 - V2 = V2 ( r - 1)
334 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

p1 r ( rp - 1) ( r( g - 1) - 1)
pm =
( g - 1) ( r - 1)
where, pm = Mean effective pressure
rp = Pressure ratio
g = Specific heat ratio.

The Diesel Cycle


This cycle is used in diesel engine. In diesel engine, fuel is burnt by
compressing the air upto high pressure. It consists of two isentropic
proceses, one constant volume process and one constant pressure process.
QS
Constant 3
p T pressure
2 3 Isentropic
process 2

4 4
Isentropic
process QR
1 Constant
1
volume

V s
p-V diagram for diesel cycle T-s diagram for diesel cycle

Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression

Process 2-3 is constant pressure heat addition

Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic compression

Process 4-1 is constant volume heat rejection
1 é rcg - 1 ù
hdiesel = 1 - ê ú
r( g - 1) ë g ( rc - 1) û
V3 T3
Volume ratio or cut-off ratio rc = =
V2 T2
V1
Compression ratio r =
V2

Work Output
Work output can be calculated by the following relation.
p V - p4V4 p2V2 - p1V1
W = p2 (V3 - V2 ) + 3 3 -
g -1 g -1
p1V1 r( g - 1) [ g ( rc - 1) - r 1- g ( rcg - 1)]
W=
g -1
Internal Combustion Engine 335

Mean effective pressure


p1 [ g r g ( rc - 1) - r ( rcg - 1)]
pm =
( g - 1) ( r - 1)
where, r = Compression ratio
rc = Cut-off ratio.

The Dual Cycle


In this cycle, heat is added partly at constant volume and partly at constant
pressure. It consists of two isentropic processes, two constant volume
processes and one constant pressure process.
● Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression
● Process 2-3 is constant volume heat addition

Process 3-4 is constant pressure heat addition

Process 4-5 is reversible adiabatic expansion

Process 5-1 is constant colume heat rejection

QS Constant pressure
p T Constant volume 4
3 4 Isentropic 3
QS process 2
5 5
2
QR 1 Constant volume

1
V s
p -V diagram for Dual cycle T-s diagram for Dual cycle

1 é rp rcg - 1 ù

Efficiency h = 1- ( g - 1) ê ú
r êë ( rp - 1) + rp g ( rc - 1) úû

Work output
p1V1
W= [ g rp r g - 1 ( rc - 1) + r g - 1( rp - 1) - ( rp rcg - 1)]
g -1

Mean effective pressure
é g rp r g ( rc - 1) + r g ( rp - 1) - r ( rp rcg - 1) ù
pm = p1 ê ú
êë ( g - 1) ( r - 1) úû
336 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Comparison of Efficiencies in Cycles


■ For same compression ratio and heat addition
h otto > h dual > h diesel
■ For same compression ratio and heat rejection
h otto > h dual > h diesel
■ Same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection
h diesel > h dual > h otto
■ Same maximum pressure and heat input
h diesel > h dual > h otto
■ Same maximum pressure and work output
h diesel > h dual > h otto

The Lenoir Cycle


It consists of one constant volume heat addition, one isentropic expansion
and one constant pressure heat rejection.

p T 2
2
Isentropic Constant
process volume
3

1 1 Constant
3
pressure

V s
p-V diagram for Lenoir cycle T-s diagram for Lenoir cycle

Insentropic process (2 ® 3)

Constant volume process (1 ® 2)

Constant pressure process (3 ® 1)
The Lenoir cycle is used for pulse jet engines
Q - QR
h Lenoir = S
QR
Heat supplied, QS = mCV (T2 - T1)
Heat rejected Q R = mCp (T3 - T1)
æ 1 ö
ç ( r ) g - 1÷
p

Thermal efficiency hth = 1 - g ç ÷
ç rp - 1 ÷
ç ÷
è ø
p2 T2

Pressure ratio, rp = =
p1 T1
Internal Combustion Engine 337

The Atkinson Cycle


The Atkinson cycle is an ideal cycle for Otto engine exhausting to a gas
turbine. In this cycle, the isentropic expansion ( 3 - 4) of an Otto cycle is
further allowed to proceed to the lowest cycle pressure so as to increase
the work output.
Constant 3
p T volume
3
Isentropic 2
process 4

4
2
1 4¢
1 4¢ Constant pressure
Isentropic process
V s
p-V diagram for Atkinson cycle T-s diagram for Atkinson cycle
● Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression
● Process 2-3 is constant volume heat addition

Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic expansion (V3 to V4)

Process 4-1 is constant pressure heat rejection
é e-r ù
hAtkinson = 1 - g ê g
ë e - r úû
g

1
æ p3 ö g æ V ¢ 4 ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ =e (expansion ratio)
è p¢ 4 ø è V3 ø
1
æ p2 ö g æ V1 ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷=r (compression ratio)
è p1 ø è V2 ø

Heat supplied Q 3 = CV (T3 - T2 )

Heat rejected Q 2 = Cp (T4 - T1)

Net work done W = CV (T3 - T2 ) - Cp (T4 - T1)

The Brayton Cycle


It is a theoretical cycle for a gas turbine. It consists of two reversible
adiabatic or isentropic processes and two constant pressure processes.

Insentropic process (1 ® 2)

Constant volume process (4’ ® 1)

Constant pressure process (4 ® 1)
338 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Constant 3
p T volume
2 3
2
Isentropic Constant 4'
process pressure
4'
1 4
4 Constant pressure

V s
p-V diagram for Brayton cycle T-s diagram for Brayton cycle
1 V1
hB = 1 - g-1
;r=
V2
g
( rp )
g-1 g-1
g-1
T3 æ p3 ö g æp ö g æV ö
=ç ÷ = ç 2÷ = ç 1÷ = r( g - 1)
T4 è p4 ø è p1 ø è V2 ø

Actual Cycles
The actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air standard efficiency
due to various losses occuring in the actual engine operation.
The major losses are due to

Variation of specific heats with temperature.

Dissociation of the combustion products.

Progressive combustion.

Time loss 6%
Heat loss 12%
p
Fuel air cycle
Real cycle

Vcycle / Vc
p-V diagram for actual cycle

Incomplete combustion of fuel.

Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber.

Blowdown at the end of exhaust process.

Gas exchange process.
Fuels
Fuel is any material that stores potential energy in a form that can be
practicably released and used as heat energy. Fuel is also a substance that
is changed in some way to produce heat, electricity or other form of energy.

Rating of Engine Fuels


The parameters for rating of engine fuels are given below

Octane Number
The octane number is defined as the percentage by volume of iso-octane
in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane which exactly matches the
knocking intensity of the fuel in a standard engine under a set of standard
operating conditions. Two reference fuels iso-octane (C 8 H18 ) and normal
heptane (C7H16 ) have octane number 100 and 0 respectively.
PN -100
Octane number = 100 +
3
Here, PN = Performance Number

Cetane Number
Cetane number is defined as the percentage by volume of normal cetane
in a mixture of normal cetane and a-methyl napthalene which has the same
ignition characteristics (ignition delay) as the test fuel when combustion is
carried out in a standard engine under specified operating conditions.
The reference fuels are normal cetane (C 16 H34) and a-methyl naphthalene
(C 11 H10 ) with a cetane number of 100 and 0.

Types of Fuels
Some types of fuels are given below

Solid Fuels
Compare to gaseous and liquid fuels, solid fuels are quite difficult to handle
and storage and feeding are quite combustion.

Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels are preferred for IC engines because they are easy to store and
have reasonably good calorific value. The three principal commercial type
of fuels are benzyl, alcohol and petroleum products.
340 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Chemical Structure of Petroleum


Family of General Molecular
Saturated, unsaturated Stability
hydrocarbons formula structure
Paraffin CnH2 n + 2 Chain Saturated Stable
Olefin C n H 2n Chain Unsaturated Unstable
Nepthalene C n H 2n Ring Saturated Stable
Aromatic C n H 2n- 6 Ring Highly Unsaturated Most unstable

Alcohol
Methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are two kind of
alcohols that seem most promising. It is a high octane fuel with anti-knock
index number of over 100. So, it can run more efficiency by using higher
compression ratio. Alcohol have low surface content of fuel and overall less
emission compared to gasoline.
Main disadvantage of alcohol is having low energy content i . e., the calorific
value of fuel is almost half.

Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels are best suited for IC engine since physical delay is almost
zero. However, as fuel displaces equal amount of air, the engines may
have poor volumetric efficiency.

Alternative Fuels
Some alternative fuels are given below

Hydrogen
Hydrogen fuel is a zero - emission fuel which uses electrochemical cells or
combustion in internal engines, to power vehicles and electric devices.
Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel

No emission of CO or HC in the exhaust. So, exhaust are H2O,N2 and
NO x.

High energy content per volume when stored as a liquid.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel

Requirement of heavy, bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service
stations.

High NO x emission because of high flame temperature.

High fuel cost.
Internal Combustion Engine 341

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)


Natural gas composed chiefly of methane, can be compressed to a liquid
and used as a substitute for other traditional liquid fuels.
Advantages of CNG
● High octane number, high flame speed with high compression ratio.
● Low engine emissions (low CO, HC and NO x emissions).
Disadvantages of CNG
● Low energy density resulting in low engine performance.
● Low engine volumetric efficiency.
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
LPG is a mixture of propane and butane, both of which are easily
compressible gases under standard atmospheric conditions. It is commonly
used for cooking and space heating.
Two types of LPG are used for automobile engines
I. Propane II. Butane
Propane and butane are obtained from oil and gas wells.
Advantages of LPG

LPG contains less carbon than petrol. So, LPG powered vehicle produces
50% less CO per km.

Due to higher octane rating (110), the combustion of LPG is smoother and
knocking is eliminated and the engine runs smoothly.
Disadvantages of LPG

LPG will produce 10% less horse power for a given engine at full throttle
due to fixed volume of the mixture of fuel and air.

High ignition temperature.

Other Possible Fuels



Bio-gas

Producer gas

Benzol

Acetone

Diethyl ether
Carburetion, Fuel Injections
and Ignition
Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion
engine. It has become the primary fuel delivery system use in automotive
engines, having replaced carburetors during the 1980s and 1990s.

Carburetion
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the
proper amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called
carburetion and device which does this job is called a carburetor.

Air Fuel Ratio (AFR)


Air fuel ratio is the mass ratio of air to fuel and present in an internal
combustion engine.
Air and fuel in ratio can vary quantitatively.
M
AFR = air
M fuel
Air Fuel Ratio for an SI Engine
If exactly enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio
is known as the stoichiometric mixture.
Best Stoichiometric
power mixture
power output
Power BSFC
output (kg/kWh)
BSFC
(kW)
Best
economy
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
A/F (kg of air/kg of fuel)
where, BSFC = Brake Specific Fuel Consumption.
Requirement of Ratio Under Different Operations
Operation ratio
Idling 12-12.5
Cruising/Normal 16-16.5
Maximum power range 12-13
Transient operation 3-5
Internal Combustion Engine 343

Altitude Compensation
● In the case of different atmospheric conditions, the air fuel ratio changes.
The enrichment E due to variation of air density closely follows the
relationship
r0 p0T
E + 1= =
r pT0
● At higher altitude, A /F mixture become progressively richer due to
decrement of air density.
● At higher altitude, pressure difference Dp ( p1 - p2 ) provided by simple
carburetor is large as density of air decreases.

The Simple Carburetor


A carburetor is a device that blands air and fuel for an internal combustion
engine. The schematic diagram of the simple carburetor is shown in figure
below.

A A

Chock valve Idling air bleed


Vent to atmosphere
Fuel discharge
nozzle
Fuel ln
z
B
Float
Ventury strainer
Float pivot

Float chamber
Fuel metering orifice

Air fuel mixture


A carburetor structure

Assuming an adiabatic flow of air (q = 0, W = 0)


and velocity of air through section A - A C1 » 0
344 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Velocity of air across ventury throat (section B - B)


é g -1ù
æ ö g
C2 = 2 CpT1 ê1 - ç 2 ÷ ú
p
ê è p1 ø ú
êë úû
● Mass flow rate of air
1
æ p ög
ma = r 1 A1C1 = r 2 A2 C2 Þ r2 = ç 2 ÷ r1
è p1 ø

é 2 g +1ù
A2 p1 ê æ p2 ö g æ p2 ö g ú
ma = 2 Cp ç ÷ - ç ÷
R T1 ê è p1 ø è p1 ø ú
êë úû
● Actual mass flow rate,
é 2 g +1ù
A2 p1 ê æ p2 ö g æ p2 ö g ú
ma actual = Cda 2 Cp ç ÷ - ç ÷
R T1 ê è p1 ø è p1 ø ú
êë úû

Let Cf is fuel velocity at the nozzle exit and Z is the height of the nozzle exit
above the level of fuel in the float bowl and r f is the fuel density
é p - p2 ù
Cf = 2 ê 1 - gZ ú
ë r f û

Mass flow rate of fuel
mf = Af Cf r f
mfactual = Cdf Af Cf r f
mfactual = Cdf Af 2r f ( p1 - p2 - gZr f )

Cd f ® Coefficient of discharge for fuel nozzle


m ¢ a actual
A / F ratio =
m ¢ factual

where, Cda = Coefficient of discharge for air.


T1 = Temperature of air at section ( A - A ).
p1 = Pressure at section ( A - A ).
p2 = Pressure at ventury throat section ( B - B).
r 1 = Density of air at section ( A - A ).
r 2 = Density of air at section ( B - B).
A1 A2 = Cross-section area at intel and ventury throat
Internal Combustion Engine 345

Air-fuel Ratio Neglecting Compressibility of Air


ma actual = Cda A 2 2r a ( p1 - p2 )

m ¢ factual = Cdf A2 2r f ( p1 - p2 - gZr f )

Cda A2 r a ( p1 - p2 )
A / F ratio =
Cdf Af r f ( p1 - p2 - gZ r f )

m ¢ a Cda A2 ra
If Z = 0 =
m ¢ f Cdf Af rf
Here, r a = Density of air
r f = Density of fuel.

Fuel Injections System


Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion
engine.
The injection system has to perform the important duty of initiating and
controlling the combustion process. Injection systems can be classified as
1. Air injection system 2. Solid injection system
3. Common rail system 4. Individual pump and nozzle system
5. Unit injector system 6. Distributor system

Injection Pump Governor


Quantity of fuel delivered vary with the speed. Fuel delivered by a pump
increases with the speed and so causing excessive carbon deposits and
high exhaust temperature. Drastic reduction in load will cause over
speeding to dangerous value. Injection pump governor is used to take care
of above limitations.

Nozzle
Nozzle is that part of an injector through which the liquid fuel is sprayed
into the combustion chamber. Velocity of the fuel through nozzle orifice
v f = Cd 2 gh,
Let, h = Pressure difference between injector and cylinder pressure.
Q = Area of all orifices ´ fuel jet velocity ´ time of one injection
´ number of injections per second for one orifice
346 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

æp ö æ q 60 ö æ N ö
Q = ç d 2 ´ n÷ ´ v f ´ ç ´ ÷´ç i÷
è4 ø è 360 N ø è 60 ø
Ni = Number of injection per minute
N
Ni = for 4 strokes engine, N for 2 strokes engine
2
q = Duration of injection in crank angle degree
d = Diameter of one orifice
n = Number of orifices
2 ( Pinj - Pcyl )
Velocity of injection vinj = Cd
rf
where, Pf = Fuel density
pinj = Injection power
Pcycle = Power of cycle.

Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) System


The main purpose of the MPFI system is to supply a proper ratio of
gasoline and air to the cylinders. These systems function under two basic
arrangements
1. Port injection
2. Throttle body injection

Ignition System
Ignition system provide sufficiently large voltage across the spark plug
electrodes to effect the spark discharge. It supply the required energy for
the spark to ignite the combustible mixture adjacent to the plug electrodes
under all operating conditions. The ignition systems are classified as follows
1. Battery ignition systems
2. Magneto ignition systems

Dwell Angle
The period during which the contact points in ingnition process remains
closed is called dwell angle or cam angle. Too small dwell angle will result
in lower secondary voltage and hence poor sparks or even misfiring. Too
large a dwell angle will lead to burning of condenser and contact point due
to over saturation of windings.
Internal Combustion Engine 347

Firing Order
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of circular cylinder in a
multi-cylinder reciprocating engine.
For four cylinder firing orders
1- 3 - 4 - 2 or 1- 2 - 4 - 3
For six cylinder firing orders
1- 5 - 3 - 6 - 2 - 4
or
1- 2 - 3 - 6 - 5 - 4
or
1- 5 - 4 - 6 - 2 - 3
or
1- 2 - 4 - 6 - 5 - 3

Combustion
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the fuel like
hydrogen and carbon combine with oxygen liberating heat energy and
causing an increase in temperature of gases.

Stages of Combustion in SI (Spark-ignition)


Engine
There are 3 stages in SI engine which are given below
Stage 1 Ignition lag There is a certain time interval between instant of
spark there and instant where there is a noticeable rise in pressure due to
combustion. This time lag is called ignition lag.
30
Stage 2 Flame propagation stage
I II III
Once the flame is formed at B, it C
20
should be self sustained and must be
p D
able to propagate through the
10 B
mixture. This is possible when the rate A
of heat generation by burning is
0
greater than heat lost by flame to 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
surrounding. Crank angle (degree)
Combustion in SI engine
348 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Stage 3 After burning Combustion will not stop at point C but continue
after attaining peak pressure and this combustion is known as after
burning. This generally happens when the rich mixture is supplied to
engine.

Knock Phenomenon in SI Engines


If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel and remains at or above this temperature during
the period of preflame reactions. Spontaneous ignition or autoignition
occurs at various pin point locations. This phenomenon is called
knocking.
B p
Ignition
Compression Power
A D

BDC TDC BDC



p

Ignition
Power
Compression
A

BDC TDC BDC

Knock phenomenon in SI engine

Variables Affecting Knock in SI Engine


Major effect on unburned
[Link] Increase in variable Effection on knocking
reduce charge
1. Compression ratio Increase T and p Decrease knocking
2. Mass of charge inducted Increase p Decrease knocking
3. Inlet temperature Increase T Decrease knocking
4. Chamber wall temperature Increase T Decrease knocking
5. Spark advance Increase T and p Retard knocking
6. A/F ratio Increase T and p Reduce knocking
7. Turbulence Decrease time factor Increase knocking
8. Engine speed Decrease time factor Increase knocking
9. Distance of flame travel Increase time factor Reduce knocking
Internal Combustion Engine 349

Stages of Combustion in CI (Compression Ignition)


Engines
There are four stages in combustion in CI engines
Stage 1 Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion The fuel does not
ignite immediately upon injection into the combustion chamber. There is a
definite period of inactivity between the time of injection and the actual
burning this period is known as the ignition delay period.
Stage 2 Period of Rapid Combustion Period of rapid combustion also
called the uncontrolled combustion, is that phase in which the pressure rise
is rapid.
Stage 3 Period of Controlled Combustion The temperature and pressure
in the second stage are so high that fuel droplets injected burn almost as
they enter and find the necessary oxygen and any further pressure rise can
be controlled by injection rate. The period of controlled combustion is
assumed to end at maximum cycle temperature.
Stage 4 Period of After-Burning Combustion does not stop with the
completion of the injection process. The unburnt and fuel partially burnt fuel
particles left in the combustion chamber start burning as soon as they
come into contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain
duration called the after-burning period.
III IV

80 I

Start of II
60 Combustion

p
40
Start of
injection
20

0
100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100
Time/Degree of crankshaft rotation
Stages of CI Engines
350 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Knock Phenomenon in CI Engine


If the ignition delay is longer in CI engine, the actual burning of the first few
droplets is delayed and a greater quantity of

combustion
fuel droplets gets accumulated in the

Start of
chamber. When the actual burning

injection
Start of
commences, the additional fuel can cause TDC
too rapid a rate of pressure rise resulting in a
jamming of forces against the piston and p
rough engine operation. Such a situation
produce the extreme pressure differential
and violent gas vibrations known as
knocking. In the CI engine, knocking occur Time
near the beginning of combustion whereas in
p-T curve for CI engine
the SI engine knocking occurs near the end
of combustion.

Characteristing Tending to Reduce Knock (Detonation)


[Link]. Characteristics CI Engine SI Engine Effect on knock
1. Ignition temperature of fuel Low High Reduce
2. Ignition delay Short Long Reduce
3. Compression ratio High Low Reduce
4. Inlet temperature High Low Reduce
5. Inlet pressure High Low Reduce
6. Combustion wall temperature Low High Reduce
7. Speed (rpm) Low High Reduce
8. Cylinder (Size) Large Small Reduce

Engine Emission
Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount
of pollutants that can be released into the environment. Many emissions
standard focus on regulating pollutants released by automobiles and other
powered vehicles but they can also regulate emissions from industry,
power plants, small equipments such as lawn movers and diesel
generators.
Internal Combustion Engine 351

Engine emission can be classified into two categories


Unburnt Hydrocarbon (HC)
Oxides of Carbon (CO & CO2)
1. Exhaust Emissions Oxides of Nitrogen (NO & NO2)
Oxides of Sulphur (SO2 & SO3)
Particulates
Soot and Smoke
2. Non-exhaust Emissions
1. Fuel tank ® The fuel tank emits fuel vapours into the atmosphere.
2. Carburetor ® The carburetor also gives out fuel vapours.
3. Crank case ® It emits flow by gases and fuel vapours into the
atmosphere.

Other Emissions
Some other emissions are given below

Aldehydes
When alcohol fuel is used, aldehydes are generated which cause an eye
and respiratory irritant.

Sulphur
Many fuels in CI engines contain amount of sulphurs which exhausted in
form of SO 2 and SO 3 (SO x ). They contribute to the acid rain problem in the
world.

Lead
The additive TEL (Tetra Ethyl Lead) is used to increase gasoline octane
number which allowed higher compression ratios and more efficient
engines which resulting lead in the engine exhaust. Lead is highly
poisonous pollutant.

Emission Control Methods


Emission can be controled by using converter which are defined as below

Thermal Converter
CO and HC emissions can be reduced by thermal converter, but NO 2
emission cannot be reduced using a thermal converter.
352 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Catalyst Converter
Catalyst converters are also called 3-way converters because they are
used to reduce the concentration of CO, HC and NO x in the exhaust.
The catalyst material most commonly used are platinum, polladium, and
rhodium. Polladium and Platinum promote, the oxidation of CO and HC
with platinum especially active in the hydrocarbon reaction. Rhodium
promotes the reaction of NO x.

Measurements and Performance


Parameters
With a growing demand for transportation, IC engines have gained lot of
importance in automobile industry. It is therefore necessary to produce
efficient and economical engine. While developing an IC engine it is
required to take in consideration all the parameters affecting the engines
design and parameters.
Following methods are used to find the friction power to estimate the
performance of the engine

Willan’s Line Method


(Fuel Rate Extrapolation Method)
A graph connecting fuel consumption
Fuel flow rate

and brake power at constant speed is


drawn and is extrapolated on the
negative axis of brake power. The
intercept of negative axis is taken as
friction power of the engine at that
–20 0 20 40 60 80 100
speed. Friction torque Engine torque
Willan’s line method curve

Morse Test
The test consists of making inoperative in turn each cylinder of the engine
and note the reduction in brake power developed.
ip ® indicated power
bp ® brake power
fp ® frictional power
Internal Combustion Engine 353

k
If there k cylinder ip 1 + ip 2 .... + ip k = S bp k + fp k
1
k
First cylinder cut-off ip 2 + .... + ip k = S bp k + fp k
2
k k
ip 1 = S bp k - S bp k
1 2
k
So, total indicated power = ip 1 + ip 2 + K ip k = S ip k
1
Frictional power of the engine fp k = ip k - bp k

Motoring Test
In motoring test, the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed by its
own power and allowed to remain under the given speed and load
conditions for sufficient time so that the temperature of the engine
components, lubricating Oil and cooling water reaches a steady state. This
method determine the fp at condition very near to the actual operating
temperatures at the test speed and load but it does not give the true
losses.

