Mechanics of Trusses and Forces
Mechanics of Trusses and Forces
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1
Mechanics
Force System
When a member of forces simultaneously acting on the body, it is known
as force system. A force system is a collection of forces acting at specified
locations. Thus, the set of forces can be shown on any free body diagram
makes-up a force system.
Truss
It is a rigid structure composed of number of straight members pin jointed
to each other. It can sustain static or dynamic load without any relative
motion to each other.
Types of Truss
1. Plane Truss It is defined as a truss in which members are essentially
lies in a single plane.
2. Rigid Truss Rigid means there is no deformation take place due to
internal strain in members.
3. Simple Truss This type of trusses built a basic triangle by adding
different members are known as simple truss.
Truss
m = 6, j = 4 m = 4, j = 4
6>2×4–3 4<2×4–3
6>5 4<5
Classification of truss
Key Points
✦ When truss collapse under loading, then truss is known as unstable or
imperfect truss.
✦ When truss is not collapse under the loading, then truss is known perfect
truss.
A C F
E
B D
Framed structure using section method
●
Find out forces FCA, FCB and FDB in members CA, CB and DB respectively by
taking moment about A and B.
Mechanics 3
2. Analytical Method In this method, the free body diagram of each joint
is separately analysed to find magnitude of stresses in the truss
members.
Lami’s Theorem
If a body is in equilibrium under three concurrent forces, the each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between other two.
P
g a
b
Q R
Friction Force
It is resistant force which acts in opposite direction R
at the surface in body which tend to move or its
F
move.
Normal force R = mg mR
If m mg > F , the body will not move. mg
m mg = F the body will tend to move. Friction force on a body
m mg < F the body will move.
Angle of Friction
It is defined as the angle between normal reaction and resultant reaction
when the body is in condition of just sliding.
Resultant
m mg reaction
tan f = f R
R
m mg F
= =m (Q R = mg ) F
mg mmg
f = tan-1 m mg
m = coefficient of friction Angle of friction due to
resultant reaction
4 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Angle of Repose ( a)
It is defined as angle of inclined plane with R mR
horizontal at which body is in condition of just
sliding. w sin a a w cos a
a=f a
Angle of friction is equal to angle of repose. w
Angle of Repose (a )
Plane Motion
When all parts of the body move in a parallel planes then a rigid body said
to perform plane motion.
Key Points
✦ The motion of rigid body is said to be translation, if every line in the body
remains parallel to its original position at all times.
✦ In translation motion, all the particles forming a rigid body move along
parallel paths.
✦ If all particles forming a rigid body move along parallel straight line, it is
known as rectilinear translation.
✦ If all particles forming a rigid body does not move along a parallel straight
line but they move along a curve path, then it is known as curvilinear
translation.
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion defines that motion in which velocity has two
components, one in horizontal direction and other one in vertical direction.
Horizontal component of velocity is constant during the flight of the body as
no acceleration in horizontal direction.
Let the block of mass is projected at angle q from horizontal direction
u 2 sin2 q u
Maximum height h max =
2g hmax
q
2 u sin q
Time of flight T = R range
g
Projectile motion
u 2 sin 2q
Range R =
g
where, u = initial velocity
Key Points
✦ At maximum height vertical component of velocity becomes zero.
✦ When a rigid body move in circular paths centered on the same fixed axis,
then the particle located on axis of rotation have zero velocity and zero
acceleration.
✦ Projectile motion describe the motion of a body, when the air resistance is
negligible.
|e r | = |et | = 1 q
e r and et are radial and tangential unit vector.
Linear velocity v = rw et O X
R 2R
p
●
CM of semicircular disc
CM 4R
R
3p
O
●
CM of hemispherical shell
CM R
R
2
O
●
CM of solid hemisphere
CM 3R
R
8
O
dp
F=
dt
where, K = kinetic energy of the particle
F = net external force applied to body
P = momentum
Rocket Propulsion
Let m0 be the mass of the rocket at time t = 0, m its mass at any time t and
v its velocity at that moment. Initially, let us suppose that the velocity of the
rocket is u.
u u
At At
t =0 t= t
v =u m =m
m =m0 v =v
exhaust velocity
= vr
Rocket propulsion
æ dm ö
●
Thrust force on the rocket Ft = v r ç - ÷
è dt ø
dm
where, - = rate at which mass is ejecting
dt
v r = relative velocity of ejecting mass (exhaust velocity)
●
Weight of the rocket w = mg
æ - dm ö
●
Net force on the rocket Fnet = Ft - w = v r ç ÷ - mg
è dt ø
●
Net acceleration of the rocket
F
a=
m
d v v r æ - dm ö
= ç ÷-g
dt m è dt ø
m0
v = u - gt + v r ln
m
where, m0 = mass of rocket at time t = 0
m = mass of rocket at time t
Mechanics 9
Impulse
The product of constant force F and time t for which it acts is called the
impulse (J) of the force and this is equal to the change in linear momentum
which it produces.
Impulse J = F t
Þ Dp = pf - pi
where, F = constant force
P = linear momentum
Instantaneous Impulse e.g., bat and ball contact
J= ò F × dt Þ Dp = pf - pi
Key Points
✦ The relation between impulse and linear momentum can be understood by
the following equation.
Ft = m (v - u)
where, F = force, t = time, m = mass, v = initial velocity, u = final velocity
✦ Rotation about a fixed point gives the three dimensional motion of a rigid
body attached at a fixed point.
Collision
A Collision is an isolated event in which two or more moving bodies exert
forces on each other for a relatively short time.
Collision between two bodies may be classified in two ways
●
Head-on collision
●
Oblique collision.
Head-on Collision
Let the two balls of masses m1 and m2 collide directly with each other with
velocities v 1 and v 2 in direction as shown in figure. After collision the
velocity become v 1¢ and v 2¢ along the same line.
m2 v2 m1 v1 m2 m1
v2¢ v1¢
æ m - em2 ö æ m2 + em2 ö
v 1¢ = ç 1 ÷ v1 + ç ÷ v2
è m1 + m2 ø è m1 + m2 ø
10 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
æ m - em2 ö æ m1 + em1 ö
v 2¢ = ç 2 ÷ v2 + ç ÷ v1
è m1 + m2 ø è m1 + m2 ø
where, m1 = mass of body 1
m2 = mass of body 2
v 1 = velocity of body 1
v 2 = velocity of body 2
v 1¢ = velocity of body 1 after collision
v 2¢ = velocity of body 2 after collision
where e = coefficient restitution
Separation speed
e=
Approach speed
v 1¢ - v 2¢
e=
v2 - v1
● In case of head-on elastic collision
e =1
●
In case of head-on inelastic collision
0<e <1
●
In case of head-on perfectly inelastic collision
e=0
If e is coefficient of restitution between ball and ground, Ou=0
then after nth collision with the floor, the speed of ball will
h
remain e nv 0 and it will go upto a height e 2n h.
O
v n = e nv 0 = e n 2 gh
u0 = 2 gh
h0 = e 2 n h
Collision of a ball
with floor
Oblique Collision
In case of oblique collision linear momentum of
y
individual particle do change along the common v
normal direction. No component of impulse act
along common tangent direction. So, linear
momentum or linear velocity remains unchanged
along tangential direction. Net momentum of both x
the particle remain conserved before and after Oblique collision
collision in any direction.
Mechanics 11
Moment of Inertia
Momentum of inertia can be defined as
r = distance of the body of mass, m from centre of axis.
I = S mi ri 2
i
òr
2
I= dm
● Very thin circular loop (ring)
I = MR 2 R A¢
where, M = mass of the body
R = radius of the ring
I = moment of inertia
A
æ R 2 + R22 ö
● Uniform circular loop I = M ç 1 ÷
è 2 ø Thin circular ring
R1 A¢
R2
MR 2
●
Uniform solid cylinder I =
2
A
R
A¢
Uniform solid cylinder
12 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
A
Uniform solid sphere
2
I= MR 2
5
● Uniform thin rod
(AA’) moment of inertia about the centre and perpendicular axis to the rod
moment of inertia about the one corner point and perpendicular (BB’) axis
to the rod.
A
A¢
Uniform thin rod
Ml 2 1 2
I= Þ I= Ml
12 3
●
Very thin spherical shell
A¢
A
Thin sperical shell
2
I= MR 2 A¢
3
R
●
Thin circular sheet
MR 2
I=
4
A¢
Thin circular sheet
Mechanics 13
a
b
A
Thin rectangular sheet
● Uniform right cone
R
A A¢
3
I= MR 2
10
●
Uniform cone as a disc
R
M
O
r
O
P
B
Angular moment of a rigid body
●
Angular moment of a rigid body in combined rotation and translation
L = LCM + M (r0 ´ v0 )
CM V0
w
r0
O
Combined rotation and translation in a rigid body
●
Conservation of angular momentum
dL
t=
dt
dL
=r ´F + v´p
dt
Mechanics 15
v
CM P
w v
Rw
Q
Uniform Pure Rolling
If v P = vQ Þ no slipping
v = Rw
if v p > vQ Þ forward slipping
v > Rw
if v P < vQ Þ backward slipping
v < Rw
s = 2pR
Pure Rolling
No slipping s = 2pR
Forward slipping s > 2pR
Backward slipping s < 2pR
a F
C a
f
Accelerated pure rolling
Angular Impulse
The angular impulse of a torque in a given time interval is defined as
t2
òt1 t × dt
t2
òt1 t × dt = L2 - L1
Key Points
✦ A force, whose line of action does not pass through centre of mass, works as
force to produce translational acceleration.
✦ Different types of collisions are examined, whether they possess kinetic
energy or not.
✦ The radial component of the force, which goes through the axis of rotation,
has no contribution to torque.
2
Strength of Materials
Engineering Mechanics
The branch of physical science that deals with the state of rest or the state
of motion is termed as Mechanics. Starting from the analysis of rigid
bodies gravitational force and simple applied forces, the mechanics has
grown to the analysis of robotics, air crafts etc. is known is Engineering
Mechanics.
Stress
When a material in subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up
within the component. The internal resistance force per unit area acting on
a material is called the stress at a [Link] is a scalar quantity having unit.
Force
Stress =
Area
Strain
It is the deformation produced in the material due to simple stress. It
usually represents the displacement between particles in the body relative
to a reference length.
DL
Tension strain (et ) =
L
Change in length
=
Initial length
18 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Stress-Strain Relationship
The stress-strain diagram is shown in the figure. In brittle materials there is
no appreciable change in rate of strain. There is no yield point and no
necking takes place.
F F
E B
Loading A Loading E
Stress
Stress
ading
Unlo
e C D
Elastic Plastic
Elastic recovery
Strain (e) Residual strain
Strain (e)
(a) (b)
Graph between stress-strain
Properties of Materials
Some properties of materials which judge the strength of materials are given
below
Elasticity
Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material is deformed under the
load and is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is
removed.
Plasticity
Plasticity is the converse of elasticity. A material in plastic state is
permanently deformed by the application of load and it has no tendency to
recover. The characteristic of the material by which it undergoes inelastic
strains beyond those at elastic limit is known as plasticity.
Strength of Materials 19
Ductility
Ductility is the characteristic which permits a material to be drawn out
longitudinally to a reduced section, under the action of a tensile force (large
deformation).
Brittleness B
Stress
said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by A
tension to smaller section.
Strain (e)
Stress-strain relation
Malleability
Malleability is a property of a material which permits the material to be
extended in all directions without rapture. A malleable material possess a
high degree of plasticity, but not necessarily great strength.
Toughness
Toughness is the property of a material which enable it to absorb energy
without fracture.
Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or surface
abrasion. Brinell hardness test is used to check hardness.
P
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) =
pD
( D - D2 - d 2 )
2
where, P = Standard load, D = Diameter of steel ball
d = Diameter of the indent.
Strength
The strength of a material enables it to resist fracture under load.
True curve
Stress
Upper yield
point
Ultimate strength
F
D Fractrure
E G
se B
sp Lower yield point
A
Elastic limit
Limit of proportinality
O ey 1.5 % eu ecu
Strain
Stress-strain diagram for mild steel
●
Point B is called the elastic limit point.
● At point B the cross-sectional area of the material starts decreasing and
the stress decreases to a lower value to point D, called the lower yield
point.
●
The apparent stress decreases but the actual or true stress goes on
increasing until the specimen breaks at point C, called the point of
fracture.
●
From point E ownward, the strain hardening phenomena becomes
predominant and the strength of the material increases thereby requiring
more stress for deformation, until point F is reached. Point F is called the
ultimate point.
Elongation of Bodies
Elongation of a body is defined as the transformation of a body from a
reference configuration to a current configuration. A configuration is a set
containing the positions of all particles of the body. The following cases will
be considered
P1 A1 E1 A2E2 A3 E3 AnEn P2
l1 l2 l3 ln
Diagram for different materials
The total deformation for such a bar is given by
P l P l P l
D= 1 1 + 2 2 ¼+ n n
A1 E1 A2 E2 An En
Tapering section
Compounded Bars
Consider a solid box enclosed in the
hollow tube and subjected to a 2 Tube
compression force P through rigid P
1 Rod
collars as shown in the figure. P
2 Tube
Let P1 and P2 are force applied on rod
and tube respectively. L
Total force P = P1 + P2 Compound bars
Change in length for rod = change in length for tube
D l1 = D l2
P 1L1 P2 L2
=
A1 E1 A2 E2
L D L
Bar free to expand Bar constrained
Poisson’s Ratio
When an axial force is applied along the longitudinal axis of a bar, the
length of a bar will increase but at the same time its lateral dimension
(width) will be decreased so, it is called as Poisson’ ratio.
Lateral strain
m=
Longitudinal strain
Value of Poisson’s ratio is same in tension and compression.
Strength of Materials 25
Volumetric Strain
It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the initial volume.
Mathematically,
Change in volume DV
Volumetric strain, e v = =
Initial volume V
P2 P + P1
e2 = -m 3
E E
P P + P2
e3 = 3 - m 1
E E
eV = eV + e2 + e3
æ P + P2 + P3 ö
e V = (1 - 2m ) ç 1 ÷
è E ø
æ 2 ö æ P + P2 + P3 ö æ 1ö
or e V = ç1 - ÷ ç 1 ÷ çQm = ÷
è mø è E ø è mø
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
shear stress t
Modulus of rigidity G= =
shear strain f
●
At principal planes, shear stress is always zero.
●
Planes of maximum shear stress also contains normal stress.
A P B sn
st
q q
s s
n
Q
Stress on an inclined section
s
Tangential stress st = - sin 2q
2
Resultant stress s r = P cos q
st A sec q
q q
t q t t sn A sec q
B C
t t
Stress simple shear
Across maximum normal stresses acting in plane shear stresses are zero.
s 1¢ - s 2¢
t¢ =
2 R
t
s - s2 1
tan 2q s = - 1 =- 2qs
2t tan 2q P s1 – s2
2
2q s = 2q P ± 90°, q s = q P ± 45°
2q s triangle
Principal Strain
For two dimensional strain system,
2
e1 + e2 e1 - e2 æ f ö
e 1, 2 = ± +ç ÷
2 2 è2 ø
where, e 1 = Strain in x-direction
e 2 = Strain in y-direction
2qPs f/2
f = Shearing strain relative to OX and OY.
f/2 (e1–e2 )/2
tan 2q PS =
e1 - e2 2q PS triangle
2
f
tan 2q PS =
e1 - e2
Mohr’s Circle
Graphically, variation of normal stress and shear stress are studied with the
help of Mohr’s circle. A two dimensional Mohr’s circle can be constructed,
if the normal streses s 1 and s 2.
s + s2 s1 - s2
Normal stress s n = 1 + cos 2q
2 2
s - s2
Shear stress t = - 1 sin 2q
2
D
sr
st
s2 q 2q
O x
B C A
sn R
q s2
q
s1 s1 s1
s1+ s2 s1– s2
s2 2 2
Different stress diagram Mohr’s circle for plane stress and strain
y¢ y Rectangle A = b × d ; x = b /2 ; y = d /2
1 1
x Ix = bd 3 ; I y = db 3 ; I xy = 0
12 12
d G x
y 1 1 b 2d 2
I x¢ = bd 3 ; I y¢ = db 3 ; I x ¢y ¢ =
x¢ 3 3 4
b
1 ( b + c) d
Triangle A = bd ; x = ;y =
2 3 3
1 bd 2
y Ix = bd 3 ; I y = ( b - bc + c 2)
–
y 36 36
– bd 2
d x I xy = ( b - 2c)
x 72
G –
y 1 bd
x¢ I x¢ = bd 3 ; I y ¢ = (3b 2 - 3bc + c 2)
b 12 12
bd 2
I x ¢y ¢ = (3b - 2c) ;
24
32 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
y p 2 d
Circle A = d ;y = ;x = 0
4 2
G x p 4 5p 4
Ix = d = I y ; I xy = 0 ; I x¢ = d
–
y 64 64
d x¢
pr 2 4r
Half circle A = ;y =
2 3p
(9p 2 - 64) r 4 pr 4
G x Ix = = 01098
. r 4 ; Iy = ; I xy = 0 ;
–
y 72 p 8
x¢
r r pr 4
I x¢ =
8
pr 2 4r
y¢ Quarter circle A = ;x = y =
y 4 3p
–
x (9p 2 - 64) r 4 pr 4
r x Ix = Iy = = 0.05488 r 4 ; I x¢ = I y¢ =
– 144 p 16
G y
r x¢
–
x d bd 3 db 3 b 2d 2
x Ix = ; Iy = ; I xy =
G –
y 21 5 12
b x¢
–
x d n+1 (n + 2) 2 (2n + 1)
x
G –
y bd 3 db 3 b 2d 2
Ix = ; Iy = ; I xy =
b x¢ 3 (3n + 1) (n + 3) 4 (n + 1)
Shear Force
Shear force has a tendency to slide the surface, it acts parallel to surface.
S Fvert = 0
V - q dx - (V + dV ) = 0
34 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
dV B B
dx
= -q Þ òA dV = - òA q dx
B
VB - V A = - òA q dx
only for distributed load not for point load.
Bending Moment
Any moment produced by forces acting on the beam must be balance by
an equal opposite moment produced by internal forces acting in beam at
the section. This moment is called bending moment.
SM=0
æ dx ö
- M - qdx ç ÷ - (V + dV ) dx + M + dm = 0
è zø
dM
=V Þ MB - M A = ò V dx
dx
only for distributed and concentrated load not for couple.
M M
A dx sb
A¢ R C¢
y P Q s P¢ Q¢
R¢ S¢
B¢ D¢
B D
Bending stress in beam Inertia about neutral axis
At the neutral axis, there is no stress of any kind. At one side of the neutral
axis, there are compressive stresses, whereas on the other side there are
tensile stresses.
Modulus of Section
Section modulus is a geometric property for a given cross-section used in
the design of beams or flexural members.
I M s
z= Þ =
ymax I y
I
M = smax Þ M = smax ´ z
ymax
bd 3
Rectangular section I=
12
bd 2
Modulus of section z=
s
p 4
Circular section I= d
64
p 3
Modulus of section z= d
32
Shearing Stress
Shearing stress on a layer JK of beam at distance y from neutral axis.
VAy M M
t= J K
Ib
y y
where,
V = Shearing force
VQ
Ay = First moment of area t = .
Ib dx b
Shearing stress on a beam
Shear Stress in Rectangular Beam
Suppose, we have to determine the shear stress at the longitudinal layer
having y distance from neutral axis.
æ h ö
- y1 ÷
æh öç 2
Q = b ç - y1÷ ç y1 + ÷
è2 øç 2 ÷
è ø
36 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
b æ h2 ö
Q= ç - y12 ÷ t
2 è 4 ø h/2
J K
y
V æ h2 ö tmax
t= ç - y12 ÷
2I è 4 ø h/2
3V
tmax = b
2 A Rectangular beam
tmax = 15
. t av
Circular Beam
4r
Centre of gravity of semi-circle lies at distance from centre or base line.
3p
As it is symmetrical above neutral axis, hence at neutral axis shear stress
will be maximum.
( r 2 - y2 )
t=V
3I
pr 2 æ 4 r ö 2 r 3
Q = Ay = ç ÷ =
2 è 3p ø 3 J K t
y
b = 2r d tmax
3
2r
V
3 4V
tmax = =
pr 4 3 A Circular beam
(2 r )
4
For tmax substituting y = 0
pd 4
I=
64
4V 4
tmax = = t av
3A 3
d/2
J K
D d
b d/2
I-Section diagram
Deflection of Beam
Deflection is defined as the vertical displacement of a point on a loaded
beam. There are many methods to find out the slope and deflection at a
section in a loaded beam.
A¢ T
T
A¢
q
A O A O
æq ö q T
Rate of twist ç ÷ =
èlø l GJ
Tl
Total angle of twist q=
GJ
where, T = Torque, J = Polar moment of inertia
G = Modulus of rigidity, q = Angle of twist
L = Length of shaft, GJ = Torsional rigidity
GJ l
® Torsional stiffness; ® Torsional flexibility
l GJ
EA l
® Axial stiffness; ® Axial flexibility
l EA
pd 4 16T
●
For solid circular shaft, J= , tmax =
32 pd 3
p
●
For hollow circular shaft, J= (do4 - d i4 )
32
2 pNT
●
Power transmitted by shaft, P= kW
60000
where, N = Rotation per minute.
Strength of Materials 39
Compound Shaft
An improved type of compound coupling for connecting in series and
parallel are given below
1. Series connection Series connection of compound shaft as shown in
figure. Due to series connection the torque on shaft 1 will be equal to
shaft 2 and the total angular
q1 q2
deformation will be equal to the
sum of deformation of 1st shaft and T
2nd shaft.
q = q1 + q2
T = T1 = T2 Series connection
where,
q 1 = Angular deformation of 1st shaft
q 2 = Angular deformation of 2nd shaft
2. Parallel connection Parallel connection of compound shaft as shown
in figure. Due to parallel connection of compound shaft the total torque
will be equal to the sum of torque of shaft 1 and 1 T1
torque of shaft 2 and the deflection will be same T2
in both the shafts.
q1 = q2
2
T = T1 + T2
Parallel connection
Effect of Pure Bending on Shaft
The effect of pure bending on shaft can be defined by the relation
32 M
s=
pD3
where, s = Principal stress
D = Diameter of shaft M M
M = Bending moment
Pure bending on shaft
Effect of Pure Torsion on Shaft
It can be calculated by the formula, which are
given below
T
16 T
tmax =
pD3
where, t = Torsion
D = Diameter of shaft Pure torsion on shaft
40 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Thin Shell
1 1
If the thickness of the wall of a shell is less than th of th of its diameter,
10 15
it is known as a thin shell.
Lake’s Theory
Lake’s theory is based on the following assumptions
Assumptions
1. Homogeneous material.
2. Plane section of cylinder, perpendicular to longitudinal axis remains
under plane and pressure.
Hoop stress at any section
b
sr = 2 + a
r
b
Radial pressure pr = 2 - a
r
●
Subjected to Internal Pressure ( p)
æ r2 + r2 ö
1. At r = ri , s ri = p ç 02 i 2 ÷
è r0 - ri ø
2 pri 2
2. At r = r0, s r0 =
r02 - ri 2
●
Subjected to External Pressure ( p)
- 2 pr02
1. At r = ri , s ri =
r02 - ri 2
æ r2 + r2 ö
2. At r = r0, s r0 = - p ç 02 i 2 ÷
è r0 - ri ø
A
Both end hinged
2. For one end fixed and other free P
1 B
n=
2
l = 2l
p 2El
pE =
4l 2
A
One end fixed
3. For both end fixed P
n = 2,
l M0
l =
2
4 p 2EI
pE =
EI
M0
Strain Energy
The work done by the load in straining the body is stored within the strained
material in the form of strain energy.
1
Strain energy, U = P( Al )
2 A
P
P 2L
U=
2 AE
AE Al
Put P=
L
O
EA ( Dl )2 C
U= Dl
2L Strain energy diagram
s2
or U= ´V
2E
Proof Resilence
The maximum strain energy that can be stored in a material is known as
proof resilence.
1 P 2L
u= ´
V 2 AE
Strength of Materials 45
s2 P
u= , where s =
2E A
1
u = Ee 2
2
Strain energy of prismatic bar with varying sections
P 2L A1 L1
U=S
2 AE
P 2 é L1 L2 L ù A2 L2
= ê + ¼+ nú
2 E ë A1 A2 An û
An Ln
Prismatic bar
Strain energy of non-prismatic bar with varying
axial force
x
L Px2
U= ò0 2 EA x
dx
L
dx
A x = Cross-section of differential section.
dU l æ ¶M ö dx
dW1 ò0 è ¶W1 ø EI
Deflection d1 = = Mç ÷
¶U l æ ¶M ö dx
Slope q=
¶M1
= ò0 M çè ¶M1 ÷ø EI
46 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Theories of Failure
Theories of failure are defined as following groups
According to theory, e 1 = e y
s1 1 sy s2
Yield criteria - (s 2 + s 3 ) =
e me E
and e3 = ey ¢
s3 1 (s 1 + s 2 ) s y¢
- = s1
E m E E
s1 s2 s y
For 2D system, - £
E mE E
s Rhombus
s1 - 2 £ sy
m
Note This theory over estimate the elastic strength of ductile material.
Note This theory does not apply to brittle material for which elastic limit stress
in tension and in compression are different.
3
Theory of Machines
Basic Concepts of Theory of Machines
Theory of machine deals with the study of relative motion between the
various parts of a machine and forces which act on them.
Mechanism
A combination of rigid or restraining bodies so shaped and connected that
they move upon each other with definite relative motion is known as
mechanism.
e. g ., slider crank mechanism where the rotary movement of the crank is
converted through the connecting rod into the reciprocating motion of the
slider or vice-versa.
Machine
A mechanism or a combination of mechanism which transmit force from
the source of power to the resistance (load) to be overcome and thus
performs useful mechanical work. e. g ., In IC engine, force F available at the
piston is transmitted to the crank in the form of driving torque M, to
overcome the resistance MR at the crank shaft.
Link
A link is defined as a member or a combination of members, connecting
other members and having motion relative to them.
Joint
Joint is the physical realization of a kinematic pair.
Theory of Machines 49
Kinematic Pair
A joint of two links having relative motion between them is known as
kinematic pair
Degree of Freedom
Number of independent coordinates needed to describe the relative
portions of pairing elements.
Degree of freedom = 6 - Number of restraints
Degree of Freedom of the Mechanism (3D)
F = 6 ( N - 1) - 5P1 - 4P2 - 3P3 - 2 P4 - P5
N = Total number of links in a mechanism
Pn = Number of pairs having n degree of freedom
Degree of Freedom of a Plane Mechanism (2D)
Grubler Criteria for Planar Mechanism
F = 3 ( N - 1) - 2 P1 - 1P2
Kutzback’s Criteria
Linkages with single degree of freedom P2 = 0
F = 3( N - 1) - 2 P1
Transmission Angle C
The angle m between the output link and the coupler 3 m
is known as transmission angle.
B g
●
If link BC and DC become coincident, the
transmission angle is zero and the mechanism
4
would lock or jam. 2 q
●
For double crank or crank-rocker mechanism. A D
Transmission angle m will be maximum. 1 d
Transmission angle in
Þ When q = 180°; m minimum Þ When q = 0° four bar mechanism
50 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Inversion of Mechanism
The method of obtaining different mechanism by fixing different links of the
same kinematic chain, is known as inversion of the mechanism. In the
process of inversion, relative motions of the links of the mechanism
produced remain unchanged.
Types of kinematic chains and their inversions.
Four-Bar Mechanism
a, b = Adjacent link to shortest link C
L
S = Shortest link
L = Longest link B
S + L£ a+ b (Grashaf’s law)
b
Case I If S + L £ a + b a
Case II S + L > a + b
Grashaf’s law do not satisfy and mechanism is Rocker-rocker mechanism
Case III S + L = a + b
• If length of S ¹ L ¹ a ¹ b
Þ Mechanism is same as case I
• If length of S = a and L = b
Þ (Parallelogram linkage) crank-crank mechanism
If S is fixed L
Þ Double-crank mechanism
or L is fixed. S S
Þ Double-crank mechanism
L mechanism
Double-crank
The Slider-Crank Chain
When one of the turning pairs of a four-bar chain is replaced by a sliding
pair, it becomes a single slider-crank chain or simply a slider-crank chain.
i . e., b divides the velocity vector in the same ratio as B divides the link.
The magnitude of the linear velocity of a point on the rotating body at a
particular instant is proportional to its distance from the axis of rotation.
B E a,d
e
f
vba vcb
A D
b
Four link mechanism Velocity vector in four link mechanism
A
w
B
O
G
A'
vbg
o,g b
vao
vba
a
Velocity images of slider-crank mechanism
Velocity of Rubbing
Let us take two links of a turning pair, a pin is
fixed to one of the links whereas a hole is Pin
provided in the other to fit the pin. When joined Link 1
the surface of the hole of one link will rub on
the surface of pin of the other link. The velocity
of rubbing of the two surfaces will depend Hole
upon the angular velocity of a link relative to
Velocity of rubbing
the other.
Pin at A F
Pin at C
wbc = w cb (counter-clockwise)
w dc = w cd (clockwise)
rc = Radius of the pin at C
Velocity of rubbing = rc( w bc + w dc )
Pin at D
where, rd = radius of pin at D
Velocity of rubbing = rd w cd
Centro
Instantaneous centre is also called centro. So, two coincident points
belonging to two rigid bodies having relative motion with the properties.
●
They have the same velocities.
Theory of Machines 55
● They form a point in one of the rigid bodies about which the other rotates
and vice-versa. Which is perhaps true for only an instant.
Primary Centro One which can be easily located by a mere observation
of the mechanism.
Secondary Centro Centros that cannot be easily located.
1
1200
1 2
2
(b)
(a)
Primary centro Secondary centro
O2 P12 P13
O3
P23
Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem of
three centre 1, 2 and 3
●
P12-Instantaneous centre of fixed ground 1 and body 2.
●
P13-Instantaneous centre of fixed ground 1 and body 3.
●
P23-Instantaneous centre of body 2 and body 3.
56 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
-34
3 C
B 23
180° 4
2
12 14
24 A D
1
Angular velocity ratio theorem
First imaginary link 2 to be in the form of a flat disc containing point 24 and revolving
about 12 or A. Then, v 24 = w 2 (T24 - T12).
Second imaginary link 4 to be large enough to contain point 24 and revolving about
14 or D.
w4 I - I12
v 24 = w 4 ( I 24 - I14 ); = 24
w 2 I 24 - I14
a1
Acceleration analysis Tangential and radial acceleration
analysis
There are three cases occured in the net acceleration as given below
Case I When a = 0 Þ w = constant
Þ ¢ =0
fao
c v2
So, net acceleration = f ao =
r
Case II When w = 0 Þ A has linear motion as
c
fao =0 t
f ao
ao o1
t dv
Net acceleration = a ao =
dt c
f ao
Case III When a is negative or the link OA
decelerates, tangential acceleration will be
a1
negative or its direction will be as shown in Tangential acceleration
figure. as negative
58 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
v v ¢ cos dq
v¢
R
R P w¢r ¢ cos dq
dq
a
w w¢r ¢ sin dq
w¢r
dq a1 ¢
w1
A
Key Points
Direction of Coriol’s acceleration component (2w × v) is perpendicular to AR
Coriol’s component is positive if
✦ The link AR rotate clockwise and the slider moves radially outward.