Retardation Test
This test involves the method of
retarding the engine by cutting the
fuel supply.
Let, Tf = Friction torque
Speed

Tl = Load torque
ad

d
lo

Let t 2 and t 3 be time of fall at no loa


%

No
50

load and load conditions t3 t2


respectively. Change in angular
T Time
speed dw = dt
mk 2 Graph for retardation test

Tf
w0 - w1 = (t 2 - 0)
mk 2
Tf + Tl
w0 - w1 = (t 3 - 0
mk 2
t3
Tf = Tl
t2 - t3
where, t 3 and t 2 are the time segments.
354 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

From the measurement of indicated and brake power we can directly


calculate fp from the measurement of indicated and brake power,
fp = ip - bp
Indicated Power
Following methods are used for the measurement of an indicated power
1. Using the indicator diagram.
2. By adding two measured quantities viz brake power and friction power.

Brake Power
Brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and
angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is
called dynamometer.
Brake Power for Proxy Brake Dynamometer
bp = 2p NT
N = Speed
Torque T = wl
w ® Weight applied at distance for proxy brake.
Brake Power for Rope Brake Dynamometer
bp = p DN (w – s)
where, D = Brake drum diameter
w = Weight
s = Spring scale reading.

Heat Balance
Energy supplied to an engine is the heat value of fuel consumed. Some
past transfer into work by engine while other part loss.
100
Heat Balance Diagram for a Unaccounted losses
SI Engine
75
The heat balance diagram for a SI Exhaust losses
engine is shown in figure below
50
Coolant losses
25
Useful work
0
Low Engine speed High
SI engine heat balance diagram
Internal Combustion Engine 355

Heat Balance Diagrams for a Typical CI Engine


The heat balance diagrams for a CI engine is shown in figure below
100
Unaccounted losses
80
Energy input (%)

60 Exhaust losses

40 Coolant losses

20
Useful work
0
0 25 50 75 100
Power output (%)
CI engine heat balance diagram

bp 20%

Surrounding
12% 32%
Loss
Fuel Air 80%
Exhaust + gases Cooling
water Exhaust
33%
Lubricating
Cooling Engine oil Co 65%
water o la
nt 3
5%
Lubricating
Crankcase and
oil
wall radiation
External heat balance Heat from
fuel 100%
Sankey diagram

Supercharging
Supercharging is a method for improving engine power output. The
supercharger used to increase the pressure, temperature and density of air
supplied to an internal combustion engine. Following points to be noted in
supercharging

Supercharging increase the power output of the engine. It does not
increase the fuel consumption per brake kW hour.
356 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● The purpose of supercharging an engine is to raise the density of the air


charge before it enters the cylinder. So, more air and fuel per cycle
entered in tank and this can be effectively burnt during the combustion
process to raise the engine power output to a higher value.
● Increase pressure and temperature as a result of supercharging may lead
to detonation. Therefore the fuel used must have better anti-knock
characteristics.

Types of Superchargers
There are two main types of superchargers defined according to the
method of compression : positive displacement and dynamic
compressors.
● Positive displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per
revolution at all speeds.
● Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the air to high speed and then
exchanging that velocity for pressure by diffusing or slowing it down.

Turbocharging
In turbocharging the supercharger is being driven by a gas turbine which
uses the energy in the exhaust gases. There is no mechanical linkages
between the engine and supercharger.

Terminology and Definitions


Delivery Ratio
On the basis of mass, it is ratio of mass of fresh air delivered to the cylinder
divided to a reference mass.
M
R del = del
Mref
Vdel
On the basis of volume R del =
Vref
where, Vref = Total effective cylinder volume
Mef = Reference mass
Mdel = Mass of fresh air delivered to the cylinder
Vdel = Volume of fresh air delivered to the cylinder
Vref = Reference volume.
Internal Combustion Engine 357

Trapping Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the amount of charge retained in the cylinder to
the total charge delivered to the engine.
Vret
htrap =
Vdel
where, Vret = Amount of charge retained in cylinder
Vdel = Total charge delivered to engine.

Relative Cylinder Charge


It is measure of the success of filling the cylinder irrespective of the
composition of charge.
V V + Vres
Cret = ch = ret
Vref Vref
Vret = Volume of air or mixture retained after flushing out the product of
combustion.
Vres = Volume of residue gas retained in cylinder after flushing out the
product of combustion.
Scavenging Efficiency
It is the ratio of volume of air retained to the volume of residue of gas
retained i . e.,
V Vret
hsc = ret =
Vch Vret + Vres
Crel hsc
Rdel =
htrap
where, Pdel = Delivery ratio
Crel = Relative cylinder charge
hsc = Scavenging efficiency
htrap = Trapping efficiency
Charge Efficiency
It is the ratio of useful fresh charge to the displacement volume i . e.,
V
hch = ret
Vref
Þ hch = Rdel htrap
11

Material Science and


Production Engineering
Structure of Materials
The structure of a material may be divided into four levels-atomic structure,
atomic arrangement, micro structure and macro structure. Although the
main thrust of the material science is to understand and control the micro
structure and macro structure.

Crystal Structure of Materials


Crystal structure is defined as the arrangement of the crystal within metals.
When metals solidify from molten state, the atoms arrange themselves into
various orderly configuration called crystal.
There are seven basic crystal structures, they are as given below
[Link]. Crystal system Relation between Interface angles Examples
primitives
1. Cubic a = b = c a = b = g = 90 ° Fe, Al, Cu
2. Tetragonal a = b ¹ c a = b = g = 90 ° Sn, SO2
3. Orthogonal a ¹ b ¹ c a = b = g = 90 ° KNO3, BaSO4
4. Hexagonal a = b ¹ c a = b = 90 °; SiO2 , AgCl, Zn
g = 120°
5. Rhombohedral a=b=c a = b = g ¹ 90° CaSO4 , CaCO3
6. Monoclinic a¹b¹c a = b = 90° ¹ g FeSO4 , NaSO4
7. Triclinic a¹b¹c a ¹ b ¹ g ¹ 90° CuSO4 , K 2Cr2O7
Material Science and Production Engineering 359

There relatively simple crystal structures are found for most of the common
metals i.e., SSC, BCC and FCC are discussed below

Simple Cubic Cell (SCC)


In this arrangement, atoms are present at each corner of the cell and their
centres are coincide with each corner.

r r
a

a
a
Simple cubic cell structure Atomic radius of SCC

1
So, th part of the atom is present in the atom.
8
r+r=a
where, r = Atomic radius
a = Lattice constant.
The total number of atoms present in crystal structure,
1
n= ´ 8=1
8
Volume of atoms in a cell

Atomic Packing Factor (APF) =
Volume of unit cell
4pa 3
=
8 ´ 3 ´ a3
p 314
.
= =
6 6
= 0.52
Percentage APF = 52%
Percentage of voids = 100 - 52 = 48%

Key Points
✦ In crystal structure, the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal is called
crystalline structure.
✦ The lattice structure of a particular metal is shown by a smallest group of
atoms and known as a unit cell.
360 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure


In this arrangement, an atom is present at the centre C
of the crystal and each corner is a centre of an atom.
Total effective number of atoms present in the
crystal
1 a
= 1+ 8 ´ B
8 a A
= 1+ 1= 2 a
● Atomic Packing Factor (APF) Body centred cubic
structure
p 3 314
. ´ 1732
. æ 3 ö
= = = 068
. çQ r = a÷
8 8 è 4 ø
● Percentage APF = 68%

Percentage of voids = 100 - 68 = 32%

Face Centred Crystal (FCC)


In this arrangement, each face has an atom and A B
corners are also occupied by atoms.

Total effective number of atoms in cell
1 1
= 8 ´ + 6 ´ + 1+ 3 = 4 D
8 2 C a
a
r= a
2 2 a
4 3 A FCC structure
n ´ pr

Atomic Packing Factor (APF) = 3
a3 A B
16 p
= r
16 ´ 3 2
314
. a
= 2r
3 ´ 1414
.
= 074
. r
C D
Percentage APF = 74% a
Percentage of voids = 100 - 74 = 26% Atomic Packing Factor
(APF) calculation
Material Science and Production Engineering 361

Gibbs Phase Rule


The Gibbs Phase Rule describes the possible number of degree of
freedom in a system at equilibrium, in terms of the number of separate
phases and the number of chemical constituents in the system.
This is defined by the formula as
D=C - P+2
where, D = degree of freedom,
C = number of components,
P = number of phases
Total number of variables in a system is given by
P (C - 1) + 2 = PC - P + 2

Key Points
✦ Coordination number of SCC crystal is 6.
✦ Coordination number of BCC crystal is 8.
✦ Coordination number of FCC crystal is 12.

Phase Diagram
It is also known as equilibrium diagram. The plots showing relations between
phases in equilibrium versus composition, pressure and temperature are
called phase diagrams. The composition is plotted on X-axis and
temperature is plotted on Y-axis at any specified pressure. Pressure is
generally taken atmospheric.

Eutectic Point
When a liquid phase changes into two different solid phases during cooling
or two solid phases change into a single liquid phase during heating, this
point is known as eutectic point and this temperature is known as eutectic
temperature.
cooling
L j a + b
(liquid phase) heating (solid phase) (solid phase)
362 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Eutectoid Point
When a solid phase changes into two solid phases during cooling and
vice-versa that point is known as eutectoid point and temperature at this
reaction occurs known as eutectoid temperature.
cooling
g j a + b
(solid phase) heating (solid phase) (solid phase)

Peritectic Point
A binary system when solid and liquid phases changes solid phase on
cooling and vice-versa on heating, then state of system is known as
peritectic point.
cooling
b + L j a
(solid phase) (liquid phase) heating (solid phase)

Peritectoid Point
If a binary phase diagram when two solid phases change to one solid
phase, then state of system is known as peritectoid point.
cooling
g + b j a
(solid phase) (solid phase) heating (solid phase)

Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram


Phase diagram of great technological importance is that of the iron- carbon
system.

Allotropic Forms of Steel


The temperature 723°C is known as Curie temperature, below it steel
shows magnetic properties and above it steel becomes non-magnetic.
Diagram, the carbon percentage is plotted on X-axis and temperature
plotted on Y-axis. The melting point of iron is about 1539°C. The melting
temperature of iron varies with increasing carbon percentage. The iron has
carbon upto 2% known as steel. The cast iron is a form of having 2 to 4.5%
carbon. The iron has carbon upto 6.67% known as pig iron.
Material Science and Production Engineering 363

T °C
1495°C L
1539 d +L
d
1410 C
dg Liquids L+
g+L
Cementite
B
Temperature

g Solids
1175°C
Eutectic
910 point
dg g + Cementite
a 723°C
Eutectoid
point

a + Cementite
0.18 0.5 (FeC3 )
0 C%
0.01 0.83 2 4.3 6.67
Fe FeC3
Steel Cast iron Pig iron
Percentage of carbon
(Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram)

Eutectoid Point
Eutectoid reaction in this diagram occurs when temperature 1°C and
carbon is 0.83%. At this point a solid form iron ( g ) changes into two solid
forms a-iron and cementite (Fe 3C).
Cooling
(irons) j a -iron + cementite (Fe 3C)
(FCC) (BCC)

A eutectoidal mixture of ferrite (a-iron) and cementite is known as pearlite.


This is a microconstituent. The fraction of ferrite in eutectoid steel is 88%.

Eutectic Point
In this diagram, the location of this point is at 1175°C temperature and 4.3%
at the carbon. At this point eutectic reaction occurs. In this reaction, a liquid
phase changes two solid phases g-iron (austenite) and cementite (FeC).
Peritectic reaction occurs at 1495°C and at this point carbon composition is
0.18%. This temperature is known as peritectic temperature.
364 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Cast Iron
Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies,
and is then poured into a mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig iron.
The alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast iron has
carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast
iron has graphitic flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate
countless new cracks as the materials breaks.

Types of Cast Irons


Many types of cast irons can be defined below

Grey Cast Iron


It is also known as graphitic cast iron. In this type of cast iron graphite is in
the forms of flake whose tips are sharp. Due to sharpness of tips, they
becomes source of stress concentration. It has poor tensile strength.

White Cast Iron


White cast iron contains cementite phase. Due to presence of cementite, it
is extremely hard besides being strong and brittle.

Mottled Cast Iron


It contains mixture of grey and white cast irons.

Malleable Cast Iron


It is produced when white cast iron is heated for a long time at 900°C and
after that by slow cooling rate. Due to this process cementite decomposes
to ferrite. Si is kept less than 1 %, so as to avoid graphitization.

Spheroidal Cast Iron


In this cast iron, graphites are present in the form of spherical module.
Spheroidal cast iron is produced by adding Mg or Ce to molten iron.
Content of Si is about 2.5% in it.

Inoculated Cast Iron


It is produced by inoculated molten pig iron by solution of silicon
compounds such as calcium silicide.

Stress-Strain Diagram for Cast Iron


The properties of metal and alloys can be increased or decreased,
according to our requirement by heating or cooling them into a controlled
condition. This process is known as heat treatment.
Material Science and Production Engineering 365

Stress
+s

250 (MPa)

0.065
(0.004 to 0.006) Strain

–s
1000 (MPa)
Stress
Stress-strain diagram for cast iron

Ferrous Alloy
Alloying elements Symbols Enhance mechanical properties
Tungsten W Imparts red hardness
Vanadium V Induces fine grain distribution
Chromium Cr Improves resistance to corrosion and oxidation
Molybdenum Mo Imparts hardneability
Phosphorus P Inhance machinability
Titanium Ti Increase abrasion resistance
Nickel Ni Improves tensile strength and toughness
Manganese Mn Imparts wear resistance

Alloy Mn-Steel Composition percentage Application


Silico-manganese Mn 65%, Si 20%, Fe 15% Railway crossing
Hadfield steel Mn 13%, C 1.25%, rest Fe Rock crushing machine,
excavators
Mo-steel chlorimet V Mo 33%, Ni 65%, Fe 1% other 1% High speed cutting tool
steel
Ferrovanadium V 50%, Fe 50% Spring, cutting tools

Material Composition Application


High carbon tool steel C 0.8 to 1.3% Si 0.1 to 0.4%, Milling cutters turning tools
Mn 0.15 to 0.4% rest Fe for soft material
Low alloy carbon steel C 1.2%, Mn 0.3 to 0.7% W. High speed milling, drilling
2.75, Mo 0.4%, S 0.3%, rest Fe and turning tool
High speed steel (HSS) W 18%, Cr 4%, V 1%, C 0.6 Useful at high temperature
to 0.8%, rest Fe operations
366 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Non-ferrous Alloys
Alloys Composition Application

Mg alloy electron Al 7.5%, Mn 0.3% Zn 2%, rest Mg Parts of aircraft


and automobiles
Al alloy duralumin Cu 4%, Mg 0.5% Si 0.7% rest Al Electrical cables
Cu alloy brass (Cu + Zn) Cu 60%, Zn 40% Brass castings,
muntz metal stampings
Bronze (Cu + Sn) gun metal Cu 88%, Zn 2%, Sn 10% Steam pipe fitting
Bell metal Cu 70%, Sn 30% Casting of bells

Bearing Materials
Name Composition Application
Tin babbit Sn 80%, Sb 12%, Cu 8% High speed bearing bushes
Lead babbit Pb 8.5% Sb 10%, Sn 5% Railway wagon bearing

Common Non-ferrous Alloys


Alloy Composition Application
Invar Ni 36%, Fe 64% Precision measuring instrument
Nichrome Ni 80%, Cr 20% Thermocouple, strain gauge
Maganin Cu 87%, Mn 13% Resistor strain gauge
Canstantan Cu 60%, Ni 40% Electrically heated appliances

Key Points
✦ Recovery temperature is below 0.1 Tm .
✦ Cold working temperature is below recrystallization temperature.
✦ Hot working temperature is above recrystallization temperature.
✦ For pure metal recrystallization temperature is 0.3 Tm to 0.5 Tm .
✦ For alloys recrystallization temperature is 0.57 Tm to 0.7 Tm .
where, Tm is melting point temperature in kelvin.
Metal Cutting and Tools
Cutting tools that are made from wrought high speed steels are shaped to
the required geometries by machining. The metal cutting and tools are
explain as below

Tool Geometry
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges. The cutting edges are
used to separate a chip from the parent work material. A cutting tool has
special geometry for a specific machining process.
The tools are classified as
(i) Single point cutting tool (ii) Multi-point cutting tool
A single point cutting tool has only one cutting edge and a multi-point
cutting tool has one or more cutting edge.

Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool


Some angles which are used to define the tool geometry are given below

Rake Angle
Rake angle is defined as angle between the face of the tool called the rake
face and the normal to the cutting direction.

Side Relief and End Relief or Clearance Angle


The purpose of relief angles are increasing tool life and reducing the
chances of tool breakage. Clearance angle is defined as the angle
between the machined surface and the under side of the tool, called flank
face.
If relief angle is too large, the tool may break the chip. If this angle is too
small then, tool will rub the work piece and produce excessive heat and this
will turn, cause premature dulling of the cutting tool.
For machining of hard material the relief angle should be small and for
machining of softer or weaker material, it should be large. A smaller angle
should be used for interrupted cuts or heavy feeds and a larger angle for
semi-finish and finish cuts.

Lead Angle
This angle is determined by the tool holder which must be chosen for each
particular job.
368 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Side rake
angle Shank
e
ak
End cutting ck r le
edge angle Ba ang
Face
Nose
radius

Side relief
Side cutting angle
edge angle
End relief
angle
Nomenclature for right hand cutting tool
Positive lead angle performs two main functions
(i) Thins the chip
(ii) Protect the insert
The underformed chip thickness decreases when using positive lead
angle-longitudinal force (in the direction of feed on work piece can be
reduced by using positive lead angle tools.

Tool Nomenclatures
Tool nomenclatures are deperulson the following systems. Which are
explain below
ASA system The tool angles in coordinate system are given in the
following order
ab – as – g e – g s – ye – ys – r

Back rake angle


Side rake angle
End relief or clearance angle
Side relief of clearance angle
End cutting edge angle
Side cutting edge angle
Nose radius
ASA system
Material Science and Production Engineering 369

ORS system The tool designation under ORS is given in the following
order
i – a – g – g 1 – ye – l – r

Inclination angle
Orthogonal angle
Side relief angle
End relief angle
End cutting edge angle
Approach or entering angle
Nose radius
ORS System

● Relationship between these angles are given below


tan a = tan a s sin l + tan a b cos l
tan a b = cos l tan a + sin l tan i
tan a s = sin l tan a - cos l tan i
tan i = tan a b sin l - tan a s cos l
The relationship between lead angle and side cutting edge angle is given by
l = 90° - y s

Geometry of Turning Process


The mechanism of turning process as shown in the given figure
Work
N

D Secondary
cutting edge
X
w
ys
d

X
Primary cutting
edge
t1 f

Tool
(a)
Geometry of turning process
370 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

From given Fig. (a), t 1 = f cos y s


w = d /cos y s
where, y = Side cutting edge angle
● Cutting speed is given by v = p DN
where, N = Number of jobs revolution per unit time
D = Initial diameter of the job
d = Depth of cut,
.t
1 = Uncut chip thickness, f = Feed
● For orthogonal cutting, tan a b cos y s = tan a s sin y s
● The normal rake angle can be expressed in terms of other tool angles as
tan a b sin y s + tan a s cos y s
tan a =
1 + (tan a b cos y s - tan a s sin y s )2
From given Fig. b, Ff = Ft cos y s
FR = Ft sin y s
where, fc = Cutting force; Ff = Feed force; FR = Radial force
Power consumption in cutting operation is given by
Wc = Fc y

Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting


This analysis is based on Merchant’s thin shear plane model, considering
the minimum energy principle. This model is applicable at very high
speeds which are generally practised in production.
Let, Ft = Thrust force (perpendicular to the job piece)
Fc = Cutting force (in the direction of cutting velocity)
. Fs = Force along the shear force

Rotating
work piece

ys Ff
FR
ys
Ft

T ool m
o vem
ent Fc (b)
Orthogonal cutting
Material Science and Production Engineering 371

Chip Chip

Tool N
Fs F N
Fc f F
Fs
Fn R Fc Fn

C Ft R¢
Ft Work piece
R = R¢
(c) (d)
Mechanics of orthogonal metal cutting
Chip

Tool
a
Fs
F
Fc f
b–a Work
Fn a piece

Ft
R
F
b
N

(e)
Parts of orthogonal metal cutting

Fn = Force normal to the shear force


N = Force acting normal to the rake face
F = Frictional force along the tool rake face.

All the forces that are acting on chip can be represented with the help of a
circle. This circle L is known as Merchant force circle.
From above Fig. (e), Fs = Fc cos f - Ft sin f
Fn = Fc sin f + Ft cos f
= Fs tan ( f + b - a )
F = Fc sin a + Ft cos a
N = Fc cos a - Ft sin a
372 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

F Ft + Fc tan a
● Coefficient of friction m = tan b = =
N Fc - Ft tan a
where, b = Friction angle f = Shear angle
● The area of shear plane A s is given by
wt
As =
sin f
where, w = Width of cut
t = uncut chip thickness
twt
● Shear force acting on shear plane = Shear stress ´ Area = t A s =
sin f
where, t = Average shear stress in the shear plane
● Mean normal stress in the shear plane
F
s= n
As
s wt
\ Fn = s ´ A s =
sin f
Fs = R cos (q + b - a )
Fs cos (b - a )
Fc = R cos (b - a ) =
cos ( f + b - a )
twt cos (b - a )
Fc =
cos ( f + b - a )
twt sin (b - a )
and Ft =
sin f cos ( f + b - a )

Shear Angle Relationship


Merchant consider that t would have the value of yield shear stress for the
job material and that m would have the usual for any dry sliding friction. For
determining the value of f, Merchant assumed the minimum energy
principle applied in metal cutting so that the deformation process adjust
itself to a minimum energy condition.
dFc twt cos (b - a ) cos (2 f + b - a )
Hence, =
df sin2 f cos 2 ( f + b - a )
Material Science and Production Engineering 373

For minimum value,


dFc p
Putting = 02 f + b - a =
df 2
p a b
f= + -
2 2 2

Chip Thickness Ratio


The ratio of uncut chip thickness to chip thickness is known as chip
thickness ratio or cutting ratio and developed by r.
The chip thickness ratio diagram can be shown below
Chip

N Tool
A tc a
t D
f
C B
Work
piece

A schematic diagram to show chip thickness


ratio

where, AD = tc = Chip thickness


AC = t = Uncut chip thickness
t sin f
r= =
tc cos ( f - a )
r cos a
Þ tan f =
1 - r sin a
tl

If the chip thickness is tc and length is lc , then tc =
lc
where, t = Uncut chip thickness
l = Length of uncut chip

To obtain exact size of uncut chip length l, we may introduce a small cut
parallel to the axis on the work piece so that the uncut chip size is given by
l = pD
where, D = diameter of the job before matching is done on it.
374 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Velocity Ratio
Cutting velocity is more than the chip velocity. The mass of removal
material is constant before and after machining.

90° – (f.–.a)
vc
vs

a
(90° – a) f
v
Velocity ratio diagram

From velocity triangle, vt = vc tc


t v sin q
vc = v =
tc v cos( f - a )
vs v v
= = c
sin ( 90° - a ) sin[ 90° - ( f - a )] sin f
vs v v
= = c
cos a cos ( f - a ) sin f
Shear strain is denoted by g and expressed as
g = tan f + cot ( f - a )

Tool Life
Tool life T is the cutting time at the end of which a given tool may be termed
impossible on the basis of a selected tool failure criterion. Taylor
established a relationship between tool life cutting velocity which is given by
vT n = C
where, v = Cutting speed
T = Tool life in minutes
n = A exponent which depends on cutting condition
C = Constant.

Depth of cut and feed rate also influence the tool life so that where, Taylor
equation can be modified as
vT nd x f y = Constant
where, d = Depth of cut
f = Feed rate (in mm/rev) in turning.
Material Science and Production Engineering 375

● Power is calculated by force multiplied by velocity in that direction


Pc = Fc v
Fc ´ v
Pc = kW (If Fc is in kgf)
60 ´ 75 ´ 136
.
Fc ´ v
If Fc is in Newton then, Pc = kW
1000
● Design power rating of electric motor of the main drive,
P
Pm = c
nm
where, nm = Efficiency of machine tool.

Machinability
The ease with which a given material may be machined under a given set
of cutting conditions. Factors affecting the machinability are
Tool life Larger tool life, better Ceramic tool
machinability.
Surface finish Good finish, more Carbide tool
logv

machinable material. HSS tool


Cutting forces Smaller cutting force, Carbon steel tool
more machinable material. Log T
v
Machinability index = t ´ 100
vs
where, vt = Cutting speed of metal for 1min tool etc.
v s = Cutting speed of standard.
Variation of velocity with respect to time for different material.

Economics of Machining
The economic of machining means minimum cost is used during
machining process. For total minimum cost,
C éæC ö æ 1 öù
v opt = Þ t opt = ê ç e + Tc ÷ ç - 1÷ ú
é æ Ce ö æ 1 öù
n
ë è Cn ø èn øû
êç + Tc ÷ ç - 1÷ ú
è
ë m C ø èn øû

where, Cm = Machine cost in `/time, Tc = Tool changing time


C = Total cost, Ce = Cost of tool/grind.
376 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● For maximum production rate,


C
Optimum speed, v opt = n
éæ 1 ö ù
ê çè n - 1÷ø Tc ú
ë û
æ1 ö
Optimum time, Topt = ç - 1÷ Tc
èn ø
● For maximum profit rate,
R - C0
Profit rate =
T
Tn + Th + m ´ Tc
T
R = Selling price, Th = Idle time/component
l
Tm =
fN
( v opt ) production rate > ( vopt ) profit rate > ( vopt ) minimum unit cost

Machining Time on Lathe in Turning


The machining time on lathe in turning depends on the following groups,
which are described as
Cutting Speed
It is defined as distance travelled by cutting tool along circumference of the
work piece in one minute. It is expressed in m/min. It is given by
p DN
v=
1000
where, D = Diameter of job (in mm); N = rpm of the work piece.

Feed
It is the distance that tool bit advances along work piece for each revolution
of the spindle (or work piece itself). It is expressed in terms of mm/rev. It is
denoted by f.
Depth of Cut
This is the distance that tool bit moves into the work. It is denoted by t.
D-d
t=
2
where, D = Original diameter of work piece
d = Diameter of work piece after machining.
Material Science and Production Engineering 377

Machining Time
If feed rate is f and work piece rotates at N rpm.
Then, distance travelled by tool in one revolution = f
and distance travelled by tool in N revolution = f N
Time taken by tool to travel this distance is one minute because rotational
speed is given in rev/min.
Speed of tool = f N
1
If l is length of work piece then, time taken in turning = min.
fN
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
The quantity of material removed in unit time is known as material removal
rate.

D d

f Material is removed from


work piece (shown by lines)

The unit of material removal rate is mm 3/min. Length of material removed in


one minute from work piece feed = f mm. Material removed from work
piece in one minute
p p p
= D2 f - d 2 f = ( D2 - d 2 ) f
4 4 4
æ D + d öæ D - d ö
=pç ÷ç ÷ f = p Dav t f
è 2 øè 2 ø
So, MRR = p Dav f t mm 3

Operating Conditions in a Shaping


Machine
Various conditions for operating in a shaping machine are explained
ahead
378 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Machining Time for in Plan or Slab Milling


The time for machining in a plan or slab milling can be describe by the
following diagram
P Starting position
End position
O
C
N O
B d

A L2
L3

L1
Slab milling
L3 (over travel) approximately taken as 1 to 5 mm. L2 = BC
By theorem of intersecting chord in a circle, BN ´ BC = PB ´ AB
where, AP = Diameter of cutter = D, AB = Depth of cut = d
Then, BN ´ BC = ( D - d ) ´ d
OB is perpendicular to CN.
Then, BN = BC Þ BC 2 = ( D - d ) ´ d
L2 = BC = d ( D - d ) mm
L1 + d ( D - d ) + L3( 5) ´ n
Time for machining =
f
where, n = Number of passes; f = Feed rate.

Machining Time for Face Milling


For symmetrical face milling, L2 = CM = OM - OC
w
AC = BC =
2
2 2
æ Dö æwö 1
OC = OA 2 - AC 2 = ç ÷ - ç ÷ = D2 - w 2
è2 ø è2 ø 2
æD 1 ö
CM = OM - OC = ç - D2 - w 2 ÷ mm
è2 2 ø
A

w
O C M

B
L2 L3
L1 (a)
Face milling diagram
Material Science and Production Engineering 379

Here, the length approach is cleared by Fig. (b).


A

w
O C M

B L2 L1
The condition before actual cutting (b)
CM = L2

Grinding
The grinding process is defined as a machining process to produce high
surface finish with tight tolerance. This process is used for machining of
hard materials.
The basic purposes of grinding are

Machining for hard materials

Production of high quality surface with close tolerance.

Removal of excess material from the surface of work piece.

Grinding Wheel
Grinding wheel contains abrasive particles bonding materials and voids.
The abrasive particles are located at periphery of wheel acts like as cutting
tool tips and remove the material from the surface of the job. The abrasives
are used for making grinding wheel, they are hard substances. Some of
them are aluminium oxides, ceramic, silicon carbide; zirconia, super
abrasive (diamond), super abrasive (CBN), tungsten carbide etc. (CBN =
Cubic Boron Nitride)

Properties of Abrasive Grains


Various types of properties of abrasive grains are defined as below

Friability
The ability to fracture of abrasive grain under pressure known as friability.
By this ability, when cutting edges becomes dull, the grain breaks-off and
exposes new cutting edges.

Hardness
Hardness of abrasive grain is defined as ability to scratch or penetrate the
work piece during operation.
380 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Size
Size of the screen through which the grain will pass.

Size of the screen


Bond
The bond material is used to hold abrasive particle together. The bonding
materials are metal, resin/plastic, rubber shellac silicates, vitrified etc.
Silicates are known as oxychlorides.

Grade
The grade of the wheel is a measure of ability to retain grit. A softer material
is grinded by harder grade and vice-versa.
Structure
Structure is spacing between abrasive grains or the dense of the wheel. An
open structure would be 12 or high while close structure would be 6 or so.
Wheel Specification
The schematic diagram of wheel specification can be shown below
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Prefix Abrasive Grain size Grade Structure Bond Suffix
A 46 K 11 E

Manufactures Manufactures
abrasive code bond code
A–Aluminium Coarse Fine 4 10 V –Vitrified
oxide 8 80 5 11 B –Resin
C–Silicon 10 to 6 12
carbide 7 13 R –Rubber
12 180
Z–Zirconia 16 8 14 E –Shellac
9 15 P – Epoxy
24
Very fine 220 to
600 Medium
30 to 60
Specification of wheel

Note Coarse grits are used to aggressive stock removal and rough surface
finish and finer grit are used to less stock removal but better surface
finish.
Material Science and Production Engineering 381

Grinding Wheel Wear


Grinding wheel wear can be defined as the following groups.
Attrious Wear
The cutting edges become dull and developing a wear flat that similar to
flank wear in cutting tool.

Dressing
It is a process of sharpening the abrasive elements of the wheel. It is done
by star dressers, diamond dresser and dressing sticks.

Truing
It is the process of aligning the periphery of grinding wheel so that it runs
concentric with its axis of rotation. Truing and dressing occurs
simultaneously with regard conventional wheels. In super abrasive wheel,
the two processes are accomplished separately with truing performed first.

Grinding Processes

Surface grinding Used for grinding flat surfaces.

Cylindrical grinding This process is used for grinding external and
internal cylindrical surfaces.

Centred grinding This is used for grinding axially symmetric surfaces,
they are centred or centreless.

Centreless grinding Centreless grinding is high speed, low cost
operation. In this process, two wheels are used, first one is grinding wheel
and second one is governing wheel.

Jigs
Jigs are used to hold work piece and guide to tool into a predetermined
position on the work piece. Jigs size depend on the dimensions of the part
that is designed to hold.

Fixture
A fixture is work holding device that is bolted or otherwise fastened to the
machine. A fixture does not provide guiding of the processing tool.
Principle of Location
In this method, the work piece is located by means of six pins which restrict
the work piece in nine of its degree of freedom.
Principle of Least Point
In this technique, only minimum locating point should be used to secure
location of the work piece in anyone plane.
382 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Principle of Extreme Position


Locating points should be taken as far away from another as possible on
anyone work piece surface.
Principle of Mutually Perpendicular Planes
Locating points are in such a way that their positions are mutually
perpendicular planes to each other.

Metal Forging
Forging can be defined as a method of shaping heated metal by
compression. Forging can be done either at room or elevated temperature.
Forging at the room temperature known as cold forging. In cold forging
temperature of material is below its recrystallization temperature. If forging
is carried out above recrystallization temperature then, it is known as hot
forging.
Forging basically involves three different operations
Drawing
In this operation, the length of a job is increased by decreasing its
cross-sectional area.
Upsetting
In this operation, the length of a metal is reduced while increasing the
cross-sectional area.
Squeezing
This will lengthen the metal, but will not increase the cross-sectional area.
Operations of Smith Forging
Some basic operations of smith forging can be defined as
Swaging
It is accomplished by hammering the metal stock while it is held on anvil
within anyone of various concave tools called swages.
Bending
It is accomplished by hammering the metal stock around a form.
Cogging
It is also known as drawing out. It is basically open die forging operation in
which the thickness of a bar is reduced by successive forging steps at
specific intervals. Because the contact area per stroke is small, a long
Material Science and Production Engineering 383

section of bar can be reduced in thickness without requiring large forces or


machinery.
Coining
Coining essentially a closed die forging process typically used in minting
coins, medalions and jewellry. The slug is coined completely by closed die
cavity. To produce fine details the pressure required can be high as five or
six times the strength of material.
Heading
Heading is essentially an upsetting operation usually performed at the end
of a round rod or wire in order to produce a larger cross-section. At the
machine, this process is being done and known as headers, the head of
bolt making by this process.
Piercing
Piercing is a process of identifying the surface of work piece with a punch
in order to produce a cavity of an impression.

Rolling
It is a process of forging in which changing the cross-section of a long work
piece is done by applying a compressive force through a set of rolls.

O
P
Q


P¢ Recrystallization
taking place
Original coarse O¢
grain structure

Rolling process diagram

Principle of Rolling
When stock enters in roll then, speed of stock is less than the speed of rolls
(speed of rolls means peripheral speed). At a point between P and Q the
stock speed is same as the roll peripheral speed. Most deformation takes
place in thickness, although there is some increase in width. In all rolling
process temperature uniformity is important.
384 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

In rolling,
Volume enters in roll = Volume outs from the roll
Q1 = Q2
A1v 1 = A2v 2
where, A1 = area in front of roll (in m 2)
v 1 = velocity of metal before the roll (in m/s)
A2 = area after rolling (in m 2)
v 2 = velocity of metal after rolling (in m/s).

Analysis of Rolling
A strip of initial thickness hi enters the roll gap and after rolling the
thickness of strip becomes hf .' The peripheral speed of roll is v r , When
metal passes through roll gap then, velocity is increased due to volume
constancy. At the exit of the roll gap, the velocity of strip is v f . There is
sliding occurs between roll gap and the strip because v r remains constant
along roll gap, where velocity of roll and strip are same known as neutral
plane and that point is known as neutral point or no slip point.

O
M a R

a Q
a N
hi P mP hf
vf
vi
L



Neutral plane

Analysis of rolling diagram


So, vi < vr < vf
v - vr
Forward slip = f
vr
v - vi
Backward slip = r
vr
The reduction could be achieved with a set of roll is designated as ‘the
angle of bite or angle of contact’. It is denoted by a in given figure.
Material Science and Production Engineering 385

Draft
Reduction in thickness known as draft.
Dh = hi - hf
= (ON - OQ ) + (O ¢N ¢ - O ¢Q ¢ )
= ( R - R cos a ) + ( R - R cos a )
= 2 R (1 - cos a )
Horizontal component of force Fx = m P cos a - P sin a
For rolling occurs Fx ³ 0
Þ m P cos a ³ P sin a
m ³ tan a (tan a )max = m
é æ 1 öù
D h max = 2 R ê1 - ç1 - m 2 + ¼÷ ú
ë è 2 øû

D hmax = m 2R (neglect small terms)

Roll Contact Length


It can be define by the diagram as shown below
Roll contact length AB is approximately D
equal to projected length AM.
Dh æ hi - hf ö O
BM = B¢ M ¢ = =ç ÷ A
2 è 2 ø a
M
AM ´ MC = BM ´ MD hi hf
Dh æ Dh ö
AM 2 = ´ ç2 R - ÷ B¢
2 è 2 ø M¢

Dh2
L2 = R Dh -
4
Dh2 Roll contact length
L = RDh - = RD h
4
Dh2
D h is small so is too small, we assume it as negligible.
4

Angle of Bite or Contact Angle


It is given as m 2R = D h
Dh
m2 =
R
386 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Dh
tan2 a = ( m = tan a )
R
Dh
tan a =
R
hi - hf
=
R

Roll Force
Roll force is given by F = Pav wL
where, w = Width of strip
L = Contact length
æ mL ö
Pav is given by Pav = 2 k ç1 + ÷
è 2 hav ø
æ m L ö÷
So, F = Lw 2 k çç1 +
è 2 hav ÷ø
h + hf
hav = i
2

Drawing
Wire drawing is an operation to produce wire of various sizes within certain
specific tolerances. The process involves reducing diameter of rods or
wires by passing them through a series of wire drawing dies with
successive die having smaller diameter than the one preceding it. The
maximum reduction in area of wire is less than 50%.

Defects in Wire Drawing


Some wire drawing defects are given as below

Bulge Formation
This occurs in front of die due to low reduction and high die angle.

Internal Cracks
It is also known as central burst or centre cracking.
Tendency of internal cracks

increases with increasing die angle.

increases with increasing amount of impurities.

decreases the increasing drawing ratio and friction.
Material Science and Production Engineering 387

Surface Defects
This defect occurs on work piece, surface due to improper selection of
drawing method and inadequate lubrication.

Seams
Seams are longitudinal scratches or fold in materials.
Drawing Force
The expression of drawing Wire
force under frictionless
conditions is given by a
2a
æA ö Df
F = Yav Af ln ç 0 ÷ a
D0
è Af ø
where, A0 = initial cross-
sectional area of wire or rod
Af = final cross-sectional
area Yav = average true Die
stress of the material in die Drawing force diagram
gap.
Maximum reduction in diameter in drawing process,
2
æD ö
R = 1- ç f ÷
è D0 ø
1/ B
æ 1 ö
or R = 1- ç ÷
è1 + Bø
where, Df = Final diameter
D0 = Initial diameter.
m
B= = m cot a
tan a
where, m = friction coefficient and a = semi-die angle.

Extrusion
Extrusion is similar to drawing process. Main difference between extrusion
and drawing is that in extrusion process we applied compressive force but
in drawing process, force in tensile to obtain reduction in diameter.
Extrusion produces only compressive and shear forces in stock without any
tensile force which makes high deformation possible without tearing the
metal.
388 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Extrusion Force
æA ö
Extrusion force is given by F = A 0 k ln ç 0 ÷
è Af ø
where, k = Extursion constant; A0 = Initial area
Af = Final area of extrudent part.

Types of Extrusion
The following types of extrusions are given below

Direct Extrusion
It is also known as forward extrusion. In this process, a round billet is
placed in a chamber (container) and forced through a die opening by the
movement of extruded part in the direction of the applied force.
Pressure Billet
Ao
Die

do Af
df

Chamber
Direct extrusion

Indirect Extrusion Chamber


Indirect extrusion is a process Ram
in which metal confined in the
cavity to flow in a direction
opposite to that ram travel.
There is no relative motion
Extruded rod
between billet and chamber wall
so, the friction force is less than
that for direct extrusion. Power Billet
required for process is also less Indirect extrusion
than that for direct extrusion.

Combined Extrusion
Combined extrusion uses a combination of forward and backward
extrusion. The metal in chamber, flow in both up and down directions.
Material Science and Production Engineering 389

Hydrostatic
In hydrostatic extrusion, the pressure
Fluid Chamber
required for extrusion is supplied through Die
an incompressible fluid medium
surrounding the billet. There is no
Extruded
container wall friction. The high pressure Ram part
in chamber transmits some of the fluid to Hydrostatic
die surface, where it significantly
reduces friction and forces.

Impact Extrusion
It is similar to indirect extrusion. It is often Punch
included in the cold extrusion category. The Extruded tube
punch descends rapidly on the blank (slug)
which is extruded backward'. The thickness Die
of the tubular section is a function of the Impact extrusion
clearance between die and punch. This is
because of volume constancy.

Extrusion Defects
Extrusion defects are classified in the following groups

Surface Cracking
If friction, extrusion temperature or speed is too high then, surface
temperature rises significantly and this condition may cause surface
cracking and tearing. These cracks are along the grain boundaries and
usually caused by hot shortness.

Extrusion or Pipe Defect


The type of metal flow pattern tends to draw surface oxides and impurities
towards the centre of billet, much like a funnel. This defect is known as pipe
defect, extrusion defect or tail pipe or fish-tailing.

Internal Cracking
The centre of extruded part can develop cracks (these are known as
centre burst, centre cracking arrow head fracture or chevron cracking)
due to a state of hydrostatic tensile at the centre line of the deformation
zone in the die.
390 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Sheet Metal Working


Shearing
Shearing is defined as the process in which sheet is cut by subjected, it to
shear stresses on a sheet metal part.
A burr is thin edge or ridge. Burr height increases with increasing in
clearance and in ductility of sheet metal.
Burr formation also depends on tool sharpness. Dull tool edges greatly
contribute to burr formation.
F

Burr Rough
Burr height surface
A B
A Dishing B
Smooth
surface
C D
Ideal
slug
C Clearance C D
Sheet
Shearing stress Sheet metal parts

Shearing Operations
The shearing operations are classified into the following manner as given
below

Blanking It is a metal fabricating process, during which a metal work
piece is removed from a metal sheet when it is punched. In this process,
slug is useful part and sheet metal is scrap.

Piercing It is general term for cutting openings such as holes and slots
in sheet metal part. In this process,' slug is scrap and sheet metal part is
useful.

Slitting Shearing operation can be carried out by means of a pair of
circular blades similar to those that in a can opener, this process is called
slitting.

Slotting It is cutting of elongated holes or slots.

Shaving It is a finishing or sizing process and very little material is
removed from edges.

Preformating Punching a number of similar hole in sheet. They are
arranged in a regular pattern in a sheet.
Material Science and Production Engineering 391

● Trimming It is the cutting away of excess material in a flange or flash


from a piece.
● Parting Shearing the sheet metal into two or more pieces is known as
parting process.
● Notching Removing pieces (or various shapes) from the edge of a
sheet metal is known as notching process.
● Nibbing It is a process in which making a contour or other shape by
punching a series of overlapping round or square holes along the edge of
part.
● Lancing Leaving a tab without removing of any material from the sheet
metal is known as lancing process.
● Clearance In blanking d –2c
Punch
process, cut out piece is
desired part. In this case c c
punch is made of smaller size
and die is made of exact sizes Die
as that of blank.

Size = d
Punch-die system

In piercing process, the cut out part is waste and left out piece is
required. In this case punch is Punch
made of exact size and die is c d c
made, bigger size. Cutting
force in cutting shearing Die
operation is given by
d + 2c
Punch-die system

F = Shear area ´ Shear stress of material


= pDt t (for round hole)
= Lt t (for other contour)
where, F = Blanking force (in newton); D = Diameter of punch (in mm)
t = Stock thickness (in mm)
t = Shear strength of material (in N/mm 2 )
L = Shear length (in mm)
392 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

The work done by the press E = F ´ p ´ t


where, E = Work done (in N-m)
p = Percentage penetration of punch into stock
Cutting force is reduced by providing shear in punch or die. The total work
done remains same. If shear is provided on die or punch, then
Distance travelled by punch =
Percentage penetration ´ Stock thickness + Amount of shear = pt + S
Work done = Maximum shear force ´ Punch travel = FS ´ ( pt + S )
Work done remains same in both process.
So, F ´ p ´ t = FS ´ ( pt + S )
F ´ p´ t
FS =
pt + S
If S >> p t ,
Fpt
Then, FS =
S

Calculation for Shear Length in


Various Cutting Shape
In this figure a rectangular shape slug is cut out.
l
A B A l B

b F d d C

D C E D

t t

Shear length Shear length in various


cutting shapes

Then, shear length = AB + BC + CD + DA


= 2 ( l + b)
Shear area = 2 ( b + l) ´ t
= 2 t ( a + b)
Material Science and Production Engineering 393

In this figure,
Total shear length = AB + BCD + DE + EFA
p p
= l + d + l + d = (2l + pd )
2 2
Shear area = (2l + pd ) ´ t
● When cut a square hole of side length a from a t thickness stock
Shear area = 4 a t
● In washer making, D = Outer diameter of washer
d = Inner diameter of washer
t = Stock thickness
Shear area = ( pD + pd ) ´ t
= p t (D + d )
From above example, it is clear that first we should calculate perimeter of
cutting lines and then the perimeter is multiplied by stock thickness for
determining shear area.

Deep Drawing
Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal
blank is radially down into a forming die by the mechanical action of the
punch. It is thus a shape transformation process with material retention.
Deep drawing are classified into the following groups

Ironing
It is the operation in which the thickness of the shell wall is reduced and its
surface is made smoothen.

Redrawing
When the ratio of blank diameter and the final cup diameter is too large, the
drawing operation is performed more than one stage. After the first one, the
successive drawings are known as redrawing operation.

Reverse Drawing
In this operation or process, a bending is to be subjected on a drawn cup
in the opposite direction to its original drawn direction. This helps in strain
softening.
394 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Defects in Deep Drawing


Defects in deep drawing divided into the following types

Earing
This is the formation of edges around the top of a drawn shell.

Buckling
When an uncontrolled deformation pattern perpendicular to the surface of
sheet causes by compressive stress occurs then, it causes abend, kink or
other wavy condition of the work piece, this defect is known as buckling.
Buckling in the wall of the part is referred to a puckering and buckling in
flange part is referred to as wrinkling.

Surface Scratch
This occurs on the surface of the draw cup.

Bulging
In this defect, the diameter of a cylindrical shell increases or expanding of
the outer walls of any shell or box shape walls were previously straight.

Radius of Draw or Corner Radius of Die


The radius of die corner should be in a specified range in deep drawing
processes. Too large radius causes edge wrinkling and too small radius
causes thinning and tearing of side walls.
Rcd = 4 t (normal)
= 6t to 8t (when blank holder is used)
where, t = Thickness of blank.

Corner Radius of Punch


In ideal case, radius of punch corner should be equal to drawn cup radius.
But it is not possible to find exact size in one drawing operation and hence,
more redrawing operations are required to obtain final size.
Corner of punch radius should be in a range of 4t to 10t.
where, t = Blank thickness
Material Science and Production Engineering 395

Draw Clearance
It should be 7 to 20% of blank thickness.

Blank Size
p 2 p
D = pdh + d 2
4 4
æ d ö
D = d 2 +4dh ç when ³ 20÷
è r ø
2 æ d ö
= d + 4 dh - 0.5r ç when 15 £ £ 20÷
è r ø
æ d ö
= d 2 + 4d h - 0.5r ç when 10 £ £ 15÷
è r ø
æ d ö
= (d - 2 r )2 + 4 d ( h - r ) + 2 pr (d - 07
. r) ç when £ 10÷
è r ø
where, D = Blank diameter (in mm)
d = Outer diameter of shell (in mm)
h = Height of shell (in mm)
r = Corner radius of punch (in mm)

Bending
In this process straining of a metal sheet or plate is done, by moving it
around a straight axis lying in the neutral plane.