✦ The link rotate counter clockwise and the slider moves radially inwards.
Acceleration of slider ( f ) is positive if
✦ Slider has a deceleration while moving in the inward direction.
✦ Slider has acceleration while moving in the outward direction.
●
Acceleration of P|| to AR
fP(|| AR ) = f - w2r
= acceleration of slider - centripetal acceleration
●
Acceleration of P ^ to AR.
fP( ^ AR ) = 2 w. v + a × r
= Coriol’s acceleration + tangential acceleration
Let Q be a point on the link AR immediately beneath the point P at the
instant, then
Theory of Machines 59
Coupler Curve
Coupler curve is a curve traced by a point on one of the coupler links in a
mechanism.
OS ´ OT
OX =
OH
OS, a exact straight line motion
●
Paucelier Mechanism A paucelier
P
mechanism consists of eight links. Q
●
Hart Mechanism It consists of 6 links. S
●
Scott-Russel Mechanism It consists of
O
4 links.
OQ QS
=
QS QP Scott-Russel mechanism
60 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Gross-Hopper Mechanism
This mechanism is a derivation of the modified Scott-Russel mechanism in
which the sliding pair at S is replaced by a turning pair.
Pantograph Mechanism
A pantograph is a four bar linkage used to Q
produce paths exactly similar to the ones
traced out by a point on the linkage. The C D
3
P
paths so produced may be straight or
2 4
cured ones. It consists of 4 links.
OP OA O
= B 1 A
OQ OB Pantograph mechanism
Cams
A cam is a mechanical member used to impart desired motion
(displacement) to a follower by direct contact (either point or line contact).
A cam may be rotating or reciprocating whereas the follower may be
rotating, reciprocating or oscillating.
●
Cam mechanism belong to higher pair mechanism.
●
A driver member known as cam.
●
A driven member called the follower.
●
A frame is one which supports the cam and guides the follower.
Theory of Machines 61
Base Circle
The base circle is the smallest circle (with its centre at the cam centre) that
can be drawn tangential to the cam profile.
Trace Point
A trace point is a theoretical point on the follower, its motion describing the
movement of the follower. e. g ., for a knife edge follower, the trace point is
at the knife edge.
Pitch Curve
It is the curve drawn by the trace point assuming that the cam is fixed and
the trace point of the follower rotates around the cam.
Pressure Angle
It represents the steepness of the cam profile. The angle between the
direction of the follower movement and the normal to the pitch curve at any
point is referred to as the pressure angle.
Key Points
✦ For a roller follower, the trace point is at the roller centre.
✦ For a flat-face follower, it is at the point of contact between the follower and
cam surface when the contact is along the base circle of the cam.
✦ During a complete rotation, the pressure angle varies from its maximum to its
minimum value.
✦ The greater the pressure angle, the higher will be side thrust and consequently
the chances of the translating follower jamming in its guide will increase.
✦ It is not desirable to increase the pressure angle.
Cam profile
cle
e cir
im
Pr Base circle
Pressure
angle (f)
Pitch circle
Follower
motion
A schematic diagramatic view of pitch circle
Follower Inferior
displacement point L(Ligt)
dx dx dq q
v= = b
dt dq dt B rc O
sin q
v = w ( rc + rc )
cos 2 q rr
sin b
vmax = w ( rc + rr )
cos 2 b
Cam contours
64 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
At q = b, (b be the angle turned by the cam when the roller loss the flank)
vmin = 0 At q = 0
Acceleration
dv dv dq
f= = ´
dt dq dt
(2 - cos 2 q )
f = w2( rc + r )
cos 3 q C
2
fmin = w ( rc + rr ) at q = 0° g rn
Q
Roller on the Nose n
N
x = r cos (a - q ) r
f
2 2 2
+ l - r sin (a - q ) - n
q
a
\ l = rn+ rr B O
rc
and n = rc + rr
dx dx dq rr
v= =
dt dq dt
dv dv dq
f= =
dt dq dt Roller on the nose
in cam contours
vmin = 0 at q = a A
f
v is maximum when the follower just touches the
nose of the cam. q
D a F P
f = - w2r cos (a - q ) O
é A cos 2q A 3 sin 2q ù
f = w2 A êcos q - - 2 2 2 3 / 2 ú
êë B2 - A 2 sin2 q 4 ( B - A sin q ) û
Gears
Gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another or between a
shaft and slide. It is a higher pair mechanism. Gear use no intermediate link
or connector and transmit the motion by direct contact.
Gear Terminology
The basic terms used in gears are
Diametrical Pitch ( P )
It is the number of teeth per unit length of the pitch circle diameter in
inches.
T
P=
d
Module ( m)
It is the ratio of pitch diameter in mm to the number of teeth. The term is
used in SI units in place of diametrical pitch.
d
m=
T
Þ p= p m
Theory of Machines 67
Addendum Circle
A circle bounding the ends of the teeth,in a normal section of the gear.
Dedendum circle
The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a normal section of
the gear.
Addendum
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Form of Teeth
The form of teeth in a gear system can be as follows.
Conjugate Teeth
Two curves of any arbitrary shape that fulfill the law of gearing can be used
as the profiles of teeth. Such a gear are said to have conjugate teeth.
68 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Epicycloid Teeth
An epicycloid is the locus of point on the circumference of a circle that rolls
without slipping on a fixed straight line.
Arc PK = arc KJG
D
Pitch circle
A
H
Flank
C
face
L
P F
Hypocycloid
Epicycloid
J
K
E
B
G
Standardize gear teeth
Hypocycloid Teeth
A hypocycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle that
rolls without slipping inside the circumference of another circle.
Arc AC = Arc CD
Involute Profile Teeth
An involute is defined as the locus of a point on a B C
straight line which rolls without slipping on the
circumference of a circle. From figure at the start the F J
tracing point is at A as the line rolls on the E
circumference of the circle, the path ABC traced out H
A
by the point A is the involute. G
D is regarded as the instantaneous centre of rotation D
of B. The motion of B is perpendicular to BD. Since, BD
is tangent to the base circle, the normal to the involute
O
is a tangent to the base circle. Involute profile teeth
Theory of Machines 69
sf D
co
R ra
R r sin f
f P r
A B
f
Ra
C r cos f
Arc of Contact
From the figure, the arc of the contact as given by
path of contact (CD)
●
Arc of contact =
cos f
CP
●
Arc of approach =
cos f
PD
●
Arc of recess =
cos f
CD 1
●
Number of teeth within the arc = (p = circular pitch)
cos f p
360
●
Angle of action d p = arc of contact ´
2 pr
Pitch circle
Pitch line
Addendum
circle G
D
To avoid interference GE ³ ar m
2 ar
t³
sin2 f
2 2
For standard addendum, ar = 1; t ³ Þ tmin =
sin2f sin2f
72 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Undercutting
When gear teeth are produced such that interference is eliminated then this
effect is called undercutting.
Gear Train
A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one
shaft to another. Gear trains are used to speed up or stepped down the
speed of driven shaft. The following are main types of gear trains
Tabular Method
In tabular method, we apply following procedure
Assume gear makes m revolution and arm makes n revolution. Consider
clockwise rotation is positive and anticlockwise rotation is negative.
Theory of Machines 75
The static and dynamic force analysis define by the following forces.
Constraint Force
A pair of action and reaction forces which depend upon the nature of
connection and constraint two connected bodies to behave in a particular
manner are known as constraint forces.
Applied Forces
Forces which acting from outside on a system of bodies are called applied
forces.
Static Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium if it remains in its state of rest or motion. If the
body is at rest, it tends to remain at rest and if in motion, it tends to keep
the motion.
In Static Equilibrium
The vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is zero.
SF=0
The vector sum of all the moments about any arbitrary point is zero.
ST = 0
Slider-crank mechanism
Let, x = displacement of piston from inner dead centre
l = length of the connecting rod
r = crank radius
l
=n
r
The various parameters used in dynamic analysis of slider-crank mechanism
is given below
●
Displacement of Piston It can given by
x = r [(1 - cos q ) + ( n - n2 - sin2 q )]
78 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
1
cos b = n2 - sin2 q
n
x = r (1 - cos q ) (assume n large Þ n2 - sin2 q = n)
● Velocity of Piston It may be given by
dx dx dq
v= =
dt dq dt
é sin 2q ù
v = r w êsin q +
ë 2 n úû
sin 2q
v = r w sin q ( n large Þ tend to zero)
2n
● Acceleration of Piston It may be given by
dv dv dq
f= =
dt dq dt
æ cos 2q ö
f = r w2 çcos q + ÷
è n ø
f = r w2 cos q ( n ® large )
●
Angular Velocity of Connecting Rod ( wc) It may be defined as
sin q
l sin b = r sin q Þ sin b =
n
cos q
wc = w
n2 - sin2 q
●
Angular Acceleration of Connecting Rod It can be defined as
dw c
ac =
dt
é n2- 1 ù
a c = - w2 sin q ê 2 2 3/ 2 ú
ë ( n - sin q ) û
The negative sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the
rod is such that it tends to reduce the angle b.
●
Piston Effort (Effective driving force) Piston effort is termed as the net or
effective force applied on the piston.
Let, A1 = area of the corner end
A2 = area of the piston rod
p1 = pressure on the corner end
p2 = pressure on the rod end
m = mass of the reciprocating parts
Theory of Machines 79
Fn
Thrust along the rod
●
Thrust on the Sides of the Cylinder ( Fn ) The normal reaction on the
cylinder walls are given below
Fn = Fc sin b
Þ Fn = F tan b
●
Crank Effort ( Ft ) It is the net effort applied at the crank pin perpendi-
cular to the crank.
Ft ´ r = Fc r sin (q + b )
F
Ft = sin (q + b )
cos b
●
Thrust on the Bearings ( Fr ) The force acting along the crank which
applied a thrust on the bearings.
It is known as thrust on the bearings.
The thrusting on the bearings is given by
Fr = Fc cos (q + b )
F
Þ Fr = cos (q + b )
cos b
80 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
+ +
e f h j l e f
M
p
O a b p c d q 2p a
q
Graph between M and q
O Crank angle
p 2p 3p 4p
Suction Compression Expansion Exhaust
Stroke stroke stroke stroke
Single cylinder four strokes engine
82 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Multi-cylinder Engine
For multi cylinder engine, the turning moment diagram is obtained by
combining the turning moment diagram for each cylinder. The
multi-cylinder engine’s displacement diagram is given below
c a1 d a3 f g a5 h b
e
a a2 a6
a4
Turning
moment
0 Crank angle 2p
Multi-cylinder engine
+ B C + D (E-A)
A
–
M
–
q
One cycle
Crank shaft speed
●
Energy output of the engine in one cycle E = ò Md q
E 1 q
q q ò0
●
Average turning moment in this cycle = Md q Mav =
●
The work done in one cycle against the load is MR q.
E
●
If MR - Mav =
q
Then condition refer to stable operation MR < Mav
and there is no net energy input in the MR = Mav
crank shaft and so the speed remains M
the same at the beginning and at the MR > Mav
end of the cycle. Time
Speed from cycle to cycle
Theory of Machines 83
Flywheel
A flywheel is used to control the variations in speed during each cycle of an
operation. A flywheel acts as a reservoir of energy which stores energy
during the period when the supply of energy is more than the requirement
and releases the energy during the period when the supply energy is less
than the requirement.
●
Maximum fluctuation of energy (e ),
1
e = ( DKE) = I ( w2max - w 2min )
2
æ w + w2 ö
e = Iw ( w1 - w2 ) ç w = 1 ÷
è 2 ø
é w1 - w2 ù
e = Iw2k s êks =
ë w úû
e e
ks = , ks =
1 2 2 E
Iw ´ 2
2
where, wmax and wmin are the maximum and minimum angular speed
respectively.
E = kinematic energy of the flywheel at mean speed.
The equation of motion for the angular oscillation of the flywheel,
d 2q
I = M - MR
dt 2
where, MR is resistsing moment
84 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
æq - q1ö
= E1 - E1 ç 2 ÷ q
è 2p ø q1 2
Balancing
Balancing is defined as the process of designing a machine in which
unbalance force is minimum. The rotating and reciprocating parts of a high
speed engine if are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces will be
setup.
The shaft will also be free from dynamic bending stress. This situation is
referred to as internal balancing.
The dynamic reactions R A and RB can be reduced to zero, by adding two
balancing masses m1 and m2 at distances e 1 and e 2 respectively from the
shaft in the same axial plane as m but on the opposite side of the axis of
rotation. a m
me = m1 e 1 + m2 e 2 e
a1
m e a = m1 e 1 a1 + m2 e 2 a2 e1 e2
e2
This situation is referred as external m1 m2
balancing where the entire length of the a2
shaft is not free from dynamic bending Describe balancing diagram
stresses.
Static Balancing
If a shaft carries a number of unbalanced masses such that the centre of
mass of the system lies on the axis of rotation, the system is said to be
statically balanced.
Statically balancing is defined as below
z
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + mc rc = 0
S m r + mc rc = 0 m2
w r1 m1 m3 r3
m2 r2
S m r cos q + mc rc cos q = 0 r2 q2
q3 q1 m1 r1
x
S m r sin q + mc rc sin q = 0
- S m r sin q r3
tan q c = mc rc
- S m r cos q m3 mc
y
Static balancing system
86 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Balancing
A system of rotating masses in dynamic m1
balance when there does not exist any
w r1
resultant centrifugal force as well as resultant
couple.
r2
m1 r1 = m2 r2 l
m1 r1 l 1 = m2 r2 l 2 m2
S m r l + mc rc lc = 0 Dynamic balancing system
m1r1l1
mc 2 m2r2 l2
q qc2 c
c2 2
mc2rc2lc2
qc2
3 3
m3 m3
m1 r2 2 2
m 1 r1
m m2r2 mc1rc1
r1 q1 2 m1
1 qc1 1 m 3 r3 qc1
c1 c1
q
mc2rc2
or S m r l + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 = 0
S m r l cos q + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 cos q c 2 = 0
S m r l sin q + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 sin q c 2 = 0
S m r l sin q
tan q c 2 = -
- S m r l cos q
- ( S m r l sin q + mc 2 rc 2 sin q c 2 )
tan q c1 =
- ( S m r cos q + mc rc 2 cos q c 2 )
By complex method,
m1 r1 l1 Ð q 1 + m2 r2 l2 Ð q 2 + m3 r3 l3 Ð q 3 + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 Ð q c1 = 0
S m r l Ð q + mc 2 rc 2 lc 2 Ð q c 2 = 0
and m1 r1 Ð q 1 + m2 r2 Ð q 2 + m3 r3 Ð q 3 + mc1 rc1 Ð q c1 + mc 2 rc 2 Ð q c 2 = 0
S m r < q + S mc rc < q = 0
q
mrw2 B
cos q mrw2 cos q
m Primary force
mrw2
cos q
mrw2 sin q
Balancing of reciprocating mass
Force required to accelerate mass is
cos 2 q
F= m r w2 cos q + m r w2
14 4244 3
144244 n3
Primary accelerating force
Secondary accelerating force
●
Primary Balancing of Reciprocating Mass If c is the fraction of the
reciprocating mass, primary force balanced by the mass
= c m r w2 cos q
Primary force unbalanced by the mass
= (1 - c ) m r w2 cos q
Vertical component of centrifugal force which remains unbalanced
= c m r w2 - sin q
88 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Key Points
✦ Primary forces must balance i .e., primary force polygon is enclosed.
✦ Primary couples must balance i .e., primary couple polygon is enclosed.
✦ Secondary force must balance i .e., secondary forces polygon is enclosed.
✦ Secondary couples must balance i .e., secondary couple polygon is enclosed.
Primary crank
Theory of Machines 89
2 m r w2
● Secondary force = cos q 2q
n
Maximum value at
q = 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°
360º+2q
● Secondary couple
m r w2 é l æ - lö ù
= ê cos 2 q + çè ÷ø cos ( 360° + 2q ú
qn ë 2 2 û Secondary crank
=0
Balancing of V-Engines
Consider a symmetrical two cylinder V- engine as shown in figure.
Primary Force
●
Total primary force along x-axis
A B1
= 2 m r w2 cos 2 a cos q
●
Total primary force along z-axis q
a
= 2 m r w2 sin2a sin q a x
●
Resultant primary force
In case of 2a = 90°
tan b = tan q
and resultant force = m r w2 i . e.,b = q or it acts along the crank and it can be
complete balance volume by diametrically opposite mass such that
mr rr = mr
For a given value of a, the resultant primary force is maximum when q is 0°.
Secondary Force
2 mr w2
●
Total secondary force along x-axis = cos a cos 2q cos 2a
n
2 mr w2
●
Total secondary force along z-axis = sin a sin 2q sin2 2a
n
90 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
O
B
w 2w m
C
m 2
A r
2
4n
q 2q
mrw2 cos 2q
O q mrw2 cos q O 2q h
r
m 4n m
A¢ C¢
2 2
w 2w
Balancing of radial engine system
OA = primary direct crank
OA¢ = primary reverse crank
OC = secondary direct crank
OC¢ = secondary reverse crank
Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke
are given below
m
Due to mass at A= r w2 cos q
2
Theory of Machines 91
m 2
Due to mass at A ¢ = r w cos q
2
Thus total force along line of stroke = m r w2 cos q
Which is equal to the primary force.
æ r ö
● Secondary accelerating force ç m (2 w)2 cos 2 q ÷
è 4n ø
Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke
are given below
mæ r ö 2 m r w2
● Due to mass at c = ç ÷ (2 w) cos 2q = cos 2q
2 è 4n ø 2n
mæ r ö 2 m r w2
● Due to mass at c ¢ = ç ÷ (2 w) cos 2q = cos 2q
2 è 4n ø 2n
● Total secondary force along line of stroke
mæ r ö 2 m r w2
=2 ´ ç ÷ (2 w) cos 2q = cos 2q
2 è 4 nø n
Governors
The function of a governor is to maintain or regulate the speed of an engine
within specified limits whenever there is variation of load.
Flywheel and governor both are used to maintain the speed of an engine
but the difference between governor and flywheel is that governor maintain
the speed due to variation over a number of revolution while flywheel
maintain the speed of engine due to variation each revolution (cyclic
variation).
Types of Governors
The broadly classification of the governors are given below.
Centrifugal Governor
●
In this type of governor, the action of governor depends upon the
centrifugal effects produced by the masses of two balls.
●
The balls are operated by actual change of engine speed in case of
centrifugal governor.
92 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Inertia Governor
● In this type of governor, positions of the balls are effected by the forces set
up by an angular acceleration or deceleration of the given spindle in
addition to centrifugal forces on the balls.
● The balls are operated by the rate of change of speed.
So, response of inertial governors is faster than that of centrifugal types.
c b
From figure, tan q = , tanb =
a a
tan b
k=
tan q
O
O
q
T h
A D A
mrw2
m m r
a
M
B C G
l
c Fh
b
(Mg ± f/2)
Porter governor Variation of height with speed
mg
A D r
e
a
M
B C
l Fh
c b (Mg+f )/2
Hartness Governor
In this type, balls are controlled by a spring as shown in figure.
By neglecting obliquity effects of the arms of the ball crank levers (assume
q small)
a1 = a2 = a, b1 = b2 = b, c 1 = c 2 = 0
C1
Spring F1mr1w2
C r1
m m q mg a1
b
a A
Ball
b Roller
Mg + Fs1 + f
2
C2 r
r2
C
Sleeve a2
q2 B
Spindle mg
A
Mg + Fs2 + f
2
Hartness governor Force analysis in hartness governor
2
Centrifugal force F = mr w
Spring force = Fs
1
F1 a1 = (Mg + Fs1 + f ) b1 + mg c 1
2
1
F2 a2 = ( Mg + Fs2 + f ) b2 + mg c 2
2
ì a1 = a2 = a ü
2a ï ï
Fs 2 - Fs1 = ( F2 - F1) í b1 = b2 = bý
b ïc = c = 0 ï
î 1 2 þ
Let s = Stiffness of the spring, h = Moment of the sleeve
2a
Fs2 - Fs1 = h1s = ( F2 - F1)
b
r2 - r1 2a
´bs= ( F2 - F1)
a b
a 2 æ F - F1 ö
s=2 ´ 2 ç 2 ÷
b è r2 - r1 ø
Theory of Machines 95
Auxiliary
Ball crank spring
lever
F¢s
Pickering Governor
Let, m = mass fixed to each spring
e = distance between spindle axis and centre of mass when the
governor is at rest
w = angular speed of the sleeve
f = deflection of the centre of the leaf spring for spindle speed w.
Centrifugal force F = m (e + f ) w2
Spindle
Horizontal
nut Leaf spring
Flymass F
e e+f
Sleeve
Pickering governor
m (e + f ) w2l 3
f=
192 EI
where, E = modulus of elasticity of the spring material
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section of the spring about
neutral axis
Inertial Governor
This type of governor is a rotating governor. The inertial governor can be
shown in the figure
r = radial distance OG
mdv
w = angular velocity of the disc dt
v = tangential velocity of G y x
Centrifugal force of the rotating mass mrw2
Q
F = m r w22 G
r
O
If the engine shaft is accelerated due to increase
w
in speed, the ball mass does not get accelerated
at the same amount on account of its inertia, the
inertia force being equal to Inertial governor
Theory of Machines 97
dv
Fi = mf = m
dt
dw
Torque on the arm = Ic
dt
Sensitiveness of a Governor
● The governor is said to be sensitive when it readily responds to a small
change of speed.
● Sensitiveness of a governor is defined as the ratio of difference between
the maximum and minimum speeds to the mean equilibrium speed.
range of speed ( N - N1)
Sensitiveness = =2 2
mean speed N1 + N2
where, N = mean speed
N1 = minimum speed corresponding to full load conditions
N2 = maximum speed corresponding to no load conditions.
Hunting
Sensitiveness of a governor is a desirable quality. However, if a governor is
too sensitive, it may fluctuate continuously. This phenomenon of fluctuation
is known as hunting.
Isochronism
If a governor is at equilibrium only for a particular speed, it is called
isochronous governor, for which w1 = w2 = w we can say that an
isochronous governor is infinitely sensitive.
dF
= m w2
dr
Stability
A governor is said to be stable if it brings the speed of the engine to the
required value and there is not much hunting. Obviously, the stability and
sensitivity are two opposite characteristics.
The power of governor is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a given
percentage change of speed.
Power = Mean effort ´ lift of sleeve
Controlling Force
When the balls of a governor rotate in their circular path, the centrifugal
force on each ball tends to move in outwards. This is resisted by an equal
and opposite forces acting radially inwards and is known as the controlling
force.
\ Controlling force,
FC = m. w2. r
The controlling force is provided by the Controlling force (FC) A
weight of the sleeve and balls as in Porter
governor and by the spring and weight as in
Hartness governor (or spring controlled
governor). f
When the graph between the controlling O Radius of rotation (r)
force (FC ) as ordinate and radius of rotation Controlling force diagram
of the balls (r) as abscissa is drawn, then the
graph obtained is known as controlling force diagram.
Key Points
✦ Controlling force curve for spring loaded governor as shown below
Unstable governor
+b
ar
= Isochronous governor
Fc
ar
=
Controlling F c
Stable governor
force –b
ar
c
=
F
Radius
æ a > 0ö
ç ÷
è b > 0ø
✦ Controlling force curve is parabolic curve in case of dead weight governor.
✦ Controlling force curve is straight line in case of spring loaded governor.
Vibrations
Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. In its
simplest form, vibration can be considered to be the oscillation or repetitive
motion of an object around an equilibrium position.
Vibrations or mechanical oscillations are of many types as given below
● Free Vibration (Natural vibration) Vibration over an interval of time
during which the system is free from excitation is known as free vibration.
● Damped Vibration Energy of a vibrating system is gradually dissipated
by friction and other resistance.
● Forced Vibration When a repeated force continuously acts on a
system, the vibrations are said to be forced.
● Harmonic Vibration Vibration in which the motion is a sinusoidal
function of time.
●
Fundamental Vibration Harmonic component of a vibration with the
lowest frequency.
●
Steady State Vibration When the particles of the body move in steady
state condition or continuing period vibration is called steady state
vibration.
●
Transient Vibration Vibratory motion of a system other than steady
state.
●
Longitudinal Vibration Vibration parallel to the longitudinal axis of a
member.
●
Transverse Vibration Vibration in a direction perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis or central plane of a member.
●
Torsional Vibration Vibration that involves torsion of a member.
●
Mode of Vibration Configuration of points of a SHM is called the mode
of vibration.
●
Natural Frequency Frequency of free simple harmonic vibration of an
undamped linear system.
●
Time Period Time taken for one oscillation is called time period.
●
Simple Pendulum If time period of the pendulum is 1s, then pendulum
is called simple pendulum.
q l æ d 2q ö
= çç where , a = 2 ÷÷
a g è dt ø
100 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
A
l C
T = 2p (for small amplitude sin q » q ) Simple
g
pendulum
l æ q 20 ö
T = 2p çç1 + ÷÷ [large amplitude (q 0 )]
g è 16 ø
Key Points
✦ If the time period of a simple pendulum is 2s, it is called second pendulum.
✦ If a simple pendulum is in a carriage which is accelerating with acceleration
a, then g = g - a.
✦ If the acceleration a is upward
g =g + a
l
T = 2p
g eff
✦ If the acceleration a is downward g eff = g - a a = g sin q
✦ If the pendulum moves on edge which makes q
g cos q
angle q from horizonal. q
g = g cos q
l Block diagram with angle q
T = 2p
g cos q
✦ Simple pendulum consists of small sphere of mass m with Fe = q e
charge q suspended by a thread of length l
w -fe mg - qe
= =
m m
l
T = 2p w = mg
qe
g -
m Small sphere
x m m
= Þ T = 2p
a k k Spring block system
Theory of Machines 101
k k
k m
m m
(a) (b) (c)
Pulley spring-block system
m 4m m
(a) T = 2p (b) T = 2 p (c) T= 2 p
k k 4k
●
F = kx0 + mg sin q
5m
2F = mg Þ T = 2p
4k
a
A
q B
k2
k x
m
a l
m
m a2
T = 2p Þ k1e = k1
k cos 2 a l2
1 1 1 l2 1
= + = 2
+
ke k1e k2 k1a k2
k1e
k1 k2a 2
ke =
k1 a 2 + k2l 2
k2
m
Rod block-spring system
Theory of Machines 103
m k1 k2a 2
Time period T = 2p and natural Frequency wn =
ke m( k1 a 2 + k2 l 2 )
Geared torsional system can be shown in the figure
k2
Gear ratio q2
q1 n= w2 P1 I2
w1
Brake point k1 k2
k1 I1e= n
2
l I I2
I1 I1e= n1
2
Geared torsional system
I1
I1 e =
n2
I w2
I1 e = 12 = I1 12
n w2
1 w21
k1e = k1 = k1
n2 w22
Damping
Any influence which tends to dissipate the
energy of a system. C
mx cx kx
Single degree of freedom system with
viscous damping can be shown in the m m
figure below 1-Degree of freedom system
mx&& + cx& + x = 0
&&x + c x& + k x = 0
m m
2 c k
a + a+ =0
m m
2 2
-c æ c ö ækö
a 12 = ± ç ÷ -ç ÷
2m è2m ø è mø
(c / 2 m )2 c
x= =
k/m 2 mk
104 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Damping Coefficient
Coefficient of proportionality between the damping force and relative
velocity
k l
c = 2 x mk = 2 x mwn, wn = = 2 x
m wn
●
x = 1, the damping is known as critical under critical damping condition.
Critical damping coefficient
cc = 2 mk
Þ cc = 2 m wn
●
x > 1 i . e., the system is over damped
a 1, 2 = ( - x ± ( x 2 - 1)) wn
x 2 - 1) wn t x 2 - 1) wn t
x = Ae( - x + + Be( - x -
Motion is a periodic (non-oscillatory). In practice, no mechanical
systems have over damping.
●
x < 1 i . e., system is underdamped.
a 1, 2 = ( - x ± i 1 - x 2 )wn
1 - x 2 )wnt 1 - x 2 ) wnt
x = Ae( - x + i + Be( - x - i
●
If the system oscillates with x=1
frequency x>1
Displacement
Damped frequency
wd = 1 - x 2 wn
Time
(w d is always less than wn)
The above equation can be x<1
written as
2p
x = X e - xwnt (sin w d t + f ) T=
wn Ö1- x2
X = constant Damping-time coefficient
wd 2p
Linear frequency fd = ; Time period Td =
2p wd
where, C = actual damping coefficient
Cc = critical damping coefficient
wd = damped frequency
x = damping factor
wn = natural frequency
Theory of Machines 105
Logarithmic Decrement
In an underdamped system, natural logarithmic ratio of two successive
oscillations is called logarithmic decrement (constant).
Xn X X X
Since, = e xwnTd = 0 = 1 = 2
Xn + 1 X1 X2 X3
Logarithmic decrement,
æ X ö
d = ln çç n ÷÷ = ln e( x wnTd ) d = xwnTd
è Xn + 1 ø
2 px 1 æ X0 ö
or d= or d= ln ç ÷
1- x 2 n è Xn ø
Forced Vibration
Equation of forced vibration can be given as
mx&& + kx = F0 sin wt kx k mx
F0 / k
x = X sin ( wn t + f ) + 2
sin wt
æ wö m
1- ç ÷
è wn ø
F0 sin wt
mx&& + cx& + kx = F0 sin wt
Forced vibration
- xwn t
x = Xe sin ( w d t - f 1)
F0 sin ( wt - f ) cx kx mx
+ c
2 2 2
( k - mw ) + (cw)
m m
In the case of steady state response first
term zero (e -¥ = 0). F0 sin wt F0 sin wt
F0
x= sin ( wt - f )
( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2
The amplitude of the steady state response is given by
F0
A=
( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2
F0 / k æ cw ö
A= tan f = ç ÷
é
2 è k - mw2 ø
æ wö ù
2 2
æ wö
ê1 - ç ÷ ú + ç2 x ÷
ê è wn ø ú è wn ø
ë û
106 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Magnification Factor
Ratio of the amplitude of the steady state response to the static deflection
under the action force F0 is known as magnification factor.
F0
( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2 k
MF = =
F0 / k ( k - mw2 )2 + (cw)2
1
=
2
é æ wö ù
2
æ wö
2
ê1 - ç ÷ ú + ç2 x ÷
ê è wn ø ú è wn ø
ë û
w
Let frequency ratio r =
wn
1
MF [Function H( w)] =
(1 - r ) + (2 x r )2
2 2
x=0
4
x = 0.1
3
H(w)
2 x = 0.2
x = 0.3
1
Transmissibility
Transmissibility is defined as the ratio of the force transmitted to the force
applied. It is measure of the effectiveness of the vibration isolating material.
Ft 1 + (2 x r )2
Transmissibility e= =
F0 (1 - r 2 )2 + (2 x r )2
x=0
1.0
0.2
y Ft
x or F 0.3
0
1.0
1 + (2 x )2
At resonance r = 1; e =
2x
When no damper is used x = 0
1 w
e= p e = 0.1 g = p
é æ wö ù
2
0.2
± ê1 - ç ÷ ú
ê è wn ø ú 3.0
ë û p
2 1.0
Frequency response and phase
relationship of single degree of
freedom system with base 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
excitation transmissibility and Transmissibility curve with x = 0.1 to 1
phase relatively of a system.