Bend Allowance
pq
Bend allowance is given by BA = ( R + kt )
180°
where, q = Bend angle in degree
R = Inside bend radius (in mm)
t = Material thickness
t
k = k factor = 1
t
= 0.33 ( when R < 2t )
= 0.5 ( when R > 2t )
t 1 = Distance of neutral plane from inside face.
Lt = A + B + BA (Bend allowance)
Lt = Total flat length
Lt = A + B - BD (Bending deduction)
396 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Bending Force
ksu L t 2
Bending force is given by Fb = w
w
where, k = Constant
su = Ultimate tensile strength (in MPa)
t = Thickness of blank (in mm) V-Die

w = Width of die opening (in mm) w

k = 1.33 for die opening of 8t


= 1. 20 for die opening of 16 t for V-bending
k = 2 . 66 for die opening of 8t U-Die
= 2 .4 for die opening of 16 t U-bending
k = 0.33 for edge bending or wiping bending R1
Single wiping or edge bending die
R2
w = R1 + R2 + C
C = Thickness of blank = t
C
w
Powder Metallurgy Edge bending die

Powder metallurgy is defined as making reliable ferrous and non-ferrous


parts from powder of ferrous and non-ferrous material.
The basic steps of powder metallurgy are

Powder production

Blending and mixing elemental or alloy powders

Compaction

Sintering

Finishing operation

Powder Production
The various methods used to power production. Some basic methods are
defined below.

Atomization
In this process, molten metal is broken in form of metal powder with the
help of water, air or inert gas spray.
Material Science and Production Engineering 397

Mechanical Comminution Method


In this process, metal powders are produced by mechanically, Mechanical
operation like milling, lathe turning and chipping are to be done on raw
materials. These methods produce hard and brittle powders.

Chemical Method
This process is included the production of powder by reduction of metal
oxides, precipitation from and thermal decomposition.

Electrolytic Deposition
It involves the precipitation of metallic element at the cathode of an
electrolytic cell. Copper powders are produced by this method.

Crushing
This process is used to produce hard and brittle material powder. Ceramic
powders are produce by this method. Some metal and alloys are also
produced by this method.

Agglomeration
This process is used to produce metal powder where constituents are
physically mixed together with an organic binder. This process is used in
the manufacture of NiAl, AlUi polyester powder.

Blending
The purpose of mixing is to provided homogeneous mixture and to
incorporate the lubricant. The mixing is done in rotating containers called
blenders.
Some lubricant is mixed with powder which reduces friction between
particles and surfaces of tools along which the powder must slide during
compaction.

Compacting
Compaction is the step in which blended powders are pressed into shape
in dies. The presses are used driven by mechanically or hydraulically. The
purpose of compaction are to obtain the required shape, density and
particle to particle contact. After this process the parts are sufficiently
strong to be further processed.
398 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Sintering
Sintering is the process where green compacts are heated in controlled
atmosphere furnace to a tempera- ture below the melting point. But
sufficiently to allow fusion of individual particle.

Finishing Operations
The following are the various types of loads as given below
● Coining It is a press working operation on a sintered part to press detail
into its surface.
● Forging In this process, desired shape is given to sintered part at
elevated temperature.
● Machining Making threads, holes or slot on sintered part is called
machining.
● Sizing In this process, the dimensional accuracy of sintered part is
improved.

Heat Treating This process is used to improve hardness of sintered
part.

Stream Treating In this process, sintered part obtained a oxide casting on
its surface.

Plating This operation is used to obtain spectic surface finish and
colour.

Joining In this process, two sintered parts are joined by typical joining
method like welding, brazing etc.

Repressing Repressing increases the density and improves the
properties of a sintered part.

Impregnation The powder metallurgy part has tiny capillary pores all
over which can be filled by oil or other lubricant, this process is called
impregnation.

Infiltration The pores can also filled by a metal of lower melting point
than sintered part by heating the sintered parts when metal is placed
against it. It increases strength and density of sintered part. Sintered
steel parts are infiltrated by copper or bronze.
Metal Casting
It is a metal forming process, in which metal is formed by allowing molten
metal to solidify in a mould. E casting, we can make most intricate of
shapes, both external and internal.
Casting process can be shown in a flow chart as
Pattern making
¯
Core making
¯
Moulding
¯
Melting and pouring
¯
Cooling and solidification
¯
Cleaning

Pattern Making
First of all, pattern is a replica or facsimile model of desired casting which
produces a cavity. Molten metal solidifies in this cavity. The process of
making such cavity by using pattern is known as pattern making.
Pattern materials are
1. Wood 2. Plastic 3. Plaster of Paris 4. Wax

Core Making
Cores are used to produce the internal features of part such as hole or any
opening. Cores are placed in the cavity produced by pattern.

Moulding
Moulding is the process to prepare a mould for receiving mould metal.
Mould must be strong enough to hold the weight metal. Moulding process
generally involves

Placing a moulding aggregate around a pattern

Pattern is held with supporting frame
400 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Removal of pattern to produce cavity


● Setting the cores in cavity
● Closing of mould

Melting and Pouring


Melting is used to melt the metal, so that it can flow inside mould cavity.
Molten metal is poured in pouring cup. This is known as sprue and
horizontal portion of this cup and is known as runner. The points through
which metal enters into cavity are known as gate.

Cooling and Solidification


We know, density of solid is more than liquid. Hence, when molten metal
solidifies, the size of solid is less in comparison of molten metal. This
process is known as shrinkage.

Cleaning
When metal is cooled and solidified, we withdraw it. Cleaning is done to
remove the dust or other particles of moulding sand.

Design of Gating System


Bernoulli’s theorem plays an important role in regulating the flow of metal in
gating system. According to Bernoulli’s theorem, ‘the total energy head
remains constant at any system’. It is given by
p v2
+ + h = constant
rg 2 g

where, p = Pressure (in N/m 2 or Pa)


v = Velocity of the liquid (in m/s)
h = Potential head (in m)
r = Density of the liquid (in kg/m 3)
g = 9.8 m/s 2 = Acceleration due to gravity
According to continuity law, ‘mass of the metal flowing at any section in the
would is constant’.
m = r 1A1v 1 = r 2 A2v 2
But density remain constant.
So, r1 = r2
A1 v 1 = A2 v 2
Q = A1v 1 = A2 v 2
Material Science and Production Engineering 401

where, Q = Rate of flow of the metal (in m 3/s)


A = Area of cross-section of that section, where metal is flowing
(in m 2)
v = Velocity of the metal (in m/s)

Mould Filling-up Time


Various possible mechanism of mould filling-up time are given as
1
Top Gate
h1
Top gate can be shown in the given figure as
Velocity of the liquid at the point 2 = 2gH H

If the area of gate is Ag , then volume flow rate 2

= Ag ´ 2 gH
If the volume of mould cavity is Vm and it is filled in
time t, then
Ag ´ 2 gH ´ t = Vm Top gate

Vm
\ t=
Ag 2 gH

Bottom Gate
It can be shown below in the figure
Let a dx thickness or height in mould cavity filled by gate in dt time. The
height of strip from the bottom of the cavity is x. Applying Bernoulli’s
equation between points 1 and 2.
p1 v 12 p v2
+ +H= 2 + 2 +0 …(i)
rg 2 g rg 2 g
v 1 can be neglected because pouring basin area is very large and p1 is
atmospheric pressure. So, Eq. (i) becomes
p2 v2
H= + 2 …(ii)
pg 2 g
402 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Since, pressure on the 2-2 ¢ 1


plane will remain same. So,
applying Bernoulli’s equation
between points 2 and 3 H h2
3
v 22 p p v2 dx
+ 2 = 3 + x+ 3 2 x h
2 g rg rg 2g 2¢
Bottom gate
But p3 is atmospheric pressure
and mould area is same for point 2 and point 3
p
So, v2 = v3 2 = x
rg
Putting this value in Eq. (ii)
v 22 v 22
Þ H= x+ =H-x
2g 2g
v2 = vg = 2 g( H - x)
Applying continuity equation, Ag ´ Vg ´ dt = Amdx
where, Am = Area of mould, Ag = Area of gate
2 Am
t= [ H - H - h]
g Ag

Design of Sprue
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1
2 and 3, designing of sorue h1
2
p2 v 22 p v2 h3
+ + h2 = 3 + 3 + 0 …(i) h2
rg 2 g rg 2 g
3
When the mould is empty then, air will be
present there and that time the pressure at the
point 3 will be equal to atmospheric pressure. If A schematic diagram of
the area of sprue is constant throughout then, sprue

v2 = v3 (From continuity equation)


p2
Then, Eq. (i) becomes + h2 = 0
rg
(p3 = 0, here atmospheric pressure is assumed zero)
Material Science and Production Engineering 403

p2
= - h2
rg
It means that at point 2 in the sprue, there will be vacuum and it will capture
atmosphere into liquid through sand voids. 1
This will produce blow holes in the casted h 1
part. This phenomenon, is known as 2
h3
aspiration effect. So, avoid this phenomenon, h2
the cross-section area of the sprue is 3
changed to have uniform pressure
(atmospheric pressure) throughout the sprue.
Let again consider points 2 and 3 when Sprue diagram
pressure is uniform (at atmospheric pressure) (aspiration effect)
throughout the sprue.
v 22 v2
+ h2 = 3 …(ii)
2g 2g
From continuity equation A2v 2 = A3v 3
A2 v 3 A
= v2 = 3 v3
A3 v 2 A2
A3
where, =R
A2
R is known as area ratio v2 = R v3
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2,
p1 v 12 p v2
+ + h3 = 2 + 3 + 0
rg 2 g rg 2 g
v 1 = 0 (because basin has large cross-section area)
p1 = p3 = 0 (because they are at atmospheric pressure)

Design of Risers
The purpose of riser is to provide liquid metal to compensate liquid and
shrinkage during phase change. The secondary purpose of riser is to show
that whether casting is full or not. So, a riser is designed in such a way that
it stays molten longer than the casting.
The solidification time both for casting and riser given as
2
æV ö
t =k ç ÷ (Chvorinov rule)
è SA ø
404 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

t = Solidification time (in second)


SA = Surface area (in m 2)
V = Volume (in m 3)
k = Mould constant
● The freezing ratio x of a mould is defined as the ratio of cooling
characteristics of casting to the riser.
æ SA ö
ç ÷
è V ø casting
x=
æ SA ö
ç ÷
è V øriser
● In order to be able to feed the casting, the riser should solidify last and
hence, its freezing should be greater than unity.
So, we can write it as
æ SA ö æ SA ö
ç ÷ ³ç ÷
è V ø casting è V øriser

Based on the Chvorinovi’s rule, Caine developed a relationship
empirically for the freezing ratio of steel casting. The equation is
.
010
x= +1
y - 0.03
Riser volume
where, y =
Casting volume
.
010
For aluminium casting, x= + 108
.
y - 0.06
Sphere have minimum ratio of surface
Riser volume/casting

area to the volume. But it is not used as


riser for casting because hottest metal
volume (y)

being at centre of sphere and it is difficult Sound casting


to use for feeding the casting.
Generally, cylindrical shaped risers are
Shrinkages
used for casting purpose.

Freezing ratio (x)


y-x graph
Material Science and Production Engineering 405

Design for Top Riser


The riser which is placed on the top of casting and this surface in contact
with metal is called top riser.
Area of riser exposed to atmosphere
A = 2 prh + pr 2 …(i)
Top riser
where, r = radius of riser
h = height of riser
V
Volume of riser V = pr 2 h h =
pr2
V
A = 2pr + pr 2 Casting
pr 2
Area of riser should be minimum,
1/ 3
dA æV ö
So, = 0r = ç ÷ r = h
dr èpø Top riser
h h 1
or = 1 or =
r d 2
where, d = diameter of the riser
æV ö pr 3 r d
ç ÷ = = =
è A øriser 2 pr 2+ pr 2 3 6

Design for Side Riser


Side riser which is placed in the side of casting and this surface in contact
with metal is called side riser.
Volume of riser V = pr 2h
Surface area exposed to atmosphere of the riser
A = 2 p rh + pr 2+ pr 2
= 2 prh + 2 pr 2
V
= 2 pr + 2 pr 2
pr 2
2V
= + 2 pr 2
r
Casting
Side riser Side riser
406 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Area of riser which exposed to atmosphere should be minimum.


dA
So, =0
dr
1/ 3
æV ö h
Þ r=ç ÷ =1
è2p ø d
3
æV ö 2 pr
where, d = diameter of the riser ç ÷ =
è A øriser 4pr 2 + 2 pr 2
r d
= =
3 6
æV ö
● In both cases (top riser and side riser), volume to area ratio ç ÷ remains
è Aø
constant.

Welding
Welding is defined as a material joining process which produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or
without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone
and with or without the use of filler material.

Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding


Oxy-Fuel gas Welding (OFW) is a welding process that uses a fuel gas
combined with O 2 to produce a flame. This flame is the source of heat that
is used to melt the metals at the joint. If fuel gas is acetylene (C 2 H2 ) then, it
is known as oxy-acetylene gas welding. In this process, heat is generated
in two pair of chemical reaction. The first reaction occurs at inner core of
the flame is
C 2H2 + O 2 ¾® 2CO + H2 + Heat
This produces one-third of the total heat generated in the flame. Secondary
reaction is
3
2CO + H2 + O 2 ¾® 2CO 2 + H2O + Heat
2
Secondary reaction produce about 2/3rd of the total heat. The temperature
developed in flame about 3200°C as the result of these reactions.
Material Science and Production Engineering 407

Types of Flame
Flame can be classified into the following types

Neutral Flame
In neutral flame, the ratio of oxygen and acetylene is 1 : 1.
2100°C

Inner core (3200°C) Outer envelope


Neutral flame

Oxidising Flame
In this flame, the quantity of oxygen is Outer envelope
(small and narrow)
greater than acetylene. This is harmful,
especially for steel because it oxidises the
steel. This is useful in welding of copper
Inner cone
and copper based alloy. (pointed)
Oxidising flame
Carburising Flame
In this flame, the quantity of the oxygen Blue envelope
is less than the acetylene. It is suitable
for application requiring low heat such
as brazing, soldering and flame Bright luminous inner cone
hardening Carburising flame

Arc Welding
In this process, heat is obtained from electrical energy. Electric arc is
generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode against the work piece
and the withdrawing it quickly to a sufficient distance to maintain the arc. In
this welding method, the temperature is generated about 6500°C.

Straight Polarity
In straight polarity, workpiece is positive terminal and electrode is
connected with negative terminal respectively. It is preferred for sheet
metals because it produces shallow penetration and joints for very wide
gaps.
408 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Reverse Polarity
In reverse polarity, electrode is positive terminal and work piece is
connected with negative terminal. It is used for welding of thick sheet
because it provides deep penetration. DC is used for sheet welding
because it produces steady arc. AC is used for welding of thick section and
using large electrode diameter at maximum current.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding


According to our requirement, we Power supply system
(AC or DC) Electrode holder
use AC or DC supply or straight
or reverse polarity. Generally, it is Electrode
used in construction, in ship Arc
building, on pipe lines and for
maintenance work.
Work table Work piece

Electrode cable
Shielded metal arc welding

Submerged Arc Welding


In this welding process, arc is shielded by a granular flux, consisting of
lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other compounds. The
flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle. The flux layer
completely covers the molten
metal, it prevents spatter and
spark which reduce radiation Electrode Rod feed into
and fume characteristic of the and feed rod work piece
SAW process. It provides very
high welding productivity Flux cover weld
depositing 4-10 times the
amount of weld metal per hour Molten metal
as SAW. By this method we
can weld steel, stainless steel
sheet, plate often at high Work piece
speed (5 m/min) rate. Submerged arc welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding


It is also known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding. The weld area is shielded
by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon, helium, CO 2 and various other
gas mixtures. The consumable bare wire is fed automatically through a
nozzle into weld area or arc.
Material Science and Production Engineering 409

Deoxidizers are usually present in the electrode metal itself which also
prevent oxidation of molten weld puddle.
Metal transfer in this process by four modes
1. Spray transfer 2. Globular 3. Short circuiting 4. Pulsed spray

Spray Transfer
In this metal transfer mode, small droplets of metal from electrode
transferred to the weld area at a rate of several hundred droplets per
second. Transfer is spatter free and very stable. High DC current and
voltages of large diameter electrodes are used.

Globular Transfer
In this transfer, carbon dioxides rich gases are utilized and globules
propelled by the forces of the electric arc transfer the metal with
considerable spatter. High welding current are used, so high weld
penetration occurs. Thick sections are joined by this method.

Short Circuiting
The metal transfer in individual is more than 50 per second as electrode tip
touch the weld pool and short circuiting occurs. Low current and voltage
are generally used with CO 2 like rich gases. The small diameter used in this
method.

Pulsed Spray
The average current required is reduced by using a pulsed arc which
superimpose high amplitude pulse onto a low, steady current. This process
can be used in all welding positions.
Travel
Solid wire electrode
Current
conductor Shielding gas
Nozzle
Shielded
gas Wire guide and
contact tube
Arc

Base metal Solidified


weld metal
Molten weld
metal
Pulsed and pray
410 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Fluxed Cored Arc Welding


It is similar to gas metal arc welding except that the electrode is tubular in
shape and is filled with flux (flux-cored). This is used for steel, stainless
steel and nickel alloys.

Electro Gas Welding


Electro gas welding is used primarily for welding the edges of sections
vertically in one pass with pieces placed edge to edge (butt joint). The weld
metal is deposited into cavity between the two pieces to be joined. This
space is enclosed by two copper dam to prevent molten slag to run-off
from cavity. Electrode used in this welding is consumable. This is used for
welding of steels, titanium and aluminium alloys. The weld thickness range
is from 12 mm to 75 mm.

Non-consumable Electrode
The non-consumable electrode basically are used in the following arc
welding process which defined as

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding


It is also known as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding. The filler metal is
supplied from a filler wire because, tungsten electrode is not consumed in
this operation, a constant and stable arc gap is maintained at constant
current level.
Electrode
The shielding gas used in this Shielding gas (tungsten)
process is helium or argon or
mixture of the both gases. Filler rod
Nozzle
Depending on the metals to be
welded, the power supply is
either DC at 200 A or AC at 500 +
Work piece
A. AC current is removed oxides
and improved weld quality. Gas tungsten arc welding

Electro Slag Welding


It is similar like electro gas welding. The main difference is that the arc is
started between electrode tip and the bottom of the part to be welded. Flux
is added then is melted by the heat of the arc. When molten slag touches
the tip of electrode, the arc is extinguished. Then, heat is produced by
electrical resistance of the molten slag. It is used for welding of thick
Material Science and Production Engineering 411

section, ranging from 50 mm to more than 900 mm. Current required 600 A
at 40-50 V, although higher currents are used for thick plates. Welding
speed is about 12 to 36 m/min.

Atomic Hydrogen Welding


In this welding process, arc in a shielding atmosphere of hydrogen. The arc
between two tungsten or carbon electrodes. The hydrogen gas also cools
the electrodes.

Plasma Arc Welding


It is similar to gas tungsten arc welding. A concentrated plasma arc is
produced and aimed at the weld area. A plasma is ionised hot gas,
composed of nearly equal number of electron and ions. The plasma is
initiated between the tungsten electrode and the orifice by low current pilot
arc. Operating current is usually 100 A but they can be higher value for
some special applications.

Plasma gas Tungsten electrode


– Shielding gas

Power
supply
Nozzle
Arc
Molten metal
Work piece
+

Plasma arc welding

There are two processes of plasma arc welding. In transferred arc method,
the work piece is the part of electrical circuit. The arc transfers from the
electrode to work piece. In non-transferred method work piece is not a part
of electrical circuit and arc produce between tungsten electrode and nozzle
and heat is carried to work piece by the plasma gas.
412 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Thermit Welding
In this welding process, heat is produced by exothermic reaction between
metal oxides and metallic reducing element. This heat is utilized in the
welding. The most common mixture of materials used in welding of steel
and cast iron is finely divided particles of Fe 3O 4, Al 2O 3, iron and aluminium.
This non-explosive mixture produces maximum theoretical temperature of
3200°C is less than one minute. However, it reaches only about 2200°C.
The reaction is started by applying a magnesium fuse to special
compounds of peroxides, chromates or chlorates known as oxidizing agent
at an ignition temperature of about 1200°C. It is suitable welding and
repairing large forgings and castings. It can also be used to join rails. pipe
and thick steel structural sections.

Electron Beam Welding


In this welding process, heat is generated by high velocity narrow-beam
electrons. When they strikes to work piece, their kinetic energies change
into the heat. The process requires special equipment to focus the beam
on the work piece in a vacuum. In higher vacuum beam penetrate more
depth greater than the depth to width ratio. This is used to weld thin foil to
thick sections. EBM process have small heat affected zone. By this method
150 mm thick section can be weld.

Laser Beam Welding


In this welding process, a high power laser beam as the source of heat is
used to make a weld. The beam is focused on small area and it has high
energy density so, it has more penetrating power. By this method aluminium,
ferrous metals, copper, super alloy' and refractory metal can be weld.

Non-conventional Welding
The non-conventional welding process are used in solid state welding.
Some welding methods are defined as

Cold Welding
Cold welding is a solid state welding, this method uses pressure at room
temperature to produce coalescence of metals with substantial
deformation at the weld. The pressure is applied by roller or die. The both
metal should be ductile in nature (most cases).
Material Science and Production Engineering 413

Diffusion Welding
It is a welding process in which the strength of the joint results primarily
from diffusion (movement of atoms across the interface) and secondarily
from plastic deformation of the faying surfaces. The temperature involves
about 0.5 Tm , where Tm is melting temperature of welding material in kelvin.

Explosion Welding
Explosion welding is a solid state welding process in which coalescence is
affected by high movement of the metal to be joined produced by a
controlled detonation.
Detonator

Explosive
Stand-off Clad metal (fyer)
distance
Base plate

Explosive
Butter
Detonator
Clad
Angular interface
a clearance gap

Base plate

Explosion welding

Resistance Welding
In this welding process, heat is generated by means of electrical resistance
across the two components to be joined.
H = I 2Rt
where, H = Heat generated (in joules)
R = Resistance (in W)
I = Current (in A)
.

t = Time of current flow.


.

Resistance Spot Welding


In this welding process, the tips of two opposing solid cylindrical
electrodes touch a lap joint of two sheet metals and resistance heating
produces a spot weld. Obtained a strong bond in the weld nugget,
pressure is applied until the current is turned off.
414 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

High Frequency Resistance Welding


High frequency resistance welding, is similar like seam welding but supply
is replaced by"a high frequency current (up to 450 kHz).

Resistance Projection Welding


In this welding process, high resistance at the joint is developed by
embossing one or more projections on one of the surface to be welded.
These projections are converted into nugget when a current is passing
through material due to more heat generated at the points of projection.

Pressure applied
Current-on
Electrode

Weld nugget
Lap joint

Current-off
pressure applied Pressure released
Resistance spot welding

Resistance Seam Welding


It is similar to resistance spot welding but electrode is replaced by roller
electrodes. In AC power supply, the electrically conducting rollers produce
a spot weld whenever the current reaches a maximum level in AC cycle.

Weld plate

Nugget
Resistance seam welding

Flash Welding
Flash welding is also known as flash butt welding. Heat is generated from
the arc as end of the two member begin to make contact and develop an
electrical resistance at the joint.
Material Science and Production Engineering 415

Stud Welding
Stud welding is also known as stud arc welding. Stud which is a small part
of threaded rod or hanger serves as one of the electrode while being joined
to another component which is usually a flat plate. A ceramic ring is placed
around the joint to prevent from oxidation to weld zone.

Percussion Welding
In this welding process, current is supplied by a capacitor. Capacitor is
discharged within 1 to 10 ms to develop localized high heat at joint. This
process is used in electronic industries.

Welding Defects
After welding some defects are found which make the strength of joint
weak. Such defects are called welding defects. Some welding defects are
given below.

Porosity
In this defect, air bubbles (or gases) are present in the weld zone. The
distribution of air bubbles in weld zone is
random. Porosity caused by gases release
during melting of the weld area but trapped
during solidification, chemical reaction during
welding or by contaminants.
Porosity

Slag Inclusions
Slag inclusions are compound such as oxides, fluxes and electrode
contain meterials that are trapped in the weld zone.

Incomplete Fusion
When gap is not totally filled by molten metal, it is known as incomplete
fusion.

Incomplete fusion
416 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Incomplete Penetration
Incomplete penetration occurs when the depth
of the welded joint is insufficient.

Incomplete penetration
Under Filling
It occurs when the joint is not filled with the Under filling
proper amount of molten metal.

Under Cutting Under filling


It occurs when base metal melts away from the Under cutting
weld zone and the consequent generation of a
groove is in the shape of sharp recess or no
tch. It reduces the fatigue strength of the joint.

Inclusions Under cutting


These can occur when several passes are
made along a V-joint when joining thick plate using flux cored or flux coated
rods and the slag covering a run is not totally removed every pass before
following pass.