Key Points
✦ At w = 2 wn ( e = 1,) the response is same as the magnitude of the excitation
amplitude for the values of damping.
✦ For w > 2wn ,( e < 1,
) the maximum experiences lower amplitude of vibration
than the base excitation.
✦ For w < 2 wn ( e > 1,) Ft > F0 damping is not useful, actually it increases the
amplitude for a given system.
✦ At resonance w = wn , the phase angle is not 90°.
108 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Y 1 + (2 x r )2
= H( w) = m
X (1 - r )2 + (2 x r )2 y my
2x r3 c k
tan f =
1 - r 2 + (2 x r )2
H( w) is maximum when c(y-x) k(y-x)
1 x = x cos wt
r= 1 + 8x - 1
2
Support motion diagram
2x
Critical Speed
Critical or whirling or whipping speed is the speed at which the shaft tends
to vibrate violently in transverse direction.
For equilibrium, ky = m ( y + e ) w2
e
y= 2
æ wn ö w2
ç ÷ -1 m(y + e)
e y
è wø
Rotor
y ® ¥, when wn = w G
Critical speed,
k g Shaft with vibrate
wc = wn = =
m D
where, w = Angular velocity of shaft
k = Stiffness of shaft
e = Initial eccentricity of centre of mass of rotor
m = Mass of rotor
y = Additional of rotor due to centrifugal force
Dynamic force on the bearings, ky = m w2n y
cy
III Natural frequency en
qu
fre
n
Frequency
a tio
cit
v ex II Natural frequency
re
IX
I Natural frequency
I critical speed
Rotor speed
Campbell diagram
110 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
x1 x2 xi xn
Machine Design
Cotter and Knuckle Joints
A cotter joint is a temporary fastening and is used to connect rigidly two
co-axial rods or bars which are subjected to axial tensile or compressive
forces. It is used in steam engine to connect piston rod end crosshead of a
steam engine, piston rod and tail or pump rod.
d1 d d2 P d d4
P
c a
b c t
Socket Cotter Spigot
Socket cotter and spigot layout
112 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Failure
In order to design the cotter joint and find out the above dimensions, failure
in different parts and different cross-sections are considered.
p
Failure of sleeve in tension across the slot P = ìí [( d 1) 2 - ( d 2) 2 ] - ( d 1 - d 2) t üý s t
î4 þ
Failure of cotter in shear P = 2b ´ t ´ t
Failure of rod end in shear P = 2a ´ d 2 ´ t
Failure of sleeve end in shearing P = 2 ( d 1 - d 2) C ´ t
Knuckle Joint
●
It is used to connect two rods whose axis either coincide or intersect and
lie in one plane.
●
This joint generally found in the link of a cycle chain tie rod joint for roof
truss, valve rod joint with eccentric rod tension link in bridge structure,
lever and rod connection of various types.
●
It is sometimes also called forked pin joint.
114 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Rod A
P/2
P P/2 P
P/2 P P
Pin
Knuckle joint
●
To connect the transmission shaft to rotating machine elements like
pulley, gear, sprocket or flywheel.
●
Cotter and knuckle joints are not used for connecting shafts that rotate
and transmit torque.
Welded Joints
●
It is a permanent joint.
●
When the two parts are joined by heating to a suitable temperature with or
without application of pressure.
●
It is lighter than riveted joint, great strength, maximum efficiency.
Welding Processes
If two rods have to joined then we have to adopt the welding process with
which two or more rods can be joined together. Some types of welding are
given below
Machine Design 115
Fusion Welding
In case of fusion welding, the parts to be jointed are held in position while
the molten metal is supplied to the joint. The molten metal may come from
the parts themselves (i.e., parent metal) or filler metal which normally have
the composition of the parent metal. The joint surface become plastic or
even molten because of the heat from the molten filler metal or other source.
Thus, when the molten metal solidifies or fuses, the joint is formed. The
types of fusion welding are given below
Thermit Welding
In thermit welding, a mixture of iron oxide and aluminium called thermit is
ignited and the iron oxide is reduced to molten iron. The molten iron is
poured into a mould made around the joint and fuses with the parts to be
welded.
Gas Welding
A gas welding is made by applying the flame of an oxy-acetylene or
hydrogen gas from a welding torch upon the surfaces of the prepared joint.
Forge Welding
In this type of welding, first the parts are to be heated about a suitable
temperature and then they hammered to form a joint.
t
h
Transverse fillet weld
Bending stress
4M
sb =
p td 2
5.66 M
s b (max) = Mt
phd 2
t
h
Bending moment in circular fillet weld
h h
Butt Joint Torsion in long fillet weld
●
The butt joint is the joint between two plates lying on same plane.
●
In this type of joint, cutting the members to the appropriate length and
butting them together.
l l
P t P P t2 t1 P
l
Eccentric loaded welded joints
T ´ r2
Secondary shear stress t2 = and T = P ´ e
JG
P ´ e ´ r2
t2 =
JG
é l2 ù
JG = JG + Ar12, JG = A ê + r12 ú
ë 12
1
û
where, G1 = Centre of gravity of weld
G = Centre of gravity of group of weld
Resultant shear stress at A t A = t 21 + t 22 + 2 t 1t 2 cos q
Machine Design 119
Threaded Joints
Separable joint of two or more machine parts that are held together by
means of a threaded fastening such as bolt and nut is called threaded joint.
Bolts
● Bolts are generally subjected to shock and impact loads.
● Resilience (ability to absorb and release energy when loaded and
unloaded) of the bolt can be increased by length of shank portion of bolt
and reduce the shank diameter to the core diameter of threads.
Major
Pitch Minor
diameter
d diameter diameter
Root
Crest Thread
angle
Terminology of thread
Key Points
✦ Through bolts used in threaded joints are simply a bolt or a nut type bolt.
✦ Top bolt is turned into threaded hole in one of the parts being connected and
not into nut.
✦ Through bolt is turned into nut form a cap screws.
✦ Cylindrical rod threaded at both ends forms a stud.
✦ The locking devices are Jam nut and lock nut.
✦ Castle nuts used for joints that are subjected to vibrations mostly in
automobile industry.
✦ Spring washers are used to prevent loosing of threads.
PS F3 PS R4 F3 PS
PS R3
Acting forces in bolted joints
P
● Direct shear force Ps =acting parallel to load P.
n
Pe × l1
●
Secondary shear forces F1 = 2
l1 + l22 + l32 + l42
Pe l2
and F2 =
l12 + l22 + l32 + l42
Pe l3
where, n = Number of bolts F3 =
l12 + l22 + l32 + l42
Pe l4
and F4 =
l12 + l22 + l32 + l42
●
Resultant of forces R1 = ( Ps )2 + F 2 + 2 Ps ´ F1 cos q
q = Angle between the primary or direct shear load ( Ps ) and secondary
shear load ( F ).
Similarly, calculate R2, R3, R4.
Torque Requirement for Bolt Tightening
Pi d m æ m sec q + tan a ö
Mt = ç ÷
2 è 1 - m sec q tan a ø
where, Pi = Pretension in bolt, d m = 0.9 d
d = Nominal diameter
For ISO metric screw thread q = 30°
For ISO metric a = 2.5°
Machine Design 121
r a
4 1
L4 L1
L1 = R - r cos a, L2 = R + r sina
L3 = R + r cos a, L4 = R - r sina
If there are n number of bolts, then
2 wL ( R - r cos a)
load in a bolt w b1 =
n (2 R 2 + r 2 )
In above case when n=4
w × L ( R - a cos a)
wb =
2 (2 R 2 + r 2 )
Maximum load in bolt is given by
2 wL æ R + r ö
( w b1 )max = ç ÷
n è2R2 + r 2 ø
where, cos a = - 1
Factor of Safety (FOS) in Bolted Joints
It is defined as the ratio of failure stress to allowable stress.
Failure stress
FOS =
Allowable stress
S yt
●
For ductile material, FOS =
s
S
●
For brittle material, FOS = ut
s
122 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Fluctuating Load
It is defined as the load, of which
magnitude and direction both changes
Stress
sa
with respect to time. The stresses
induced due to these forces are called smax
sm
fluctuating stresses. smin
O Time
(a) Fluctuating load
Stress
Stress
smin = 0
sa sm = 0
+
smax sa
sm
O
Time
(b) Repeated load Time
Friction Clutch
The friction clutch is used to Friction surfaces
transmit power of shafts and
machines which must be started
and stopped frequently. r2 r1 r dr
Friction surfaces of a clutch
remain in contact to each other
by applying an axial thrust or
load w. Disc
Disc is subjected between friction surfaces
Cone Clutch
In cone clutch, the driver is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has
an inside conical surface or face which exactly fits into the outside conical
surface of the driven.
b
● Total torque on the clutch,
r1
2 é r3 - r3 ù
T= mw cosec ê 12 22 ú a
r2
3 ë r1 - r1 û a w
(for uniform pressure)
1
= mw cosec a ( r1 + r2 ) dr
2
(for uniform wear) Cone clutch
a = Semi angle of cone or face angle of the cone
w
wn =
sin a
Centrifugal Clutch
It consists of number of shoes on the inside of a rim of the pulley. The outer
surface of the shoes are covered with a friction material. These shoes,
which can move radially in guides, are held against the boss on the driving
shaft by means of spring. The springs exert a radially inward force which is
assumed constant.
Machine Design 127
● When engagement starts then, the spring force equal to the centrifugal
force acts at shoe at that time. L
Ps = m ( w1)2 r
PC
where, w1 is the speed of rim when
G
engagement starts.
PS R
●
Centrifugal force acting on each shoe
at running speed Pc = mw2r r
æ 2 pN ö
where, w = ç ÷
è 60 ø A section view of centrifugal clutch
●
Friction force acting on each shoe = m ( Pc - Ps )
The direction of force is perpendicular to the radius of the rim pulley.
●
Frictional torque on each shoe = m ( Pc - Ps ) ´ R
Total torque transmitted= Number of shoes ´ m ( Pc - Ps ) R
= nm ( Pc - Ps ) R
Arc = Angle (in radian) ´ Radius
l = qR
where, area of contact = lb
●
Force exerted on each shoe = plb
\ Pc - Ps = lbp
where, l = Contact length of the shoe
b = Width of the shoe
p = Pressure intensity on shoe
q = Angle made by shoe at the centre of spider in radian
R = Contact radius of shoe = inside radius of the rim of the pulley
Brake
A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied
to a moving machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a
machine. The most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy
into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed.
r RN
F1
O
Wheel is rotating anti-clockwise direction
Machine Design 129
Ft l
x P
RN
r
O F1
Now, taking moment about fulcrum O of the lever when wheel is rotating in
clockwise direction.
RN ´ x = P ´ l
Pl
RN =
x
mPl
● Braking force = mRN =
x
●
Braking torque ( TB ) = r ´ Braking force
mPlr
TB =
x
When wheel is rotating in anticlockwise direction then, the braking
torque is same as above
mPlr
TB =
x
Case II
When the line of acting of the tangential braking force (Ft ) passes through a
distance a below the fulcrum O.
Then, there are two cases
If wheel rotates in clockwise direction then, the FBD of block is
Pl
RN = l
x + ma x P
mPl
●
Braking force Ft = mRN =
x + ma O a
RN
mPlr F1
●
Braking torque TB =
x + ma FBD of block
130 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
In this case,
Shoe brake diagram
Braking torque TB = m ¢ RN r
4m sin q
= (where, 2q > 60° )
2 q + sin 2 q
where, m¢ = Equivalent coefficient of friction
m = Actual coefficient of friction
These brakes having more life and provides a higher braking torque.
We know, l P
T1 O B
= emq T2
C
T2 b
(q = 360° - q ¢ ) P T1
æT ö
or 2.3 log ç 1 ÷ = m ( 360° - q ¢ )
è T2 ø t
O¢
Q
Drum
= mq Angle
r
of lap
● Braking force on the drum
Band
= (T1 - T2 )
Simple band brake
● Braking torque on the drum
(TB ) = (T1 - T2 ) ´ r
● When wheel rotates in the clockwise direction and taking moment about
fulcrum O
Pl = T1 ´ b
Pl
T1 =
b
●
For anticlockwise rotation of the drum Pl = T2b
Pl
T2 =
b
where, b = Perpendicular distance from O to the line of action T1 or T2
l = Length of the lever from the fulcrum
T1 = st wt
w = Width of the band
t = Thickness of the band
st = Permissible stress in the band
Design of Friction Drives
Coupling
Coupling is basically done in shafts to join permanently two rotating shafts
to each other.
Types of Coupling
Coupling can be classified as
Rigid Coupling
The rigid coupling used to connect two shafts which are perfectly aligned
and these coupling widely use for transmitting large torque. The rigid
coupling are classified as
● Sleeve or muff coupling
●
Clamp or split-muff or compression coupling ● Flange coupling
Flexible Coupling
These couplings are used to connect two shafts having both lateral and
angular misalignment. The flexible coupling is further classified as
●
Bashed pin type coupling ● Universal coupling ● Oldham coupling
16 Mt Output shaft
and t= Input shaft
pd3 D = 2d + 13 Sleeve
Sleeve coupling
Length of key = half length of sleeve
L
l=
2
134 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
2 Mt
● Shear stress in key t =
dbl
4 Mt
● Compressive stress in key sC =
dhl
Clamp Coupling
It is also known as split muff coupling. In this case, the muff or sleeve is
made into two halves and are bolted together.
p
Clamping force of each bolt P1 = d 12st
4
where, P1 = Tensile force on each bolt
d 1 = Core diameter of clamping bolt
st = Permissible tensile stress
For sleeve halves D = 2 .5 d , L = 3.5 d
where, D = Outer diameter of sleeve halves
L = Length of sleeve
d = Diameter of shaft
n = Total number of bolt
f = Coefficient of friction
fdP1 n 2 Mt
Mt = , P1 =
2 fdn
Clamping bolt
Input Output
shaft shaft
Clearance
Flange Coupling
A flange coupling usually applies to a coupling having two separate cast
iron flanges. Each flange is mounted on the shaft and a keyed to it. The
face are turned up at right angle to the axis of the shaft. One of the
flanges has a projected portion and the other flange has a corresponding
recess.
tf tf
Flange
d1
Hub
Key
Shaft
1.5 d
d
D2 = 4 d
D = 2d
Key D1 = 3d
A
B
L = 1.5 d L = 1.5 d
Flange coupling diagram
Belt Drives
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by
means of pulleys which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds.
Types of Belts
The belts can be classified as
Flat Belt
These belt use when distance between pulleys are not more than 8 m.
Mostly use in factories and workshop where moderate power is required.
V-Belt
●
Use when two pulleys are very near to each other.
●
Use in factories where high power is required.
136 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Circular Belt
● Use when two pulleys are more than 8 m apart.
● Use where high power is required.
r1 x r2
Open belt drive
The dimension of open belt drive are as follow
where, a = Wrap angle for pulley, r1 = Radius of big pulley
r2 = Radius of small pulley, r = Centre distance
( r - r )2
● Length of belt (L) L = p ( r1 + r2 ) + 1 2 + 2 x
x
r1 - r2 ær - r ö
sin a = or a = sin-1 ç 1 2 ÷
x è x ø
Angle of contact on smaller pulley q 2 = 180°- 2a
Angle of contact on larger pulley q 1 = 180° + 2a
r1 x r2
Cross belt drive
r2 + r1
a=
x
138 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Centrifugal Tension
The belt continuously runs over the pulleys. Therefore, some centrifugal
force is caused, whose effect is to increase the tension on both the tight as
well as the slack sides. The tension caused by centrifugal force is called
centrifugal tension.
●
Centrifugal tension is given by
Tc = mv 2
where, m = Mass of belt per unit length
v = Belt velocity
●
Maximum tension in belt T = T1 + Tc
●
Condition for transmission of maximum power T = 3 mv 2 = 3Tc
Chain Drives
The chains are generally used to transmit motion and power from one shaft
to another, when the centre distance between their shafts is short. The
chains may also used for long distance of up to 8 m centre.
Larger sprocket
O1 O2
Smaller
sprocket
P
x
Schematic diagram of chain drives
Pé T - T1 ö ù
2 2
T +T T +T
●
Centre distance x = ê K - 1 2 + æç K - 1 2 ö÷ - 8 æç 2 ÷ ú
4ê 2 è 2 ø è 2p ø ú
ë û
w ´v
●
Power transmitted by chains, P = B
n ´ Ks
where, w B = Breaking load in Newton
v = Velocity of chain
n = Factor of safety
K s = Service factor = K 1K 2K 3
K 1 = Multiple strand factor
K 2 = Tooth correction factor.
140 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Power Screw
● The power screw is used to convert rotary motion into translatory motion.
● Hand press, screw jack, hosting screw, lead screw are applications of screw.
Square Thread
The square thread is used for transmission of power in either direction.
The thread results in maximum efficiency and minimum radial or bursting
pressure on the nut.
Acme or Trapezoidal Thread
● Use where a split nut is required and where provision is made to take up
wear as in the lead screw of a lathe.
● It is a modification of square thread with lower efficiency than square
thread and more bursting pressure on nut than square thread but
increases its area in shear.
Buttress Thread
●
Use when large forces act along the screw axis in one direction.
●
Higher efficiency, stronger than other thread because of greater thickness
at the base of thread.
●
Employed as the thread for light jack screw.
0.37P P
P/2 0.125 P
P P
29° 45° h
h h
Multiple Thread
Power screw with multiple threads such as double, triple etc., are
employed when, it is desired to secure a large lead with fine threads or high
efficiency. Such types of threads are usually found in high speed actuators.
Note In the case torque required to lower loudly regular threaded screw effort
P = tan(f - a) if f > a torque required to overcome friction between
d
screw and nutT1 = P ´ ,T = T1 + T2 = P1 ´ l
2
Classification of Gears
● Spur Gear ● Helical Gear ● Bevel Gear ● Worm Gear
Spur Gear
In spur gears, teeth are cut parallel to axis of the gear.
pd
● Circular pitch P = O1
z Pinion driver
z
● Diametrical pitch P = Pt
d
d PN
●
Module m = Pr a
z
where, z = Number of teeth PN
a
d = Pitch diameter Pt Gear driver
●
Torque transmitted by gear
60 ´ 106 (kW )
Mt = O2
2 pn
where, Mt = Torque transmitted by gear
n = Speed of rotation Spur gear
kW = Power transmitted by gear
d Pt
Pt ´ = Mt Pr = Pt tan a PN =
2 cos a
●
Beam strength of gear tooth S b = mbs b Y
where, s b = Permissible bending stress, Y = Lewis form factor
m = Module.
●
Dynamic load or incremental dynamic load
21v (ceb + Pt )
Pd =
21v + ceb + Pt
where, v = Pitch line velocity, c = Deformation factor
b = Face width of tooth, Pt = Tangential force due to rated torque.
e = Sum of errors between two meshing teeth
144 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Helical Gear
●
The teeth of helical gear cut in the form of helix or an angle on the pitch
cylinder.
P
Pn =
cos y
where, Pn = Normal diametrical pitch, P = Transverse diametrical pitch
y = Helix angle
mn = m cos y, mn = Normal module
m = Transverse module
P zmn
●
Axial pitch Pa = ●
Pitch circular diameter d =
tan y cos y
●
Tooth proportions
Addendum ha = mn
Dedendum hf = 1.25 mn
Clearance c = 0. 25 mn
Machine Design 145
z mn
● Addendum circle diameter d a = d + 2 ha or d a = + 2 mn
cos y
z mn
● Dedendum circle diameter d f = - 2 .5 mn
cos y
Force analysis in helical gears is given below
A
Pr
Y Pr
an
Pt Pa B P
B
Pa
Y
D C
Pitch cylinder
2M t
Component of tooth forces Pt =
dp
é tan a n ù
Pr = Pt ê ú
ë cos y û
Pa = Pt tan y
●
Beam strength of helical gear S b = mn b s b Y
where, m = Module, s b = Permissible bending stress
y = Lewis form factor
●
Dynamic load or incremental dynamic load Pd
21 v (ceb cos 2 y + Pt ) cos y
Pd =
21v + (ceb cos 2 y + Pt )
where, e = Sum of errors, C = Deformation factor
bQ d p K
●
Wear strength of helical gear S w =
cos 2 y
Herringbone Gear
In order to avoid an axial thrust on the shaft and the bearings, the double
helical gears or Herringbone gears are used.
Bevel Gears
●
Use to transmit power between two intersecting shafts.
●
High speed high power transmission.
146 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
C F
B
a Pt P
r
Pitch cone A
A Ps of pinion
A F
Pa Pr
O P Ps g
E
a
C Pt D E Ps D
Apex of pitch
cone
2 2
æ Dp ö æ Dg ö
● Cone distance A o = ç ÷ + ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
é Dp b sin g ù
● Mean radius rm = ê -
ë 2 2 úû
60 ´ 106 (kW ) Mt
●
Mt = l
Pt =
2 p np rm
●
Pr = Pt tan a cos g Pa = Pt tan a sin g
l
é b ù
● Beam strength of bevel gear S b = mbs b Y ê1 - ú
ë Ao û
é bù
where, ê1- = bevel factor.
ë Ao úû
075
. b Q Dp K
Wear strength of bevel gears S w =
cos g
2
æ BHN ö
where, K = Material constant, K = 016
. ç ÷
è 100 ø
Worm Gear
Worm gears are used to transmit power between two non-intersecting
shafts which are in general at right angle to each other.
●
High speed reduction, compact with small size self locking operation.
●
Drawback low efficiency.
Terminologies in Worm Gear
There are four terminology in worm gear system as given below
where, z1 = Number of starts on the worm
z2 = Number of teeth on worm wheel
q = Diametrical quotient
d
m = Module (mm) q = 1
m
z1 p
Lead angle ( g ) tan g = , Helix angle ( y ) g + y =
q 2
148 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Wire Rope
●
Wire rope is used in hoisting and materials handling equipments.
●
It consists of high strength to weight ratio and greater reliability.
Key Points
✦ Regular Lay When the wires in the strands are twisted in a direction opposite
to that of strands.
✦ Lang’s Lay When the wires in strands are twisted in the same direction as
strand.
✦ Regular lay are more popular due to more structural stability and resistance to
crushing and distortion.
150 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Bearing Life
The life of an individual bearing is defined as the total number of revolutions
(or the number of hours at a given constant speed) which the bearing can
complete before the first evidence of fatigue failure develops on the ball or
races.
The bearing life can be defined by either of the following terms
Fatigue Life
It is the number of revolutions that the bearing runs before the first evidence
of fatigue crack in balls or races.
Rating Life
It is the number of revolutions that 90% of the bearings will complete or
exceed before the first evidence of fatigue crack.
Comparison Between Ball and Roller Bearings
Comparison
S. No. Ball Bearing Roller Bearing
Parameter
1. Rolling In ball bearings, spherical balls In roller bearings, cylindrical
Element are used as the rolling elements. rollers, or spherical rollers are
used as the rolling elements.
2. Nature of In ball bearings, the contact In roller bearings, the contact
contact between the inner race and ball between the inner race and
or the outer race and ball is roller or the outer race and
point contact. roller is line contact.
3. Load Carrying Because of point contact, the Because of line contact, the
Capacity load carrying capacity of the load carrying capacity of the
ball bearing is low. roller bearings is high.
4. Radial For ball bearings, the radial For roller bearings., the radial
Dimensions dimension is more. dimension is less. Hence,
roller bearings are used where
compactness is required in
radial direction.
5. Axial For ball bearings, the axial For roller bearings, the axial
Dimensions dimension is less. dimension is more.
152 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Needle Bearing
●
In Needle bearing cylindrical rollers of very small diameter and relatively
long length.
●
Large load carrying capacity.
●
Use in oscillatory motion such as pipson pin bearings, rocker arm and
universal joint.
Machine Design 153
Hydrodynamic Bearing
In this system, load supporting fluid film is created by shape and relative
motion of sliding surface.
Hydrostatic Bearing
In this system, load supporting fluid film separating the two surfaces is created
by an external source like pump supplying sufficient fluid under pressure.
Ri
Ro
Ri
Ro
po ho
pi p
pi
po
Hydrostatic step bearing
p pi ho3
Flow of lubricant Q=
æR ö
6 m loge ç o ÷
è Ri ø
é ù
ê 2 2 ú
p p R - Ri
Thrust load w= i ê o ú
2 ê æ Ro ö ú
ê e çè R ÷ø ú
log
ë i û
(kw)t
(kw)p
(kw)
(kw)f
ho
Total power loss in hydrostatic bearing
2
ærö m ns
● Sommerfield number S = ç ÷ ´
èc ø p
where, m = Viscosity of lubricant
p = Unit bearing pressure (load per unit of projected area)
n s = Journal speed
●
Coefficient of Flow Variable
ærö
CFV = ç ÷ f, f = Coefficient of friction
èc ø
2 p n s fwr
●
Frictional power ( kw )f =
106
Q
●
Flow Variable FV =
r c ns l
where, l = Length of bearing
Q = Flow of lubricant
8.3 p (CFV)
●
Temperature rise Dt =
FV
æ Dt ö
●
Average temperature Tav = Ti + ç ÷
è2 ø
where, Ti = Inlet temperature
5
Fluid Mechanics
Solid
Its molecules are very closely spaced. Intermolecular cohesive force is high
between its molecules. Solid undergoes static deformation.
Fluid
The space between fluid molecules is relatively large e.g., liquid and gas.
Their intermolecular force is low. Fluid undergoes continuous deformation.
Ideal Fluid
It has no viscosity, no surface tension and incompressible.
Real Fluid
It possesses the properties like viscosity, surface tension and compressibility.
Fluid Mechanics 157
Properties of Fluid
The material properties of a fluid, which may vary, sometimes
sensitively with temperature, pressure and composition; determine its
mechanical behaviour.
Some of the properties of fluids are given below
Density
Mass of liquid in unit volume is known as density.
Mass
Density r =
Volume
Weight m. g
Specific weight = = =r×g
Volume V
Specific Weight
It is defined as the weight per unit volume.
Specific Volume
Specific volume of a liquid is defined as volume per unit mass. It is also
defined as the reciprocal of specific density.
V 1
Specific volume = =
m r
Shear stress
A Thixotropic
Ideal plastic
Its unit is pascal. Rheoplastic
1 Pa = 1 N/m 2
and 1 bar = 100 kPa = 105
Pseudoplastic
Pa = 105 N/m 2 Newtonian
Initial Dialatant
dA stress
Ideal fluid
dF Stress-fluid graph
Force over surface
Pascal’s Law
It states that pressure or intensity of pressure at a
point in a static fluid (fluid is in rest) is equal in all
directions. If fluid is not in motion then according to
Pascal’s law, px
px = p y = pz
where, px, py and pz are the pressure at point x, y, z py
pz
respectively.
Pressure at a point
Hydrostatic Law
It states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to
weight density of fluid at that point. e.g., if fluid is in rest, then balancing the
force acting on small element of fluid is
¶p p.A
= rg or dp = rg dz z
¶z
Now, integrating from z = 0 to z = h depth,
(dm)g Dz
then pressure at h depth from free surface
is
p h
ò0 dp = rg ò0 dz p+
¶p . Dz . DA
p ¶z
p = rgh and h=
rg
Pressure-density diagram
where, h is known as pressure head.
Fluid Mechanics 159
Archimedes’ Principle
It states, ‘when a body is immersed completely or d
partially in a fluid, it is lifted up by a force equal to
weight of fluid displaced by the body.
Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced by body
h
x
Buoyant force on cylinder x
= Weight of fluid displaced by cylinder
= VSin r l g
Cylinder-fluid system
VSin = Value of immersed part of solid
or FB = r water ´ g ´ Volume of fluid displaced
= r water ´ g ´ Volume of cylinder immersed inside the water
p
= rwg d 2 x (Q w = mg = rVg )
4
Concept of Buoyancy
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by fluid on
the body which is equal to weight of fluid displaced by body. This upward
force is known as buoyancy.
Principle of Floatation
According to this principle, if weight of body is equal to buoyant force then, body will
float.
FB = mg
VS in r l g = VSr S g
p p
r w g d 2x = r g d 2h
4 4
rwx = r rh
Centre of Buoyancy
The point at which force of buoyancy acts is
called centre of buoyancy. It lies on centre of
gravity of volume of fluid displaced or centre of
gravity of the part of the body which is inside the h G
water. Point B is the centre of buoyancy.
h x
B
2 x /2
G G
B B¢
w F B¢
Body floating in liquid
Stable Equilibrium
When centre of buoyancy lies above the centre of B
gravity, submerged body is stable.
G
Stable equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium
When B lies below G, then body is in unstable
G
equilibrium.
B
Unstable equilibrium
Fluid Mechanics 161
Neutral Equilibrium
When B and G coincide then, body is in neutral B
equilibrium.
G
Neutral equilibrium
Stability of Floating Bodies
When the body undergoes an angular displacement about a horizontal
axis, the shape of the immersed volume changes and so the centre of
buoyancy moves relative to the body.
Stable Equilibrium
M
When a body is given a small angular displacement by
external means and if body comes to its original position G
due to internal forces then, it is called stable equilibrium.
It occurs, when metacentre lies above centre of gravity. Stable position
G
Unstable Equilibrium
In the above case, if body does not come in its original M
position and moves further away then, it is known as
unstable equilibrium. M lies below centre of gravity. Unstable position
Neutral Equilibrium
When a body is given a small angular displacement and M
G
it sets on new position then, body is called in neutral
equilibrium. In this, M and G coincide. Neutral position
1
Relation between B, G and M is GM = - BG
V
Here, .I = Least moment of inertia of plane of body at water surface
G = Centre of gravity
.B = Centre of buoyancy
M = Metacentre
Y
d Y
X
X X
X X
Y
Front view Top view
p 4
I = 64 d
162 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
X X Y
b
Y h
h Xd X
d
b b
Y
3-d view Front view Top view
Different views of rectangular and circular cross-sections
bd 3 db 3
l = min ( l xx, l yy ), l xx =
, l yy =
12 12
V is volume submerged inside the water can be given as
V = bdx
where b,d and x are the length, width and depth of the section or body.
BG is distance between centre of gravity and
centre of buoyancy. (In other words, BG =
distance between centre of gravity of whole body
h
and centre of gravity of submerged part of body) x
When we find out GM then, we can determine
d
the status of body as GM > 0 (stable b
equilibrium), GM < 0 (unstable equilibrium), Submerged part of body
GM = 0 (neutral equilibrium).
Viscosity
It is property of fluid by which it offers resistance
to deformation under the action of shear force. u + du
As shown in figure, upper layer moves with dy
u
higher velocity relative to lower layer. Upper
y
layer tries to move lower layer but lower layer
moves with smaller velocity so, it opposes the Viscosity at different layers
motion of upper layer. Shear stress between
two joining layers is proportional to velocity
gradient
du du
tµ , t=m×
dy dy
m is the coefficient of viscosity.
Unit of viscosity = pascal-s (Pa-s) = N-s/m 2
1 poise = 0.1pascal-s (Pa-s) = 0.1 N-s /m 2
Kinematics and Dynamics of Fluids
Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion
of bodies and systems without consideration of the forces the cause the
motion.
Dynamics is that branch of mechanics which treats the motion of bodies
and the action of forces in producing or changing their motion. Dynamics is
also closely related to Newton’s second law.
Kinematics deals with motion of particles without considering the forces
causing the motion.