Lamellar Tears
This is mainly a problem with low quality steel. It occurs in plate that has a
low ductility in the thickness direction which caused by non-metallic
inclusions (sulphides, oxides) that have been elongated during the rolling
process. Lamellar tearing can occur in both fillet and butt welds but the
most affected joints are T and corner joints where the fusion boundary is
parallel to the rolling plane.

Cracks
Cracks may occur in various locations and directions in the weld area. The
typical types of cracks are longitudinal, transverse, crater, under bead and
toe cracks. When joint is at elevated temperature then a crack occurs and it
is known as hot crack. When it occurs after solidifying weld metal, it is
known as cold crack.
Material Science and Production Engineering 417
Toe crack

Longitudinal Under bead crack


cracks
Base metal

Weld zone Transverse crack


Crack in Welded joints

Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)


In ECM process, material removal takes place, that is reverse of
electrolysis. This is high current, low voltage process. The tool material
used in electro chemical machining are brass, bronze, copper and
aluminium. The gap between electrode and work piece is about 0.03 - 0.05
mm. The material removal rate in electrochemical machining is
proportional to the current settings and the temperature of the electrolyte.
In ECM process, temperature should be controlled very precisely because
even temperature increase by 5°C, it produces over cut of 0.2 mm.
According to Faraday’s law,
Mass of material removal µ charge
m µq
m = Zq
where, m = Mass of material
q = Charge
E
Z = Electro chemical equivalent and Z =
F
Atomic weight
where, E = Chemical equivalent =
Valency
where, F = Faraday’s constant = 96500C
E
Then, m = q and q = I t
F
where, I = Current passed through electrode
t = Time of current flow in electrode
EIt m EI
m= =
F t F
m
is mass removed in unit time.
t
m EI
Metal Removal Rate (MRR) = =
r t rF
418 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

EI
where, r = Material density MRR = = sI
rF
E
where, s = Specific material removal rate =
rF
Electrode feed rate is given by = s ´ J
I
where, J = Current density =
A
V l
I = R =r
R A
where, V = Voltage
r = Specific resistance or electrical resistivity
I V V V
s1 = = = =
A RA r l A rl
A
where, l = Gap between work piece and tool
When any alloy is given like as (alloy having different elements)
A B C
Atomic weight x y z
Valency m n Q
Percentage p q r

where, p + q + r = 100
1 p´ m q´n r ´Q
Then, = + +
Ealloy 100 ´ x 100 ´ y 100 ´ z
where, Ealloy = Chemical equivalent weight
If only A and B are given then, p + q = 100
1 p´ m q´n
= +
Ealloy 100 ´ x 100 ´ y

Application of ECM
It has main application in machining steam turbine blades and die sinking.

Electrode Discharge Machining (EDM)


EDM process is also called spark erosion machining where the material is
removed by erosion of repeated spark.
Vd = Discharging voltage
V0 = Charging voltage
Vd = V0 (1 - e -t / RC )
Material Science and Production Engineering 419

1
Frequency of spark f=
t
1
Energy released per spark E = CVd2
2
Average value of power delivered
E
Pav = , t 1 = Charging time
t1 + t2
t 2 = Discharging time
t1 > > t2
Optimum value of discharge voltage
Vd
= 072
.
V0
Vd = 072
. V0
Þ Vd is 72% of charging voltage.
The major application of EDM is in die sinking.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)


In ultrasonic machining tool is made up
B4
of ductile material between tool and
MRR Material
removal rate

workpiece there is slowy of abrasives.


Si
Non-conducting brittle materials can be
machined by this process like glasses
and ceramics.
MRR ECM > EDM>USM
Abrasive concentration
Total wear USM>EDM>ECM

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)


For machining very fine holes of about 0.002 mm size abrasive jet
machining is used. Abrasive’s and air are mixed thrown over the surface at
a very high velocity. A crack will be developed as result. By increasing
stand of f distance. MRR will initially increase but beyond certain value
MRR decreases.

Advantages of (AJM)

Low cost and ease of operation. ●
No heat generation

Disadvantages of (AJM)

Poor surface finish. l Very low MRR
420 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Laser Beam Machining (LBM)


In this method focusing of laser on workpiece result into a very high surface
temperature resulting in metal removal due to melting and evaporation. It is
used to drill micro holes cutting very narrow slot in very hard material like
diamond. For making wire drawing dies, heat affected zone in this process
is very less. It is costly method and is used only when it is not feasible to
machine with other process.

Electron Beam Machining (EBM)


It is process of machining material with the use of very high velocity beam
of electrons. The workpiece is held in vacuum chamber and electron beam
focused on it when strikes the surface of materials, it results into generation
of very high temperature leading to metal removal due to melting and
evaporation.
The setup consists of electron gun that is the source for electron. A high
DC power source, electromagnetic focusing lens, enclosed vacuum
chamber and deflecting coils. It is used for drilling very fine holes cutting
contours and very narrow slots.

Metrology
Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM) as ‘‘the science of measurement embracing both experimental and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainly in any field of science
and technology.’’

Accuracy and Precision


Accuracy is defined as closeness to the exact value and precision is
repeatively. Accuracy is related to mean value of the parts produced and
precision is related to the process dispersion.
Direction (D)

Mean value Mean value


Target value D Target value

f f
Accurate but not precise Accurate but not precise
Material Science and Production Engineering 421

Mean value
Mean value
D Target value D Target value

f f
Neither precise nor accurate

Selective Assembly
The process of achieving fully interchangeable system is called selective
assembly.
Fully interchangeable system are those system which does not require any
inspection after machining. Selected number hole and shaft have desired
tolerance individually so that hole and shaft is selected randomly from hole
and shaft lot and assemble can made.

Limits, Fits and Tolerances


Assembly parts (either hole or shaft) should come within certain range of
dimensions. This acceptable variation is called tolerance larger size is
called upper limit and lower size is called lower limit.
Distance from the basic size where the tolerance zone is situated is called
fundamental deviation.
Hole

Upper ES
deviation Width of
Lower
tolerance zone
deviation E1
Fundamental
Upper deviation
Lower deviation Basic size
deviation

Shaft

Hole Basis System and Shaft Basis System


If H type of hole appears, the system is called hole basis system and if h
type of shaft is present it is called shaft basis system.
422 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Hole Hole

Zero line Zero line


Hole basis system
Shaft
Shaft basis system

Maximum and Minimum Material Limit


Large size shaft and small size hole will have more material. So, these
limits are called maximum material limit. Lower size shaft and large size
hole will have less material. So, these limits are called minimum
material limit.
Broadly there are three types of fits

Clearance Fit
Hole
If lower limit of hole is larger than the upper
limit of shaft. It is considered as clearance Zero line
fit. Zero line
Maximum
minimum
clearance
clearance

Shaft
Transition Fit Clearance fit
This type of fit appears when there is overlap in the
Shaft
tolerance zones. Physically, it indicates that when a Hole
part is selected randomly from hole and a shaft lot. Zero
Some of the assemblies can be made without the line
application of force and for some of the assemblies Transition fit
force will be required.

Interference Fit
Shaft
If maximum size of hole is smaller
than the minimum size of shaft then
Maximum Minimum
force has to be applied to make the interference Hole interference
assembly. Such fits are called
interference fits
Interference fit

Allowance
It is defined as the difference between maximum material limit of hole and
shaft. Depending upon the type of fit either it is equal minimum clearance
or maximum interference.
Material Science and Production Engineering 423

Formula for Fundamental Deviation


D = Dmax ´ Dmin

i = 0.45 D1/ 3 + 0.001 D


Five steps preferred series
IT 01 - IT1 ® Empirical formula
IT1 - IT15 ® Exact geometric mean
IT 5 - IT16 ® Preferred series
Width of Tolerance
IT 01 IT0 IT1 IT2
0.3 + 0.008D 0.5 + 0.012 D 0.8 + 0.02 D ar
IT3/ar 2 IT4 /ar 3 IT5 / 7i = ar 4 IT6 / 10i
IT 7 / 16i IT 8 / 25i IT 9 / 40i IT 10 / 64 i
IT 11 / 100i IT 12 / 160i IT / 13 250i IT14 400i
IT 15 / 640i IT 16 / 1000i

Design of Limit Gauges


Gauges (GO and NOGO) are designed to check both holes and shafts that
wheather they come within their tolerance limit or not.
The gauges used for shafts are called ring gauges and gauges used for
checking holes are plug gauges.
1
Gauge tolerance = (work tolerance)
10
1 1
Wear tolerance = (GT) = work tolerance
10 1000

Taylor Principle
■ GO and NOGO gauges must be designed to check size as well as shape and has to
be in the full form i. e., full working length of holes or shaft.
■ GO gauges are designed at maximum material limit condition and NOGO gauges
are designed at minimum material limit condition.

Sine Bar
It is used for indirect measurement of an angle of an machined surface.
High carbon and high chromium material are used for sine bar as it gives
good surface finish.
424 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Types of Error
Errors are classified into the following categories

System Error (systematic error)


These errors in the instrument follow a particular pattern. These errors can
be neutralized by calibrating the system.

Short period Error


These errors may appear due to change in environmental conditions like
humidity temperature variations in electric instruments, fluctuations
recorded while conducting tensile test on USM. These errors can be taken
care of by neglecting the irrelevant data.

Erratic Error
These errors appear due to incompleteness of any link. Such error does not
follow any pattern. These magnitude is also uncertain so these errors have to
be eliminated by inspecting the instrument before starting the experiment.

Comparator
Comparators are used for measuring the dimensions from a reference value.

Pneumatic Comparator
Pneumatic comparator work on the principle Surface
that of an air jet. Upon decreasing the stand d-Stand
off distance
off distance, the pressure on the back
ground of jet will increase. This pressure is
called back pressure and can be directly
related to the measurement Back
These comparators can be further divided Principle of an air jet pressure
into three groups Pneumatic comparator
1. Flow type 2. Differential type 3. Back pressure type
p æMö
= A - b ç ÷, p = back pressure
P èc ø
P = total pressure B/P and M graph 0.8
b
0.6 = 1.1 - Mmax
p/P

c
b
0.8 = 1.1 - Mmin 0.6
c
dP 0.4P
= Mmin Mmax
dM Mav
B/P and M graph
Material Science and Production Engineering 425

dR dR dp dM
Magnification = = ´ ´
dl dP dM dl
dR
= Indication sensitivity
dP
dp
= Pneumatic sensitivity
dM
dM
= Measuring head sensitivity
dl
æp ö
A = area of control orifice = ç dc2 ÷
è4 ø
M = Measuring head area = Td m l
P (Total pressure)

dc
Back
pressure
H
p

Measuring
Surface head
Back pressure type comparator

Surface Finish
A machined surface is having 2 types of irregularities i . e., roughness and
waviness. Small wavelength fluctuation are called roughness (primary
texture) and large wavelength deviations are called waviness (secondary
texture). Waviness is being produced by machine vibrations, chatter,
errors, in guide ways etc. Roughness appears due to improper selection of
cutting fluid development of temperature on robe face.

Lay and Flow


Predominant surface patterns produced by feed marks is called lay and
surface irregularities present which are random is known as flow.
Flow

Lay

Lay and flow


12

Industrial
Engineering
Forecasting
Forecasting is the first major activity in the planning. It involves careful
study of past data and present scenario. Forecasting is the projection of
past into future while prediction is the judgement in management after
taking all available information into account.
We can define forecasting based on time duration as

Short term forecasting for 1 to 3 months

Intermediate term forecasting for 3 to 12 months

Long term forecasting for more than 1year

Classification of Forecasting Method


Forecasting method can be divided into two parts

Quantitative method

Qualitative method

Quantitative Method
It is objective in nature and employ numerical information as the basis of
making forecast.
Industrial Engineering 427

Forecasting Method

Quantitative Method Qualitative Method

Time Series Casual Forecasting

Smoothing Trend Simple Multi-type


Projection Regression Regression
Analysis Analysis
Simple Moving
Average (SMA) Sales Force
Weighted Moving Forecast
Average Delphy
Exponential Method
Smoothing Consumer Panel
Double Exponential Survey
Smoothing Scenario Writing
Classification of Forecasting Method

Quantitative method can be further classified in Time series and Casual


method

Time Series Method


It identifies the historical pattern of demand for the product and project.
It has four components
(i) Trend (Gradual shift)
(ii) Cyclic (Recurrent upward or downward in time series)
(iii) Seasonal (Periodic fluctuation)
(iv) Irregular
Time series method further divided into Smoothing and Projection methods

Smoothing Method
Smoothing method is used to smooth out the random fluctuation caused
by the irregular component of time series.
There are following types of smoothing method

Simple Moving Average Method A Moving average is obtained by
summing and averaging the values from a given number of periods
respectively, each time, deleting the oldest value and adding a new value.
The forecast for (t + 1) th period is given by
428 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

æ 1ö t
Ft + 1 = ç ÷ S Di
è nø t = i + 1- n
where, Di = Actual demand for the ith period.
n = Number of periods included in each average.
● Weighted Moving Average This approach is based on the principle
that more weight age should be given to relatively newer data.
Forecast for ( t + 1 ) period
t
Ft + 1 = S w i Di
i = t + 1- n

where, w i = Relative weight of data for the ith period


t
S wi = 1
i = t + 1- n

● Exponential Smoothing In this method, the weightage of the data


diminishes exponentially as the data become older.
Ft = Ft - 1 + a ( Dt - 1 - Ft - 1) or Ft + 1 = Ft + a ( Dt - Ft )
Ft is also given by
Ft = a D t - 1 + a (1 - a ) Dt - 2 + a (1 - a) 2 Dt - 3 + a (1 - a )3 Dt - 4 +¼
where, Ft = One period ahead forecast made at time t
Dt = Actual demand for period t
a = Smoothing constant ( 0 £ a £ 1)
2
= (N = Number of time periods)
N +1
Key Points
✦ Large value of a is selected for fluctuating demand while lower valve of a is
selected for smooth demand.
✦ In exponential smoothing method of forecasting, the forecast for higher
values of the smoothing constant will be more sensitive to changing patterns
in demand.
✦ In exponential smoothing method of demand forecasting , demand for the
more recent data is given more weightage.


Double Exponential Smoothing Double exponential method is
used when there is a trend in data, the raw data sequence of
observations is represented by x t beginning at time t = 0. We use St to
represent the smooth value for time t and b t is our best estimate of the
trend at time t.
Industrial Engineering 429

S 0 = x0
St = a x t + (1 - a) (S t - 1 + b t - 1)
bt = b (S t - S t - 1) + (1 - b ) b t - 1
Ft + m = St + mb t
where, a = Data smoothing factor ( 0 < a < 1)
b = Trend smoothing factor
xn - 1 - x0
b0 =
n-1
Þ F1 = S 0 + b0, for ( n > 1)
Trend Projection in Forecasting
In the trend projection method of forecasting, the value of time series
exhibits a long term linear trend.
yt = a + bx
S y = Na + bS x,
S xy = aSx + bS x 2,
where, yt = The trend value, a = Intercept of trend line
b = Slope of trend line, x = Independent variable
S xy - N x y
Alternatively, b=
S x 2 - N ( x )2

Casual Forecasting Method


In casual method, we try to establish a cause and effect relationship
between changes in the sales level for the product and set up relevant
explanatory variable.
It can be divided into simple regression analysis and multiple regression
analysis
Forecasting using Simple Regression Analysis
ye = a + bx
where, ye = Estimated value of dependent variable
Sy = na + b S x
a = y intercept of regression line
S xy = a S x + bS x 2
b = Slope of the regression line
x = Independent variable
430 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Forecasting using Multiple Regression Analysis


ye = a + b1x1 + b2 x2
Sy = na + b1S x1 + b2 S x2
S x1y = aS x1 + b1 S x12 + b2 S x1x2
S x2 y = a S x2 + b2 S x1x2 + b2 S x22

Qualitative Method
Qualitative forecasting is based on person judgement and involve qualities
like intuition and experience.
It can be divided into following types

Delphi Method
It is long range forecast based on group consumer by panel of outside
expert. It is extremely useful for forecast of new technology or new product
and past data are absent. However, accuracy and reliability of forecast is
relatively poor and may be time consuming process.

Sales Force Forecast


It is combined estimation at the district, regional and national level to obtain
overall forecast by all members comprising sales force of a company. It is
closest to consumer.

Consumer Panel Survey (Marketing Research)


It is based on subjective judgements of subjects involves about possible
purchases.

Scenario Writing
It consists of developing a conceptual scenario of the future based on a
well defined set of assumptions.
Industrial Engineering 431

Responsiveness and Stability in Forecasting


Responsiveness indicates that forecast as calculated have a fluctuating and swinging
pattern whereas the stability means that the forecast show a labelled or flat character.
Forecast/Demand

N=3
N=6

Time
Demand versus time
As value of N increases the forecast become stable and lower value of N result in
forecast being more responsive.

Measuring Forecast Error


A forecast error is the difference between the actual or real and the
predicted or forecast value of time series or any other phenomenon of
interest. There are two methods which are given below

Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)


In this method, we calculate as the average of absolute value of difference
between actual and forecasted values. The negative sign in this difference
is ignored as overestimate as well as underestimate are both off-target and
thus desirable.
n
S | Dt - Ft |
t= 1
MAD =
n
where, Dt = Actual value of demand for period t
Ft = Forecasted demand for period t
n = Number of periods considered for calculating error.

Mean Sum of Square Error (MSE)


Average of all squares of all errors in forecast is termed as mean sum of
square method. It is written as
n
S ( Dt - Ft )2
t =1
MSE =
n
432 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Bias
It is a measure of over estimation or under estimation. If the bias value is
positive, then it is under estimation and if bias is negative, then it is over
estimation.
n
S ( Dt - Ft )
t =1
Bias =
n

Tracking Signal
It is ratio of bias till n periods to mean absolute deviation till n periods. It is
used to identify those items which do not keep pace with either positive or
negative bias or trend.
n
S ( Dt - Ft )
(Bias)n
TS = t = 1 =
(MAD)n (MAD)n

Inventory
Inventory is defined as the list of movable goods which helps directly or
indirectly in production of goods for sale. We can also defined inventory as
a comprehensive list of movable items which are required for
manufacturing the products and to maintain the plant facilities in working
conditions.
It can be divided in two parts
Direct Inventories
The inventories which play a direct role in manufacturing of a product and
become an integral part of the finished product are called direct
inventories. e.g., raw materials, purchases part and finished goods.

Indirect Inventories
The inventories which helps the raw material to get converted into products
but not integral part of finished product is called indirect inventories.
e. g ., tool and supplies (material used in running the plant but do not go
into the product) are indirect inventories.
Industrial Engineering 433

Inventory Control
It means making the desired item of required quality and in required
quantity available to various departments when needed.

Determining Inventory Control


The amount of inventory, a company should carry is determined by five
basic variables
(a) Order quantity (b) Reorder point (c) Lead time
(d) Safety stock (e) Buffer stock

Order Quantity
It is the volume of stock at which order is placed or total quantity of buy or
sell order.

Reorder Point
It is time between initiating the order and receiving the required quantity.
Reorder point = Minimum inventory + Procurement time ´ Consumption rate

Lead Time
The time gap between placing of an order and its actual arrival in the
inventory is known as lead time. It consist of requisition time and
procurement time.
It has two components
Administrative Lead Time
From initiation of procurement action until the placing of an order.
Delivery Lead Time
From placing of an order until the delivery of the ordered material.

Safety Stock
If the maximum inventory would be equal to the order quantity Q and
minimum inventory would be zero.
Q
Average inventory in this case =
2
Safety stock = k Average consumption during lead time
k = A factor based on acceptable frequency of stock out in a given
number of years.
434 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Buffer Stock
For an average demand during average lead time the additional stock
termed as buffer stock.
Buffer stock = Average demand ´ Average lead time
● When no stock outs are desired.
● Buffer stock = Maximum Demand During Lead Time (DDLT) - Average
Demand During Lead Time (DDLT)
● When demand rate varies about the average demand during a constant
Lead Time (LT ) period
Reorder Level (ROL) = Average (DDLT) ´ LT + BS
Inventory Models

Static Inventory Model Dynamic Inventory Model


(Only one order can be (Repeated order can be
placed to meet demand. placed to replenish stock.)
Repeated order are
impossible or too expensive.)
Deterministic Model Probabilistic Model
(Assume demand as (It amount the variation
well as lead time of an
in demand and lead time.)
item are deterministic.)
Classification of inventory model

Inventory Cost
The costs that are affected by firm’s decision to maintain particular level of
inventory are called cost associated with inventories or relevant inventory
cost.
Total Inventory Costs (TIC)
TIC = Purchase cost + Total Variable Cost (TVC) of managing the inventory
TIC = Purchase cost + Inventory cost + Ordering cost + Shortage cost
st
co
Minimum total cost

l
ta
To Inventory carrying
cost

Ordering cost
EOQ
Number of units
Inventory cost curve
Industrial Engineering 435

Purchase Cost
It is defined as the cost of purchasing a unit of an item.
Purchase cost = Price per unit ´ Demand per unit time
= Cu ´ D
where, Cu = Unit cost
D = Annual demand
Ordering Cost
It is defined as the cost of placing an order from a vendor. This represents
the expenses involved in placing an order with the outside supplier. This
includes the costs involved in processing and ordering for purchase,
expediting over the orders, receiving the consignment and inspection.
C
Annual ordering cost = o ´ D
Q
where,
Q = Produced purchased or supplied throughout the entire time period
(one year) or order quantity
Co = Cost of placing an order
D = Annual demand
Carrying Cost
Carrying or holding costs are the costs incurred maintaining the stores in
the firm. It is proportional to the amount of inventory and the time over
which it is held.
a
Annual carrying cost Cui = Cu ´ i ´
2
where, Cu = Unit purchase cost,
i = Interest rate

Shortage Cost
When an item cannot be supplied on consumer’s demand, the penalty
cost for running out of stock is called shortage cost or stock out cost.
Shortage cost = Cost of being short one unit in inventory
´ Average number of unit short in the inventory.

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)


Economic order quantity is the order quantity that minimizes total inventory
holding costs and ordering costs. It is one of the oldest classical
production scheduling models.
436 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Assumptions of EOQ Model


● The ordering cost is constant ● The rate of demand is known
● Lead time is fixed ● Purchase price of the item is constant
● Replenishment is made ● Only one product is involved.
instantaneously

EOQ When Stock Replenishment is Instantaneous


Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is the order quantity that minimizes total
inventory holding costs and ordering costs. It is one of the oldest classical
production scheduling models.
It is defined as the quantity which will minimise the total variable cost of
managing the inventory.
C Q
TVC = o ´ D + ´ Cu ´ i
Q 2
2Co D
EOQ (Q ° ) =
Cu ´ i
where, Co = Cost of placing an order, Cu = Unit purchase cost
i = Interest rate, D = Annual consumption of the product.