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
Continuity Equation
This equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. According
to this equation, mass flow rate is constant.
A1v 1 A2v 2
By continuity equation, r 1A1v 1 = r 2 A2v 2 or =
V1 V2
where, V1 and V2 are the specific volume for inlet and outlet flows
respectively.
Here, V is specific volume.
If fluid is incompressible, then
r1 = r2
\ A1v 1 = A2v 2
Quantity Av is known as discharge Q.
¶r
If flow in steady then, =0 d dz
z
¶t ww
vv X
X
Continuity equation will be uu
d y
dy
d x
dx
Y
¶ ¶ ¶ Y
(r × u ) + (r × v ) + (r × w ) = 0
¶x ¶y ¶z 3-D body diagram
Stream Function
The partial derivative of stream function with respect to any direction gives
the velocity component at right angles to that direction. It is denoted by y.
¶y ¶y
= v, = -u
¶x ¶y
Continuity equation for two-dimensional flow is
¶ 2y ¶ 2y
- + =0
¶ x ¶ y ¶ y¶ x
1 æ ¶u ¶wö
wy = ç - ÷
2 è ¶z ¶x ø
1 æ ¶v ¶u ö
wz = ç - ÷
2 è ¶x ¶y ø
1 æ ¶v ¶u ö 1 é ¶ æ - ¶f ö ¶ æ ¶f ö ù
wz = ç - ÷ = ê ç ÷- ç- ÷ú
2 è ¶x ¶y ø 2 ë ¶x è ¶y ø ¶y è ¶x ø û
1 æ - ¶ 2f ¶ 2f ö
= ç + ÷=0
2 è ¶x × ¶y ¶y × ¶x ø
Vorticity
Vorticity W is two times of value of rotation.
Vortex flow It is defined as the flow of a fluid along a curved path or the
flow of rotating mass of fluid is known as vortex flow.
Forced Vortex versus Free Vortex Flow
Forced Vortex Flow Free Vortex Flow
In this flow, some external torque is In this flow external torque is zero.
required to rotate the fluid mass.
w = constant d
T = (mvr)
v dt
or = constant
r As T =0
d
\ (mvr) = q
dt
So, mvr = constant
As m is constant
So, v × r = constant
Examples Examples
(a) Flow of liquid inside the impeller of (a) Flow of liquid around a circular bend in
centrifugal pump. pipe.
(b) A vertical cylinder containing liquid (b) A whirlpool in river.
which is rotated about its central axis
with constant angular velocity w.
Energy Equations
The common fluid mechanics equations used in fluid dynamics are given
below
Let, Gravity force Fg Pressure force Fp
Viscous force Fv Compressibility force Fc
Turbulent force Ft
Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Fc + Ft
(a) If fluid is incompressible, then Fc = 0
\ Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
This is known as Reynolds equation of motion.
(b) If fluid is incompressible and turbulence is negligible, then
Fc = 0, Ft = 0 \ Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv
This equation is called as Navier-Stokes equation.
(c) If fluid flow is considered ideal then, viscous effect will also be
negligible. Then, 2 v2
Fnet = Fg + Fp
This equation is known as Euler’s equation. ds
Euler’s equation can be written as dz
1
dp
+ gdz + vdv = 0
r v1
Incompressible flow
Bernoulli’s Equation
It is based on law of conservation of energy. This equation is applicable
when it is assumed that
1. Flow is steady and irrotational
2. Fluid is ideal (non-viscous)
3. Fluid is incompressible
Bernoulli’s equation can be obtained by Euler’s equation
dp
+ v dv + g dz = constant
r
As fluid is incompressible, r = constant
dp
ò r + ò v dv + ò g dz = constant
170 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
p v2
or + + z = constant
rg 2g
¯ ¯ ¯
Pressure Kinetic Potential
head head head
Energy
where, Head =
Weight
But, real fluids are viscous and hence, offer resistance to flow. Bernoulli’s
equation can be modified by taking head loss into consideration.
Between points 1 and 2,
p1 v 12 p v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 + hL
rg 2 g rg rg
Flow Measurement
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can
be measured in a variety of ways. Positive displacement flow meters
accumulate of a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times
the volume is filled to measure flow.
Some flow measuring instruments are given as
Venturimeter
It measures the rate of flow of fluid flowing through a pipe. Applying
Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2.
v 2 - v 12 1
\ Venturi meter head, h= 2 2
2g
d1 d2
where, v 1 = Velocity at inlet section
v 2 = Velocity at throat Inlet Throat
In term of discharge, venturimeter head,
SL
Q 2th æ 1 1 ö
h= ç 2 - 2÷
2 g è A2 A1 ø SHg
Qact = Cd × Q Venturimeter
Cd is coefficient of discharge (Cd < 1)
æ SHg ö
If SHg > S L h = x ç - 1÷
è SL ø
æ SHg ö
If S L > SHg h = x ç1 - ÷
è SL ø
Fluid Mechanics 171
Pitot Tube
Pitot tube is used to measure mean
velocity of flow.
Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation h
between points 1 and 2,
Stagnation pressure = static pressure 2
+ dynamic pressure H
1
2
p1 v 1 p
+ = 2
rg 2 g rg
Actual velocity, vactual = Cv 2 gh Pitot tube
FY p2A2 cosq
1 v2
2
p1A1 v1
q
X
FX
1
Fluid flow through bend pipe
172 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
h1
h
h2
dh d
H h H
dh
A C
A B dh
C H
H–h
q/2 q
O
Triangular notch
Let H = Head of water above the V notch, Q = Angle of notch
Discharge over a triangular notch or weir
8 q
Q= Cd tan ´ 2 g H 5/ 2
15 2
174 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Hydraulic Jump
1 2
The rise of water level which takes place
due to the transformation of the
unstable shooting flow (super-critical) to
the stable streaming flow (subcritical
flow) is known as hydraulic jump.
Dam
Depth of flow after the jump, Hydraulic jump
d1 d 12 2 v 12d 1 d 1
d2 = - + + = ( 1 + 8 (Fe )21 - 1)
2 4 g1 d2
Depth of hydraulic jump = d 2 - d 1
v 1 = Velocity of flow on the upstream side
d 1 = Depth of flow on upstream side
v1
Fe =
gd 1
Fe = Fraud number, d 2 = Depth of flow after the hydraulic jump.
4f × Lv 2
z A - zB = hf = …(i)
d × 2g
Pa
zA
zB
du
Note Velocity gradient does not exist outside the boundary layer as
dy
outside the boundary layer velocity is constant and equal to free stream
velocity.
Free stream
u = u¥
d (Boundary layer)
u=0
u=0
Loading
edge
X
Laminar Flow
A flow in which fluid flows in layer and no intermixing with each other is
known as laminar flow. For circular pipe, flow will be laminar.
rvD
If Re = < 2000
m
where, r = Density of fluid, v = Velocity of fluid
D = Diameter of pipe, m = Viscosity of fluid,
●
For flat plate, flow will be laminar.
rvL
If Re = < 5 ´ 105
m
where L is length of plate.
Turbulent Flow
In this flow, adjacent layer of fluid cross each other (particles of fluid
move randomly instead of moving in stream line path), for flow inside
pipe. If Re > 4000, the flow is considered turbulent, for flat plate,
Re > 5 ´ 105.
Fluid Mechanics 179
dp dp
<0 <0
dx pmin dx
A B C S D
Separation boundary layers ABCSD
æ du ö
Separation print S is determined from the condition ç ÷ = 0
è dy ø y
æ du ö æ dp ö
●
If ç ÷ = - ve, the flow is separated ç > 0÷
è dy ø y = 0 è dx ø
Fluid Mechanics 181
æ du ö æ ¶p ö
● If ç ÷ = 0, the flow is on the average of separation ç = 0÷
è dy ø y = 0 è ¶x ø
æ ¶u ö
● If ç ÷ = +ve, the flow will not separate or flow will remain attained
è ¶y ø y = 0
æ dp ö
ç < 0 ÷.
è dx ø
Chezy’s Formula
In fluid dynamics, Chezy‘s formula describes the mean flow velocity of
steady, turbulant open channel flow.
q
● Mean velocity of flow, p hf
1
p
rg rg 2
v = c mi , c = Chezy constant = rg
f'
i = Loss of head per unit length of pipe
h
= f (hydraulic slope tanq)
L Chezy's formula of steady flow
Area (A)
m = Hydraulic mean depth =
Wetted perimetr ( p)
The another type of head loss in minor loss is induced due to following
reasons
Loss due to Sudden Enlargement
( v - v 2 )2
Head loss, hL = 1
2g
Note In case 1 and 2, flow occurs between pipe to pipe, while in case 3 and 4,
flow occurs between tank and pipe. We are taking entry or exit w.r.t
pipe. So, be careful.
Combination of Pipes
Pipes may be connected in series, parallel or in both. Let see their
combinations.
Pipes in Series
As pipes are in series, the
discharge through each pipe
will be same. H
d1
Q = A1v 1 = A2v 2 = A3v 3 d2
Total loss of head = d3
Major loss + Minor loss L1
H = hL1 + hL2 L1
L3
Major loss = Head loss
Pipe in series
due to friction in each
pipe
hL1 = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
f1L1v 12 f L v2 f L v2
= + 2 2 2 + 3 3 3
d1 × 2 g d2 × 2 g d3 × 2 g
While, minor loss = Entrance loss + Expansion loss
+ Contraction loss + Exit loss
0.5v 12 2
( v 2 - v 1) 0.5v 32 v 32
hL2 = + + +
2g 2g 2g 2g
184 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Q1
Pipes in Parallel
In this discharge in main pipe is equal to Q A B Q
sum of discharge in each of parallel pipes.
Hence, Q = Q1 + Q2
Q2
Loss of head in each parallel pipe is same
Pipes in parallel
hf1 = hf2
f1L1v 12 f L v2 f L Q2 f L Q2
= 2 2 2 or 1 1 1 5 = 2 2 25
d1 × 2 g d2 × 2 g 12 × 1d 1 12 × 1d 2
where, hf1 and hf 2 are head loss at 1 and 2 respectively.
Equivalent Pipe
A compound pipe which consists of several pipes of different lengths and
diameters to be replaced by a pipe having uniform diameter and the same
length as that of compound pipe is called as equivalent pipe.
hLe = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
2 2
fLQ f1L1Q f2L2Q 2 f3L3Q 2
= + + (where, L = L1 + L2 + L3)
12.1d 5 12.1d 15 12.1d 25 12.1d 35
If f = f1 = f2 = f3
L L1L3 L2 L L L L
Then, 5
= 5 + 5 + 5 Þ 5
= 15 + 25 + 35
d d1 d2 d3 d d1 d2 d3
Fluid Mechanics 185
Water Hammer
When a liquid is flowing through a long pipe fitted with a vale at the end of
the pipe and the valve is closed suddenly a pressure wave of high intensity
is produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high intensity is having
the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe. This phenomenon
is known as water hammer.
●
Intensity of pressure rise due to water hammer,
rLv
p= -
t
●
When valve is closed gradually when valve closed suddenly with rigid
pipe.
p = v Kr
186 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is a flow regime characterised by the following points as given
below
●
Shear stress in turbulent flow
du du
t = t v + tt = m +h
dy dy
where, t v and tt = shear stress due to viscosity and turbulence.
h = eddy viscosity coefficient.
●
Turbulent shear stress by Reynold.
t = r u¢ v¢
u¢ and v ¢ fluctuating component of velocity.
●
Shear stress in turbulent flow due to Prandtle is
2
æ du ö
t = rl 2 ç ÷
è dy ø
where, l = Mixing length.
●
The velocity distribution in the turbulent flow for pipes is given by the
expression
Fluid Mechanics 187
y
u = umax + 2.5 u * loge
R
umax = centre velocity
where, y = Distance from the pipe wall, R = radius of the pipe
æ t ö
u * = Shear velocity ç 0 ÷.
è r ø
● Velocity defect is the difference between the maximum velocity (umax ) and
local velocity (u ) at any point is given by
R
umax - u = 5.75 u * log 10
y
● Karman-Prandtle velocity distribution equation.
Hydrodynamically pipe
u æ u* y ö
= 5.75 log 10 ç ÷ + 5.5 (for smooth pipe)
u* è n ø
æ yö
= 5.75 log 10 ç ÷ + 8.5 (for rough pipe)
èkø
where, u = velocity at any point in the turbulent flow
t0
u* = shear velocity =
r
n = Kinematic viscosity of fluid
y = Distance from pipe wall
k = Roughness factor.
●
Velocity distribution in terms of average velocity
u u*R
= 5.75 log 10 + 5.5 (for smooth pipe)
u* n
R
= 5.75 log 10 + 4.75 (for rough pipe)
k
u -u y
= 5.75 log 10 + 3.75 (for both rough and smooth pipe)
u* k
16
●
Coefficient of friction f = (for laminar flow)
Re
0.0791
f= 1
, 4000 £ Re < 105 (for smooth pipe)
(Re) 4
188 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
0.05525
= 0.0008 + 0.257
, 4 ´ 107 £ Re £ 105 (for smooth pipe)
Re
1 æRö
= 2 log 10 ç ÷ + 1.74 (for rough pipe)
4f èkø
Buckingham p Theorem
It states that if all the n-variables are described by m fundamental
dimensions, they may be grouped into ( n - m ) dimensionless p term.
f ( p 1, p 2¼ p n - m ) = 0
p 1 = X 2a1 X 3b1 X c41 X 1
p 2 = X 2a2 X 3b 2 X c4 2 X 5
M M M M
a b
p n - m = X 2 n - m X 3 n - m X c4 m X n
where, X 2, X 3 and X 4 ® repeating variables.
Different Numbers and their Equations in Fluid Mechanics
Number Equation Signification
Fi rvl
Reynold number = Flow in closed conduit pipe
Fn m
Fi v For free surface where
=
Fraude number Fg gL gravity predominant e. g .,
weir spillway, channel
Fi v
=
Euler number Fg p In cavitation studies
r
Fi v
Mach number = For compressible fluid
Fe C
Fi v
=
Weber number F6 6 In capillary studies
rl
Fluid Mechanics 189
Scale ratio for velocity v r = Lr (Lr is the scale ratio for length)
Time Tr = Lr
l Acceleration ar = 1
l Discharge Q r = L2.5
r
l Force Fr = L3r
l Scale ratio for power pr = L3.5
r
l Scale ratio for energy, work torque moment
Ship partially submerged in rough and turbulent sea.
Head
Head is defined as energy content of fluid per unit weight of fluid.
Total energy
Head H = specific energy of liquid =
Weight of liquid
Its unit is metre or centimetre.
Fluid Mechanics 191
Dynamic Head
It is also known as kinetic head. It is the ratio of kinetic energy to weight of
fluid.
1
mv 2
2 v2
Dynamic head = =
mg 2g
Pressure Head
It is the ratio of pressure energy to its weight.
Pressure energy
Pressure head =
Weight
p×V p×V p
= = =
w r × V × g rg
p
\ Pressure head =
rg
Key Points
✦ Hydraulic turbines extract energy from water which has a high head.
✦ These turbines are basically of two types
(a) Reaction turbines (b) Impulse turbines
✦ Reaction turbines are smaller than impulse turbines
✦ Reaction turbines are low head, high-flow devices.
Piezometric Head
It is the sum of pressure head and potential head.
p
Piezometric head = + h
w
192 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Centrifugal Head
When liquid particles rotate, a centrifugal force 2 R2
acts on these particles which increases 1
pressure forces on the liquid particles. In
figure, an annular ring is shown which is w R1
rotated with angular velocity w . Consider a thin
ring of thickness dr at r distance from centre.
Then, net force due to pressure difference =
change in centrifugal force Angular ring
Þ ( p + dp) × dA - p × dA = (dm ) × r × w2 p +dp
1 2 R2
Þ
r ò1
dp = w2 ò r × dr
R1
dr
p2 - p1 w2 æ R22 R12 ö
= ç - ÷
rg g è 2 2 ø r
p
u 22- u 12
Þ hc = (\u = rw) Thin ring
2g
It can be said that centrifugal head represents the energy per unit weight of
fluid which is lost or gained by the fluid due to displacement of fluid caused
by centrifugal force.
Impact of Jet
When a jet strikes to plate, its momentum is changed. Hence, it exerts force
on the plate (Newton’s second law) i . e.,
dv m
As m = constant, F =m× or F = ( v 2 - v 1) = r × Q × ( v 2 - v 1)
dt t
Q is volume flow rate of fluid.
v c o sq
v cos
q
v
vv v sin q
Symmetrical curved plate
194 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
u f
q
v1
vr vf1
1
a q
u
Nozzle vw1
Unsymmetrical moving vane
v 2 = Absolute velocity of jet at outlet, v r1 = Relative velocity at inlet
v r2 = Relative velocity at outlet
vw u vw = 0
2
u 2
b b = 90°
v2 vf v2 = v f2
vr 2 vr
2 2
u
vw
2 b
vf v2
vr 2
2
vinitial = v w1 , v final = - v w 2
Fx = rAv r1 ( v w1 + v w 2 )
where, v w 2 is in opposite direction if b < 90°. v w 2 is in direction of
v w1 , if b > 90°.
v w1 , is zero, if b = 90°.
● Work done per second = F × u = r × A × v r1 ( v w1 + v w 2 ) × u
Work output per second rAv r1 ( v w1 + v w 2 ) × U 2 v r1( v w1 + v w 2 ) × u
h= = =
Input KE per second 1
rA × ( v 1) × v 12 v 13
2
R1
vf R2
2
2
vr
v
f b2
u2 vw
2
W = F ×u = T ´ w
= rAv 1 ( v w1 × u 1 + v w 2 × u 2 )
Rate of work done 2( v w1 × u 1 + v w 2 × u 2 )
h= =
KE per second v 12
Impulse Turbine
It works on the principle of impulse. In Water from dam
this turbine, the whole pressure energy
Bucket vane
of water is converted into kinetic
energy. Fluid is brought out by a Runner
penstock from dam. w
At end it is ejected through a nozzle.
The fluid coming out of the nozzle in
Jet
the form of a free jet strikes on a Nozzle
series of buckets mounted on the Pelton wheel
periphery of the wheel. Pelton wheel
is the example of impulse turbine.
●
Maximum efficiency,
1 + cos f
\ hmax =
2
u vr1 q
●
Mechanical efficiency u
Power available at v1 = vw 1
turbine shaft
hmech =
Power developed
by runner
Intel velocity diagram
198 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Reaction Turbine
It is based on impulse reaction. In this turbine, a part of pressure energy is
converted into kinetic energy before entry to runner. Remaining part of
pressure energy is gradually converted into KE until pressure is reduced to
atmospheric pressure. This pressure difference and impulse action causes
reaction which rotates the runner and produces mechanical work.
e.g., Francis Turbine, Kaplan Turbine.
Fluid Mechanics 199
Guide wheel
Scroll
casing Runner
Francis reaction turbine
R1
vf2 R2
v2
2
vr
b
f v w2
u2
Velocity diagram of Francis
Centrifugal Pump
A pump is a device which transfers the mechanical energy given by motor
or engine into pressure energy or KE or both of fluid. In centrifugal pump,
the rotating impeller of pump impresses a centrifugal head or pressure on
the liquid which leaves the impeller at high velocity.
In centrifugal pump, a certain mass of liquid is made to rotate along the
impeller from central axis of rotation. Centrifugal head causes the water to
move radially outwards at higher velocity and causes the water to rise to a
higher level.
202 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
v1 = vf R1
1
vr
1
u1
●
Inlet diagram,
vr v1 = vf1
1
u1
Inlet diagram
●
Work done by impeller on water = rQ ( v w 2 × u 2 - v w1u 1)
As entry is radial v w1 = 0
\ W = ( v w 2 u 2 ) × rQ
●
Discharge rate = Area ´ Velocity of flow
Q = ( p D1B1) v f1 = pD2B2 × v f2
B1 and B2 are widths of impeller.
Key Points
✦ There are no drive seals, therefore the risk of leaks is completely eradicated.
✦ No heat transfer from the motor.
✦ Magnetic coupling can be broken, if the load of the pump is too great.
✦ Liquids containing ferrous particles are problematic when a magnetic drive
pump is used.
Fluid Mechanics 203
hd
Hm Hs
Pump
hs
hfs
vs2
2g
Centrifugal pump
Cavitation
It is defined as the phenomenon of formation
of vapour bubbles in the region of flowing
liquid where its pressure falls below the
A
vapour pressure of liquid. In this
phenomenon, liquid vaporises and flow does
not remain continuous. A schematic view of
centrifugal pump is shown. vs hs
Assume, p a = Atmospheric pressure
p s = Pressure at eye of impeller pa
h s = Suction lift
B
h fs = Friction loss in suction pipe
v s = Velocity in suction pipe
Cavitation
By Pascal’s law, pB = patm
By Bernoulli’s theorem between A and B,
pa p v2
= s + hs + s + hfs
rg rg 2g
ps pa æ v 2ö
So, = - ç hs + hfs + s ÷
rg rg è 2g ø
Reciprocating Pump
In reciprocating pump, mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy
by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating which
exerts the thrust on the liquid and increases its hydraulic energy.
Fluid Mechanics 205
Delivery valve
hd Cylinder
Piston Connecting
rod B
Piston rod D
hs Suction valve
Suction pipe
Pump level
Reciprocating pump
p
A = Cross-sectional area of the piston or cylinder = D2
4
L = Length of stroke = 2 ´ radius of crank (2r )
N = Rpm of crank.
hs = Height of the axis of cylinder from water surface in pump
hd = Height of delivery outlet above the cylinder axis.
●
Work done by Reciprocating Pump
rg ALN
W= ( hs + hd ) [for single acting]
60
2rg ALN
W= ( hs+ hd ) [for double acting]
60
206 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Slip
Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical
discharge and actual discharge of the pump.
Comparison between Centrifugal Pump and Reciprocating Pumps
S. No. Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump
Continuous and smooth and can Fluctuating and pulsating and can
1.
handle large quantity of liquid handle small quantity of liquid only.
Used for large discharge and small Used for small discharge and large
2.
head. head.
3. It runs at high speed. It runs at low speed.
4. Efficiency of centrifugal pump is high. Low efficiency.
5. It run smoothly without much noise. It run with much noise.
Fluid System
Fluid system is defined as the device in which power is transmitted with the
help of fluid which may be liquid or a gas under pressure.
● For steady state unidirectional heat flow in radial direction with no internal
heat generation,
¶ 2t 1 ¶t
+ =0
¶r 2
r ¶r
1 d æ dt ö dt
çr ÷ = 0 Þ r = Constant
r dr è dr ø dr
Ti - T0 DT
Heat transfer Q= = Hollow cylinder
R R
A hollow sphere
Heat and Mass Transfer 211
r2 R2
r1 k1 Ti R1 R2 R3 R4 To
r3 Ti
k2 r3
r2
Ti R1 R2 R3 R4 T0
r1 k 1
Key Points
✦ In critical radius of insulation, total resistance first decreases and attain a
minimum value and then increases.
✦ Critical radius is independent of pipe radius.
✦ For purpose of insulation to the radius, the heat transfer rate for tube,
Outside radius > critical radius (rc )
✦ For purpose of insulation to the increase, the heat transfer rate for tube.
Outside radius < critical radius (rc )
✦ Heat transfer will always reduce on application of insulation of wall as
convective resistance will remain unchanged while conductive resistance
will increase with thickness of insulation.
p = pd d
l
p wall
Ac = d 2
4
Circular fin diagram
Heat and Mass Transfer 213
At x = 0, t = t 0 and q = t 0 - t a = q 0
t0
dq
at x = l, Q = 0 i . e., =0
dx t
q t - t a cosh m ( l - x ) q = t – ta
= =
q 0 t0 - ta cosh m l t = ta
Q fin = Phk Ac (t 0 - t a ) tanh ml
At x = 0, t = t 0 and q = q 0 t¥
at x = l, Qconduction = Qconvection
æ dt ö
- kA ç ÷ = h A s (t - t a )
è dx ø x = l
x= 6
æ h ö
ç cosh m ( l - x ) + sinh m ( l - x ) ÷
q = q0 ç mk ÷
ç h ÷
cosh ml + sin h ml
è mk ø
h
tan h ml +
Q fin = hPkAc q 0 mk
h
1+ tan h ml
mk
Fin Efficiency
Actual heat rate from fin Q
Fin efficiency is given by h =
Maximum heat transfer rate Q max
hPkAc q 0 1 kAc
●
If l ® ¥ (infinite length of fin), h = =
h ( Pl + b d ) q 0 l hP
q0 hPkAc tanh ml
●
If fin is with insulated tip, h =
hPlq 0
é h ù
ê tan h ml + mk ú
q0 h PkAc ê ú
h
ê1+ tan h ml ú
●
If finite length of fin, h = ë mk û
h ( Pl + bd ) q 0
Heat and Mass Transfer 215
Fin Effectiveness
Fin effectiveness is dented by e.
Actual heat transfer from fin surface (Q )
e=
Rate of heat transfer without fin
Q q PhkAc tanh ml tanh ml
e= = 0 = (if l ® ¥)
hAq 0 h A q0 h Ac
Pk
Pk
If £ 1, then e £ 1 Þ It means there will be reduction in rate of heat
hAc
transfer due to its very high convective coefficient of heat transfer. (in case
of boiling condensation and high velocity fluid).
Key Points
✦ Heat conduction is along the x-axis under steady state.
✦ There is no internal heat generation within the fin.
✦ Base temperature is maintained constant at T0 .
✦ Convective heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the entire surface of fin.
Unsteady State
If temperature of a body does not vary with time, it is said to be in steady
state. But if there is an abrupt change in its surface temperature, it attains
an equilibrium temperature or a steady state after some period. During this
period, the temperature varies with time and body is said to be in unsteady
or transient state. This phenomenon is known as transient heat conduction.
æ dt ö
Heat conduction (Transient heat conduction) ç ÷ ¹ 0
è dt ø
Let V = Volume of body
c = Specific heat of body
r = Density of body T¥
V
R = Thermal conductivity of T
material
h = Convective heat transfer
A (surface area)
coefficient
t i = Initial temperature of body Heat conduction body
t a = Surrounding temperature.
216 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
- hAt
dt t - ta rVc
- rVc = hA (t - t a ), =e
dt ti - ta
Total heat flow rate,
é æç - hAt ö÷ ù é æç - hAt ö÷ ù
ê
Q = - rVC (t i - t a ) e è dVC ø ú ê
= rVC (t i - t a ) e è rVC ø
- 1ú
ê ú ê ú
êë úû êë úû
l
Internal conductive resistance c
Biot number Bi = kA
æ 1ö
Surface or convective thermal resistance ç ÷
è hA ø
hlc
Bi =
k
where, lc = Characteristic length
at æ k ö t - ta
Fourier number Fo = 2 ça = ÷, = e( - Bi Fo )
lc è rc ø t i - t a
Q = - hA (t - t a ) e( - Bi Fo ) or Q = rVc (t i - t a )[e -Bi Fo - 1]
●
Temperature of a body in unsteady state can be calculated at any time
only when Biot number < 0.1.
Characteristic Length
Characteristic length is denoted by lc .
Volume (V )
lc =
Surface area exposed to surrounding ( A )
Forced Convection
If fluid motion is imparted by external means like pump, fan, compressor
etc., the convection is called forced convection.
Dimensionless Number
There are following types of dimensionless number
u¥
d
Turbulent y
Laminar
flow
Transition Laminar
point sublayer
x
Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer
tw æ ¶u ö
local skin friction coefficient Cfx = , where t w = m ç ÷
1
d Kt Pu ¥2 è ¶y ø y = 0
2
0.664
d kt = (for laminar flow)
Re x
Average skin coefficient upon total length l of the plate (for laminar flow)
1.328
Cf =
Re x
d 0.576
For turbulent flow = 1
x 5
(Re x )
0.059
Cfx = 1
(Re x ) 5
0.074
Cf = 1
5
(Re x )
t – ts
ft
A
Temperature profile during flow of warm
(Thermal boundary layer) fluid over a cool plate.
Heat and Mass Transfer 223
Key Points
✦ The heat is conducted by conduction.
✦ The thermal gradient is set up in the fluid layers, thereby a temperature profile
is developed on the fluid flow.
✦ In the boundary layer region, the temperature of fluid varies from surface up
to the thermal boundary layer thickness.
Reynolds Analogy
The following equations are used for Reynold analogy
du
tw = m …(i)
dy
dt
Q=-kA …(ii)
dy
m Cp
=1 …(iii)
k
tw
Cfx = …(iv)
1 2
ru ¥
2
From Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get
hx C
= fx
rC p u ¥ 2
2
hx Dt C
Since, St = , St x (Pr) 3 = fx
rCp u ¥ Dt 2
Heat Exchangers
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer
from one medium to another. Biolers and condensers in thermal power
plants are example of large industrial heat exchangers. Heat exchangers
are also abundant in chemical and process industries.
Fouling Factor
The phenomenon of rust formation and deposition of fluid impurities on
surface which responsible to increase thermal resistance with a
corresponding drop in the performance of the heat exchange equipment.
Fouling factor
1 1
Rf = -
vdirty vclear
where, v = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Heat and Mass Transfer 225
Temperature
th th
1 1
Hot fluid q1 Hot fluid
Temperature
th th 2
2
q1 A q2
q2 tc
1
tc
1 t B
c2 Cold fluid t B
c2
Cold fluid
A
Length Length
Parallel flow Counter flow
Temperature distribution for parallel and counter flow heat exchanger
q1 - q2
Heat transfer, Q = UA = UAq m
æq ö
loge ç 1 ÷
èq2 ø
q1 - q2
LMTD q m =
q
loge 1
q2
q 1 = t h1 - tc1
q 2 = t h2 - tc 2
If the heat capacity of two fluid equal
qm = q1 - q2
where, q 1 = Temperature difference between two streams at end A
q 2 = Temperature difference between two streams at end B.
q m = Logarithmic mean temperature difference
Capacity Ratio
The capacity ratio is defined as the ratio of the minimum to maximum
capacity rate.
Capacity ratio c = mc, where c = Specific heat
mc cc
If mh c h> mc cc , R =
mh c h
mh c h
If mh c h < mccc , R =
mc cc
226 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
If mc cc > mh c h Þ cmin = mh c h
Þ Qmax = mh c h(t h 1 - tc1 )
mh c h (t h 1 - t h2 ) t h1 - t h 2
e= =
mh c h (t h1 - tc 1 ) t h1 - tc1
If mh c h < mc cc
Þ cmin = mh c h
UA
NTU =
mh c h
th1 th1
Radiation
Radiation is the process in which energetic particles or energetic waves
travel through a medium or space.
The parameters which deals with the surface emission properties are as
given below
Emissivity (e)
It is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of any body to the emissive
power of a black body of same temperature.
E
e=
Eb
●
For black body, e = 1
●
For white body, e = 0
●
For gray body, 0 < e < 1
Reflectivity (r)
It is defined as the fraction of total incident radiation that are reflected by
material.
Energy reflected (Q r )
Reflectivity (r ) =
Total incident radiation (Q )
Heat and Mass Transfer 229
Absorptivity (a)
It is defined as the fraction of total incident radiation that are absorbed by
material.
Energy absorbed (Q a )
Absorptivity (a) =
Total incident radiation (Q )
Transmissivity (t)
It is defined as the fraction of total incident radiation that are transmitted
through the material.