Optimum number of order placed per year
D D Cu ´ i
\ no = =
Q° 2 Co
where, Q° = Economic order quantity

Optimum length of time between order (Economic review period)
T 2Co 2 Co
to = =T = (since T = 1 year)
no D Cu ´ i D Cu ´ i
1 o D

Total minimum inventory production cost = Q Cu ´ i + o Co
2 Q
TC° = 2 D Cu ´ i ´ Co
where, TC° = Total optimum inventory cost

Total cost is calculated by
Co Q
TC = Cu ´ i ´ Q + ´D+ ´ Cu ´ i
Q 2
TC

Model sensitivity =
TC°
where, TC = Total cost
Industrial Engineering 437

EOQ When Replenishment is not Instantaneous

Inventory
Maximum Inventory
Q Slope (r)
k

k–r

t1 t2 Time
t
EOQ versus time graph

Let, k = Daily production rate or rate of replenishment


r = Depletion (demand) rate or daily consumption rate
● Economic Order Quantity (Q o )
2 Co D
Qo =
æ rö
ç1 - ÷ Cu i
è kø

Optimum number of production runs per year
D DCu ´ i æ rö
no = o = ç1 - ÷
Q 2Co è kø

Optimum length of each lot size production run
Qo 2 DCo
t o1 = =
k Cu ´ i ´ k ( k - 1)

Total minimum production inventory cost
C D 1 æ rö æ rö
TCo = oo + Q o ç1 - ÷ Cu ´ i = 2 DCoCu ´ i ç1 - ÷
Q 2 è kø è kø

EOQ When Shortage are Permitted and Instantaneous


Production and Variable Order Cycle Time
Let C1 = Holding cost per unit
inventory for a unit
Q1
C2 = Shortage cost 0per unit
of time per quantity Q
Q 1 = Amount which goes
into inventory t2

t1 Q2 Time
EOQ versus time graph
438 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Q 2 = Amount which immediately taken to satisfy past orders or


unfilled demand
Co = Ordering cost
2Co D C1 + C2 æ C2 ö o
● EOQ (Q o ) = Þ Qo 1 = ç ÷Q
C1 C2 è C1 + C2 ø
● Time between receipts of orders (when to order)
Qo 2Co C1 + C2
to = =
D DC1 C2
● Total optimum inventory cost
C2
TCo = 2 DCoC1
C1 + C2

o æ C1 ö
● Maximum inventory level Q o - Q 1 = Q o ç1 - ÷
è C1 + C2 ø
2Co D C2
=
C1 C1 + C2

Probabilistic Model
The ideal inventory models such as wilson and production models, do not
account for the rise and uncertainty in their formulation. In reality these
situations rarely occur. The
Probability of
major variations are in the el
l ev Stock out (a)
demand rate and lead time. e
r vi c
Both the demand rate and lead Se WF
(1 – a)
time may vary from cycle to m = DL Zs ROL (X)
cycle and their variations are Probabilistic Model
probabilistic in nature. In the
probabilistic models, the inventory decisions are based on the probability
distribution of demand and/or that of the lead time.
Reserve stock level for normally distribute Demand During Lead Time
(DDLT).
Reserve Stock (RS) = ROL - DLT = X - m
RS
Z = ( X - m )/ s =
s
where, X = Mean demand + Reserve stock
s = Standard deviation
ROL = Reorder Level
Industrial Engineering 439

One Period Problem


Marginal analysis approach
MP = Marginal Profit from each unit sold
ML = Marginal Loss from each unit that could not be sold
P ( r ³ f ) = Probability that is demand for f units or more for an
optimum order quantity,
Expected marginal profit ³ Expected marginal loss
ML
P ( r ³ f) ³
MP + ML
If C = Cost per unit; P = Selling price per unit
S = Salvage per unit
(C - S )
P (r ³ f ) ³
( P - C ) + (C - S )

Linear Programming
A linear programming is defined as it is the optimisation of a linear function
of variables subject to constrain of linear inequalities.
A Linear Programming Problem (LPP) consists of three components namely
(i) Decision Variables (Activities)
(ii) The Objective (Goal)
(iii) The Constraints (Restrictions)

Decision Variables (Activities)


It refer to the activities that are competing one another for sharing the
resource available.

Objective (Goal)
The linear programming problem must have an objective which should be
clearly identifiable and measurable in quantitative terms.

The Constraints (Restrictions)


There are always certain limitations (or constraints) on the use of
resources, such as labour, space, raw material, money etc, that limit the
degree on which an objective can be achieved.
440 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Basic Assumptions of LPP


● Certainty All parameters, availability of resources, profit consumption of
resources must be fixed.
● Divisibility (or continuity) Non-negative value of decision variable can
positive frictional value.
● Proportionality Decision variable directly proportional to value of
variable.
● Additivity The value of objective function for a given value of decision
variables and the total sum of resources used must be equal to the sum of
contributions earned from each variable and sum of resources used by
each decision respectively.

LPP-Graphical Solutions
LPP involving two decision variables can easily solved by graphical method.

Basic Solutions
Given a system of m simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns ( m < n).
A is an m ´ n matrix of rank m, let B be any m ´ n submatrix formed by m
linearly independent columns of A. Then,
A solution obtained by setting (n - m) variables not associated with the
columns of B equal to zero and solving the resulting system is called a
basic solution to the given system of equations.
A x = b, xT e R n
The m variables, which may be all different from zero are called basic
variables. The m ´ m non-singular submatrix B is called a basis matrix with
the columns of B as basis vectors.
n - m ® Non-basic variable
m ® Basic variable

Degenerate Solution
A basic solution to the system is called degenerate if one or more of basic
variable vanish (zero).

Basic Feasible Solution


A feasible solution an LPP which is also a basic solution to the problem is
called a basic feasible solution to the LPP.
Industrial Engineering 441

Simplex Method
When the decision variables are more than two, graphical method
becomes inadequate and linear programming problem is solved by
simplex method. Simplex method is defined as an algebraic procedure
that through a series of repetitive operations, progressively approaches
an optimal solution.

Conditions in Simplex Method


The two fundamental conditions on which the simplex method is based are

Conditions of Feasibility
It assume that if the initial solution is basic feasible, then during
computation only basic feasible solutions will be obtained.

Condition of Optimality
It guarantees that only better solutions will be encountered.

Steps in the Simplex Algorithm


Let us assume that the existence of an initial basic feasible solution
Let x = ( x1 x2¼ xn ) be a feasible solution so that x j ³ 0 and m < n
z = c 1 x1 + c 2 x2 + a x1 + ai 2 x2 +¼
i1
æ i = 1, 2¼ m ö
³ bi x j ³ 0 ç ÷
è j = 1, 2¼ n ø
a x1 + ai 2 x2 +¼ £ bi
i1

Check whether the objective function the given LPP is to be maximised or
minimised. If it is to be minimised, then we convert it into a problem of
maximising it by using the results.

Minimum z = - Maximum ( - z )

Check whether all bi ( i = 1, 2, ¼ m ) are non-negative if one of bi is negative,
then multiply the corresponding inequation of the constraint by - 1, so as
to get all bi ( i = 1, 2¼ m ) non-negative.

Convert all inequation of constraint into equation by introducing slack and
for surplus variables.

Obtain an initial basic feasible solution to the problem in form of
xB = B-1 b and put it in the first column of simple table.

Compute the net evaluation z j - c j ( j = 1, 2¼ n) by using the relation.
z j - c j = c B y j - c j , where yi = B-1 a
442 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Examining the Sign z j - c j


If there are more than one negative z j - c j , then close the most negative of
them.
ìx ü
● Compute the ratios í Bi , yir > 0, i = 1, 2, 3 .. mý and choose minimum of
y
î ir þ
X Bk
them. Let the minimum of these ratio be , then the vector yR will level
YKr
the basis yB . The column element ykr , which is in the kth row and the rth
column is known as the leading element of the table.
● Convert the leading element to unity by dividing its row by the leading
element itself and all other elements in its column to zeros by making use
of the relations.
ykj
y$ ij = yij - yir , i = 1, 2¼ m + 1, i ¹ k
ykr
ykj
y$ kj = , j = 0, 1, 2¼ n
ykr

Repeat the procedure until get an optimum solution.

Key Points
✦ Infinite Solutions When a non-basic variable in an optimum solution has a
zero value for D j row, then the solution is not unique.
✦ Unbounded Solution When all replacement ratio are either infinite (or)
negative, then the solution terminate. This indicate the problem has unbound
solution.
✦ Infeasible Solution It is identified in the simplex table when optimality
condition is satisfied and there is a positive value for artificial variable in the
basic solution.

Duality in Linear Programming


Associated with every linear programming problem there always exist
another linear programming problem which is based upon the same data
and having the same solution. The original problem is called the primal
problem while the associated one is called its dual problem.

Standard Primal Problem


Maximise z = c 1 x1 + c 2 x2¼+ c n xn
Subject to constraints
æ i = 1, 2¼ m ö
ai 1, x1 + ai 2 x2 +¼+ ain xn = bi Þ xj ³ 0 ç ÷
è j = 1, 2¼ n ø
Industrial Engineering 443

Dual Problem
Minimize z * = b1 w 1 + b2w 2¼ ¼ + bm w m
Subject to the constraints
a1j w 1 + a2 j w 2 +¼ ¼+ amj w m ³ c j ( j = 1, 2, ¼ n)
w i = ( i = 1, 2¼ ¼ m ) unrestricted
Minimization and Maximization Conditions in Dual Problem
Dual
Standard Primal Objective
objective constraints variables
Maximisation Minimisation ³ unrestricted
Minimisation Maximisation £ unrestricted

Transportation and Assignment Model


Transportation Problem (TP) is one of the subclass of LPP in which the
objective is to transport various quantities of a single homogenous
commodity that are initially stored at various sources orgins to the different
destinations in such a way that the total transportation is a minimum.
Mathematically,
m n
Minimise, z= S S xij c ij
i=1j=1

Subject to the constraints


n
S xij = ai , i = 1, 2¼ m
j=1
m
S xij = b j , j = 1, 2¼ n
j=1

xij ³ 0 for all i and j

Existence of Feasible Solution


A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a feasible solution
to the general transportation problem is that
Total supply = Total demand
m n
S ai = S b j = l
i=1 j=1
444 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Existence of Basic Feasible Solution


The number of basic variables of the general transportation problem at any
stage of feasible solution must be (m + n - 1). Now degenerate basic
feasible solution (a feasible solution) involving exactly ( m + n - 1) positive
variables is known as non-degenerate basic feasible solution otherwise it
is said to be degenerate basic feasible. These allocation should be
independent positions in case of non-degenerate basic feasible solutions.

Key Points
✦ Optimum Solution A feasible solution is said to be optimal, if it minimises
the total transportation cost.
✦ Unbalance TP If total supply is not equal to total demand, then it balance
with dummy source or destination.

Solution of a Transportation Problem


Step 1 Formulate problem as LPP.
Step 2 Set up transportation table.
Step 3 Examine total supply = total demand if not then introduce a dummy
row or column having all its cost element as zero.
Step 4 Find an initial basic feasible solution that must satisfy all the supply
and demand conditions.
Step 5 Examine the solution obtained in Step 4 for optimality i . e., examine
whether an improved transportation schedule with lower cost is
possible.
Step 6 If the solution is not optimum modify the shipping schedule by
including that unoccupied cell whose inclusion may result in an
improved solution.
Step 7 Repeat step 4 until no further improvement is possible.

Finding an Initial Basic Feasible Solutions


There are three methods as given below
1. North west corner method
2. Least cost method
3. Vogel’s approximation method (or Penalty method)
Industrial Engineering 445

North West Corner Method


Step 1 Select the north west corner cell of the table and allocate as possible
as first row is exhausted or the destination of the first column is
satisfied.
x11 = min ( a1, b1)
Step 2 If b1 > a1, we move down vertically to the second row and make the
second allocation of magnitude x21 = min ( a2 b1 - x11) in the cell 2,
1 if b1 < a1, we move right horizontally to the second column and
make the second allocation of magnitude x12 = min ( a1 - x11, b2 ) in
the cell (1, 2 ) If b1 = a1, there is a tie for the second allocation.
x12 = min ( a1 - a1, b1) = 0 is the cell (1, 2 )
x21 = min ( a2, b1 - b1) = 0 in the cell (2, 1)
Step 3 Repeat Steps 1 and 2 moving down towards the lower/right corner
of the transportation table until all the rim requirements are
satisfied.

Least-Cost Method or Matrix Minima Method


Step 1 Determine the smallest cost in the cost matrix of the table
xij = min ( ai , b j ) in the cell ( i , j )
Step 2 If xij = ai cross of the ith row of the table and decreases b j by ai go
to Step 1 If xij = b j cross off the jth column of the transportation
table and decreases ai by b j go to Step 3 If xij = ai = b j cross off
either the ith row or jth column but not both.
Step 3 Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for the resulting transportation table until all
the rim requirements are satisfied whenever the minimum cost is not unique
make an arbitrary choice among the minima.

Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)


VAM takes into account not only the last cost c ij but also the costs that just
exceed c jj .
The step of the method are given below
Step 1 For the row identify the smallest and next to smaller cost and
determine difference between them. Display them along side the
transportation table by enclosing them in parenthesis against the
respective rows. Similarly compute the difference for each column.
Step 2 Identify row or column with largest difference use any arbitrary
tie-breaking choice. Allocate the maximum feasible amount
xij = min ( ai , b j ) in the ( i , j )th cell and cross off either the i th row or
the j th column in the usual manner.
446 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Step 3 Recompute the column and row differences for the reduced
transportation table and go to Step 2. Repeat the procedure until all
the rim requirements are satisfied.

Test for Optimality in Transportation Problems


Step 1 Determine the net evaluations for non-basic variables (unoccupied cells)
( u, v method).
Step 2 Choosing that net evaluation which may improve the current basic feasible
solution.
Step 3 Determining the current occupied cell which leave the basis and repeating
step 1 through step 2 ultimate an optimum solution is attained.

Assignment Problem
The assignment problem is a special case of the transportation problem in
which the objective is to assign a number of resources to the equal number
of activities at a minimum cost ( or maximum profit).
Assignment problem is complete degenerate form of transportation
problem. That means exactly one occupied cell in each row and each
column of the transportation table i . e., only n occupied cells in place of the
required ( n + n - 1) = (2 n - 1)
Let xij denote the assignment of the ith resource to the jth activity such that
ì 1, if resource i is assigned to activity j
xij = í
î 0, otherwise
then the mathematical formulation of the assignment problem is minimise
n n
z= S S Cij xij
i=1j=1

Subject to the constraints


n n
S xij = 1 and S xij = 1, xij = 0 or 1
i=1 j=1

Hungarian Assignment Method


(Reduced Matrix Method)
Step 1 Determine the cost table from the given problem.
Step 2 In case of number of resources is not equal to number of
destinations, add a dummy source or dummy destinations so that
cost table becomes a square matrix. The cost entries of dummy
sources/destinations are always zero.
Industrial Engineering 447

Step 3 Locate the smallest element in each row of the given cost matrix
and then subtract the same from each element of that row.
Step 4 In the reduced matrix obtained in Step 3. Locate the smallest
element of each column and then subtract the same from each
element of that row.
Step 5 (a) Examine the rows successively until a row with single zero is
found. (o) this zero and cross all other zero. Do it same for all
rows.
(b) Repeat the procedure for each column.
(c) In case of two zero in same row or column choose arbitrary any
one of these zero and cross off other zeros.
(d) Repeat (a) through (c) above successively until the chain of
assigning (o) or cross (x) ends.
Step 6 If number of assignments (o) is equal to n an optimum solution is
reached. If number of (o) < n then go to next step.
Step 7 Draw the minimum number of horizontal or vertical lines to cover all
the zeros of the reduced matrix.
Step 8 Developed the new revised cost matrix.
Step 9 Go to Step 6 and repeat the procedure until an optimum solution is
attained.

Break Even Analysis (BEA)


BEA is also known as cost volume profit analysis and deals with inter
relationship between total revenue cost and profit in order to determine the
potential effects of decisions necessary to achieve or maintain various
levels of financial structure of a company.

Fixed Cost
The cost which do not vary with increase or decrease of its production and
sale activity for a given period. They are constant upto specific volume or
range of volume. e.g., rent
e.g., rent

Cost Fixed cost

Volume (V)
Fixed cost
448 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Variable Cost
Costs that are incurred by the enterprise which Material Variable
increase with the rise in the level of production cost cost
and decrease with its falls e.g.,electricity,
water, power taxes.
Volume
Variable cost
Semi Variable Cost
Costs which are partly fixed and partly variable such as maintenance costs
of machines and equipment depreciation etc., these however can be
broken up into variable and fixed portions.

Key Points
✦ Increase in fixed cost (possible owing to the purchase of a new machine)
increases the total costs and thus shift BEP towards the right hand side, so
profit will be decreased for the same units of output.
✦ Increase in variable costs and so in total cost possible owing to an increase in
labour cost would shift the BEP towards the right hand side. This involves a
decrease in profit for the same units of output.
✦ If the price of an article rises a new sales revenue will be drawn with a greater
slope, this shift BEP towards the left hand side and thus increase the company
profit for the same units of output.

Assumptions of BEA

Constant selling price, linear relationship between sales volume and cost.

Production match with sales. Break even chart

Only quantity can affect the cost, (Profit volume graph)
not any other factor. Variable cost
F = Fixed cost Revenue Break even point Profit
V = Variable cost per unit and cost q
Total cost
S = Sales price per unit
P = Profit Loss Fixed cost
Q = Quantity produces and sold
(BEP) Q = Break even quantity Units produce and sold quantity
(no loss, no profit) Break even graph
(BEP) Q*, (in units)
F
=
S -V
F F
Q * (in `) = ´S=
(S - V ) 1-
V
S
Industrial Engineering 449

Contribution Margin
The contribution margin is given as
= Total sales - Total variable cost
= Fixed cost + Profit
Contribution Margin Ratio or P/ V Ratio
The contribution margin ratio is given as
Contribution margin per unit
= ´ 100
Selling price per unit
S -V
= ´ 100
S

Margin of Safety (MOS)


It is the excess of actual sales over break even sales.
Margin of Safety (MOS) = Actual sales - Break even sales
Actual sales - Break even sales
Margin of Safety (MOS) ratio = ´ 100
Actual sales
(i) If Q* is break even quantity (at no profit) at the break even point
Total revenue = Total cost + Variable cost
Q* S = F + Q * V
(ii) If P is profit if sell Q quantity.
Fixed cost + Variable cost = Sales - Profit
F + VQ = SQ - P
F+P
Q (units ) = in terms of `
S -V
æF+Pö
Q (`) = S ´ ç ÷
èS - V ø
where, S = Sales price
F = Fixed cost
V = Variable cost
Q = Quantity at BEP

Angle of Incidence (q)


It is defined as the angle between the lines of total cost and total revenue.
If q will large, the profit will high rate.
450 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Note q large with high margin of safety marks the extremely favourable
business position. Profit volume ratio can also be defined as
Fixed cost + Profit
=
Quantity at profit

Disadvantages of Break Even Chart


● It is used for short run analysis and added difficulty when a company
produces a variety of products.
● In actual total cost do not vary in direct proportion to unit produced.

Line Balancing
Assembly line is a special case of product layout in which the operations
pertain to assembly of different parts at few station line (product) layout is
useful for high volume, single type of manufacturing activity.

Work Element (i)


The part of total job content in the line is called work element.
1£ i £ N

Work Stations (w)


The location on the assembly line where a combination of few work
elements are performed is called work stations since minimum number of
work stations ( w ) cannot be less than 1.

Total Work Content (Twc)


It is equal to the sum of processing time of each operation.
N
Twc = S TiN
i=1

where, TiN = Processing line of operations.

Station Time (TSi )


It is equal to sum of processing time of operation on a particular work
station.
n2
TSi = S TiN or Twc = S TSi
n1

Cycle Time
It is rate of production. TC ³ max {TSi }
Industrial Engineering 451

Delay or Idle Time at Station


The difference between cycle time and station time is called the delay or
idle time at station.
TdS = TC - TSi

Balance Delay or Balancing Less (d)


It is the measure of the inefficiency of the line.
æ nT - Twc ö
d=ç c ÷ ´ 100
è nTc ø
n
S TSi
i=1
Line efficiency L =
n (Tc )
where, TSi = Station time at station i, n = Total number of stations
TC = Total cycle time.

Smoothness Index ( SI )
n
SI = S [(TSi )max - TSi ]2
i=1

where, (TSi )max = Maximum station time.

Note If smoothness index is low, it means line balancing is good.

Theoretically Minimum Number of Work Stations (n min )


The minimum number of work stations is defined as the ratio of total work
content to the total cycle time.
Twc
nmin =
Tc
1
Actual production rate PR(actual) =
Tc (actual)

where, Tactual = Actual exceed cycle time.


452 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Largest Candidate Rule for Line Balancing


Step 1 Firstly enlist the elemental time value (TC ) in descending order.
Step 2 Select feasible element placement at the station, starting at the top of list. A
feasible element is one that satisfies precedence requirement and does not cause
the sum of elemental time value (Te ) at the station to exceed cycle time (TC ).
Step 3 Continue the process of assigning the work element to the station as in Step 2
until further elements can be added without exceeding cycle time (TC ).
Step 4 Repeat Step 2 and 3 for other station until all the elements are assigned.

PERT and CPM


Network scheduling is a technique used for planning and scheduling large
projects in the fields of construction, maintenance, fabrication, purchasing,
computer system installation etc.
There are two basic techniques of planning and control that utilise a network
to complete a predetermined project or schedule
1. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
2. Critical Path Method (CPM)

Basic Components Used in Planning and Control


The basic components used in program evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT) can be given as follows

Activity
It lies between two events, called the preceding and succeeding. An effort
is a task or item of work to be done that consumes time, efforts, money or
other resources.

Key Points
✦ Predecessor Activity An activity which must be completed before one or
more other activities start is known as predecessor activity.
✦ Successor Activity An activity which started immediately after one or more
of other activities are completed is known as successor activity.
✦ Dummy Activity An activity which does not consume either any resource
and time is known as dummy activity. A dummy activity is depicted by
dotted line in the network diagram. It is used to maintain the logical
sequence.
Industrial Engineering 453

Event
An event represent the start or completion of some activity and as such it
consumes no time. It has no time duration and does not consume any
resources. So, an event is a node.
Activity
i j
Starting event Completion event
Activity-event flow diagram

CPM (Critical Path Method)


An activity in a network diagram is said to be critical, if the delay in its start
will further delay the project completion time. In this activity times are
known with certainity.

Prepare Project Scheduling


The project scheduling can be done in the following steps
(i) Time schedule for each activity.
(ii) Earlier and latest start time as well as earlier finish and latest finish of
each activity.
(iii) Float for each activity.
(iv) Critical activities and critical path for the network.

Earliest and Latest Time


■ Earliest Start Time (EST)
It is earliest event time of tail and event.
■ Earliest Finish Time (EFT)
It is the sum of earliest start time and activity time.
EFT = EST + activity time
■ Earliest Event Time (EET)
It is maximum of earliest finish times of all activities ending into that event.
■ Latest Start Time (LST)
It is the latest possible time by which an activity can start without delaying the
date of completion of the project.
■ Latest Finish Time (LFT)
It is latest possible time by which the activity must be completed so that the
scheduled date for the completion of the project may not be delayed. It is
calculated by moving backward i. e., from last event to first event of the network
diagram.
LFT = LST + Duration of activity
■ Latest Event Time (LET)
It is minimum of the latest start time of all activities originating from that event.
454 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Float or Slack of an Activity and Event


Float or slack means a margin of extra time over and above its duration
which a non-critical activity can consume without delaying the date of
completion of the project. In other words, the float of an activity is the
amount of time by which it is possible to delay its completion time without
affecting the total project completion time.

Event Float
It is difference between its latest time ( Li ) and its earliest time ( e i ).
Event float = Li - e i
Activity Float
It is the float in the activity time estimates.

Total Float
The total float of an activity represents the amount of time by which an
activity can be delayed without delay in the project completion date.
Total float (TFij ) = L j - ( Ei + t ij ) = LFij - EFij
= ( L j - t ij ) - Ei
= LS ij - ES ij
Free Float
Free float is that portion of the total float within which an activity can be
manipulated without affecting the float of subsequent activities.
FFij = ( E j - Ei ) - t ij
= E j - ( E1 + t ij )
= min { ES ij } - EFij ( i < j )
Independent Float
It is that portion of total float within which an activity can be delayed for start
without affecting floats of the preceding activities.
IFij = ( E j - Li ) - t ij
= FFij - (Slack of event i )
e.g., E1 = 20 E2 = 39
t1 = 19
1 2
L1 = 38 L2 = 57
Total float = L2 - ( E1 + t 12 ) = 57 - (20 + 19) = 18
Free float = E2 - E1 - t 12 = 0
Independent float = E2 - ( L1 + t 12 ) = - 18
Industrial Engineering 455

Interfering Float
It can be defined as that part of the total float which causes a reduction in
the float of the successor activities. It can be defined as the difference
between the latest finish time of the activity under consideration and
earliest start time of the following activity or zero whichever is larger.