Energy transmitted (Qt )
Transmissivity ( t ) =
Total incident radiation (Q w )
Q 0 = Q a + Q r + Qt
Q 0 Q a Q r Qt Q0 (incident Qr
= + + energy flux) (reflected)
Q0 Q0 Q0 Q0
a +r +t=1 Qa
(absorbed)
●
For black body a = 1, r = 0, t = 0
Qt
●
For opaque body t = 0, a + r = 1 (transmitted)
●
For white body r = 1, a = 0 and t = 0 Diagram for Q o , Q r , Q a, Q t
Kirchoff’s Law
The emissivity e and absorptivity a of a real surface are equal for radiation
with identical temperature and wavelength.
E
a =e=
Eb
Planck’s Law
Planck suggested following formula, monochromatic emissive power of a
black body.
2 p c 2hl-5
( El )b =
æ ch ö
exp ç ÷ -1
è lkT ø
¥
Total missive power Eb = ò ( El )b dl
0
1 – e1 1 1 – e2
A1 e1 A1 F1 – 2 A2 e2
An electrical network between two non black surfaces
Eb1 - Eb 2
(Q 1- 2 )net =
1 - e1 1 1 - e2
+ +
A1 e 1 A1 F1- 2 A2 e 2
or (Q 1- 2 )net = ( Fg )1- 2 A1 s b (T14 - T24 )
Here, New Gray Body Factor
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 - e1 1 1 - e2
+ +
A1 e 1 A1 F12 A2 e 2
where, E1 = Emissivity for body 1
E2 = Emissivity for body 2
Heat and Mass Transfer 231
Cases
● In case of black surfaces, e 1 = e 2 = 1 , ( Fg )12 = F1 - 2
Qnet = F1 - 2 A1 s (T14 - T24 )
● In case of parallel planes, A1 = A2 and F1 - 2 = 1
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 1
+ -1
e1 e2
● In case of concentric cylinder or sphere, F1 - 2 = 1
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 - e1 1 - e 2 A1
+ 1+
e1 e 2 A2
A1 r1
where, = (for concentric cylinder)
A2 r2
A1 r12
= (for concentric sphere)
A2 r22
●
When a small body lies inside a large enclosure
A1
F1 - 2 = 1, A1< < A2 Þ =0
A2
1
( Fg )1 - 2 =
1 - e1
+1
e1
Radiation shield
Radiation Shield
Radiation shields reduce the radiation heat
transfer by effectively increasing the surface
resistance without actually removing of heat
from overall system. e1 e3 e2
1 3 2
Radiation shield diagram
Eb 1 J1 J3 Eb 3 J3 J2 Eb 2
1 – e1 1 1 – e1 1 – e1 1 1 – e2
A1 C 1 A1 F1–3 A1 e3 A3 e3 A3 F3–2 A3 e2
232 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
\ It provide that reduction in heat flow due to insertion of shield does not affect the
wall temperature.
7
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics System
It is defined as the quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
The mass and region outside the system is called surrounding. Real or
imaginary surface (mathematically thickness zero) that separates the
system from the surrounding is called the boundary.
Note A control volume can be fixed in size and shape as in case of nozzle or it
may involve moving boundaries as shown in Fig. (b). Most control
volume, however have fixed boundaries and thus do not involve any
moving boundaries.
Imaginary
boundary Fixed red
boundary
Moving boundary
CV
(a nozzle) Fixed boundary
Key Points
✦ In closed system, energy transfers but mass does not transfer across the
boundary.
✦ In open system, both mass and energy transfer across the boundary.
✦ In isolated system, neither mass nor energy transfer across the boundary.
Properties of a System
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. It can be independent
or dependent.
1m 1m
m 2 2 Extensive
V 1V 1V properties
T 2 2
P T T
r Intensive
P P
properties
r r
Key Points
✦ Such properties which can be measured by simple instrument and sensed by
human eye are known as macroscopic properties.
✦ Such properties which cannot be sensed by human eye and are observed at
molecular level are known as microscopic properties.
Continuum
Continuum is defined as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes.
The continuum idealisation allows us to treat properties as point function
and to assume properties to vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
State
State of system is described by its properties. At a given state, all the
properties of a system have fixed values. However, there is no need to
specify all the properties in order to fix a state. The number of properties
required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulates. It
means that properties should be independent to each other i . e., when one
property varies, other should be held constant. In other words, the
condition of a system at any instant of time is called its state.
Equilibrium
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state,
there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
236 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Processes
Any change that a system goes from one State 2
equilibrium state to another equilibrium Property A
state is called a process and series of
states through which a system passes
during a process is called the path of the
State 1
process.
Property B
Key Points
✦ Quasi equilibrium is an idealised process and is not a true representation of
an actual process.
✦ Quasi equilibrium process are easy to analyse.
✦ Quasi equilibrium process are work producing devices deliver the maximum
work when they operate on quasi equilibrium processes.
✦ Quasi equilibrium processes as standards to which actual processes can be
compared.
Cycle
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the
end of process i . e., for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.
Thermodynamics 237
Temperature
The temperature is a measure (degree) of hotness or coldness. Generally,
we express the level of temperature qualitatively with words like freezing
cold, warm hot.
e. g ., a metal chair will feel much colder than a wooden one, even both are
at the same temperature.
Temperature Scales
A scale of temperature independent of the thermometric substance is
called a thermodynamic temperature scale. The temperature scales used in
the SI and English system today are the celsius scale and the fahrenheit
scale, respectively. They are related to absolute temperature scales.
(i) Kelvin scale is related to celsius scale by
T(K ) = T(C ) + 273.16
(ii) Rankine scale is related to fahrenheit scale by
T(R ) = T(F ) + 459.67
The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by
T(R ) = 1.8 T(K )
T(° F ) = 1.8 T (° C ) + 32
Þ DT° (F ) = 1.8 DT(K ) = DT(R )
Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak
of pressure only when we deal with gas or liquid. The counterpart of
pressure is stress i . e., force per unit area.
1 pascal = 1N/m 2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
1 kg f/cm 2 = 9.807 N /cm 2
= 9.807 ´ 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar
= 0.96788 atm
238 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Key Points
✦ Isolated system is special case of closed system in which mass and energy
both are not allowed to cross the system.
✦ Concepts of continuum is valid only from the macroscopic point of view (not
macroscopic point of view). It is not valid for similar dimensions of system
and molecules and valid only when size of system is large relative to space
between the molecules.
✦ Thermal equilibrium between two or more bodies exists when they are
brought together, there is no change of temperature, density pressure.
Laws of Thermodynamics
The four laws of thermodynamics define fundamental physical quantities
(temperature, energy and entropy) that characterise thermodynamic
systems. The laws described how these quantities behave under various
circumstances and forbid certain phenomena.
al
rm
th
ium
eq
e
uil
rm
th
ibr
al
In
uil
iu m
eq
equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not
in contact”.
Key Points
✦ If heat is given to the system then in equation we put DQ as positive. In case
of heat is given by the system we put DQ as negative.
✦ If work is done by system then we take DW as positive. However, if work is
done on the system then we put DW as negative.
✦ DU is known as internal energy. It is path independent and it depends on the
final stage (temperature) and initial stage (temperature).
DU = mCV ( DT )
240 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
DU = 0 (as T2 = T1)
V V V
DQ = DW = p2V2 ln 2 = p2 V2 ln 2 = mRT ln 2
V1 V1 V1
Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device operating on a cycle whose sole
effect is the transfer of heat from a low temperature body to high
temperature body.
242 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible to construct a device operating on a cycle whose sole
effect is transfer of heat energy from a single heat reservoir and deliver
equivalent amount of energy by work.
n=±¥ n = g, n = ± ¥ (V = C)
n=g n = –2
n = –1 n = –1
n=1
n = 0 (p = C )
n = – 0.5
p n = 0(p=0) T n=1
n = 1 (T=constant)
n = g (d=C)
V S
p-V and T-S diagrams
dp p
pV n = C, =- n
dV V
The slope of curve increases in the negative direction with increase of n
for Isobaric process ( p = C ) n = 0
Isothermal process ( p = C ) n = 1
Isentropic process (S = C ) n = g
Isometric or isochoric process (V = C ) n = ¥
Ideal Gas Equation (IGE)
m
pV = nRT, pV = RT
M
where, m = Weight of gas, M = Molecular weight
(R = 8.3143 kJ /kg mol-K)
æRö
or pV = m ç ÷ T
èMø
R
pV = mRT Þ R =
M
8.3143 8.3143
Rair = = 0.287 kJ /kg-K Þ RO 2 = = 0.262 kJ/kg-K
28.96 32
Key Points
✦ For calculating heat transfer in reversible polytropic process, if change in
n-g
potential energy is given use, formula DQ = ( DU)
n -1
g -n
If work done is given, use formula DQ = ( DW )
g -1
✦ In case of reversible adiabatic free expansion process DW = 0, DQ = 0, DU = 0
✦ For an isolate system DQ = 0, DW = 0
DU = 0
Þ U = constant
✦ Internal energy is function of temperature only U = f (T )
244 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Energy balance
· æ v2 ö dQ · æ v2 ö dW
m 1 ç h1 + 1 + Z 1 g ÷ + = m 2 ç h2+ 2 + Z 2 g ÷ +
è 2 ø dt è 2 ø dt
Steady Four Energy Equation (SFEE)
v 12 dQ v2 dW
h1 + + Z1 g + = h2 + 2 + Z 2g +
2 dm 2 dm
Key Points
✦ The first law of thermodynamics may be applied to flow processes.
✦ A control surface is the boundary of a control volume which is a fixed region
in space upon which attention is concentrated in the analysis of a problem.
✦ A steady flow process is a process in which all conditions within the control
volume remain constant with time.
æ mv 2 ö
EV = çU + + mgZ ÷
è 2 øV
where, EV = Energy of fluid within the control volume at any instant.
d æ m v2 ö æ v2 ö dm1 dQ
çU + + mg Z ÷ = ç h1 + 1 + Z 1 g ÷ +
dt è 2 øV è 2 ø dt dt
æ v2 ö dm2 dW
- ç h2+ 2 + Z 2 g ÷ -
è 2 ø dt dt
æ v 2 ö æ v 2 ö
or DEV = Q - Wx+ ò ç h1+ 1 + Z 1 g ÷ dm1 - ò ç h2+ 2 + Z 2 g ÷ dm2
è 2 ø è 2 ø
The above equation is general equation for steady flow
dEV
=0
dt
For closed system, m1 = 0, m2 = 0
dEV dQ dW
= - Þ dEV = dQ - dW
dt dt dt
Carnot Cycle
The carnot cycle can be described that it is the most efficient cycle for
converting a given amount of thermal energy into work, or conversely,
creating a temperature difference by doing a given amount of work.
The cycle consists of two isothermal and two irreversible adiabatic
processes.
Isothermal expansion Isothermal compression
p 1 p 1
2 2
Adiabatic Adiabatic
expansion Adiabatic compression
Adiabatic 4 expansion 4
compression 3 3
Isothermal compression Isothermal expansion
V V
Carnot engine Carnot heat pump
Thermal efficiency,
Q - Q 2 æ Work done ö
hthermal = 1 ç ÷
Q 1 è Heat supplied ø
T2
hthermal = 1 - is called the efficiency of Carnot cycle.
T1
Carnot’s Theorem
It states that any heat engine operating on a cycle between two heat
reservoirs at different fixed temperature limits cannot be more efficient than
a reversible engine.
S 2 - S1 > æç ò
2 dQ ö
Þ ÷
è 1 T øirreversible path
S 2 - S1 = æç ò
2dQö
Þ ÷
è 1 T øreversible path
where, S = Strength of the inequality
Entropy
Entropy is a function of a quantity of heat
Reversible path
which shows the possibility of conversion of which replaces the
that heat into work. In other words, entropy irreversible path
shows the randomness of molecules. So, i R
entropy of solid is almost equal to zero while T
f
entropy of gases is large. Entropy is property
dS
of system and it is an extensive property.
Mathematically, Si Sf
æ dQ ö S
dS = ç ÷ (R ® Reversible process)
è T øR T-S diagram
æT ö æV ö
S 2 - S 1 = mCV ln ç 2 ÷ + mR ln ç 2 ÷
è T1 ø è V1 ø
p2 V
or DS = mCV ln + mCp ln 2
p1 V1
T2 p2
or DS = mCp ln - mR ln
T1 p1
Important Formulae
T2
■ In constant volume process, DS = mC V ln
T1
T2
■ In constant pressure process, DS = mC p ln
T1
V2
■ In isothermal process, DS = mR ln
V1
■ In adiabatic process (reversible), DS = 0
æ n - g ö T2
■ In polytropic process (reversible), DS = mC V ç ÷ ln
è n - 1 ø T1
T1 T2
Reservoir A Reservoir B
Transfer of heat in reservoirs A and B
DSuniversal = DS A + DS B
Q Q
DSuniversal = - +
T1 T2
250 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
m1 m2
C1 C2 t1 > t 2
Subsystem 1 t1 t2 Subsystem t 2
HE W =Q1 –Q2
Q2
Body 2
T2®Tf
T0 Q - W Body T
DSuniversal = Cp ln +
T T0 Q
é Tù
Wmax = Cp ê(T - T0 ) - T0 ln ú HE W
ë T0 û
Here, TER stands for Thermal Energy Q–W
Reservior. TER
T0
Work W obtained from a
finite body and TER
1 æ Q ö Sgen
S2 - S1 = ç ÷+
m èT ø m
1
p b
a
2
V
Reversible adiabatic work
Availability and Irreversibility
The sources of energy can be divided into two groups i . e., high grade
energy (mechanical work, electrical energy, water power, wind power) and
low grade energy (heat or thermal energy, heat derived from nuclear fission
or combustion of fossil fuels). That part of the low grade energy which is
available for, conversion is referred to as available energy, while the part
which is not available is known as unavailable energy.
Availability
When a system is subjected to a process from its original state to dead
state the maximum amount of useful work that can be achieved under ideal
conditions is known as available energy or availability of the system.
T1 y
Q1 T Available
Qxy energy
e Wmax = AE x Wmax = Wxy
Q2 = UE T0 unavailable
energy
T2
S
Availability and unavailability of energy
Wmax = AE = Q xy - T0(S y - S x )
Unavailable Energy UE = T0 (S y - S x )
where, S x and S y are the entropy at x and y, respectively.
The Available Energy (AE) is also known as exergy and the Unavailable
Energy (UE) as anergy.
1
Available Energy from a mg T
Finite Energy Source
p Q1
Let us consider a hot gas of mass mg at mf WE= AE
temperature T when the environmental
3 2
temperature is T0.
Q2
Let us gas be cooled from state 1 to state
3 and heat given by the gas Q 1 be utilised
in heating up reversibly a working fluid of 5 V 4
mass mwf from state 3 to state 1. The Availability of an energy
254 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Useful Work
Maximum useful work (Wu )max = Wmax - p0(V2 - V1)
V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes of the systems and p0 is the
atmospheric pressure.
DKE = 0, DPE = 0
(Wu )max = U1 - U2 + p0 (V1 - V2 ) - T0 (S 1 - S 2 )
(Wu )max = (U1+ p0V - T0S 1) - (U2 + p0V2 - T0S 2 )
(Wu )max = f 1 - f 2
f is called the availability function for a closed system,
f = U + p0V - T0 S
or f = u + p0v - T0s (per unit mass basis)
Maximum useful work obtainable when the system exchanges heat with
a thermal reservoirs in addition to the atmosphere
æ mv 12 ö æ mv 22 ö
(Wu )max = ç h1 - T0 S 1 + + mgZ 1÷ - ç h2 - T0 S 2 + + mgZ 2 ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
æ mv 2 ö æ T ö
- çU - T0 S + + mgZ ÷ + Q R ç1 - 0 ÷
è 2 ø è TR ø
æ TR ® Temperature of reservoir ö
ç ÷
èQ R ® Heat received by system ø
Dead State
When the system is in equilibrium with surrounding with temperature T0 and
pressure p0 and the system also in chemical equilibrium with zero velocity
and minimum potential energy. Then, it is called the dead state. All
spontaneous processes terminates at the dead state.
Irreversibility
The actual work done by a system is always less than idealised reversible
work and the difference between the two is called the irreversibility of the
process.
I = Wmax - W
I = T0 ( DSsystem + DSsurrounding )
I = T0( DS )universal
T0( DS )universal represent an increase in unavailable energy.
Irreversibility for adiabatic flow of an ideal gas through the segment of pipe
with friction decreases in availability and is proportional to pressure drop
and mass flow rate.
Dp
I = Wlost = T0 Sgen Þ I = mRT0
p1
Key Points
✦ The term Kennan function B ( = H - To S) is used in steady flow process and
availability function is given by
mv 2
Y =B + + mgZ
2
✦ For closed system availability function is given by
ò = U + p0V - T0 S and a = ò - ò 0 where ò 0 = U0 + p0 V0 - T0 S 0
✦ Property Helmholty function F-be defined by the relation F = U - TS
✦ Given function G is defined as G = H - TS = U + pV - TS
Pure Substance
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a
pure substance i.e., water, nitrogen, helium,
and CO 2. Substances which are mixture of Vapour Vapour
various elements or compounds also qualifies
as a pure substances as long as mixture is Liquid Liquid
homogeneous. (a) H O (b) Air
2
called the saturation pressure psat . e.g., for water at a pressure of 101.325
kPa, Tsat is 100°C, conversely at a temperature of 100°C, psat is 101.325
kPa.
Latent Heat
The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase change
process is called the latent heat. More specifically, the amount of energy
absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of vaporisation. Similarly,
the amount of energy absorbed during vaporisation is called latent heat of
vaporisation and is equivalent to the energy released during condensation.
400
200
0
50 100 150 200 Tsat ºC
A liquid-vapour saturation curve of a pure
substance
Key Points
✦ In the kitchen, higher boiling temperature means shorter cooking time and
energy saving.
✦ The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature of water,
decreases with elevation. Therefore, it takes longer time to cook at higher
altitudes than it does at sea level.
Thermodynamics 259
point
=
p = 15 MPa
p
374.14º p = 8 MPa
p = 1 MPa
p = 0.1 MPa
p = 0.01 MPa
Saturated
Saturated vapour
liquid
0.003155 V, m3/kg
T - V diagram of constant pressure phase-change process of a
pure substances at various pressures.
260 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Triple Phase
When all three phases of a pure substance co-exist in equilibrium. It is
called triple phase.
Triple phase states form a line called the triple line. The triple line appears
as a point on the p -T diagram and therefore is often called the triple point.
Thermodynamics 261
p Critical
point
Liquid
Solid Vapour
+
Liquid
Triple line
Solid
V
For triple phase
Key Points
✦ No substance can exist in the liquid phase in stable equilibrium at pressure
below the triple point pressure.
✦ The same can be said for temperature for substance that contract on freezing.
✦ Substances at high pressure can exist in the liquid phase at temperatures
below the triple point temperature.
Critical
ltin
Me
Liquid point
g
Solid
ti on Triple
ma point Vapour
bli
Su
T
p -T diagram of pure substances
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It
includes energy required to create a system and the amount of energy
required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing
its volume and pressure.
262 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Key Points
✦ The magnitude of latent heat depends on temperature and pressure at which
phase change occurs.
for e.g., at 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and
latent heat of vaporisation is 2257.1 kJ/kg.
✦ At below triple point pressure, substance begins to change directly gas.
✦ Enthalpy of vaporisation decreases as the temperature or pressure increases
and become zero at the critical point.
p-V diagram
Thermodynamics 263
Note The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists
alone or in a mixture with saturated vapour. During vaporization
process, only the amount of saturated liquid changes not its properties.
The same can be said about a saturated vapour.
AB Vav - Vf
Quality x= Þ x=
AC Vfg
Vav = (1 - x ) Vf + xVg or Vav = Vf + x Vfg
Similarly, Uav = Uf + x Ufg
Þ hav = hf + x hfg
Superheated Vapour
Since, the superheated region is a single phase region (vapour phase only)
temperature and pressure are no longer dependent properties and they
can conveniently be used as the two independent properties.
Superheated vapour is characterised by
Lower pressures ( p < psat at a given T )
Higher temperatures (T > Tsat at a given p)
Higher specific volumes (U > Vg at a given p or T )
Higher internal energies (U > Ug at a given p or T)
Higher enthalpies ( h > hg at a given p or T )
Compressed Liquid
A compressed liquid may be approximated as a saturated liquid at the
given temperature. This is because the compressed liquid properties
depend on temperature much more strongly than they do on the pressure.
So, given p and T V @ Vf
u @ uf
h @ hf
264 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Specific Heat
Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by one degree. When this energy is required at
constant volume then it is denoted by CV . Similarly, when energy is
required at constant pressure then it is denoted by Cp .
Note C p > CV
Because at constant pressure, the system is allowed to expand and the
energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system.
Key Points
¶U
✦ CV = æç ö÷ = the change in internal energy with temperature at constant
è ¶T øV
volume.
¶h
✦ C p = æç ö÷ = the change in enthalpy with temperature at constant pressure.
è ¶T ø p
✦ These two equations are property relations and as such are independent of the
type of processes. They are valid for any substance undergoing any process.
Internal Energy
For an ideal gas internal energy is a function of the temperature only.
U = U (T )
However, for gases that deviate significantly from ideal gas behaviour,
the internal energy is not a function of temperature only.
Using definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an ideal gas
h = U + pV h = U + RT
pV = RT
So, h = h (T )
So, we can express the change in internal energy
dU = CV(T ) dT
Thermodynamics 265
2
DU = U2 - U1 = ò1 CV (T ) dT
2
and Dh = h2 - h1 = ò Cp (T ) dT
1
Since, h = U + RT ; dh = dU + R dT
Replacing dh = Cp dT, dU = CV dT
Cp dT = CV dT+ R dT
Cp = CV + R (kJ/kg K)
Cp
Specific heat ratio k =
CV
Air at 300 K CV = 0718
. kJ / kg-K
R = 0.287 kJ / kg-K
Cp = 1005
. kJ/ kg-K
or on molar basis Cv = 20.80 kJ / k mol - K
Ru = 8.314 kJ / k mol-K
Cp = 29114
. kJ / k mol-K
Key Points
✦ Gas and vapour are often used as synonymous words.
✦ The vapour phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it is above
the critical temperature.
✦ Vapour usually implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation.
Gas Constant
It has been experimentally observed that the ideal gas relation given
closely approximately the p-V -T behaviour of real gases at low densities. At
266 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
low pressure and high temperature, the density of a gas decreases and the
gas behaves as an ideal gas under these conditions.
R
R= u
M
where, Ru = Universal gas constant, M = Molar mass, R = Gas constant.
Compressibility Factor
Compressibility factor (correction factor) is measurement of deviation of
gases from ideal gas behaviour.
pV
Compressibility factor, z= or pV = zRT
RT
It can also be expressed as
V RT
z = actual , where Videal =
Videal p
For ideal gases Þ z = 1
For real gases Þ z is away from unity ( > 1or < 1)
Reduce Pressure and Temperature
Gases behave differently at a given T Non-ideal
temperature and pressure, but they gas behaviour
behave very much the same at
temperature and pressures normalised
with respect to their critical temperatures
and pressures.
The normalisation is done as introducing Ideal gas
new terms, behaviour
p V
Reduce pressure pR = The deviation of a gas from ideal
pc r
gas behaviour
T
and reduce temperature TR =
Tcr
where, Tcr = critical temperature
pcr = critical pressure
z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same reduced
pressure and temperature is greatest in the vicinity of the critical point.
●
Gases deviate from the ideal gas behaviour most in the neighbourhood
of the critical point. So, we can say that at critical point. Compressibility
factor is constant for all substances.
Thermodynamics 267
● As mention above z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the
same reduced pressure and temperature.
pseudo reduced specific volume VR
Vactual
VR =
RTCr / pCr
VR is defined differently from pR and TR . It is related to TCr and pCr instead
of VCr .
Key Points
pcVc
✦ All substances have same critical compressibility factor Z c =
RTc
Experimental value of Z c for most substances fall within a narrow range of
. - 0.33.
020
✦ Z the compressibility factor is the same function of Pr and Tr for all gases.
✦ Specific heat at constant pressure and volume are the properties of the
Cp
substances and are always properties since Cp > CV , >0
CV
Differentiating pr w.r.t. pr Vr
dpr
= 9 - 2 ( pr Vr ) = 0 ; pr Vr = 4.5
d ( pr Vr )
Tr = 2.8
Tr = TB = 2.54
prVr
Tr = 2
Locus passing through the
minima of the isotherms
Tr = 1.7
Tr = 1.0
Tr = 0.9
Tr = 0.8
O pr
pr versus pr Vr graph
9 ´ 4.5 - ( 4.5)2
pr = = 3.375
6
The parabola has the vertex at pr Vr = 4.5 and pr = 3.375 and it intersects
the ordinate at 0 and 9.
Boyle Temperature
Boyle temperature is the temperature at which a non-ideal gas behaves
most like an ideal gas.
Boyle temperature TB is determined by making
é ¶( pr Vr ) ù
ê ¶p ú = 0, when pr = 0
ë r ûTr = TB
Above the Boyle temperature, the isotherms slope upward and show no
minima.
æ a¢ ö æ bö
ç pV + ÷ ç1 - ÷ = RT
è V ø è Vø
-1
a æ bö
pV + = RT ç1 - ÷
V è Vø
æ b b2 b3 ö æ b ö
= RT ç1 + + 2 + 3 +¼÷ ç where < 1÷
è V V V ø è V ø
é æ a ö 1 b2 b3 ù
pV = RT ê1 + ç b - ÷ + 2 + 3 +¼ú
ë è ø
RT V V V û
This is called the virial equation of state.
a
The second virial coefficient B = b -
RT
The third virial coefficient C = b2
To determine Boyle temperature TB
é ¶( pV ) ù B
ê ¶p úT = c = 0 = RT
ë û p=0
B= 0
a
or TB =
bR
a
Because B= b-
RT
The point at which B is equal to zero gives the Boyle temperature.
g
-
aa C æ g ö 2
+ 6
+ 3 2 ç1 + 2 ÷ e V
V V T è V ø
● Valid upto about 2.5 rcr .
Maxwell’s Equation
Using thermodynamics relations and applying to each of those relations
results in four equations that are known as Maxwell’s relation.
For a pure substance undergoing an infinitesimal reversible process,
dU = T dS - pdV
Thermodynamics 271
dH = dU + pdV + V dp
or dH = T dS + V dp
dF = dU - T dS - S dT
or dF = - pdV - S dT
dG = dH - T dS - S dT
or dG = V dp - S dT
æ dT ö æ ¶p ö
ç ÷ =-ç ÷ …(i)
è dV øS è ¶S ø V
æ ¶T ö æ ¶V ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ …(ii)
è ¶p ø S è ¶S ø p
æ ¶p ö æ ¶S ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ …(iii)
è ¶T ø V è ¶V ø T
æ ¶V ö æ dS ö
ç ÷ =- ç ÷ …(iv)
è ¶T ø p è ¶p ø T
of the four Maxwell’s relations, the last two Eqs. (iii) and (iv) are more
æ ¶S ö æ ¶S ö
valuable since they relate entropy derivatives ç ÷ and ç ÷ to
è ¶V ø T è ¶p ø T
æ ¶p ö æ ¶V ö
derivatives of pressure and volume ç ÷ and ç ÷ .
è ¶T ø V è ¶T ø V
TdS Equation
æ ¶p ö
First TdS equation, TdS = CV dT + T ç ÷ dV
è ¶T ø V
æ ¶V ö
Second TdS equation, TdS = CpdT - T ç ÷ dp
è ¶T ø p
1 æ ¶V ö
kT = - ç ÷
V è ¶p ø T
Adiabatic compressibility is defined as
1 æ ¶V ö
ks = - ç ÷
V è ¶p ø S
T V b2
Cp - CV =
kT
T1 Constant enthalpy
curve
T – ve Inversion curve (m=0)
+ve
Heating region
T2
Liquid
p
p
A typicaI phase diagram
æ ¶T ö 1 é æ ¶V ö ù
mj = ç ÷ = êT ç ÷ - V ú
è ¶p ø h Cp êë è ¶T ø p úû
V
or mj = ( bT - 1 )
Cp
For an ideal gas, mj = 0
Thermodynamics 273
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
Clausius-Clapeyron equation is a way of characterising a discontinuous
phase transition between two phase of matter of a single constituent. On a
p-T diagram, the line separating two phases is known as the coexistence
curve.
dp S f - S i l l
= = =
dT Vf - Vi T (Vf - Vi ) TDV
where, dp / dT is the slope of tangent to the co-existence curve at any point,
l is the specific latent heat, T is the temperature and DV is the specific
volume change and S stands for specific entropy.
where, S f = entropy of the final phase
S 1 = entropy of the initial phase
Vf = volume of the final phase
Vi = volume of the initial phase
8
Power Plant
Engineering
Boiler
In steam boiler, steam is generated by reversible constant pressure &
heating process of water.
Turbine
In steam turbine, there would be reversible adiabatic expansion of steam.
Condenser
In the steam condenser, there would be reversible constant pressure heat
rejection as the steam condenses till it become saturated liquid.
Power Plant Engineering 275
Pump
In pump, the saturated liquid is compressed, and reversible adiabatically
ending at initial pressure.
● Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) for the boiler (as control volume)
h4 + Q 1 = h1 Þ Q 1 = h1 - h4
● SFEE for turbine (as control volume)
WT = h1 - h2
where, W T = work done by turbine.
● SFEE for the condenser
Q 2 = h2 - h3
Flue gas 1
Furnace
a
Superheater
WT
Fuel Air 6
Steam Electric
Evaporator turbine generator
Q1
5
2
Economiser Condenser
d River
or
Sea
Exhaust
3 Q2
gas
Pump
WP
4
A simple steam power plant representing cycle
●
SFEE for the pump (ds = 0)
4 4
WP = h4 - h3 ( ò dh = ò3 Vdp)
3
Wnet = WT - WP
●
Efficiency of the Rankine cycle,
Wnet WT - WP ( h1 - h2 ) - ( h4 - h3 )
h= = =
Q1 Q1 ( h1 - h4 )
1 kg
●
Steam rate =
Wnet k ws
276 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Q1 1 kJ
● Heat rate = = =
WT - WP h kWS
T
Critical Point l
t1
4s
Q1 p1 WT
p1 1
5 6 t1 4s
WP p2
3 2 x2 s
Q2
p2
3 2s
V
s
1
t1
h p1 WT
4s Q1
2
WP p2 s
3
Q2
s
Rankine cycle on p-V, T-s and h-s
coordinates
QEco = h5 - h4 (Economiser)
QEva = h6 - h5 = hfg (Evaporator)
QSH = h1 - h6 (Superheater)
T3 (S 3 - S 2 ) - T1) (S 4 - S 1) Vapour
= T
T2(S 3 - S 2 ) 4s
L+V
T1
= 1- (S 3 - S 2 = S 4 - S 1) 3 2s
T2
s
Rankine cycle with supercritical
boiler pressure
Power Plant Engineering 277
Reheating of Steam
In the reheat cycle, the expansion of steam from the initial state 1 to the
condenser pressure is carried out in
two or more steps depending upon T
the number of reheats used.
1 3
Cycle efficiency improves with reheat, p1
however the cycle efficiency in a single 7 p1
Prh
reheat plant is influenced by pressure p2
2s
at which steam is reheated. The 6s
efficiency increases as the reheat
pressure is lowered and reaches a 5 p2 4’s 4s
peak at a pressure ratio prh / p1
between 0.20 and 0.25 s
Reheating cycle
W T - WP ( h1 - h2 s + h3 - h4 s ) - ( h6 s - h5 )
h= =
Q1 h1 - h6 s + h3 - h2 s
Reheating steam also increase the net work output of turbine.
Key Points
✦ Internal irreversibility of Rankine cycle (Real cycle) is caused by fluid frictions
throttling and mixing.
✦ Externally, irreversibility of the Rankine cycle is caused due to the temperature
difference between the combustion gases and the working fluid on the same
side and the temperature difference between the condensing working fluid and
the condenser cooling water on the sink side.
Regeneration
The mean temperature of heat addition (and so efficiency) can also be
increased by reducing the
amount of heat added at low
1 kg l
temperatures in the economiser
10 1 kg
section of steam generator. In T 1 p1
8 9 m1 l – m1
the regeneration process energy 2 p2
is exchanged internally between 7 m2 3 p3 l – m1– m2
6
the expanding fluid in the turbine 5 l–m1–m2 4 p4
and the compressed fluid before
heat addition. s
Ideal regenerative cycle done not Regeneration cycle with two direct contact
affect work output from turbine, it feed water heaters
is more efficient with high steam rate.
278 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
■ Reheating of steam improved the thermal efficiency of the plant, net work output of
turbine, reduction in blade erosion (or quality of steam improve)
■ By regeneration thermal efficiency of the plant can be increased but it does not
affect work output from turbine.
b Brayton Cycle W1 = WT – WC
Helium d
1
a
5 6 Rankine Cycle W2 = WT – WP
Q2
H 2O
4
3 Q3 2
Height of Chimney
Height of chimney is given by following formula,
æ 1 m+1 1ö
h = 353 H çç - ÷ mm of water
è Ta m Tg ÷ø
where, H = Height of chimney above the fire grate in metres
h = Drought pressure in mm of water
m = Mass of air used for per kg of fuel
Ta = Absolute temperature of air outside the chimney (K )
Tg = Absolute temperature of air inside chimney (K )
Condition for maximum discharge through the chimney.
The drought in mm of water column
353 H 176.5 H
h= =
2Ta Ta
Turbine
A turbine is a rotatory mechanical device that extract energy from a fluid
flow and converts it into useful work. A turbine is a turbo machine with at
least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with
blades attached moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and
impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Steam Turbine
A steam turbine is prime mover which converts high pressure energy and
high temperature steam supplied by steam generator into shaft work with
the low temperature steam exhausted to a condenser.
282 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Impulse Turbines
● All pressure drops of steam occurs in the nozzles.
● No pressure drops as steam flow through the passage between two
blades.
Before entering nozzle p0, V1
After p1, V1
After deflection p2, V2
Gas turbines
These turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines
usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle in addition
to one or more turbines.
v r1 v1
b1 a
vb Dvw
Vw 1 vw2
Dva
vr1 v1
va
v r2 d
v r2 v2 b1 b2 v2
d > 90°
vb
Velocity diagrams
vw 1
vw 2
Dvw
Dva
vr1 vr2 v2
d
b1 b2 a
d < 90°
Velocity diagrams for impulse turbine
0 t0
Vo
D v6 1
po 2
h
D v6
Steam
3
po
4
p3
v6 s
Three pressure stages in series h-s diagram
Let,
a 1 = exit angle guide blade
b 1, b 2 = inlet and exit angle of the first row of moving blade
b 3, b 4 = inlet and exit angle of the second row of moving blades
Dv w1 , Dv w 2 = changes in velocity of whirl in the first row and second row
of moving blades
Dv a1 , Dv a2 = changes in axial component of velocity in the first row and
second row of moving blades
Fixed Fixed
Steam pressure
Steam speed
Note As the number of rows of moving blade in a Curtis stage increases, the
effectiveness of the later rows decreases.
Reaction Turbines
Pressure drops occur both in the nozzles or the fixed row of blades, as well
as in the moving row of blades. Moving blades also have nozzle shape.
Expansion of steam through the blades, increase in kinetic energy give rise
to reaction in the opposite direction. Rotation of blades due to both the
impulse effect of jets (change in momentum) and reaction force of the
existing jets impressed on the blades in the opposite direction. Also called
impulse reaction turbine.
The degree of reaction ( R ) = DhMB /( DhMB + DhFB )
DhMB = 0, R = 0 pure impulse turbine (no enthalpy drop in the moving
blades, all in nozzle)
DhFB = 0, R = 1(100% pure reaction turbine Hero’s turbine)
Power Plant Engineering 287
Key Points
✦ In reaction turbine, since both fixed and moving blades act as nozzle. So, we
refer fixed blades as stator and moving blades as rotor.
✦ Optimum efficiency for simple impulse, Curtis and reaction turbine blading
are all equal. However, when friction is taken into account, the reaction stage
found to be most efficient due to low flow velocity followed by Rateau and
Curtis in that order.
✦ Comparison of enthalpy drops in various stages
( Dhs ) 50%R : ( Dhs ) simple impulse stage : ( Dhs ) 2- row Curtis stage = 1 : 2 : 8
Dhfb
2s
Dhmb
3s
b1 b2 a
B D
Velocity diagram of a 50% reaction turbine
2 cos 2 a
popt = cos a or v b = v 1 cos a and hd max =
H cos 2 a
Specific blading work corresponding maximum blade efficiency
Wb = Dv w v b = v b2
Gas Turbine
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal
combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a
downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in between. The basic
operation of the gas turbine is similar to the steam power plant except that
air is used instead of water.
(Wnet)max
Wnet
h
Key Points
✦ The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop is the
Brayton cycle. (Isentropic compression, constant pressure heat addition,
isentropic expansion, constant pressure heat rejection).
✦ The advantages of the open cycle are the quick and easy starting.
✦ The advantages of the closed cycle plant are constant efficiency at all loads
and higher unit rating permitting the use of higher back pressure.
290 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Effect of Regeneration
Regenerator effectiveness e = (actual
temperature rise of air)/(maximum p2
temperature of rise possible) 3
= T5 - T2 / T4 - T2 5 p1
T
●
Q 1 and Q 2 both of which decreases 2
whereas Wnet remains unchanged 6 4
2s
4s
due to regeneration. Therefore,
efficiency of the cycle Wnet / Q 1 1
increases.
s
● In practice, the regenerator is costly, Effect of regeneration with cycle
heavy and bulky and causes efficiency
pressure losses which may bring
about a decreases in cycle efficiency. So, there may be balanced.
Effect of Intercooling
● By staging the compression process
with perfect intercooling, the cycle p2
5
efficiency decreases as shown in pL
figure, where the small cycle 1-2-3-4- 4 p1
T
4¢-1 is added to basic cycle 4
2 6
1- 4¢-5-6-1, without intercooling.
3 1
●
For minimum work of compression,
the intercooler pressure. s
pi = [ p1p2 ]1/ 2 T-s diagram for intercooling
3 5 Pr
p2
T
2 4 p1
6
4
4¢
s
Effect of reheating on Brayton cycle
Power Plant Engineering 291
● But it permits more heat recovery from the turbine exhaust gases, with the
result that reheating along with regeneration may bring about an
improvement in cycle efficiency.
● It can be shown that the optimum reheat pressure for maximum work is
pr = ( p1 p2 )1/ 2
Compressor
The high flow rates of air through the turbine and the relatively moderate
pressure ratios necessitate the use of rotary compressors.
Losses in Compressor
There are three losses in compressor as given below
●
Profile drag (CDp )
●
Annulus drag (CDa )
●
Secondary loss (CDs )
●
For typical axial compressor design, the following empirical formulae
have been derived
CDs = 0.018 CL2 and CDa = 0.020 s / h
where CL is the lift coefficient and s and h are pitch and blade height of
blades respectively.
Compressor further can be classified as
Slip
The inertia of air trapped between the impeller blades, however, causes the
actual whirl velocity to be less than ideal whirl velocity. It is known as slip.
Under ideal conditions, Cw 2 = U2
Slip = U2 - Cw 2
Slip factor s = Cw 2 / U2 = Cw 2 /(U - cot b 2 )
= 1 - 063
. p/n
292 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
¢ / T01)g /( g - 1)
For a stage, p03 / p01 = (T03
= [1 + hc (T03 - T01)/ T01]g /( g - 1)
Because hc = (T03
¢ - T01)/(T03 - T01)
T
Impeller Diffuser
Impeller
loss p02 p03
T02 = T03
T '02 Overall
C 22/2C p loss
T '03
p2
T2
p01
T01
s
T-s diagram
Actual
Flow
Mean Annulus height
Combustion Chamber
In an open cycle gas turbine plant, combustion may be arranged to take
place in one or two large cylindrical can type combustion chambers with
ducting to convey the hot gases to the turbine. Can type combustion
chambers are as follows
●
Can type combustion with swirl flow flame stabiliser
●
Can type combustion with bluff- body flame stabiliser
Gas Turbines
●
Like steam turbines, gas turbines are also of the axial flow type.
●
More stages are always preferred in gas turbine power plants, because it
helps to reduce the stresses in the blades and increases the overall life of
the turbines.
Power Plant Engineering 295
Key Points
✦ The duct work consists of ducts between the compressor and the combustion,
combustion chamber to the turbine and the exhaust duct.
✦ The duct must be sized to minimise the pressure losses, as the loss in pressure
directly reduces the capacity of the plant.
Steam Condenser
A condenser where the exhaust the steam from the turbine is condensed
operates at a pressure lower than atmosphere.
Spray condenser
Spray of cooling water into the steam.
W2 h2 + W5 h5 = W3 h3
296 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Turbine exhaust
Non-condensable
Dry cooling tower 2 T 1
Condenser T 4
4 4 3 2s 2
–5
To plant feed water system
s
Direct contact type condenser T-s curve for direct contact type
IT Diffuser
Barometric condenser
Jet condenser
Surface Condensers
These are shell and tube heat exchanger.
●
For the convenience of cleaning and maintenance, cooling water flows
through the tubes steam condenses outside the tubes.
●
Single pass condenser is good for overall plant efficiency and reduces
thermal pollution but require four times the pumping power and twice the
water flow.
Power Plant Engineering 297
Exhaust neck
Steam dome
Support Shell tube sheet
plates
Water in
Water out
Undivided
water box Hotwell Divided
water box
Condensate
Surface condenser
●
The tube materials: cupronickel (70% Cu, 30% Ni),aluminium brass
(76% Cu, 22% Zn, 2% Al),muntz metal (60% Cu, 40% Zn),admiralty alloy
(71% Cu, 28% Zn, 1% Sn).
Air Removal
Steam and Air
Leakage of air from condenser
shell, along with steam reduce
the condenser vacuum and
increases the turbine exhaust
pressure, thus reduces the
Air and
turbine output and also reduces steam
heat transfer (air low k). An air CW tubes Baffle
cooler section is provided in the Air cooler
condenser shell, having main
bank and smaller bank (air Condensate
cooler). A typical diagram of condenser
Important Formulae
Vacuum produced by steam at condenser inlet
■ Vacuum efficiency =
Barometric pressure - saturation pressure
at exhaust steam p
Actual temperature rise of cooling water
Condenser efficiency =
Maximum temperature rise of cooling water
298 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Cooling Towers
These cool the warm water discharged from the condenser and feed the
cooled water back to the condenser. A cooling tower can be specified by
Steam heater
Air Air
Fired turbine
Condensate
heater
Forced
Condensate pump draught fan
Nozzle
A nozzle is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid increases
at the expense of pressure drop.
Diffuser
A diffuser is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid
decreases and causes a corresponding increase of pressure.
Stagnation Properties
The isentropic stagnation state is defined as the state a fluid in motion
would reach if it were brought to rest isentropically in steady flow,
adiabatic, zero work output device.
v2
Stagnation enthalpy h0 = h +
2
T0 g -1 2
= 1+ M
T 2
where, M = Mach number
p0 æ g - 1 2ö
= ç1 + M ÷ g -1
p è 2 ø
where p0 and T0 are the stagnation pressure and temperature respectively.
Velocity of Sound
Velocity of sound can be defined as
æ ¶p ö
c = g RT = ç ÷
è ¶r øS
300 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
æ ¶p ö
ç ÷ = Infinitesimal pressure change of fluid across section with respect
è ¶r øS
to density with reversible and isentropic process.
The bulk modulus or the change of density with pressure in a gas is
dependent on the process of compression.
Mach Number
It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity v to the sonic velocity c.
v
M=
c
M<1 M>1
M1 M2 M1 M2
M2 > M1 M2 < M1
Subsonic nozzle Supersonic nozzle
(M < 1and M (M > 1 and M
increase) increase)
1 2 1 2
M1 M1
M2 M2
M1 < 1 M>1
M2 < M1 M2 < M1
Subsonic diffuser Supersonic diffuser
M < 1 and M decreases M > 1 and M decreases
Limits of Incompressibility
If we set the limit that a flow is incompressible so long as the density
variation does not exceed two per cent.
M £ 0. 2 (Range of incompressible)
p0 pB
M<1 M=1 M>1
pO Curve
pB2 II
pB3 III
M>1 pB4 IV
M<1 Shock
pB1 I
Isentropic flow for a duct of varying cross-section
0.04044
pe
p pe > p B M<1
0 pB M=1
T0 T0 pe > p* pe = p B
m
A p0
To pump
p*/p 0
0.0
pB
p0
Converging passage Response of converging passage
Power Plant Engineering 303
●
pB = pe = p0 there shall be no flow through the nozzle.
● As pB is gradually reduce, the flow rate shall increase. The exit plane
pressure pe shall remain equal to pB so long as the maximum discharge
condition is not reached.
æ mö
● By reducing back pressure pB when ç ÷ has attained its maximum value,
è Aø
the exit plane mach number shall be unity and pB = pe = p * (critical
pressure).
● Further reduction of back pressure pB will not accelerate the flow to
supersonic condition. As a result the exit pressure pe shall continue to
remain at p * even through pB is lower.
pB < pe ( pe = p*)
Fanno Line
Fanno line show the state of fluid in
compressible flow through an
adiabatic duct. On enthalpy- M<
1 m decreasing
entropy diagram. A
v 2dr dp
Tds = - h
r r 1
M>
æ ¶p ö
ç ÷ = v 2 = a2 Þ M = 1
è ¶r øds = 0
s
Momentum equation Fanno line diagram
Lmax dx 1
Þ ò 4l = ò g ( M ) dM 1 2 1
0 D 0
Continuity
The continuity equation is given as
pV = constant
dp dV
=-
p V
Momentum Equation
Impulse function p + rV 2 = constant
Equation of State
Equation of state is given as p = rRT
dp dr dT
= +
p r T
Rayleigh Line
It shows the state of the fluid on Enthalpy-Entropy diagram with constant
area frictionless flow with heat transfer. The locus of state point traces a
curve known as the Rayleigh line.
dT dp æ 1 ö
= ç1 - ÷
T p è kM 2 ø
306 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
dM 1 + kM 2 dp
=- ×
M 2 kM 2 p
dp0 1 - M2 dp
= ×
p0 2 + ( k - 1) M 2 p
dT0 k ( k - 1) M 4 dx
= 4l
T0 2 æ k - 1 2ö D
2 (1 - kM ) ç1 + M ÷
è 2 ø
æ k + 1 2ö
dp0 - kM 2 ç1- M ÷
dx
= ç 2 ÷ 4l
p0 2 (1 - kM )2 ç1+ k - 1 D
M ÷
2
è 2 ø
Shocks
Sudden changes occur in the flow properties across a flow discontinuity
termed shock.
Strength of a Shock
Strength of a shock wave is defined as the ratio of rise in pressure to
upstream pressure.
p - p1 p2
p= 2 = -1
p1 p1
2k
p= ( M12 - 1)
k +1
where, p2 - p1 = rise in pressure, p1 = upstream pressure
Normal Shock
The discontinuity is called a normal shock when it is perpendicular to the
flow of direction. The Mach number downstream of it is invariably subsonic
( M < 1.
)
Oblique Shock
A discontinuity inclined to the flow of direction is called as oblique shock
downstream of which the Mach number may still be higher than unit.
Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning
Refrigeration Cycle
Refrigeration is the process in which heat is removed from a body enclosed
space so that its temperature is reduced and then maintained at the
temperature below the surrounding temperature. The working substance
which is used to produce refrigeration is known as refrigerant.
Heat Pump
Heat pump is used to remove heat from a body at TH
lower temperature and transfer this heat to a body
having high temperature on the expense of external
TH > TL
work supplied. HP W
Coefficient of Performance;
Desired effect QL
COP =
Work input TL
Here, the desired effect is to give heat to higher Heat pump process
temperature body.
Q QH TH
COP = 1 = ; COP =
W QH - QL TH - TL
1
(COP) pump =
T
1- L
TH
where, TH = high temperature, TL = lower temperature
310 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Refrigerator
Working principle of refrigerator is same as heat pump, but its aim to keep
cool the body whose temperature is below atmospheric temperature.
Desired effect
COP =
Work input TH
QL QH
COP = TH > TL
W
R W
QL TL
COP = =
Q H - Q L TH - TL QL
1 TL
(COP)R =
æ TH ö
ç - 1÷ Principle of refrigerator
è TL ø
where TH and TL are higher and lower temperature respectively.
(COP)P = (COP)R + 1
where, Q L = heat at lower temperature
Q H = heat at higher temperature
Unit of Refrigeration
It has standard unit of TR (Ton of Refrigeration). 1 TR (one ton of
refrigeration) means capacity to freeze one ton of water form and at 0°C in
24 h.
1 TR = 211 kJ / min
= 3.517 kW
= 200 BTHU/min
Key Points
✦ A refrigerator is a device which, operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a
temperature lower than the temperature of the surroundings.
✦ There is performance parameter in a refrigerator cycle, called the coefficient
of performance.
✦ Heat pump is a device which operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a
temperature higher than the temperature of the surroundings.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 311
Adiabatic
compression
2 3 2 3
Adiabatic Isothermal
expansion expansion
S
V
Reversed Carnot cycle Reversed Carnot cycle
on p-V coordinate on T-S coordinate
Heat absorbed
COP =
Work input
T2(S 3 - S 2 ) T2(S 3 - S 2 ) æS 4 = S 3 ö
= = ç ÷
[T1(S 4 - S 1) - T2(S 3 - S 2 )] (T1 - T2 ) (S 4 - S 1) èS 1 = S 2 ø
T2
COP =
T1 - T2
where T2 and T1 are the temperature at section 2 and 1 respectively and
S 1, S 2, S 3 and S 4 are the entropy at 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
p 2 3 p 3 2
1 4 1
4
V V
T 3 T 3
2 2
4 4
1 1
S S
312 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Refrigerated space 3
1
Compressor
Condenser
p T
p2
3 2
3 2
4 p1 1
4 1
h S
P-h graph T -S graph
Key Points
✦ COP of refrigerator working between two fixed temperature TL and TH
(TH > TL ) will have fixed COP.
✦ A reversible heat engine can work like a refrigerator or a heat pump.
✦ Vapour compression refrigeration cycle
3 2
Z
p
4 1
h
T2
✦ Entropy S 2¢ = S 2 + C p In
T2¢
h2 = h2¢ + C p (T2 - T2¢ )
For isentropic process, S 1 = S 2, S 3 = S 4
314 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Compressor
A compressor is used in refrigerator to increase the pressure of [Link]
compress the refrigerant’ we use reciprocating compressor generally in the
vapour compression refrigeration system.
p 1 4
2 3
VC VS
V
p-V curve
p 2
Stroke volume V s = d L
4
where, d = diameter of compressor
L = stroke length
Volume flow rate of refrigerant
p
V = n × d 2L hv × N
4
where, N = rotational speed
hV = volumetric efficiency
n = number of cylinders
Actual volume compressed
hV =
Stroke volume
Vc + V s - V1
hV =
Vs
where, Vc = clearance volume
V V V
c = clearance ratio = c = 1 + c - 1
Vs Vs Vs
1
æ p ög
= 1+ c - c ç 2 ÷
è p1 ø
1 æ p2 ö
çCompression ratio rp = ÷
= 1 + c - c ( rp ) g çç p1 ÷
÷
è g = Index of compression ø
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 315
Condenser
Tc
Energy transfer in vapour absorption system
Q g = heat supplied to refrigerator in generator
Qe = heat is absorbed by refrigerator in evaporator
Qc = heat is rejected to condenser or atmosphere
Coefficient of Performance
Q g + Qe = Qc
- Q g Qe Q
For reversible cycle net entropy change is size + c =0
Tg - Te Tc
æ T ö æ Tg - Tc ö
COP = ç e ÷ ç ÷
è Tc - Te ø è Tg ø
COP = (COP) Carnot ´ (hCarnot )
Te
COP of Carnot refrigerator =
Tc - Te
Tg - Tc
Efficiency of Carnot engine =
Tg
Here, Tg = generator temperature
Tc = absorber temperature (Generally surrounding temperature)
Te = evaporator temperature.
Refrigerant
Refrigerant absorbs heat by vaporisation and reject it through
condensation in the condenser and so produces refrigerating effect.
Designation of Refrigerant
In International Standards, refrigerants are designated as R followed by
some numerals.
For a hydrocarbon Chemical formula is C r HS Ft Cl y
● If S + t + y = 2 r + 2, designation of refrigerant is R ( r - 1) (S + 1) t
● If S + t + y = 2 r, designation of refrigerant is R1( r - 1) (S + 1) t
For an Inorganic Refrigerant
Designation is R (700 + molecular weight)
e. g ., NH3 ® R (700 + 17 ) Þ R 717
Psychrometric terms
There are following terms used in psychrometric study.
Pressure
Pressure is the effect of a force applied to a surface, Pressure is the
amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol of pressure is p
Total pressure of air p = p v + pa
where, p v = partial pressure of water vapour
pa = partial pressure of dry air
Partial pressure of water vapour
- [ p - ( pv )wb ](tdb -t wb )
pv = ( pvs )wb
1527.4 - 1.3 t wb
. ´ p (tdb - t wb )
18
or pv = ( pvs )wb -
2700
where, ( pvs ) wb = saturation pressure of water vapour corresponding to
wet bulb temperature
p = atmospheric pressure of moist air
Twb = wet bulb temperature
tdb = dry bulb temperature.
Dry Air
It is the mixture of gases. Generally O 2 and N2 make up the major part of
the combustion.
It consists 21% O 2 and 79% N2 by volume.
It consists 23% O 2 and 77% N2 by mass.
Moisture
The water vapour present in the air is called moisture.
Moist Air
It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour.
318 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Absolute Humidity
The weight of water vapour present in unit volume of air is called absolute
humidity.
Weight of water vapour
Absolute humidity =
Volume of air (mixture)
Specific Humidity
It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in air (mixture) to mass of dry air in air
mixture.
Mass of water vapour in air
Specific humidity =
Mass of dry air in air
w = 0. 622
pv æ pv ö
= 0. 622 ç ÷
ps è p - pv ø
Relative Humidity
It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume to mass of water
vapour in the same volume of saturated air at same temperature.
m p
f = v, f = v
ms pvs
where mv and m s are the mass of water vapour and mass of saturated air
pv and pvs are the partial pressure of water vapour and partial pressure of
water vapour in saturated air at same temperature for saturated air relative
humidity is 1 or 100%.
DBT
(T )
WBT Pv
DPT
S
DBT, WBT and DPT graphs
●
For unsaturated air, DBT > WBT > DPT
●
For saturated air, DBT = WBT = DPT
Psychrometric Chart
● Enthalpy is more or less constant with wet bulb temperature. Enthalpy
lines are also downward from left to right.
● Constant specific volume lines are more steeper inclined lines than wet
bulb temperature lines or enthalpy lines.
● Adiabatic lines on psychrometric chart are represented along constant
enthalpy lines.
Relative
humidity
Dew Moisture
point content
tem Wet w
O pe bul
ra b
tur
Alignment Specific e
circle volume
tDBT
Psychrometric chart
Sensible Heating
It is process of heating air at constant w.
Heating coil
Heating process t1 t2
Sensible heating
Q = h2 - h1 = Cpm (tdbt 2 - tdbt 2 )
where, cpm = specific heating moist
Sensible Cooling
It is process of cooling air at constant w. For sensible cooling, the coil
temperature must be greater than dew point temperature and less than dbt.
2 c w
t2 t1
Sensible cooling
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 321
Humidification
The addition of moisture to air at a constant Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) is
knows as humidification.
It is process of increasing w at constant DBT.
2
w2
w1
1
DBT humidification
Dehumidification
The removal of moisture from air at a constant Dry Bulb Temperature is
called dehumidification. It is process of decreasing w at constant DBT.
t1 t2
DBT Heating
coil hf
water
Heating with humidification process
1
w1
2
w2
t1 t2
Heating with dehumidification graph
2
w1
t2 t1
Cooling with humidification graph
2'
2S SHL Air in Air out
W
h2¢ - h2
Sensible heat factor =
h1 - h2
where, h1 and h2 = enthalpy of moist air entering and leaving the coil
ma = mass flow rate of the condensate
h2¢ = enthalpy of condensate.
ma3, h3, w3
ma2, h2, w2
Mixing of air streams
h1
ma1 + ma2 = ma3
ma1 w 1 + ma2 w 2 = ma3 w 3 (ma w = mv ) h3
1
w1
ma1 h1+ ma2 h2 = ma3 h3 h2 W
3 w2
ma1 h - h2
= 3
ma2 h1 - h2 w3
2
ma 1 t 3 - t 2
=
ma2 t 1 - t 3
DBT
Chemical Dehumidification DBT adiabatic graph
In chemical humidification DBT of air increases while specific humidity
decreases.
Saturation 1
line w2 w
w1
2
t1 t2
DBT
Chemical humidification
324 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
2
h
=
1
h
h w2S
2S 2
w2 w
w1
1
tab t2 t1
DBT
Evaporative cooling graph
By Pass Factor
Let Dry Bulb Temperature of coil surface is t coil and air temperature at entry
and exit is t 1 and t 2 respectively.
By pass
1 kg of air 1 kg
t2 a b t2
t coil
Coil Efficiency
It is determined by the mass coming in perfect contact of coil.
h = 1 - m = 1 - BPF
t -t
From figure, h= 2 1 1 2 3
t3 - t1
h
t -t BPF
BPF = 3 2
t3 - t1 t t 1 3
40 (RH)
20
DBT
Comfort chart
10
Internal
Combustion Engine
Basic Concepts Related to Engine
An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another
form. Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a
fuel into thermal energy and utilises this thermal energy to perform useful
work. Heat engine can be classified as follows
Heat Engines
IC engine EC engine
(Internal Combustion engine) (External Combustion engine)
Open cycle Wankel Gasoline Diesel Steam Stirling Steam Closed cycle
gas turbine engine engine engine engine engine turbine gas turbine
Classification of heat engines
EC and IC Engines
External Combustion (EC) engines are those in which combustion takes
place outside the engine whereas in Internal Combustion (IC) engines,
combustion takes place within the engine.
Internal Combustion Engine 327
Classification of IC Engine
IC engines can be classified as below
Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of brake power to indicated power.
bp bp
hm = = , f p ® frictional power
ip bp + fp
Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the success with which the air supply,
and thus the charge, is inducted into the engine. It is a very important
parameter, since it indicates the breathing capacity of the engine.
ma ma
hV = , hV =
ra V N r aVd
dis
2
Key Points
✦ The indicated thermal efficiency is based on the i p (input or indicated power).
✦ The brake thermal efficiency is based on the bp (brake power).
✦ Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical losses in an engine.
Internal Combustion Engine 329
Cycles
There are different types of cycles which are given below
Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle in which all the processes constituting a
reversible cycle. This cycle consists of two isothermal and two reversible
adiabatic processes.
p
3 4
T3 =T4
3 4
T
2 1 T1 =T2
2 1
V s
p-V diagram for Carnot cycle T-s diagram for Carnot cycle
●
Process 1- 2 is isothermal compression process
●
Process 2 - 3 is adiabatic process (isentropic process)
●
Process 3 - 4 is isothermal expansive process
●
Process 4 - 1 is adiabatic process (isentropic process)
Internal Combustion Engine 331
2 T1=T2
2 1
isothermal 1
V s
p-V diagram for Stirling cycle T-s diagram for Stirling cycle
æ1® 2 ö
●
Isothermal process ç ÷
è 3 ® 4ø
æ2 ® 3 ö
●
Constant volume process ç ÷
è 4 ® 1ø
T1
hs = 1- (same as Carnot cycle)
T3
●
In practical Stirling cycle, efficiency will be less than Carnot efficiency.
●
For heat exchange efficiency
R (T3 - T1) loge r
hs =
RT3 loge r + (1 - E ) Cv (T3 - T1)
p
2 3 3 4
Iso
T3=T4
Isothermal
the
Constant
rm
pressure
al
T1=T2
1 4 2 1
V s
p -V diagram for Ericsson cycle T-s diagram for Ericsson cycle
The thermal efficiency of Ericsson cycle is given by,
TH - TL é T ù
hth = = ê1 - L ú
TH ë THû
QS Constant 3 2 3
p 3 T 4 1
Isentropic 3 volume
4
process 1 2 2
4
4
2
1
1
QR
V s
p-V diagram for Otto cycle T-s diagram for Otto cycle
Internal Combustion Engine 333
p1 r ( rp - 1) ( r( g - 1) - 1)
pm =
( g - 1) ( r - 1)
where, pm = Mean effective pressure
rp = Pressure ratio
g = Specific heat ratio.