PERT
The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique is commonly
abbreviated (PERT)
It is used when the activity times are not known with certainity, for e.g., in
research and development. In PERT analysis, a beta distribution is
assumed because it is unimodal, has non-negative end points and is
approximate symmetric.
to + 4 t m + t p
Expected time te =
6
to = Optimistic time i.e., shortest possible time to complete the activity if
all goes well.
t p = Pessimistic time i . e., longest time that an activity could take if
everything goes wrong.
t m = Most likely time i . e., normal time of an activity would take.
t p - to
Standard deviation (s ) =
6
2
æ t p - to ö to tm tp
Variance (s 2 ) = ç ÷
è 6 ø Most likely time
segment

Probability of Meeting the Schedule Time


With PERT, it is possible to determine the probability of completing a
contract on schedule.
Probability of completing the project by scheduled time (Ts ) is given by
æ T -T ö
Prob ç Z < s e ÷
è se ø
Standard Normal Variation (SNV) is given by
T -T
Z= s e
se
456 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

where, Te = Expected completion time of the project


Ts = Scheduled time of the project
se = Number of standard deviation.
The scheduled time lies from the expected time.
T -T
Z= s e
se

Crashing
For reducing time of activity, more resources and funds need. For instance
a point will be reached beyond which no further reduction in time will be
possible irrespective of resources spent.
Crash cost - Normal cost
Cost Slope (CS) =
Normal time - Crash time

Crash
Crash point
cost
Cost

Normal
cost

Crash Normal
duration duration
Activity time
Cost versus activity time

Difference between CPM and PERT


CPM PERT
Activity oriented Event oriented
Deterministic approach Probabilistic approach
One time estimate Three time estimate
(a) Optimistic (b) Most likely (c) Pessimistic
Planning device Control device
Quality Control
It can be defined as the entire collection of activities which ensures that the
operation will produce the optimum quality products at minimum cost.

Quality
Quality in business, engineering and manufacturing has a pragmatic
interpretation as the non-inferiority or superiority of something. Quality is
also defined as the fitness for use at the most economic level.

Types of Quality
The types of quality are given below
1. Quality of design
2. Quality of conformance
3. Quality of performance

Control
Control can be defined as a process by means of which we observe the
actual performance and compare it with some standard.

Quality Characteristics

Technological

Psychological

Time oriented

Contractual

Ethical

Key Points
✦ Quality control should not be confused with inspection.
✦ Inspection means checking of materials, product or components of product at
various stages with reference to certain predetermined factors and detecting
and sorting out the faulty or defective items.
✦ Quality control is a broad term. It involves inspection at particular stage but
rise inspection does not mean quality control.
458 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Cost of Quality
Total cost/
Cost of quality is a means to quantify the
Minimum total

Cost of product
total cost of quality-related efforts and cost
deficiencies.
It can be defined in four categories
● Cost of prevention
● Cost of appraisal
● Cost of internal failures High Quality product Low
● Cost of external failures Cost of quality curve

Statistical Quality Control (SQC)


It is defined as the quality control system where statistical techniques are
used to control, improve and maintain quality.
Quality Aspects of Quality Management

Statistical quality Statistical Process Control (SPC)


control (Process control charts)

It minimise the defective items produced


thus it is a preventive measure
Classification of quality aspects of quality management

Total Quality Management (TQM)


TQM refers to total involvement of staff in an organisation together, which
includes suppliers, distributors and even customers in bringing about
quality satisfaction by promoting quality culture.
TQM is control of all transformation processes of an organisation to best
satisfy customer’s needs in the most economical manner.

Just In Time (JIT)


It is a new concept in manufacturing where material is pulled through the
process by the next operation, when the problem occurs the process is
shut down.

Key Points
✦ KANBAN is the Japanese name to JIT, actually it means in Japanese language
‘A market used to control the sequence of jobs through a sequential process.’
✦ The purpose of JIT is to produce and deliver finished goods just in time to be
sold.
Industrial Engineering 459

Zero Defect Concept


Zero defect concept seek the volumentary participation of workers in
understanding personal responsibility for quality of task they perform.

Quality Assurance
It deals with the question of assuring the desired quality, reliability service
and other aspects in manufacturing product through scientific techniques.

Control Charts for Variables


A control chart is based upon measurement of quality characteristics are
called as control charts for variables. Control charts for variables are
often found to be more economical means of controlling quality than
control charts based on attributes.
There are two types of variations
1. Variation due to assignable cause
2. Variation due to chance cause chance variations (Random Variations)
X and R chart or X and s charts are used in combination for the control
process.

X Chart
It shows the centering of the process i . e., it shows the variation in the
average of samples.

R Chart
It shows the uniformity or consistency of the process i . e., it shows the
variations in the ranges of samples.

Calculation for X and R Charts


N
S Xi
i=1
For X-chart, centre line (control limit) X =
N
where, X = Average of average
N = Number of subgroups
Upper Control Limit (UCL)
UCL = X + 3s x
Lower Control Limit (LCL)
s
LCL = X - 3s x Þ sx =
n
460 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

where, s x = Standard mean of sample mean


s = Process standard deviation
n = Sample size.
N
S Ri
i=1
For R chart, R=
N
UCL = D4 R = D2 s
LCL = D3 R = D1 s
R
where, s = If n < 7, then D3 = 0
D2
Value of D3 and D4 depend on the sample size.
X for R chart
S. No X R (Maximum-Minimum)
1 x1 R1
2 x2 R2
.... .. ...
N xN RN

Control Units
For plotting control charts generally ± 3s limits are selected. Therefore,
such control charts are known as 3 s control charts.

–3sx –2sx –sx sx 2sx 3sx


Standard deviation
3s control chart

s-Chart
The larger the subgroup size the narrower the control limits on X chart and
the easier is to detect small variations. Generally speaking, the larger the
subgroup size, the more desirable it is to use standard deviation rather
range as measure of subgroup of dispersion.
Industrial Engineering 461

s
s6 = (when n > 25)
2n
1

s 6 = [2 ( n - 1) - 2 n C2 ]2 (when n £ 25)
2n
where, n = Sample size
The control limits are given by
UCL = s + 3 s 6 = B4s
LCL = s - 3 s 6 = B3s

Process Capability
Process capability may be defined as the minimum spread of a specific
measurement variation which will include 99.7% of the measurement from
the given process.
Process capability = 6 s
( Xmax - Xmin ) > 6s
where, Xmax = Upper specification limit, Xmin = Lower specification limit
In this type, situation processes are always in control.

X max X max

X min X min

Upper and lower specification limit


( Xmax - Xmin ) < 6 s
In this type of situation, defective parts will always be there. Therefore
tolerance should be increase.
( Xmax - Xmin ) = 6 s
In this case, a little change in centering
will cause many components to fall X max
outside the specification limits. So, it is
advisable increase tolerances if there are
tighter than really necessary.
On chart ± 3s - active limit X min

± 2s - warning limit.
Increase in tolerances
462 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Control Chart for Attributes


There are following chart use for attributes

P Chart
It is also known as fraction defective chart. This is made when the sample
size is varying.
N
Centre Line (CL) = P = S Pi
i=1
N
S ni
i=1
Average sample size ( n ) =
N
P (1 - P )
UCL = P + 3s = P + 3
n
P (1 - P )
LCL = P - 3s = P - 3
n
where, n = Sample size.

n P Chart
In the case of subgroup, size is constant n P chart is used for actual
number of defectives.
N
S Pi
i=1 SnP
P= =
N Sn
UCL = nP + 3s n p = nP + 3 n P (1 - P )
LCL = nP - 3s ¢ nP
= nP - 3 n P (1 - P )

Evaluation of P
d
Sample number Sample size Number of defective P=
n
1 n d1 d
P1 = 1
n1
2 n d2 ....
3 n d3 ....
.... ..... ....
N n dN dN
PN =
n
Industrial Engineering 463

C Chart
It is based on Poisson distribution, C chart is the control chart for defects. It
is made for number of defects which are present in a sample.
N
S Ci
i=1 Number of defects in all samples
C = =
N Total number of samples
UCL = C + 3 C , LCL = C - 3 C
Number of defects when exceed a particular limit they make an item
defective.

U Chart
When the sample size varies from sample to sample, it is necessary to use
U chart.
Type of Charts
Process Process
Size of shift
[Link]. Chart Process observation observations observations
to detect
relationships type
1. x and R Quality characteristic Independent Variables Large
chart measurement within ( ³ 15s
. )
one subgroup
2. P-chart Fraction Independent Attributes Large
nonconforming within ( ³ 15s
. )
one subgroup
3. nP-chart Number Independent Attributes Large
nonconforming ( ³ 15s
. )
withing one subgroup
4. C-chart Number of Independent Attributes Large
nonconformances ( ³ 15s
. )
within one subgroup
5. U-chart Nonconformances per Independent Attributes Large
unit within one ( ³ 15s
. )
subgroup

C Number of defects in sample


Centre line U = =
N Number of units in a sample
N
S ni
i=1 U
n= Þ UCL = U + 3
N n
U
LCL = U - 3
n
464 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Acceptance Sampling Process


It is a process of evaluating a portion of the product/material in a lot for the purpose of
accepting or rejecting a lot as either conforming or not conforming to a quality
specifications.
The sampling method can be classified as
■ Simple random sampling ■ Stratified sampling
■ Systematic sampling ■ Cluster sampling
■ Two stage sampling

Operating Characteristic Curve (OCC)


The OC curve for an attribute sampling plan is a graph of fraction defective
in a lot against the probability of acceptance.

1.0
Producer Risk

Probability
of
Acceptable
Acceptance
Quality
Region

Indifferent Objectionable
Quality Region Quality Region Consumer
Risk

AQL LTPD
Proportion of defectives
Operating Characteristic Curve

Acceptance Quality Level (AQL)


It represent the maximum proportion of defective which the consumer find
definitely acceptable.

Lot Tolerance Per cent Defective (LTPD)


It represent a bad quality lot submitted by the producer and such a lot
should be rejected most of the times by the sampling plan.
e - np ( np) x
Probability of acceptance Pa =
x!
where, P = Fraction defective, x = Number of defective item
n = Sample size
Industrial Engineering 465

Average Outgoing Quality (AOQ)


It represent the average percentage defective in the outgoing products
after inspection including all accepted and all rejected lots which have
been 100% inspected and defective replaced by non-defectives.

Queueing Theory
Queues (waiting line) stands for a number of customers waiting to be
serviced. The Queue does not include the customer being serviced. The
process or system that performs the services to the customer is called
service facility. Queueing theory is used in service oriented organisation.

Elements of a Queueing System


1. Input or arrival process
(i) Size of queue (ii) Pattern of arrivals
(iii) Customer’s behaviour
2. Queue discipline
3. Service mechanism
(i) Single queue one server (ii) Single queue several server
(iii) Several queue one server (iv) Several server
4. Capacity of the system

Operating Characteristics of a Queueing System



Expected number of customers in the system denoted by [E( n)] or L. It is
the average number of customers in the system, both waiting and in
service.

Expected number of customers in the queue [E( m ) or Lq )]. It is the
average number of customers waiting in queue.
Here, m = n - 1, i . e., excluding the customer being served
or Lq = L - 1

Expected waiting time in the system denoted by E( v ) or w is the average
total time spent by a customer in the system. It is generally taken to be
waiting time plus servicing time.

Expected waiting time in queue denoted by E ( w ) or wq . It is average time
spent by a customer in the queue before the comencement of the service.

The server utilisation factor or (many period) denoted by P = ( l / m ). It is
proportion of time that a service actually stands with a customer.
466 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Here, l = Average number of customer arriving per unit of time.


m = Average number of customer completing service per unit of
time.
The server utilisation factor is also known as traffic intensity or the
clearing ratio.

Deterministic Queueing System


A queueing system wherein the customers arrives at regular intervals and
service time for each customer is known and constant is known as
deterministic queueing system.
(i) if l > m, the waiting line (queue) shall be formed and will increase
indefinitely, the service facility would always be busy and service
system will eventually fail.
(ii) if l £ m, there shall be no queue and hence no waiting time, the
l
proportion of time the service facility would be idle is 1- .
m
Probability Distribution in Queueing Systems
It is assumed that customers joining the queueing system arrive in a
random manner (variable) and follow a poisson distribution or equivalently
the inter-arrival times obey exponential distribution.

Queueing Model
N(t ) = Number of customers in queueing system at time t (t ³ 0)
S = Number of servers in queueing system
Pn(t ) = Probability of n units in queueing system
l n = Mean arrival rate (units/ unit time )
Lq = Average number of customers in the queue system
n = Mean number of units in the queueing system including the one
being served
w s = Average waiting time in the queue
wq = Average time in the queue system

M/M/1 : (¥ / FIFO)
Single service channel, poisson input, exponential service, no limit on the
system capacity.
First in, first out
l
Steady state solution Pn = r n (1 - r ), where r = < 1and n ³ 0
m
Industrial Engineering 467

1
● Inter arrival time =
l
l
● Traffic intensity factor or utilisation factor or channel efficiency r =
m
● Average number of customer in system
r l
L= =
1- r m - l
● Average number of customer of queue or average queue length
r l l
Lq = L - r = -r = -
1- r m-l m
● Waiting line in system
1 æ Lö
w= çw = ÷
m-l è lø
where, m = Average number of customer completing service per unit of
time
l = Average number of customer arriving per unit of time

Average or expected waiting line in queue
1 1 æ Lq ö
wq = - ç wq = ÷
m-l m è lø

Probability that the service facility is idle
P0(t ) = (1 - r )

Probability of n customer in the service at time
Pn (t ) = r n ´ P0 (t )

Average length of non-empty queue
1 m
Ln = =
1- r l - m

The fluctuation (variance) of queue length
r lm
v ( n) = 2
=
(1 - r ) (m - l )2

Probability of n arrival in time t P( nt )
e - l ( l t )n
P( nt ) =
n!
468 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

● Probability that the waiting time in the queue is greater than or equal to t
l
P ( wq ³ t ) = e - (m - l ) t
m
where, wq = Waiting time in queue
● Probability that waiting time in system is greater than or equal to t
P (w s ³ t ) = e- (m - l ) t

where, w s = Waiting time in system


● Probability that waiting time in system is less than or equal to t
P (w s £ t ) = 1- e- (m - l )t

(M/G/1): (¥ / FIFO)
G = Gesal service time
s = Standard deviation for the service time
s 2= Variance
l2s 2 + r 2
Lq =
2 (1 - r )
L = Lq + r
Lq
wq =
l
1
w = wq +
m
where, Lq = Average queue length
wq = Waiting time in the queue
(M/D/1) : (¥ / FIFO)
D = Deterministic or constant service times i . e., standard deviation for
service time is zero (s = 0)
r2
Lq = and L = L q + r
2(1 - r )
Lq
wq =
i
1
Þ w = wq +
m
where, wq = Expected waiting times
Work Study and Value Engineering
The method of investigation of work done and finding best most efficient
way of using available resources i . e., money and machinery is called work
study.
It can be divided into two parts

Method Study
It find best possible manufacturing procedure involves least time and not
cause fatigue to workers.

Work Measurements
It is the application of technique designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a specific job at a defined level of
performance. It concern the total time allow to complete the job by that
procedure.

Techniques for Carrying Out Work Measurement


There are following three techniques for carrying out work measurement

Stop Watch (Time Study Method)


Stop watch time study is defined as a work measurement technique for
recording the times and rate of working for the element of a specified job,
carried out under specified condition and for necessary for carrying out the
job at a defined level of performance.
Number of cycles or observations to be taken while conducting stop watch
time study is given by
2
éK N ¢ ( S x )2 - ( S x )2 ù
N=ê ú
êë Sx úû

where, N = Total number of cycles


N ¢ = Number of observations already taken
X = Individual observation
K = Constant = 40, 95% confidence level ± 5% , accuracy
= 20, 95% confidence level ± 10% accuracy
470 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Predetermined Motion Time Standard (PMTS)


In this time established for human motions is used to buildup the time for a job
at a defined level of performance. In this system, the operations under study
are divided into the basic motions. Then, the timing for these basic motions
are individually computed and added for getting the basic operations time.
MTM ® (Method Time Measurement) Most popular values in MTM are given
in Time Measurement Unit (TMU)
1TMU = 10-5 h

Work Sampling or Ratio Delay


Work sampling is a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a
certain activity by statistical sampling and random observations,
K 2 P (1 - P )
n=
(SP )2
where, n = Sample size
P = Percentage occuring of activity
S = Error in fraction
K = A factor depending upon the confidence level
= 1 for 68% confidence level
= 2 for 95% confidence level
= 3 for 99.7% confidence level
Comparison of Work Measurement Technique
Issue Stop Time Study PTSM Work Sampling
Type of Very accurate for Extremly accurate for Fairy accurate for long
standard repeated task repeated task and short cycle
produced operation
Advantage Tight standard Very tight standard Loose standard
Speedy application Speedy application Ease of application
Generate detailed Generate detailed Employ’s reaction is
information information favourable and may be
used for long cycle
operation
Disadvantage Chances of Specialised training Lack detailed
employee reaction is necessary information
Not suited for long Not suited for long Need long sample
cycle and mental cycle or mental period
work operation
Chances of Difficult to explain and
subjective leveling justify
Industrial Engineering 471

Ratio Delay
Ratio of percentage of the day the man working and the percentage time
man is idle.

Performance Rating
Rating as the assessment of the workers rate of working relative to
observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to the standard pace.

Standard Performance
Standard performance is the rate of output which qualified work will
naturally achieve without over exertion. It is denoted 100 on standard rating
and performance scalar.
Standard time

Observe time CA for works CA


Rating Relapcation
for unavoidable delay
factor allowance
Base time (Normal time) Contigency Allowance
Work element

Normal time (Base time) = Elemental time ´ Rating factor


Standard time = Normal time + Allowances
Method Study’s Criteria
There are 3 criteria use for method study
1. Economic criteria 2. Technical criteria 3. Human criteria
Process Chart Symbol

Operation

Storage

Delay or Temporary Storage

Transportation

Inspection

Combined Symbol
472 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Recording Techniques
There are three types of recording technique that are allowable for carrying
out work study
1. Charts 2. Diagrams 3. Photographic films

Charts
1. Outline process chart (Operation process chart)
2. Flow process chart
(i) Man type chart, (ii) Material type chart
(iii) Equipment type chart
3. Multiple activity chart
4. Two hand (Left hand Right hand) process chart

SIMO Chart (Simultaneous Motion Chart)


It is used to record (18 nos) agains the time scale which are performed by
the operator or operator at work. SIMO chart is the micromotion form of
operator process chart. Because SIMO charts are used primarily for
operation of short duration often performed with extreme quickness. It
becomes necessary to combine then with films. In this chart movement are
recorded against time measured in wink.
1
1 wink = th minute.
2000

Trave Chart
It records the movement and or man between different departments.

Diagram
A diagram is used to define or describe the flow of a method involving step
by step considerations with their process charts symbols. Diagram can be
divided into flow and string diagram

Flow Diagram
It show the path of man material and components on a scale model of the
factory.

String Diagram
It is a scale diagram on which movement in a given area and over a given
period of time is plotted by means of a continuous thread.
Industrial Engineering 473

Photographic Films
Photographic film is a sheet of coated with an emulsion containing light-
sensitive silver halide salts with variable crystal sizes that determine the
sensitivity; contrast and resolution of the film. It consists Cycle graph and
Chromocycle graph which are defined below

Cycle Graph
It have been developed for studying the motion path of an operator.

Chromocycle Graph
Chromocycle graph have been appeared by using electric circuit with
circuit breaker and with the bulb. Switch ON and OFF create the dotted line
with pear shaped dotes by the bulb.

Value Engineering
It is the application of the concept of value analysis at the design or
premanufacture stage of the component parts with a view to cut down
the unnecessary costs, without impairing the function or utility of the
product.

Value
It is the cost of proportionate to the function i.e.,
Function (or utility)
Value =
Cost

Types of Values
1. Cost value Manufacturing component.
2. Use value e.g., Tie chip, water, salt, medicine.
3. Esteem value e.g., Jewellery, TV, Car.
4. Exchange value Product i.e., exchangable with other one.

Value Analysis
Value analysis examines the design functions and cost of each and every
component in order to produce it economically without decreasing its
utility, function and reliability. Value analysis is a much faster cost reduction
techniques.
474 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Procedure of Value Analysis


The procedure of value analysis is given below
1. Blast : Identify product
Collect information
Define various function.
2. Create : Create and critically evaluate different alternatives.
3. Refine : Develop the best alternative and implement.

Sequencing
The selection of an appropriate order for a series of jobs to be done on a
finite number of facilities is called sequencing. When the number of jobs
and the number of machines are very few the problem can be solved by
making mental picture. As the number of jobs and machines increasers the
problem becomes complex.

Basic Terms Used in Sequencing


1. Number of machines The number of machines which are used in
system.
2. Processing order It is the order in which machines are used or
processed.
3. Processing time It indicates the time required by a job on each
machine.
4. Total elapsed time It is the time interval between starting the first job
and completing the last job including the idle time (if any) in a
particular order by the given set of machines.
5. Idle time on a machine It is time for which a machine does not have
a job to process i.e., idle time from the end of job ( i - 1) to the start of
job i.
6. No passing rule It refers to the rule of maintaining the order in which
jobs are to be processed on given machines.

Processing n Jobs through Two Machines


n Jobs are processing through two machines between different time
interval which is shown in figure below
Industrial Engineering 475

t11 t12 t13 t14 t15 t1n


M1

M2 t2n
x21 t21 x22 t22 t23 t24 x25 x2n
t
O Time taken in hours
Gantt chart
Total elapsed time
n n
Where, T = S t 2 j + S x2 j
j=1 j=1

t 2 j = Time required for processing jth job on machine M2.


X 2 j =Time for which M2 remain idle after processing ( j - 1th
) job and
before starting work on j th job.

Processing n Jobs through k machines


Job Number 1 2 3…n
Processing time on machine M1 t 11 t 12 t 13 … t 1n
M2 t 21 t 22 t 23 … t 2n
Mk t k1 t k2 t k3 … t kn
An optimum solution to this problem can be obtained, if either or both of
the following conditions hold
(a) min1 t ij ³ max t ij for i = 1, 2, 3, ¼ k - 1 or (b) min t kj ³ max t ij
Processing 2 Jobs through k Machines
Step 1 Draw 2 perpendicular line, first represent job 1 and second job 2.
Step 2 Mark the processing time for job 1 and 2 according to the given
order of machines.
Step 3 Constant various blocks starting from the origin by pairing the
same machines until the end point.
Step 4 Draw a diagonal line (45°) in which horizontal segment line indicate
the first job is under process while 2nd job is idle verticle segment
of line show 2nd job under process while first is idle diagment
segment of the line shows the both jobs are under process
simultaneously.
Step 5 Choose the path on which diagonal movement is maximum.
Step 6 The total elapsed time is obtained by adding the idle time for either
job to the processing time for that job.
ABC Analysis and Material
Requirement Planning (MRP)
Always Better Control (ABC) analysis is a basic tool which helps the
management to place their effort where the results would be useful to the
greatest possible extent. This technqiues involve the classification of
inventory items into 3 categories A, B and C in the decesending order of
annual consumption and annual monetary value of each item.

V3
Percentage V2
of usage Value
V1

A B C

I1 I2 I3
Percentage of item
Curve between item and usage value

ABC analysis is based on Parito’s law.


Category of Item in ABC Analysis
Category of item Percentage annual usage items Percentage of usage value (cost)
A I1 V1
B I2 V2
C I3 V3

Category A items

Most cost and valuable items.

More careful and close control is needed.

Category B items

Average consumption value. ●
Lesser costly than A.

Require lesser degree of control than A.

Category C items

Lowest consumption value. ●
Loose control of C item.
Industrial Engineering 477

Material Requirement Planning (MRP)


MRP is a computational technique that converts the master schedule for end
produce into a detailed schedule for raw materials and components used in
the end products.
The detailed schedule identifies the quantities of each raw material and
component items. It also falls when each item must be ordered and
delivered so as to meet the master schedule for the final product.
The purpose of MRP is to ensure that materials and components are
available in the right quantities and at the right time so that finished
products can be completed during according to the master production
schedule.

Sales
Customer forecast
orders
Service parts
requirement
Engineering Master production
changes schedule Inventory
transactions

Bill of MRP
materials file processes Inventory
record file

Output reports
A system of MRP

There are three input to MRP


1. Master Production Schedule (MPS)
Series of time phase quantites for each item.
2. Bill of material file which define the product structure.
3. Inventory record file or item master file.

Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II)



MRP (II) is a total company system in which functional group interact
commonly and formally and make joint decisions. Finally the system is
user transparent users at all levels understand and accept the logic and
realism of system and need not work outside the formal system.

It includes strategic financial planning as well as production planning
through the use of simulation capabilities.
478 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Production plan

Resource
planning MPS

Material Inventory control


Bill of material requirement
planning
Purchase control
Work centre and
Routing standards Shop floor control Work in progress
activity reporting

Capacity
requirement planning
A system of MRP II

Plant Layout and Production


Planning and Control (PPC)
Plant layout is an area of arranging fascilities such as equipment,
department, section etc., inside plant or work place, it is one of the most
critical strategic decisions.
There are three basic methods (types) of layout
1. Product layout (line layout) 2. Process (functional) layout
There are three basic methods of clustering an organisation activities. Those
three methods are given below
1. Product Layout 2. Process Layout
3. Mixed or Group layout

Product Layout
This is also called line [Link] the product is produced in mass, this
type of layout is used. This type of layout is adopted in an industry whose
production is continuous.

Process Layout
It is also known as functional layout. In this layout machines or processes
of similar facilities are grouped together. In such a layout, the work usually
moves though a series of departments and rarely from one work station to
another within a single department.
Industrial Engineering 479

Mixed or Group layout


Mixed or grouped layout is a combination of product and process type
layouts. In this type of layout advantages of both product and process is
obtained. The selection of product type and process type layout depends
upon the initial fixed cost and the variable cost of producing parts. Some of
the characteristics of grouped type layout are listed below

Cellular or Group Layout


● Large variety of products in small volumes.
● Intercell transfer part should ideally be zero.
● Cellular of process & product layout.
Production Planning and Control (PPC)
PPC has many functions to perform
● Planning phase

Action phase

Control phase
Type of Layout
Cellular (Group Process
Factors Fixed Product (Line) technology) (Functional)
Types of operations Ship building Continuous Small to Job or small
large scale and repetitive medium batch batch
project
construction
project
Arrangement of facilities Facilities to a Placed along Similar parts Grouped of
fixed the line of are grouped in speciality
product/ product flow part family
project
Cost of layout Moderate to Moderate to Moderate to Moderate to
low low high low
Material handeling Moderate Less Less High
Material travel Variable Fixed path Fixed path Variable
path path
Utilisation of facilities Moderate Very high High Low
Operating facilities General Special Special General
Purpose purpose purpose purpose
Employee skill Unskilled/Spi Unskilled Multiskilled Skilled
lled
Production of quality Q Normally Large Moderate Small
=
Number of production P one
480 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Steps in PPC
The various steps of PPC are given below
● Loadings Assignments of work to manpower machinery etc., without
specifying when the work is to be done.
● Scheduling Time phase of loading sequence of work.
● Dispatching Execute planning function properly implementation of
plans.
● Routing Flow of work in plant, what, where and how work done.
● Progress reporting It can be interpreted by comparison with present
level of performance.
(i) Bar chart (ii) Curve chart
(iii) Mechanical chart (iv) Gantt chart
● Expediting Taking action if the progress reporting indicates a deviation
of the plan from the originally set target.

Replanning Replanning of whole affairs become essential in case
expediting fails to bring deviate plant to its actual path.
13

Element of
Computation
Numerical Control & Computer
Numerical Control
NC is an acronym for Numerical Control and CNC is an acronym for
Computer Numerical Control. NC machines performed limited functions
and moments controlled by punched tape or punch cards. As the
technology evolved. NC machines become CNC machines. CNC
machines have far more capability than their predecessor.

Stepper Motor
The stepper motor is special type of synchronous motor which is
designed for rotate through a specific angle for each electrical pulse
received from the control unit.

Basic Length Unit (BLU)


In NC machines the displacement length per one pulse output from
machine is defined as a basic length unit.
In the CNC computer each bit (binary digit) represent a BLU.
Bit = BLU
482 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Part Programming
The programming is the sequence of instructions, which describe the work,
which has to be done on a part, in the form required by a computer under
the control of a numerical control computer program.

CNC Programming
● Coordinate system
● Units incremental or absolute positioning
● Coordinates X , Y , Z , RX, RY, RZ.
● Feed rate and spindle speed.
● Coolant control : on/off, flood, mist.
● Tool control : tool and tool parameters.
Important G Codes
Code Meaning Format
G00 Rapid transverse N_G00X_Y_Z_
G01 Linear interpolation N_G01 X_Y_Z_F_
G02 Circular interpolation (clockwise) N_G02 X_Y_Z_R_F_
G02 Circular interpolation (anticlockwise) N_G02 X_Y_Z_R_F_
G04 Dwell N_G04 P_
G17 XY plane
G18 XZ plane
G19 YZ plane
G20/G70 Inch unit
G21/G71 Metric unit
G28 Automatic return to reference point
G40 Cutter compensation (Cancel)
G41 Cutter compensation left N_G41_D_
G42 Cutter compensation right N_G42D_
G43 Tool length compensation N_G43H_
G44 Tool length compensation N_G44H
G49 Tool length compensation (cancel)
G80 Cancel corved cycle
G81 Drilling cycle N_G81T_R_F
G90 Absolute positioning
G91 Incremental positioning
G92 Absolute present change the N_G92 X_Y_Z_
Element of Computation 483

Important M Codes
Code Meaning
M00 Program stop
M01 Optional program stop
M03 Spindle on clockwise
M04 Spindle on counter clockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Clamps on
M11 Clamps off
M02 or M30 Program stop, reset to start

Key Points
✦ Part programming is the task of preparing a program sheet from a drawing
sheet.
✦ In part programming, all data is fed into the numerical control system using a
standardized format.
✦ Programming is where all the machining data are compiled and where the
data are translated into a language which can be understood by the control
system of the machine tool.

APT Language
(Automatically Programmed Tools Language)
APT is a high level computer programming language used to generate
instructions for numerically controlled machine tools.
The APT language consists of many different types of statements made up
of the following valid letters, numerals and punctuations marks.
Letters : ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Numerals : 0123456789
( / ) A slash divides a statement into to sections.
e.g., GO/PAST.
(, ) A comma is used as a separator between the elements in a
statement generally to the right of the slash.
( = ) An equals is used for assigning an entity to a symbol name.
e.g., P1 = POINT/25, 50, 30
The complete APT part program consists of the following four type of
statements
1. Geometry 2. Motion
3. Post Precessor 4. Compilation Control
Robotics
Industrial Robot A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to handle material, parts, tools or specialised
devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks.

Asimov’s Three Law of Robotics


1. Human Safety A robot may not injur a human being or through
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. Robots are Slaves A robot must obey orders given it by human
beings except where such orders would conflict with the first law.
3. Robot Survival A robot must protect its own existence as long as
such protection does not conflict with the first or second law.
All robots have following basic components
1. Manipulators
2. Feed back devices
3. End effectors
4. Controller
5. Power Supply

Wrist Assembly
Wrist assembly is attached to end of arm. End effector is attached to wrist
assembly function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector.
Two or 3 degree of freedom is needed to wrist for orientation and work
effectively.
Note A total of 6 degree of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand at any
point in its work force.

FMS (Flexible Manufacturing System)


FMS is a manufacturing system in which there is same amount of flexibility
that allows the system to react in the case of changes.
There are two types of categories of flexibility.
1. Machine flexibility
2. Routing flexibility
Computer
A computer is an electronic machine that helps to process data. It is used
to solve problems relating to almost all fields such as education, home.
medicine, science and technology, research, designing, publishing,
communication etc.
A computer is an information-processing and information-accessing tool.
This means that a computer accepts some information or data from the
outside world. It processes it to produce a new information.

Types of Computer
According to size and capacity these are following types of computers

Micro Computer
These computers are used by individual, thus also called PC or Personal
Computer. These days [Link] are largely used for domestic and official
purposes etc.

Mini Computer
This type of computer is comparatively larger than that of micro computer.
This is 5 to 50 times more powerful than that of a Micro Computer.

Main Frame Computer


These are large sized computers. By Time Sharing and Multi Tasking
techniques many people rather more than 100 people can work at a time
on different terminals of this computer.

Super Computer
These are very powerful computers and have more storage capacity.
These are the most expensive and the fastest computer able to process
most complex jobs with a very high speed.

Quantum Computer
The development of this type is in final stage. Probably Quantum
Computers will be more advanced than that of human brain. In Quantum
Computer Q-Bit will be used in lieu of Binary Bits.
486 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

Programming Languages of Different Generation


Generation Languages
1st generation (1940-52) FORTRAN-i
2nd generation (1952-64) FORTRAN-ii, ALGOL-60, COBOL
3nd generation (1964-71) PL/I, ALGOL-W, ALGOL-68, SIMULA-67,
APL, SNOBOL, 4 BASIC
4nd generation (1971- —) CLUE, ALFARD, UCLID, Reformed
MODULA, EDA, ORACLE
5nd generation (For future) Artificial Intelligence Languages.

Key Points
✦ A computer is a data processing machine.
✦ Hardware comprises of the physical units of a computer system.
✦ Both hardware and software together make a computer system functional.
✦ An operating system is an interface between the user and the computer
hardware.
✦ A database is a collection of interrelated data.
✦ A relational database is a collection of data items organized as a set of
formally described tables from which data can be accessed or reassembled in
many different ways without having to reorganize the database tables.
Appendix
Symbols and Units
K Absolute temperature degree Kelvin ha
a
Specific enthalpy of day air( kJ/kg)
C Temperature, degree Celsius
hs Specific enthalpy of saturated
F Temperature, degree Fahrenheit mixture (kJ/kg dry air)
r Density,( kg / m3) Ss Specific entropy of saturated
Cp Specific heat capacity,( kJ/kg.K) mixture, (J /K × kg dry air)
Cp / CV Specific heat capacity, ratio, t Thermodynamic temperature,
dimensi- onless degree C
m Viscosity, N- s /m2 ´ 10 6(For N - s / m2 T Thermodynamic temperature, K
( = kg / m.s) multiply tabulated values pV RT,(kJ/kg)
by 10 -6) u 0 Specific internal energy at zero
K Thermal conductivity, W / m.K ´ 10 3 pressure,( kJ/kg)
(For W / m.K multiply tabulated h0 Specific enthalpy at zero pressure,
values by 10 -3) ( kJ/kg)
Pr Prandtl number, dimensionless s1 Specific entropy of semiperfect
h Enthalpy,( kJ/kg) vapour at 0.1 MN /m2,( kJ /kg.K)
vs Sound velocity,( m/s)
y l Specific Helmholtz free energy of
T Absolute temperature, degree Kelvin semiperfect vapour at 0.1 MN /m2,
h Enthalpy, (kJ/kmol) (kJ /kg)
u Internal energy,( kJ/kmol) V1 Specific Gibbs free energy of
s° Absolute entropy at standard semiperfect vapour at 0.1 MN /m2 ,
reference pressure,( kJ/kmol K) (kJ /kg)
ps Pressure of water vapour at pr Relative pressure, pressure of
saturation. (N / m2) semiperfect vapour at zero entropy,
Ws Humidity ratio at saturation, mass of (TN / m2)
water vapour associated with unit
mass of dry air Vr Relative specific volume, specific
volume of semiperfect vapour at
Va Specific volume of day,( m3/ kg)
zero entropy, (mm3/ kg)
Vs Specific volume of saturated mixture, Cp 0 Specific heat capacity at constant
(m3/ kg dry air) pressure for zero pressure,
(kJ / kg × K)
488 Handbook Mechanical Engineering

CV 0 Specific heat capacity at constant Tsat Saturation temperature,°C


volume for zero pressure,( kJ / kg × K) S = Entropy,( kJ/kg.K)
k C p 0 / C V 0 = Isentropic exponent V Specific volume, (m3 /kg)
- (¶ log p/¶ log V)s p Pressure, bar and mPa
T Temperature, °C U Internal energy.( kJ/kg)
h = enthalpy, (kJ/kg)

Mechanical Engineering Glossary



Bearing The part of a machine within which a rotating or sliding shaft is held.

Bearing Type Connection A connection made using snug-tight
connection where the load is transferred by bearing of bolts against plate (inside
the bolt hole).

Buckling Strength Force or moment which a member can withstand without
buckling.

Block Shear A fracture type shear failure where fracture may occur on either
the tension plane or the shear plane followed by yielding on the other plane.

Braced Frame A frame that has resistance to lateral loads supplied by some
types of bracing system.

Brittle Fracture Abrupt fracture with little or no prior ductile deformation.

Buckling Instability of the compression member characterised by their
deflection in their own plane.

Buckling Load The load at which a straight compression member assumes
a deflected position.

Bell Crank A pivoting double lever used to change the direction of applied
motion.

Boss A cylindrical projection, as on a casting or a forging. Usually provides a
contact surface around a hole.

Broach To finish the inside of a hole to a shape other than round, as in a
keyway (n). The tool for the process, which has serrated edges and is pushed or
pulled through the hole to produce the required shape.

Burnish To smooth or polish by a rolling or sliding tool under pressure.

Bushing A smooth walled bearing (AKA a plain bearing). Also a tool guide in a
jig or fixture.

Cam A mechanical device consisting of an eccentric or multiply curved wheel
mounted on a rotating shaft, used to produce variable or reciprocating motion in
another engaged or contacted part (cam follower).
Appendix 489


Casting Any object made by pouring molten metal into a mold.

Chamfer A flat surface made by cutting off the edge or corner of a object
(bevel v). This process of creating a chafer.

Clevis A U-shaped piece with holes into which a link is inserted and through
which a pin or bolt is run. It is used as a fastening device which allows rotational
motion.

Collar A cylindrical feature on a part fitted on a shaft used to prevent sliding
(axial) movement.

Collet A cone shaped sleeve used for holding circular or rod like pieces in a
lathe or other machine.

Core To form the hollow part of a casting, using a solid form placed in the mold
(n) .The solid form used in the coring process, often made of wood, sand, or metal.

Counterbore A cylindrical flat-bottomed hole, which enlarges the diameter of
an existing pilot hole.

Countersunk A conical depression added to an existing hole to
accommodate and the conic head of a fastener recessing it below the surface of a
face.

Coupling A device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the
purpose of transmitting power may be used to account for minor misalignment or
for mitigating shock loads.

Die One of a pair of hardened metal plates or impressing or forming desired
shape. Also, a tool for cutting external threads.

Face To machine a flat surface perpendicular to the axis of rotation of a piece.

Fillet A rounded surface filling the internal angle between two intersection
surfaces.

Fit The class of contact between two machined surfaces, based upon their
respective specified size tolerances (clearance, transitional, interference).

Fixture A device used to hold a workpiece while manufacturing operations are
performed upon that workpiece.

Flange A projecting rim or edge for fastening, stiffening or positioning.

Gage A device used for determining the accuracy of specified manufactured
parts by direct comparison.

Gage Blocks Precision machined steel blocks having two flats, parallel
surfaces whose separation distance is fabricated to a guaranteed accuracy of a
few million of an inch;

Gear Hobbing A special form of manufacturing that cuts gear tooth
geometries. It is the major industrial process for cutting involute form spur gears.
490 Handbook Mechanical Engineering


Geneva Cam A device to turn constant rotational motion into intermittent
rotational motion.

Gusset (Plate) A triangular metal piece used to strengthen a joint.

Hasp A metal fastener with a slotted, hinged part that fits over a loop and is
secured by a pin, bolt, or padlock.

Idler A mechanism used to regulate the tension in belt or chain. Or, a gear used
between a driver and follower gear to maintain the direction of rotation.

Jig A special device used to guide a cutting tool (drill jig) or to hold material in the
correct position for cutting or fitting together (as in welding or brazing).

Journal The part of a shaft that rotates within a bearing.

Kerf A channel or groove cut by a saw or other tool.

Key A small block or wedge inserted between a shaft and hub to prevent
circumferential movement.

Keyseat A slot or groove cut in a shaft to fit a key. A key rests in a keyseat.

Keyway A slot cut into a hub to fit a key. A key slides in a keyway.

Knurl To roughen a turned surface, as in a handle or a knob.

Lug Projection on (typically) a cast or forged part to provide support or allow
mounting or the attachment of another component.

Neck To cut a groove around a shaft, usually toward the end or at a change in
diameter. A portion of reduced diameter between the ends of a shaft.

Pad A rectangular or irregular projection, as on a casting or a forging. Usually
provides a contact surface around a set of holes.

Pawl A device used to prevent a toothed wheel (ratchet) from rotating
backwards, or a device that stops, locks, or releases a mechanism.

Pillow Block A bearing housing which typically mounts to a single planar face.
May be split or un-split to accommodate insertion /removal of the bearing.

Pinion A plain gear, often the smallest gear in a gearset, often the driving gear.
May be used in conjunction with a gear rack (rack and pinion, see below).

Planetary Gears A gearset characterised by one or more planet gear(s)
rotating around a sun gear.

Rack (w/pinion gear) A toothed bar acting on (or acted upon), by a gear
(pinion).

Ratchet A mechanical device used to permit motion in one direction only.

Relief A groove or cut on a part used to facilitate machining.

Retaining Ring A tool steel ring used in conjunction with a shaft groove or
internal groove to located or control position of a component.
Appendix 491


Rocker Arm A pivoted arm-like lever used to transfer the application direction
of a linear force.

Round A rounded external intersection between two surfaces. Compare to
Fillet.

Scotch Yoke Mechanism used to convert rotational motion to linear motion.

Sheave A grooved wheel used to accommodate a belt for the transmission of
power. Sometimes referred to as a pulley sheave.

Shim A thin strip of metal inserted between two surfaces to adjust for fit. The
process of inserting shims.

Shoulder A plane surface on a shaft, normal to the axis, produced by a
change in diameter.

Spline A cylindrical pattern of keyways. May be external (L) or internal (R).

Spotface A round machine surface around a hole on a casting or forging,
usually to provide a contact surface for a fastener or other mating component, the
process used to create that feature.

Standoffs A mounting designed to position objects a predetermined distance
above or away from the surface upon which they are mounted.

Tap To cut internal machine threads in a hole, the tool used to create that
feature.

Undercut A cut having inward sloping sides, to cut leaving an overhanging
edge.

Yoke A clamp or vise that holds a machine part in place or controls its
movement or that holds two such parts together. A crosshead of relatively thick
cross section, that secures two or more components so that they move together.

Compressive Stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an
applied load that acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member)
in the axis of the applied load, in other words stress state caused by squeezing the
material.

Tensile Stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to
elongate the material in the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress
caused by pulling the material.

Shear Stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of
opposing forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material.

Yield Strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation
in a material.

Compressive Strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to
failure in the manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle.
492 Handbook Mechanical Engineering


Tensile Strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that
leads to tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure.

Fatigue Strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component
under cyclic loading, and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
measures.

Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend
of the deformation change among the material field.

Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element
bends under a load.

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is
released.

Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is
defined as unrecoverable strain.

Thermodynamics is a branch of natural science concerned with heat and its
relation to energy and work.

Equilibrium Thermodynamics In thermodynamic equilibrium, a
system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time.

Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics
that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium; it is also called
thermodynamics of irreversible processes.

Zeroth law of Thermodynamics If two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

First law of Thermodynamics The increase in internal energy of a closed
system is equal to the difference of the heat supplied to the system and the work
done by it: DU = Q - W

Second law of Thermodynamics Heat cannot spontaneously flow from
a colder location to a hotter location.

The Internal Combustion Engine is an engine in which the combustion
of a fuel occurs with an oxidiser in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of
the working fluid flow circuit.

A Two-Stroke Two-cycle, or two-cycle engine is a type of internal
combustion engine which completes a power cycle in only one crankshaft
revolution and with two strokes, or up and down movements, of the piston in
comparison to a “four-stroke engine”, which uses four strokes to do so.

A Four-Stroke Engine (Also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion
engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes-intake, compression,
power, and exhaust-during two separate revolutions of the engine's crankshaft,
and one single thermodynamic cycle.
Appendix 493


The Six-Stroke Engine is a type of internal combustion engine based on
the four-stroke engine, but with additional complexity intended to make it more
efficient and reduce emissions.

A Diesel Engine also, known as a compression-ignition engine and is an
internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to
burn the fuel that has been injected into the combustion chamber.

A Petrol Engine known as a gasoline engine in North America and is an
internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol
(gasoline) and similar volatile fuels.

Frontiers of Research in
Mechanical Engineering

Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Micro-scale mechanical
components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devices are
fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers
like SU8.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) This innovative steady state (non-fusion)
welding technique joins materials previously un-weldable, including several
aluminum alloys. It plays an important role in the future construction of airplanes,
potentially replacing rivets.

Composites or composite materials are a combination of materials which
provide different physical characteristics than either material separately.

Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering and software engineering. The purpose of this
interdisciplinary engineering field is the study of automation from an engineering
perspective and serves the purposes of controlling advanced hybrid systems.

Nanotechnology At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes
nanotechnology -one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler
to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis.

Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to biological
systems, such as humans, animals, plants, organs and cells.

Computational Fluid Dynamics Computational fluid dynamics, usually
abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods
and algorithms to solve and analyse problems that involve fluid flows.
Thermodynamics Relationships

Entropy S = - kB S pi ln pi
i

Enthalpy H = U + pV

Gibbs free energy G = H - TS

Helmholtz free energy F = U - TS

Grand potential fG = U - TS - mN

General heat/thermal capacity C = ¶Q / ¶T

Heat capacity (isobaric) C p = ¶Q / ¶T

Specific heat capacity (isobaric) C mp = ¶ 2Q / ¶m¶T

Molar specific heat capacity (isobaric) C np = ¶ 2Q / ¶n¶T

Heat capacity (isochoric/volumetric) C V = ¶Q / ¶T

Specific heat capacity (isochoric) C mV = ¶ 2Q / ¶m¶T

Molar specific heat capacity (isochoric) C nV = ¶ 2Q / ¶n¶T

Specific latent heat L = ¶Q / ¶m

Ratio of isobaric to isochoric heat capacity, heat capacity ratio
g = C p /C V = C p /C V = C mp /C mV

Phase Transitions

Adiabatic transition D Q = 0, DU = W

Isothermal transition DU = 0, D W = - DQ

Isothermal transition W = KTN ln (V2 / V1 )
p = p2 , p = constant

Isobaric transition 1
DW = pDV, DU = DQ + pdV
V1 = V2 , V = constant

Isochoric transition
DW = 0, DQ = DU

Adiabatic expansion p1 V1g = p2 V2g
T1 V1g -1
= T2 V2g -1


Free expansion DU = 0
v1

Work done by an expanding gas Dw = òv
1
pdv

Net work done in cyclic processes Dw = ò cycle pdV


Maxwell’s Relations
Physical
Nomenclature Equations
situation
2
U (S,V) = Internal energy æç ¶T ö÷ = - æç ¶ p ö÷ = ¶ U
è ¶ V øS è ¶ S øV ¶S ¶ V

H (S, p) = Enthalpy æ ¶T ö æ ¶V ö ¶ 2H
Thermodynamic ç ÷ =+ ç ÷ =
è ¶ p øS è ¶ S øp ¶ S ¶ p
potentials as
F (T, V) = Hemholtz free + æç ¶S ö÷ = æç ¶ p ö÷ = ¶ F
2
functions of their
natural variables energy è ¶ V øT è ¶ T ø V ¶T¶ V
2
G (T, p) = Gibbs free - æç ¶S ö÷ = + æç ¶ V ö÷ = ¶ G
energy è ¶ p øT è ¶ T øp ¶ T ¶ p

Thermal Properties of Matter


æ ¶T ö

Joule-Thomson Coefficient m JT = ç ÷
è ¶p ø H
1 æ ¶V ö

Compressibiility (constant temperature) KT = - ç ÷
V è ¶p øT , N

1 æ ¶V ö

Coefficient of thermal expansion (constant pressure) ap = ç ÷
V è ¶pT ø p

Heat capacity (constant pressure)
¶Q ¶U ¶V ¶H ¶S
C p = æç rev ö÷ = æç ö÷ + p æç ö÷ = æç ö÷ = T æç ö÷
è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p
¶Q ¶U ¶S

Heat capacity (constant volume) C V = æç rev ö÷ = æç ö÷ = T æç ö÷
è ¶T ø V è ¶T ø V è ¶T ø V

You might also like