4 4
Isentropic
process QR
1 Constant
1
volume
V s
p-V diagram for diesel cycle T-s diagram for diesel cycle
●
Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression
●
Process 2-3 is constant pressure heat addition
●
Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic compression
●
Process 4-1 is constant volume heat rejection
1 é rcg - 1 ù
hdiesel = 1 - ê ú
r( g - 1) ë g ( rc - 1) û
V3 T3
Volume ratio or cut-off ratio rc = =
V2 T2
V1
Compression ratio r =
V2
Work Output
Work output can be calculated by the following relation.
p V - p4V4 p2V2 - p1V1
W = p2 (V3 - V2 ) + 3 3 -
g -1 g -1
p1V1 r( g - 1) [ g ( rc - 1) - r 1- g ( rcg - 1)]
W=
g -1
Internal Combustion Engine 335
QS Constant pressure
p T Constant volume 4
3 4 Isentropic 3
QS process 2
5 5
2
QR 1 Constant volume
1
V s
p -V diagram for Dual cycle T-s diagram for Dual cycle
1 é rp rcg - 1 ù
●
Efficiency h = 1- ( g - 1) ê ú
r êë ( rp - 1) + rp g ( rc - 1) úû
●
Work output
p1V1
W= [ g rp r g - 1 ( rc - 1) + r g - 1( rp - 1) - ( rp rcg - 1)]
g -1
●
Mean effective pressure
é g rp r g ( rc - 1) + r g ( rp - 1) - r ( rp rcg - 1) ù
pm = p1 ê ú
êë ( g - 1) ( r - 1) úû
336 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
p T 2
2
Isentropic Constant
process volume
3
1 1 Constant
3
pressure
V s
p-V diagram for Lenoir cycle T-s diagram for Lenoir cycle
●
Insentropic process (2 ® 3)
●
Constant volume process (1 ® 2)
●
Constant pressure process (3 ® 1)
The Lenoir cycle is used for pulse jet engines
Q - QR
h Lenoir = S
QR
Heat supplied, QS = mCV (T2 - T1)
Heat rejected Q R = mCp (T3 - T1)
æ 1 ö
ç ( r ) g - 1÷
p
●
Thermal efficiency hth = 1 - g ç ÷
ç rp - 1 ÷
ç ÷
è ø
p2 T2
●
Pressure ratio, rp = =
p1 T1
Internal Combustion Engine 337
4
2
1 4¢
1 4¢ Constant pressure
Isentropic process
V s
p-V diagram for Atkinson cycle T-s diagram for Atkinson cycle
● Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression
● Process 2-3 is constant volume heat addition
●
Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic expansion (V3 to V4)
●
Process 4-1 is constant pressure heat rejection
é e-r ù
hAtkinson = 1 - g ê g
ë e - r úû
g
1
æ p3 ö g æ V ¢ 4 ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ =e (expansion ratio)
è p¢ 4 ø è V3 ø
1
æ p2 ö g æ V1 ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷=r (compression ratio)
è p1 ø è V2 ø
●
Heat supplied Q 3 = CV (T3 - T2 )
●
Heat rejected Q 2 = Cp (T4 - T1)
●
Net work done W = CV (T3 - T2 ) - Cp (T4 - T1)
Constant 3
p T volume
2 3
2
Isentropic Constant 4'
process pressure
4'
1 4
4 Constant pressure
V s
p-V diagram for Brayton cycle T-s diagram for Brayton cycle
1 V1
hB = 1 - g-1
;r=
V2
g
( rp )
g-1 g-1
g-1
T3 æ p3 ö g æp ö g æV ö
=ç ÷ = ç 2÷ = ç 1÷ = r( g - 1)
T4 è p4 ø è p1 ø è V2 ø
Actual Cycles
The actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air standard efficiency
due to various losses occuring in the actual engine operation.
The major losses are due to
●
Variation of specific heats with temperature.
●
Dissociation of the combustion products.
●
Progressive combustion.
Time loss 6%
Heat loss 12%
p
Fuel air cycle
Real cycle
Vcycle / Vc
p-V diagram for actual cycle
●
Incomplete combustion of fuel.
●
Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber.
●
Blowdown at the end of exhaust process.
●
Gas exchange process.
Fuels
Fuel is any material that stores potential energy in a form that can be
practicably released and used as heat energy. Fuel is also a substance that
is changed in some way to produce heat, electricity or other form of energy.
Octane Number
The octane number is defined as the percentage by volume of iso-octane
in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane which exactly matches the
knocking intensity of the fuel in a standard engine under a set of standard
operating conditions. Two reference fuels iso-octane (C 8 H18 ) and normal
heptane (C7H16 ) have octane number 100 and 0 respectively.
PN -100
Octane number = 100 +
3
Here, PN = Performance Number
Cetane Number
Cetane number is defined as the percentage by volume of normal cetane
in a mixture of normal cetane and a-methyl napthalene which has the same
ignition characteristics (ignition delay) as the test fuel when combustion is
carried out in a standard engine under specified operating conditions.
The reference fuels are normal cetane (C 16 H34) and a-methyl naphthalene
(C 11 H10 ) with a cetane number of 100 and 0.
Types of Fuels
Some types of fuels are given below
Solid Fuels
Compare to gaseous and liquid fuels, solid fuels are quite difficult to handle
and storage and feeding are quite combustion.
Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels are preferred for IC engines because they are easy to store and
have reasonably good calorific value. The three principal commercial type
of fuels are benzyl, alcohol and petroleum products.
340 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Alcohol
Methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are two kind of
alcohols that seem most promising. It is a high octane fuel with anti-knock
index number of over 100. So, it can run more efficiency by using higher
compression ratio. Alcohol have low surface content of fuel and overall less
emission compared to gasoline.
Main disadvantage of alcohol is having low energy content i . e., the calorific
value of fuel is almost half.
Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels are best suited for IC engine since physical delay is almost
zero. However, as fuel displaces equal amount of air, the engines may
have poor volumetric efficiency.
Alternative Fuels
Some alternative fuels are given below
Hydrogen
Hydrogen fuel is a zero - emission fuel which uses electrochemical cells or
combustion in internal engines, to power vehicles and electric devices.
Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel
●
No emission of CO or HC in the exhaust. So, exhaust are H2O,N2 and
NO x.
●
High energy content per volume when stored as a liquid.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel
●
Requirement of heavy, bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service
stations.
●
High NO x emission because of high flame temperature.
●
High fuel cost.
Internal Combustion Engine 341
Carburetion
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the
proper amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called
carburetion and device which does this job is called a carburetor.
Altitude Compensation
● In the case of different atmospheric conditions, the air fuel ratio changes.
The enrichment E due to variation of air density closely follows the
relationship
r0 p0T
E + 1= =
r pT0
● At higher altitude, A /F mixture become progressively richer due to
decrement of air density.
● At higher altitude, pressure difference Dp ( p1 - p2 ) provided by simple
carburetor is large as density of air decreases.
A A
Float chamber
Fuel metering orifice
é 2 g +1ù
A2 p1 ê æ p2 ö g æ p2 ö g ú
ma = 2 Cp ç ÷ - ç ÷
R T1 ê è p1 ø è p1 ø ú
êë úû
● Actual mass flow rate,
é 2 g +1ù
A2 p1 ê æ p2 ö g æ p2 ö g ú
ma actual = Cda 2 Cp ç ÷ - ç ÷
R T1 ê è p1 ø è p1 ø ú
êë úû
●
Let Cf is fuel velocity at the nozzle exit and Z is the height of the nozzle exit
above the level of fuel in the float bowl and r f is the fuel density
é p - p2 ù
Cf = 2 ê 1 - gZ ú
ë r f û
●
Mass flow rate of fuel
mf = Af Cf r f
mfactual = Cdf Af Cf r f
mfactual = Cdf Af 2r f ( p1 - p2 - gZr f )
Cda A2 r a ( p1 - p2 )
A / F ratio =
Cdf Af r f ( p1 - p2 - gZ r f )
m ¢ a Cda A2 ra
If Z = 0 =
m ¢ f Cdf Af rf
Here, r a = Density of air
r f = Density of fuel.
Nozzle
Nozzle is that part of an injector through which the liquid fuel is sprayed
into the combustion chamber. Velocity of the fuel through nozzle orifice
v f = Cd 2 gh,
Let, h = Pressure difference between injector and cylinder pressure.
Q = Area of all orifices ´ fuel jet velocity ´ time of one injection
´ number of injections per second for one orifice
346 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
æp ö æ q 60 ö æ N ö
Q = ç d 2 ´ n÷ ´ v f ´ ç ´ ÷´ç i÷
è4 ø è 360 N ø è 60 ø
Ni = Number of injection per minute
N
Ni = for 4 strokes engine, N for 2 strokes engine
2
q = Duration of injection in crank angle degree
d = Diameter of one orifice
n = Number of orifices
2 ( Pinj - Pcyl )
Velocity of injection vinj = Cd
rf
where, Pf = Fuel density
pinj = Injection power
Pcycle = Power of cycle.
Ignition System
Ignition system provide sufficiently large voltage across the spark plug
electrodes to effect the spark discharge. It supply the required energy for
the spark to ignite the combustible mixture adjacent to the plug electrodes
under all operating conditions. The ignition systems are classified as follows
1. Battery ignition systems
2. Magneto ignition systems
Dwell Angle
The period during which the contact points in ingnition process remains
closed is called dwell angle or cam angle. Too small dwell angle will result
in lower secondary voltage and hence poor sparks or even misfiring. Too
large a dwell angle will lead to burning of condenser and contact point due
to over saturation of windings.
Internal Combustion Engine 347
Firing Order
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of circular cylinder in a
multi-cylinder reciprocating engine.
For four cylinder firing orders
1- 3 - 4 - 2 or 1- 2 - 4 - 3
For six cylinder firing orders
1- 5 - 3 - 6 - 2 - 4
or
1- 2 - 3 - 6 - 5 - 4
or
1- 5 - 4 - 6 - 2 - 3
or
1- 2 - 4 - 6 - 5 - 3
Combustion
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the fuel like
hydrogen and carbon combine with oxygen liberating heat energy and
causing an increase in temperature of gases.
Stage 3 After burning Combustion will not stop at point C but continue
after attaining peak pressure and this combustion is known as after
burning. This generally happens when the rich mixture is supplied to
engine.
Ignition
Power
Compression
A
80 I
Start of II
60 Combustion
p
40
Start of
injection
20
0
100 80 60 40 20 TDC 20 40 60 80 100
Time/Degree of crankshaft rotation
Stages of CI Engines
350 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
combustion
fuel droplets gets accumulated in the
Start of
chamber. When the actual burning
injection
Start of
commences, the additional fuel can cause TDC
too rapid a rate of pressure rise resulting in a
jamming of forces against the piston and p
rough engine operation. Such a situation
produce the extreme pressure differential
and violent gas vibrations known as
knocking. In the CI engine, knocking occur Time
near the beginning of combustion whereas in
p-T curve for CI engine
the SI engine knocking occurs near the end
of combustion.
Engine Emission
Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount
of pollutants that can be released into the environment. Many emissions
standard focus on regulating pollutants released by automobiles and other
powered vehicles but they can also regulate emissions from industry,
power plants, small equipments such as lawn movers and diesel
generators.
Internal Combustion Engine 351
Other Emissions
Some other emissions are given below
Aldehydes
When alcohol fuel is used, aldehydes are generated which cause an eye
and respiratory irritant.
Sulphur
Many fuels in CI engines contain amount of sulphurs which exhausted in
form of SO 2 and SO 3 (SO x ). They contribute to the acid rain problem in the
world.
Lead
The additive TEL (Tetra Ethyl Lead) is used to increase gasoline octane
number which allowed higher compression ratios and more efficient
engines which resulting lead in the engine exhaust. Lead is highly
poisonous pollutant.
Thermal Converter
CO and HC emissions can be reduced by thermal converter, but NO 2
emission cannot be reduced using a thermal converter.
352 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Catalyst Converter
Catalyst converters are also called 3-way converters because they are
used to reduce the concentration of CO, HC and NO x in the exhaust.
The catalyst material most commonly used are platinum, polladium, and
rhodium. Polladium and Platinum promote, the oxidation of CO and HC
with platinum especially active in the hydrocarbon reaction. Rhodium
promotes the reaction of NO x.
Morse Test
The test consists of making inoperative in turn each cylinder of the engine
and note the reduction in brake power developed.
ip ® indicated power
bp ® brake power
fp ® frictional power
Internal Combustion Engine 353
k
If there k cylinder ip 1 + ip 2 .... + ip k = S bp k + fp k
1
k
First cylinder cut-off ip 2 + .... + ip k = S bp k + fp k
2
k k
ip 1 = S bp k - S bp k
1 2
k
So, total indicated power = ip 1 + ip 2 + K ip k = S ip k
1
Frictional power of the engine fp k = ip k - bp k
Motoring Test
In motoring test, the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed by its
own power and allowed to remain under the given speed and load
conditions for sufficient time so that the temperature of the engine
components, lubricating Oil and cooling water reaches a steady state. This
method determine the fp at condition very near to the actual operating
temperatures at the test speed and load but it does not give the true
losses.
Retardation Test
This test involves the method of
retarding the engine by cutting the
fuel supply.
Let, Tf = Friction torque
Speed
Tl = Load torque
ad
d
lo
No
50
Tf
w0 - w1 = (t 2 - 0)
mk 2
Tf + Tl
w0 - w1 = (t 3 - 0
mk 2
t3
Tf = Tl
t2 - t3
where, t 3 and t 2 are the time segments.
354 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Brake Power
Brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and
angular speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is
called dynamometer.
Brake Power for Proxy Brake Dynamometer
bp = 2p NT
N = Speed
Torque T = wl
w ® Weight applied at distance for proxy brake.
Brake Power for Rope Brake Dynamometer
bp = p DN (w – s)
where, D = Brake drum diameter
w = Weight
s = Spring scale reading.
Heat Balance
Energy supplied to an engine is the heat value of fuel consumed. Some
past transfer into work by engine while other part loss.
100
Heat Balance Diagram for a Unaccounted losses
SI Engine
75
The heat balance diagram for a SI Exhaust losses
engine is shown in figure below
50
Coolant losses
25
Useful work
0
Low Engine speed High
SI engine heat balance diagram
Internal Combustion Engine 355
60 Exhaust losses
40 Coolant losses
20
Useful work
0
0 25 50 75 100
Power output (%)
CI engine heat balance diagram
bp 20%
Surrounding
12% 32%
Loss
Fuel Air 80%
Exhaust + gases Cooling
water Exhaust
33%
Lubricating
Cooling Engine oil Co 65%
water o la
nt 3
5%
Lubricating
Crankcase and
oil
wall radiation
External heat balance Heat from
fuel 100%
Sankey diagram
Supercharging
Supercharging is a method for improving engine power output. The
supercharger used to increase the pressure, temperature and density of air
supplied to an internal combustion engine. Following points to be noted in
supercharging
●
Supercharging increase the power output of the engine. It does not
increase the fuel consumption per brake kW hour.
356 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Types of Superchargers
There are two main types of superchargers defined according to the
method of compression : positive displacement and dynamic
compressors.
● Positive displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per
revolution at all speeds.
● Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the air to high speed and then
exchanging that velocity for pressure by diffusing or slowing it down.
Turbocharging
In turbocharging the supercharger is being driven by a gas turbine which
uses the energy in the exhaust gases. There is no mechanical linkages
between the engine and supercharger.
Trapping Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the amount of charge retained in the cylinder to
the total charge delivered to the engine.
Vret
htrap =
Vdel
where, Vret = Amount of charge retained in cylinder
Vdel = Total charge delivered to engine.
There relatively simple crystal structures are found for most of the common
metals i.e., SSC, BCC and FCC are discussed below
r r
a
a
a
Simple cubic cell structure Atomic radius of SCC
1
So, th part of the atom is present in the atom.
8
r+r=a
where, r = Atomic radius
a = Lattice constant.
The total number of atoms present in crystal structure,
1
n= ´ 8=1
8
Volume of atoms in a cell
●
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) =
Volume of unit cell
4pa 3
=
8 ´ 3 ´ a3
p 314
.
= =
6 6
= 0.52
Percentage APF = 52%
Percentage of voids = 100 - 52 = 48%
Key Points
✦ In crystal structure, the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal is called
crystalline structure.
✦ The lattice structure of a particular metal is shown by a smallest group of
atoms and known as a unit cell.
360 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Key Points
✦ Coordination number of SCC crystal is 6.
✦ Coordination number of BCC crystal is 8.
✦ Coordination number of FCC crystal is 12.
Phase Diagram
It is also known as equilibrium diagram. The plots showing relations between
phases in equilibrium versus composition, pressure and temperature are
called phase diagrams. The composition is plotted on X-axis and
temperature is plotted on Y-axis at any specified pressure. Pressure is
generally taken atmospheric.
Eutectic Point
When a liquid phase changes into two different solid phases during cooling
or two solid phases change into a single liquid phase during heating, this
point is known as eutectic point and this temperature is known as eutectic
temperature.
cooling
L j a + b
(liquid phase) heating (solid phase) (solid phase)
362 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Eutectoid Point
When a solid phase changes into two solid phases during cooling and
vice-versa that point is known as eutectoid point and temperature at this
reaction occurs known as eutectoid temperature.
cooling
g j a + b
(solid phase) heating (solid phase) (solid phase)
Peritectic Point
A binary system when solid and liquid phases changes solid phase on
cooling and vice-versa on heating, then state of system is known as
peritectic point.
cooling
b + L j a
(solid phase) (liquid phase) heating (solid phase)
Peritectoid Point
If a binary phase diagram when two solid phases change to one solid
phase, then state of system is known as peritectoid point.
cooling
g + b j a
(solid phase) (solid phase) heating (solid phase)
T °C
1495°C L
1539 d +L
d
1410 C
dg Liquids L+
g+L
Cementite
B
Temperature
g Solids
1175°C
Eutectic
910 point
dg g + Cementite
a 723°C
Eutectoid
point
a + Cementite
0.18 0.5 (FeC3 )
0 C%
0.01 0.83 2 4.3 6.67
Fe FeC3
Steel Cast iron Pig iron
Percentage of carbon
(Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram)
Eutectoid Point
Eutectoid reaction in this diagram occurs when temperature 1°C and
carbon is 0.83%. At this point a solid form iron ( g ) changes into two solid
forms a-iron and cementite (Fe 3C).
Cooling
(irons) j a -iron + cementite (Fe 3C)
(FCC) (BCC)
Eutectic Point
In this diagram, the location of this point is at 1175°C temperature and 4.3%
at the carbon. At this point eutectic reaction occurs. In this reaction, a liquid
phase changes two solid phases g-iron (austenite) and cementite (FeC).
Peritectic reaction occurs at 1495°C and at this point carbon composition is
0.18%. This temperature is known as peritectic temperature.
364 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Cast Iron
Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies,
and is then poured into a mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig iron.
The alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast iron has
carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast
iron has graphitic flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate
countless new cracks as the materials breaks.
Stress
+s
250 (MPa)
0.065
(0.004 to 0.006) Strain
–s
1000 (MPa)
Stress
Stress-strain diagram for cast iron
Ferrous Alloy
Alloying elements Symbols Enhance mechanical properties
Tungsten W Imparts red hardness
Vanadium V Induces fine grain distribution
Chromium Cr Improves resistance to corrosion and oxidation
Molybdenum Mo Imparts hardneability
Phosphorus P Inhance machinability
Titanium Ti Increase abrasion resistance
Nickel Ni Improves tensile strength and toughness
Manganese Mn Imparts wear resistance
Non-ferrous Alloys
Alloys Composition Application
Bearing Materials
Name Composition Application
Tin babbit Sn 80%, Sb 12%, Cu 8% High speed bearing bushes
Lead babbit Pb 8.5% Sb 10%, Sn 5% Railway wagon bearing
Key Points
✦ Recovery temperature is below 0.1 Tm .
✦ Cold working temperature is below recrystallization temperature.
✦ Hot working temperature is above recrystallization temperature.
✦ For pure metal recrystallization temperature is 0.3 Tm to 0.5 Tm .
✦ For alloys recrystallization temperature is 0.57 Tm to 0.7 Tm .
where, Tm is melting point temperature in kelvin.
Metal Cutting and Tools
Cutting tools that are made from wrought high speed steels are shaped to
the required geometries by machining. The metal cutting and tools are
explain as below
Tool Geometry
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges. The cutting edges are
used to separate a chip from the parent work material. A cutting tool has
special geometry for a specific machining process.
The tools are classified as
(i) Single point cutting tool (ii) Multi-point cutting tool
A single point cutting tool has only one cutting edge and a multi-point
cutting tool has one or more cutting edge.
Rake Angle
Rake angle is defined as angle between the face of the tool called the rake
face and the normal to the cutting direction.
Lead Angle
This angle is determined by the tool holder which must be chosen for each
particular job.
368 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Side rake
angle Shank
e
ak
End cutting ck r le
edge angle Ba ang
Face
Nose
radius
Side relief
Side cutting angle
edge angle
End relief
angle
Nomenclature for right hand cutting tool
Positive lead angle performs two main functions
(i) Thins the chip
(ii) Protect the insert
The underformed chip thickness decreases when using positive lead
angle-longitudinal force (in the direction of feed on work piece can be
reduced by using positive lead angle tools.
Tool Nomenclatures
Tool nomenclatures are deperulson the following systems. Which are
explain below
ASA system The tool angles in coordinate system are given in the
following order
ab – as – g e – g s – ye – ys – r
ORS system The tool designation under ORS is given in the following
order
i – a – g – g 1 – ye – l – r
Inclination angle
Orthogonal angle
Side relief angle
End relief angle
End cutting edge angle
Approach or entering angle
Nose radius
ORS System
D Secondary
cutting edge
X
w
ys
d
X
Primary cutting
edge
t1 f
Tool
(a)
Geometry of turning process
370 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Rotating
work piece
ys Ff
FR
ys
Ft
T ool m
o vem
ent Fc (b)
Orthogonal cutting
Material Science and Production Engineering 371
Chip Chip
Tool N
Fs F N
Fc f F
Fs
Fn R Fc Fn
R¢
C Ft R¢
Ft Work piece
R = R¢
(c) (d)
Mechanics of orthogonal metal cutting
Chip
Tool
a
Fs
F
Fc f
b–a Work
Fn a piece
Ft
R
F
b
N
(e)
Parts of orthogonal metal cutting
F Ft + Fc tan a
● Coefficient of friction m = tan b = =
N Fc - Ft tan a
where, b = Friction angle f = Shear angle
● The area of shear plane A s is given by
wt
As =
sin f
where, w = Width of cut
t = uncut chip thickness
twt
● Shear force acting on shear plane = Shear stress ´ Area = t A s =
sin f
where, t = Average shear stress in the shear plane
● Mean normal stress in the shear plane
F
s= n
As
s wt
\ Fn = s ´ A s =
sin f
Fs = R cos (q + b - a )
Fs cos (b - a )
Fc = R cos (b - a ) =
cos ( f + b - a )
twt cos (b - a )
Fc =
cos ( f + b - a )
twt sin (b - a )
and Ft =
sin f cos ( f + b - a )
N Tool
A tc a
t D
f
C B
Work
piece
Velocity Ratio
Cutting velocity is more than the chip velocity. The mass of removal
material is constant before and after machining.
90° – (f.–.a)
vc
vs
a
(90° – a) f
v
Velocity ratio diagram
Tool Life
Tool life T is the cutting time at the end of which a given tool may be termed
impossible on the basis of a selected tool failure criterion. Taylor
established a relationship between tool life cutting velocity which is given by
vT n = C
where, v = Cutting speed
T = Tool life in minutes
n = A exponent which depends on cutting condition
C = Constant.
●
Depth of cut and feed rate also influence the tool life so that where, Taylor
equation can be modified as
vT nd x f y = Constant
where, d = Depth of cut
f = Feed rate (in mm/rev) in turning.
Material Science and Production Engineering 375
Machinability
The ease with which a given material may be machined under a given set
of cutting conditions. Factors affecting the machinability are
Tool life Larger tool life, better Ceramic tool
machinability.
Surface finish Good finish, more Carbide tool
logv
Economics of Machining
The economic of machining means minimum cost is used during
machining process. For total minimum cost,
C éæC ö æ 1 öù
v opt = Þ t opt = ê ç e + Tc ÷ ç - 1÷ ú
é æ Ce ö æ 1 öù
n
ë è Cn ø èn øû
êç + Tc ÷ ç - 1÷ ú
è
ë m C ø èn øû
Feed
It is the distance that tool bit advances along work piece for each revolution
of the spindle (or work piece itself). It is expressed in terms of mm/rev. It is
denoted by f.
Depth of Cut
This is the distance that tool bit moves into the work. It is denoted by t.
D-d
t=
2
where, D = Original diameter of work piece
d = Diameter of work piece after machining.
Material Science and Production Engineering 377
Machining Time
If feed rate is f and work piece rotates at N rpm.
Then, distance travelled by tool in one revolution = f
and distance travelled by tool in N revolution = f N
Time taken by tool to travel this distance is one minute because rotational
speed is given in rev/min.
Speed of tool = f N
1
If l is length of work piece then, time taken in turning = min.
fN
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
The quantity of material removed in unit time is known as material removal
rate.
D d
A L2
L3
L1
Slab milling
L3 (over travel) approximately taken as 1 to 5 mm. L2 = BC
By theorem of intersecting chord in a circle, BN ´ BC = PB ´ AB
where, AP = Diameter of cutter = D, AB = Depth of cut = d
Then, BN ´ BC = ( D - d ) ´ d
OB is perpendicular to CN.
Then, BN = BC Þ BC 2 = ( D - d ) ´ d
L2 = BC = d ( D - d ) mm
L1 + d ( D - d ) + L3( 5) ´ n
Time for machining =
f
where, n = Number of passes; f = Feed rate.
w
O C M
B
L2 L3
L1 (a)
Face milling diagram
Material Science and Production Engineering 379
w
O C M
B L2 L1
The condition before actual cutting (b)
CM = L2
Grinding
The grinding process is defined as a machining process to produce high
surface finish with tight tolerance. This process is used for machining of
hard materials.
The basic purposes of grinding are
●
Machining for hard materials
●
Production of high quality surface with close tolerance.
●
Removal of excess material from the surface of work piece.
Grinding Wheel
Grinding wheel contains abrasive particles bonding materials and voids.
The abrasive particles are located at periphery of wheel acts like as cutting
tool tips and remove the material from the surface of the job. The abrasives
are used for making grinding wheel, they are hard substances. Some of
them are aluminium oxides, ceramic, silicon carbide; zirconia, super
abrasive (diamond), super abrasive (CBN), tungsten carbide etc. (CBN =
Cubic Boron Nitride)
Friability
The ability to fracture of abrasive grain under pressure known as friability.
By this ability, when cutting edges becomes dull, the grain breaks-off and
exposes new cutting edges.
Hardness
Hardness of abrasive grain is defined as ability to scratch or penetrate the
work piece during operation.
380 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Size
Size of the screen through which the grain will pass.
Grade
The grade of the wheel is a measure of ability to retain grit. A softer material
is grinded by harder grade and vice-versa.
Structure
Structure is spacing between abrasive grains or the dense of the wheel. An
open structure would be 12 or high while close structure would be 6 or so.
Wheel Specification
The schematic diagram of wheel specification can be shown below
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Prefix Abrasive Grain size Grade Structure Bond Suffix
A 46 K 11 E
Manufactures Manufactures
abrasive code bond code
A–Aluminium Coarse Fine 4 10 V –Vitrified
oxide 8 80 5 11 B –Resin
C–Silicon 10 to 6 12
carbide 7 13 R –Rubber
12 180
Z–Zirconia 16 8 14 E –Shellac
9 15 P – Epoxy
24
Very fine 220 to
600 Medium
30 to 60
Specification of wheel
Note Coarse grits are used to aggressive stock removal and rough surface
finish and finer grit are used to less stock removal but better surface
finish.
Material Science and Production Engineering 381
Dressing
It is a process of sharpening the abrasive elements of the wheel. It is done
by star dressers, diamond dresser and dressing sticks.
Truing
It is the process of aligning the periphery of grinding wheel so that it runs
concentric with its axis of rotation. Truing and dressing occurs
simultaneously with regard conventional wheels. In super abrasive wheel,
the two processes are accomplished separately with truing performed first.
Grinding Processes
●
Surface grinding Used for grinding flat surfaces.
●
Cylindrical grinding This process is used for grinding external and
internal cylindrical surfaces.
●
Centred grinding This is used for grinding axially symmetric surfaces,
they are centred or centreless.
●
Centreless grinding Centreless grinding is high speed, low cost
operation. In this process, two wheels are used, first one is grinding wheel
and second one is governing wheel.
Jigs
Jigs are used to hold work piece and guide to tool into a predetermined
position on the work piece. Jigs size depend on the dimensions of the part
that is designed to hold.
Fixture
A fixture is work holding device that is bolted or otherwise fastened to the
machine. A fixture does not provide guiding of the processing tool.
Principle of Location
In this method, the work piece is located by means of six pins which restrict
the work piece in nine of its degree of freedom.
Principle of Least Point
In this technique, only minimum locating point should be used to secure
location of the work piece in anyone plane.
382 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Metal Forging
Forging can be defined as a method of shaping heated metal by
compression. Forging can be done either at room or elevated temperature.
Forging at the room temperature known as cold forging. In cold forging
temperature of material is below its recrystallization temperature. If forging
is carried out above recrystallization temperature then, it is known as hot
forging.
Forging basically involves three different operations
Drawing
In this operation, the length of a job is increased by decreasing its
cross-sectional area.
Upsetting
In this operation, the length of a metal is reduced while increasing the
cross-sectional area.
Squeezing
This will lengthen the metal, but will not increase the cross-sectional area.
Operations of Smith Forging
Some basic operations of smith forging can be defined as
Swaging
It is accomplished by hammering the metal stock while it is held on anvil
within anyone of various concave tools called swages.
Bending
It is accomplished by hammering the metal stock around a form.
Cogging
It is also known as drawing out. It is basically open die forging operation in
which the thickness of a bar is reduced by successive forging steps at
specific intervals. Because the contact area per stroke is small, a long
Material Science and Production Engineering 383
Rolling
It is a process of forging in which changing the cross-section of a long work
piece is done by applying a compressive force through a set of rolls.
O
P
Q
Q¢
P¢ Recrystallization
taking place
Original coarse O¢
grain structure
Principle of Rolling
When stock enters in roll then, speed of stock is less than the speed of rolls
(speed of rolls means peripheral speed). At a point between P and Q the
stock speed is same as the roll peripheral speed. Most deformation takes
place in thickness, although there is some increase in width. In all rolling
process temperature uniformity is important.
384 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
In rolling,
Volume enters in roll = Volume outs from the roll
Q1 = Q2
A1v 1 = A2v 2
where, A1 = area in front of roll (in m 2)
v 1 = velocity of metal before the roll (in m/s)
A2 = area after rolling (in m 2)
v 2 = velocity of metal after rolling (in m/s).
Analysis of Rolling
A strip of initial thickness hi enters the roll gap and after rolling the
thickness of strip becomes hf .' The peripheral speed of roll is v r , When
metal passes through roll gap then, velocity is increased due to volume
constancy. At the exit of the roll gap, the velocity of strip is v f . There is
sliding occurs between roll gap and the strip because v r remains constant
along roll gap, where velocity of roll and strip are same known as neutral
plane and that point is known as neutral point or no slip point.
O
M a R
a Q
a N
hi P mP hf
vf
vi
L
N¢
Q¢
M¢
Neutral plane
O¢
Draft
Reduction in thickness known as draft.
Dh = hi - hf
= (ON - OQ ) + (O ¢N ¢ - O ¢Q ¢ )
= ( R - R cos a ) + ( R - R cos a )
= 2 R (1 - cos a )
Horizontal component of force Fx = m P cos a - P sin a
For rolling occurs Fx ³ 0
Þ m P cos a ³ P sin a
m ³ tan a (tan a )max = m
é æ 1 öù
D h max = 2 R ê1 - ç1 - m 2 + ¼÷ ú
ë è 2 øû
Dh
tan2 a = ( m = tan a )
R
Dh
tan a =
R
hi - hf
=
R
Roll Force
Roll force is given by F = Pav wL
where, w = Width of strip
L = Contact length
æ mL ö
Pav is given by Pav = 2 k ç1 + ÷
è 2 hav ø
æ m L ö÷
So, F = Lw 2 k çç1 +
è 2 hav ÷ø
h + hf
hav = i
2
Drawing
Wire drawing is an operation to produce wire of various sizes within certain
specific tolerances. The process involves reducing diameter of rods or
wires by passing them through a series of wire drawing dies with
successive die having smaller diameter than the one preceding it. The
maximum reduction in area of wire is less than 50%.
Bulge Formation
This occurs in front of die due to low reduction and high die angle.
Internal Cracks
It is also known as central burst or centre cracking.
Tendency of internal cracks
●
increases with increasing die angle.
●
increases with increasing amount of impurities.
●
decreases the increasing drawing ratio and friction.
Material Science and Production Engineering 387
Surface Defects
This defect occurs on work piece, surface due to improper selection of
drawing method and inadequate lubrication.
Seams
Seams are longitudinal scratches or fold in materials.
Drawing Force
The expression of drawing Wire
force under frictionless
conditions is given by a
2a
æA ö Df
F = Yav Af ln ç 0 ÷ a
D0
è Af ø
where, A0 = initial cross-
sectional area of wire or rod
Af = final cross-sectional
area Yav = average true Die
stress of the material in die Drawing force diagram
gap.
Maximum reduction in diameter in drawing process,
2
æD ö
R = 1- ç f ÷
è D0 ø
1/ B
æ 1 ö
or R = 1- ç ÷
è1 + Bø
where, Df = Final diameter
D0 = Initial diameter.
m
B= = m cot a
tan a
where, m = friction coefficient and a = semi-die angle.
Extrusion
Extrusion is similar to drawing process. Main difference between extrusion
and drawing is that in extrusion process we applied compressive force but
in drawing process, force in tensile to obtain reduction in diameter.
Extrusion produces only compressive and shear forces in stock without any
tensile force which makes high deformation possible without tearing the
metal.
388 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Extrusion Force
æA ö
Extrusion force is given by F = A 0 k ln ç 0 ÷
è Af ø
where, k = Extursion constant; A0 = Initial area
Af = Final area of extrudent part.
Types of Extrusion
The following types of extrusions are given below
Direct Extrusion
It is also known as forward extrusion. In this process, a round billet is
placed in a chamber (container) and forced through a die opening by the
movement of extruded part in the direction of the applied force.
Pressure Billet
Ao
Die
do Af
df
Chamber
Direct extrusion
Combined Extrusion
Combined extrusion uses a combination of forward and backward
extrusion. The metal in chamber, flow in both up and down directions.
Material Science and Production Engineering 389
Hydrostatic
In hydrostatic extrusion, the pressure
Fluid Chamber
required for extrusion is supplied through Die
an incompressible fluid medium
surrounding the billet. There is no
Extruded
container wall friction. The high pressure Ram part
in chamber transmits some of the fluid to Hydrostatic
die surface, where it significantly
reduces friction and forces.
Impact Extrusion
It is similar to indirect extrusion. It is often Punch
included in the cold extrusion category. The Extruded tube
punch descends rapidly on the blank (slug)
which is extruded backward'. The thickness Die
of the tubular section is a function of the Impact extrusion
clearance between die and punch. This is
because of volume constancy.
Extrusion Defects
Extrusion defects are classified in the following groups
Surface Cracking
If friction, extrusion temperature or speed is too high then, surface
temperature rises significantly and this condition may cause surface
cracking and tearing. These cracks are along the grain boundaries and
usually caused by hot shortness.
Internal Cracking
The centre of extruded part can develop cracks (these are known as
centre burst, centre cracking arrow head fracture or chevron cracking)
due to a state of hydrostatic tensile at the centre line of the deformation
zone in the die.
390 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Burr Rough
Burr height surface
A B
A Dishing B
Smooth
surface
C D
Ideal
slug
C Clearance C D
Sheet
Shearing stress Sheet metal parts
Shearing Operations
The shearing operations are classified into the following manner as given
below
●
Blanking It is a metal fabricating process, during which a metal work
piece is removed from a metal sheet when it is punched. In this process,
slug is useful part and sheet metal is scrap.
●
Piercing It is general term for cutting openings such as holes and slots
in sheet metal part. In this process,' slug is scrap and sheet metal part is
useful.
●
Slitting Shearing operation can be carried out by means of a pair of
circular blades similar to those that in a can opener, this process is called
slitting.
●
Slotting It is cutting of elongated holes or slots.
●
Shaving It is a finishing or sizing process and very little material is
removed from edges.
●
Preformating Punching a number of similar hole in sheet. They are
arranged in a regular pattern in a sheet.
Material Science and Production Engineering 391
Size = d
Punch-die system
In piercing process, the cut out part is waste and left out piece is
required. In this case punch is Punch
made of exact size and die is c d c
made, bigger size. Cutting
force in cutting shearing Die
operation is given by
d + 2c
Punch-die system
b F d d C
D C E D
t t
In this figure,
Total shear length = AB + BCD + DE + EFA
p p
= l + d + l + d = (2l + pd )
2 2
Shear area = (2l + pd ) ´ t
● When cut a square hole of side length a from a t thickness stock
Shear area = 4 a t
● In washer making, D = Outer diameter of washer
d = Inner diameter of washer
t = Stock thickness
Shear area = ( pD + pd ) ´ t
= p t (D + d )
From above example, it is clear that first we should calculate perimeter of
cutting lines and then the perimeter is multiplied by stock thickness for
determining shear area.
Deep Drawing
Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal
blank is radially down into a forming die by the mechanical action of the
punch. It is thus a shape transformation process with material retention.
Deep drawing are classified into the following groups
Ironing
It is the operation in which the thickness of the shell wall is reduced and its
surface is made smoothen.
Redrawing
When the ratio of blank diameter and the final cup diameter is too large, the
drawing operation is performed more than one stage. After the first one, the
successive drawings are known as redrawing operation.
Reverse Drawing
In this operation or process, a bending is to be subjected on a drawn cup
in the opposite direction to its original drawn direction. This helps in strain
softening.
394 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Earing
This is the formation of edges around the top of a drawn shell.
Buckling
When an uncontrolled deformation pattern perpendicular to the surface of
sheet causes by compressive stress occurs then, it causes abend, kink or
other wavy condition of the work piece, this defect is known as buckling.
Buckling in the wall of the part is referred to a puckering and buckling in
flange part is referred to as wrinkling.
Surface Scratch
This occurs on the surface of the draw cup.
Bulging
In this defect, the diameter of a cylindrical shell increases or expanding of
the outer walls of any shell or box shape walls were previously straight.
Draw Clearance
It should be 7 to 20% of blank thickness.
Blank Size
p 2 p
D = pdh + d 2
4 4
æ d ö
D = d 2 +4dh ç when ³ 20÷
è r ø
2 æ d ö
= d + 4 dh - 0.5r ç when 15 £ £ 20÷
è r ø
æ d ö
= d 2 + 4d h - 0.5r ç when 10 £ £ 15÷
è r ø
æ d ö
= (d - 2 r )2 + 4 d ( h - r ) + 2 pr (d - 07
. r) ç when £ 10÷
è r ø
where, D = Blank diameter (in mm)
d = Outer diameter of shell (in mm)
h = Height of shell (in mm)
r = Corner radius of punch (in mm)
Bending
In this process straining of a metal sheet or plate is done, by moving it
around a straight axis lying in the neutral plane.
Bend Allowance
pq
Bend allowance is given by BA = ( R + kt )
180°
where, q = Bend angle in degree
R = Inside bend radius (in mm)
t = Material thickness
t
k = k factor = 1
t
= 0.33 ( when R < 2t )
= 0.5 ( when R > 2t )
t 1 = Distance of neutral plane from inside face.
Lt = A + B + BA (Bend allowance)
Lt = Total flat length
Lt = A + B - BD (Bending deduction)
396 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Bending Force
ksu L t 2
Bending force is given by Fb = w
w
where, k = Constant
su = Ultimate tensile strength (in MPa)
t = Thickness of blank (in mm) V-Die
Powder Production
The various methods used to power production. Some basic methods are
defined below.
Atomization
In this process, molten metal is broken in form of metal powder with the
help of water, air or inert gas spray.
Material Science and Production Engineering 397
Chemical Method
This process is included the production of powder by reduction of metal
oxides, precipitation from and thermal decomposition.
Electrolytic Deposition
It involves the precipitation of metallic element at the cathode of an
electrolytic cell. Copper powders are produced by this method.
Crushing
This process is used to produce hard and brittle material powder. Ceramic
powders are produce by this method. Some metal and alloys are also
produced by this method.
Agglomeration
This process is used to produce metal powder where constituents are
physically mixed together with an organic binder. This process is used in
the manufacture of NiAl, AlUi polyester powder.
Blending
The purpose of mixing is to provided homogeneous mixture and to
incorporate the lubricant. The mixing is done in rotating containers called
blenders.
Some lubricant is mixed with powder which reduces friction between
particles and surfaces of tools along which the powder must slide during
compaction.
Compacting
Compaction is the step in which blended powders are pressed into shape
in dies. The presses are used driven by mechanically or hydraulically. The
purpose of compaction are to obtain the required shape, density and
particle to particle contact. After this process the parts are sufficiently
strong to be further processed.
398 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Sintering
Sintering is the process where green compacts are heated in controlled
atmosphere furnace to a tempera- ture below the melting point. But
sufficiently to allow fusion of individual particle.
Finishing Operations
The following are the various types of loads as given below
● Coining It is a press working operation on a sintered part to press detail
into its surface.
● Forging In this process, desired shape is given to sintered part at
elevated temperature.
● Machining Making threads, holes or slot on sintered part is called
machining.
● Sizing In this process, the dimensional accuracy of sintered part is
improved.
●
Heat Treating This process is used to improve hardness of sintered
part.
●
Stream Treating In this process, sintered part obtained a oxide casting on
its surface.
●
Plating This operation is used to obtain spectic surface finish and
colour.
●
Joining In this process, two sintered parts are joined by typical joining
method like welding, brazing etc.
●
Repressing Repressing increases the density and improves the
properties of a sintered part.
●
Impregnation The powder metallurgy part has tiny capillary pores all
over which can be filled by oil or other lubricant, this process is called
impregnation.
●
Infiltration The pores can also filled by a metal of lower melting point
than sintered part by heating the sintered parts when metal is placed
against it. It increases strength and density of sintered part. Sintered
steel parts are infiltrated by copper or bronze.
Metal Casting
It is a metal forming process, in which metal is formed by allowing molten
metal to solidify in a mould. E casting, we can make most intricate of
shapes, both external and internal.
Casting process can be shown in a flow chart as
Pattern making
¯
Core making
¯
Moulding
¯
Melting and pouring
¯
Cooling and solidification
¯
Cleaning
Pattern Making
First of all, pattern is a replica or facsimile model of desired casting which
produces a cavity. Molten metal solidifies in this cavity. The process of
making such cavity by using pattern is known as pattern making.
Pattern materials are
1. Wood 2. Plastic 3. Plaster of Paris 4. Wax
Core Making
Cores are used to produce the internal features of part such as hole or any
opening. Cores are placed in the cavity produced by pattern.
Moulding
Moulding is the process to prepare a mould for receiving mould metal.
Mould must be strong enough to hold the weight metal. Moulding process
generally involves
●
Placing a moulding aggregate around a pattern
●
Pattern is held with supporting frame
400 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Cleaning
When metal is cooled and solidified, we withdraw it. Cleaning is done to
remove the dust or other particles of moulding sand.
= Ag ´ 2 gH
If the volume of mould cavity is Vm and it is filled in
time t, then
Ag ´ 2 gH ´ t = Vm Top gate
Vm
\ t=
Ag 2 gH
Bottom Gate
It can be shown below in the figure
Let a dx thickness or height in mould cavity filled by gate in dt time. The
height of strip from the bottom of the cavity is x. Applying Bernoulli’s
equation between points 1 and 2.
p1 v 12 p v2
+ +H= 2 + 2 +0 …(i)
rg 2 g rg 2 g
v 1 can be neglected because pouring basin area is very large and p1 is
atmospheric pressure. So, Eq. (i) becomes
p2 v2
H= + 2 …(ii)
pg 2 g
402 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Design of Sprue
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1
2 and 3, designing of sorue h1
2
p2 v 22 p v2 h3
+ + h2 = 3 + 3 + 0 …(i) h2
rg 2 g rg 2 g
3
When the mould is empty then, air will be
present there and that time the pressure at the
point 3 will be equal to atmospheric pressure. If A schematic diagram of
the area of sprue is constant throughout then, sprue
p2
= - h2
rg
It means that at point 2 in the sprue, there will be vacuum and it will capture
atmosphere into liquid through sand voids. 1
This will produce blow holes in the casted h 1
part. This phenomenon, is known as 2
h3
aspiration effect. So, avoid this phenomenon, h2
the cross-section area of the sprue is 3
changed to have uniform pressure
(atmospheric pressure) throughout the sprue.
Let again consider points 2 and 3 when Sprue diagram
pressure is uniform (at atmospheric pressure) (aspiration effect)
throughout the sprue.
v 22 v2
+ h2 = 3 …(ii)
2g 2g
From continuity equation A2v 2 = A3v 3
A2 v 3 A
= v2 = 3 v3
A3 v 2 A2
A3
where, =R
A2
R is known as area ratio v2 = R v3
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2,
p1 v 12 p v2
+ + h3 = 2 + 3 + 0
rg 2 g rg 2 g
v 1 = 0 (because basin has large cross-section area)
p1 = p3 = 0 (because they are at atmospheric pressure)
Design of Risers
The purpose of riser is to provide liquid metal to compensate liquid and
shrinkage during phase change. The secondary purpose of riser is to show
that whether casting is full or not. So, a riser is designed in such a way that
it stays molten longer than the casting.
The solidification time both for casting and riser given as
2
æV ö
t =k ç ÷ (Chvorinov rule)
è SA ø
404 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Welding
Welding is defined as a material joining process which produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or
without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone
and with or without the use of filler material.
Types of Flame
Flame can be classified into the following types
Neutral Flame
In neutral flame, the ratio of oxygen and acetylene is 1 : 1.
2100°C
Oxidising Flame
In this flame, the quantity of oxygen is Outer envelope
(small and narrow)
greater than acetylene. This is harmful,
especially for steel because it oxidises the
steel. This is useful in welding of copper
Inner cone
and copper based alloy. (pointed)
Oxidising flame
Carburising Flame
In this flame, the quantity of the oxygen Blue envelope
is less than the acetylene. It is suitable
for application requiring low heat such
as brazing, soldering and flame Bright luminous inner cone
hardening Carburising flame
Arc Welding
In this process, heat is obtained from electrical energy. Electric arc is
generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode against the work piece
and the withdrawing it quickly to a sufficient distance to maintain the arc. In
this welding method, the temperature is generated about 6500°C.
Straight Polarity
In straight polarity, workpiece is positive terminal and electrode is
connected with negative terminal respectively. It is preferred for sheet
metals because it produces shallow penetration and joints for very wide
gaps.
408 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Reverse Polarity
In reverse polarity, electrode is positive terminal and work piece is
connected with negative terminal. It is used for welding of thick sheet
because it provides deep penetration. DC is used for sheet welding
because it produces steady arc. AC is used for welding of thick section and
using large electrode diameter at maximum current.
Electrode cable
Shielded metal arc welding
Deoxidizers are usually present in the electrode metal itself which also
prevent oxidation of molten weld puddle.
Metal transfer in this process by four modes
1. Spray transfer 2. Globular 3. Short circuiting 4. Pulsed spray
Spray Transfer
In this metal transfer mode, small droplets of metal from electrode
transferred to the weld area at a rate of several hundred droplets per
second. Transfer is spatter free and very stable. High DC current and
voltages of large diameter electrodes are used.
Globular Transfer
In this transfer, carbon dioxides rich gases are utilized and globules
propelled by the forces of the electric arc transfer the metal with
considerable spatter. High welding current are used, so high weld
penetration occurs. Thick sections are joined by this method.
Short Circuiting
The metal transfer in individual is more than 50 per second as electrode tip
touch the weld pool and short circuiting occurs. Low current and voltage
are generally used with CO 2 like rich gases. The small diameter used in this
method.
Pulsed Spray
The average current required is reduced by using a pulsed arc which
superimpose high amplitude pulse onto a low, steady current. This process
can be used in all welding positions.
Travel
Solid wire electrode
Current
conductor Shielding gas
Nozzle
Shielded
gas Wire guide and
contact tube
Arc
Non-consumable Electrode
The non-consumable electrode basically are used in the following arc
welding process which defined as
section, ranging from 50 mm to more than 900 mm. Current required 600 A
at 40-50 V, although higher currents are used for thick plates. Welding
speed is about 12 to 36 m/min.
Power
supply
Nozzle
Arc
Molten metal
Work piece
+
There are two processes of plasma arc welding. In transferred arc method,
the work piece is the part of electrical circuit. The arc transfers from the
electrode to work piece. In non-transferred method work piece is not a part
of electrical circuit and arc produce between tungsten electrode and nozzle
and heat is carried to work piece by the plasma gas.
412 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Thermit Welding
In this welding process, heat is produced by exothermic reaction between
metal oxides and metallic reducing element. This heat is utilized in the
welding. The most common mixture of materials used in welding of steel
and cast iron is finely divided particles of Fe 3O 4, Al 2O 3, iron and aluminium.
This non-explosive mixture produces maximum theoretical temperature of
3200°C is less than one minute. However, it reaches only about 2200°C.
The reaction is started by applying a magnesium fuse to special
compounds of peroxides, chromates or chlorates known as oxidizing agent
at an ignition temperature of about 1200°C. It is suitable welding and
repairing large forgings and castings. It can also be used to join rails. pipe
and thick steel structural sections.
Non-conventional Welding
The non-conventional welding process are used in solid state welding.
Some welding methods are defined as
Cold Welding
Cold welding is a solid state welding, this method uses pressure at room
temperature to produce coalescence of metals with substantial
deformation at the weld. The pressure is applied by roller or die. The both
metal should be ductile in nature (most cases).
Material Science and Production Engineering 413
Diffusion Welding
It is a welding process in which the strength of the joint results primarily
from diffusion (movement of atoms across the interface) and secondarily
from plastic deformation of the faying surfaces. The temperature involves
about 0.5 Tm , where Tm is melting temperature of welding material in kelvin.
Explosion Welding
Explosion welding is a solid state welding process in which coalescence is
affected by high movement of the metal to be joined produced by a
controlled detonation.
Detonator
Explosive
Stand-off Clad metal (fyer)
distance
Base plate
Explosive
Butter
Detonator
Clad
Angular interface
a clearance gap
Base plate
Explosion welding
Resistance Welding
In this welding process, heat is generated by means of electrical resistance
across the two components to be joined.
H = I 2Rt
where, H = Heat generated (in joules)
R = Resistance (in W)
I = Current (in A)
.
Pressure applied
Current-on
Electrode
Weld nugget
Lap joint
Current-off
pressure applied Pressure released
Resistance spot welding
Weld plate
Nugget
Resistance seam welding
Flash Welding
Flash welding is also known as flash butt welding. Heat is generated from
the arc as end of the two member begin to make contact and develop an
electrical resistance at the joint.
Material Science and Production Engineering 415
Stud Welding
Stud welding is also known as stud arc welding. Stud which is a small part
of threaded rod or hanger serves as one of the electrode while being joined
to another component which is usually a flat plate. A ceramic ring is placed
around the joint to prevent from oxidation to weld zone.
Percussion Welding
In this welding process, current is supplied by a capacitor. Capacitor is
discharged within 1 to 10 ms to develop localized high heat at joint. This
process is used in electronic industries.
Welding Defects
After welding some defects are found which make the strength of joint
weak. Such defects are called welding defects. Some welding defects are
given below.
Porosity
In this defect, air bubbles (or gases) are present in the weld zone. The
distribution of air bubbles in weld zone is
random. Porosity caused by gases release
during melting of the weld area but trapped
during solidification, chemical reaction during
welding or by contaminants.
Porosity
Slag Inclusions
Slag inclusions are compound such as oxides, fluxes and electrode
contain meterials that are trapped in the weld zone.
Incomplete Fusion
When gap is not totally filled by molten metal, it is known as incomplete
fusion.
Incomplete fusion
416 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Incomplete Penetration
Incomplete penetration occurs when the depth
of the welded joint is insufficient.
Incomplete penetration
Under Filling
It occurs when the joint is not filled with the Under filling
proper amount of molten metal.
Lamellar Tears
This is mainly a problem with low quality steel. It occurs in plate that has a
low ductility in the thickness direction which caused by non-metallic
inclusions (sulphides, oxides) that have been elongated during the rolling
process. Lamellar tearing can occur in both fillet and butt welds but the
most affected joints are T and corner joints where the fusion boundary is
parallel to the rolling plane.
Cracks
Cracks may occur in various locations and directions in the weld area. The
typical types of cracks are longitudinal, transverse, crater, under bead and
toe cracks. When joint is at elevated temperature then a crack occurs and it
is known as hot crack. When it occurs after solidifying weld metal, it is
known as cold crack.
Material Science and Production Engineering 417
Toe crack
EI
where, r = Material density MRR = = sI
rF
E
where, s = Specific material removal rate =
rF
Electrode feed rate is given by = s ´ J
I
where, J = Current density =
A
V l
I = R =r
R A
where, V = Voltage
r = Specific resistance or electrical resistivity
I V V V
s1 = = = =
A RA r l A rl
A
where, l = Gap between work piece and tool
When any alloy is given like as (alloy having different elements)
A B C
Atomic weight x y z
Valency m n Q
Percentage p q r
where, p + q + r = 100
1 p´ m q´n r ´Q
Then, = + +
Ealloy 100 ´ x 100 ´ y 100 ´ z
where, Ealloy = Chemical equivalent weight
If only A and B are given then, p + q = 100
1 p´ m q´n
= +
Ealloy 100 ´ x 100 ´ y
Application of ECM
It has main application in machining steam turbine blades and die sinking.
1
Frequency of spark f=
t
1
Energy released per spark E = CVd2
2
Average value of power delivered
E
Pav = , t 1 = Charging time
t1 + t2
t 2 = Discharging time
t1 > > t2
Optimum value of discharge voltage
Vd
= 072
.
V0
Vd = 072
. V0
Þ Vd is 72% of charging voltage.
The major application of EDM is in die sinking.
Advantages of (AJM)
●
Low cost and ease of operation. ●
No heat generation
Disadvantages of (AJM)
●
Poor surface finish. l Very low MRR
420 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Metrology
Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM) as ‘‘the science of measurement embracing both experimental and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainly in any field of science
and technology.’’
f f
Accurate but not precise Accurate but not precise
Material Science and Production Engineering 421
Mean value
Mean value
D Target value D Target value
f f
Neither precise nor accurate
Selective Assembly
The process of achieving fully interchangeable system is called selective
assembly.
Fully interchangeable system are those system which does not require any
inspection after machining. Selected number hole and shaft have desired
tolerance individually so that hole and shaft is selected randomly from hole
and shaft lot and assemble can made.
Upper ES
deviation Width of
Lower
tolerance zone
deviation E1
Fundamental
Upper deviation
Lower deviation Basic size
deviation
Shaft
Hole Hole
Clearance Fit
Hole
If lower limit of hole is larger than the upper
limit of shaft. It is considered as clearance Zero line
fit. Zero line
Maximum
minimum
clearance
clearance
Shaft
Transition Fit Clearance fit
This type of fit appears when there is overlap in the
Shaft
tolerance zones. Physically, it indicates that when a Hole
part is selected randomly from hole and a shaft lot. Zero
Some of the assemblies can be made without the line
application of force and for some of the assemblies Transition fit
force will be required.
Interference Fit
Shaft
If maximum size of hole is smaller
than the minimum size of shaft then
Maximum Minimum
force has to be applied to make the interference Hole interference
assembly. Such fits are called
interference fits
Interference fit
Allowance
It is defined as the difference between maximum material limit of hole and
shaft. Depending upon the type of fit either it is equal minimum clearance
or maximum interference.
Material Science and Production Engineering 423
Taylor Principle
■ GO and NOGO gauges must be designed to check size as well as shape and has to
be in the full form i. e., full working length of holes or shaft.
■ GO gauges are designed at maximum material limit condition and NOGO gauges
are designed at minimum material limit condition.
Sine Bar
It is used for indirect measurement of an angle of an machined surface.
High carbon and high chromium material are used for sine bar as it gives
good surface finish.
424 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Types of Error
Errors are classified into the following categories
Erratic Error
These errors appear due to incompleteness of any link. Such error does not
follow any pattern. These magnitude is also uncertain so these errors have to
be eliminated by inspecting the instrument before starting the experiment.
Comparator
Comparators are used for measuring the dimensions from a reference value.
Pneumatic Comparator
Pneumatic comparator work on the principle Surface
that of an air jet. Upon decreasing the stand d-Stand
off distance
off distance, the pressure on the back
ground of jet will increase. This pressure is
called back pressure and can be directly
related to the measurement Back
These comparators can be further divided Principle of an air jet pressure
into three groups Pneumatic comparator
1. Flow type 2. Differential type 3. Back pressure type
p æMö
= A - b ç ÷, p = back pressure
P èc ø
P = total pressure B/P and M graph 0.8
b
0.6 = 1.1 - Mmax
p/P
c
b
0.8 = 1.1 - Mmin 0.6
c
dP 0.4P
= Mmin Mmax
dM Mav
B/P and M graph
Material Science and Production Engineering 425
dR dR dp dM
Magnification = = ´ ´
dl dP dM dl
dR
= Indication sensitivity
dP
dp
= Pneumatic sensitivity
dM
dM
= Measuring head sensitivity
dl
æp ö
A = area of control orifice = ç dc2 ÷
è4 ø
M = Measuring head area = Td m l
P (Total pressure)
dc
Back
pressure
H
p
Measuring
Surface head
Back pressure type comparator
Surface Finish
A machined surface is having 2 types of irregularities i . e., roughness and
waviness. Small wavelength fluctuation are called roughness (primary
texture) and large wavelength deviations are called waviness (secondary
texture). Waviness is being produced by machine vibrations, chatter,
errors, in guide ways etc. Roughness appears due to improper selection of
cutting fluid development of temperature on robe face.
Lay
Industrial
Engineering
Forecasting
Forecasting is the first major activity in the planning. It involves careful
study of past data and present scenario. Forecasting is the projection of
past into future while prediction is the judgement in management after
taking all available information into account.
We can define forecasting based on time duration as
●
Short term forecasting for 1 to 3 months
●
Intermediate term forecasting for 3 to 12 months
●
Long term forecasting for more than 1year
Quantitative Method
It is objective in nature and employ numerical information as the basis of
making forecast.
Industrial Engineering 427
Forecasting Method
Smoothing Method
Smoothing method is used to smooth out the random fluctuation caused
by the irregular component of time series.
There are following types of smoothing method
●
Simple Moving Average Method A Moving average is obtained by
summing and averaging the values from a given number of periods
respectively, each time, deleting the oldest value and adding a new value.
The forecast for (t + 1) th period is given by
428 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
æ 1ö t
Ft + 1 = ç ÷ S Di
è nø t = i + 1- n
where, Di = Actual demand for the ith period.
n = Number of periods included in each average.
● Weighted Moving Average This approach is based on the principle
that more weight age should be given to relatively newer data.
Forecast for ( t + 1 ) period
t
Ft + 1 = S w i Di
i = t + 1- n
●
Double Exponential Smoothing Double exponential method is
used when there is a trend in data, the raw data sequence of
observations is represented by x t beginning at time t = 0. We use St to
represent the smooth value for time t and b t is our best estimate of the
trend at time t.
Industrial Engineering 429
S 0 = x0
St = a x t + (1 - a) (S t - 1 + b t - 1)
bt = b (S t - S t - 1) + (1 - b ) b t - 1
Ft + m = St + mb t
where, a = Data smoothing factor ( 0 < a < 1)
b = Trend smoothing factor
xn - 1 - x0
b0 =
n-1
Þ F1 = S 0 + b0, for ( n > 1)
Trend Projection in Forecasting
In the trend projection method of forecasting, the value of time series
exhibits a long term linear trend.
yt = a + bx
S y = Na + bS x,
S xy = aSx + bS x 2,
where, yt = The trend value, a = Intercept of trend line
b = Slope of trend line, x = Independent variable
S xy - N x y
Alternatively, b=
S x 2 - N ( x )2
Qualitative Method
Qualitative forecasting is based on person judgement and involve qualities
like intuition and experience.
It can be divided into following types
Delphi Method
It is long range forecast based on group consumer by panel of outside
expert. It is extremely useful for forecast of new technology or new product
and past data are absent. However, accuracy and reliability of forecast is
relatively poor and may be time consuming process.
Scenario Writing
It consists of developing a conceptual scenario of the future based on a
well defined set of assumptions.
Industrial Engineering 431
N=3
N=6
Time
Demand versus time
As value of N increases the forecast become stable and lower value of N result in
forecast being more responsive.
Bias
It is a measure of over estimation or under estimation. If the bias value is
positive, then it is under estimation and if bias is negative, then it is over
estimation.
n
S ( Dt - Ft )
t =1
Bias =
n
Tracking Signal
It is ratio of bias till n periods to mean absolute deviation till n periods. It is
used to identify those items which do not keep pace with either positive or
negative bias or trend.
n
S ( Dt - Ft )
(Bias)n
TS = t = 1 =
(MAD)n (MAD)n
Inventory
Inventory is defined as the list of movable goods which helps directly or
indirectly in production of goods for sale. We can also defined inventory as
a comprehensive list of movable items which are required for
manufacturing the products and to maintain the plant facilities in working
conditions.
It can be divided in two parts
Direct Inventories
The inventories which play a direct role in manufacturing of a product and
become an integral part of the finished product are called direct
inventories. e.g., raw materials, purchases part and finished goods.
Indirect Inventories
The inventories which helps the raw material to get converted into products
but not integral part of finished product is called indirect inventories.
e. g ., tool and supplies (material used in running the plant but do not go
into the product) are indirect inventories.
Industrial Engineering 433
Inventory Control
It means making the desired item of required quality and in required
quantity available to various departments when needed.
Order Quantity
It is the volume of stock at which order is placed or total quantity of buy or
sell order.
Reorder Point
It is time between initiating the order and receiving the required quantity.
Reorder point = Minimum inventory + Procurement time ´ Consumption rate
Lead Time
The time gap between placing of an order and its actual arrival in the
inventory is known as lead time. It consist of requisition time and
procurement time.
It has two components
Administrative Lead Time
From initiation of procurement action until the placing of an order.
Delivery Lead Time
From placing of an order until the delivery of the ordered material.
Safety Stock
If the maximum inventory would be equal to the order quantity Q and
minimum inventory would be zero.
Q
Average inventory in this case =
2
Safety stock = k Average consumption during lead time
k = A factor based on acceptable frequency of stock out in a given
number of years.
434 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Buffer Stock
For an average demand during average lead time the additional stock
termed as buffer stock.
Buffer stock = Average demand ´ Average lead time
● When no stock outs are desired.
● Buffer stock = Maximum Demand During Lead Time (DDLT) - Average
Demand During Lead Time (DDLT)
● When demand rate varies about the average demand during a constant
Lead Time (LT ) period
Reorder Level (ROL) = Average (DDLT) ´ LT + BS
Inventory Models
Inventory Cost
The costs that are affected by firm’s decision to maintain particular level of
inventory are called cost associated with inventories or relevant inventory
cost.
Total Inventory Costs (TIC)
TIC = Purchase cost + Total Variable Cost (TVC) of managing the inventory
TIC = Purchase cost + Inventory cost + Ordering cost + Shortage cost
st
co
Minimum total cost
l
ta
To Inventory carrying
cost
Ordering cost
EOQ
Number of units
Inventory cost curve
Industrial Engineering 435
Purchase Cost
It is defined as the cost of purchasing a unit of an item.
Purchase cost = Price per unit ´ Demand per unit time
= Cu ´ D
where, Cu = Unit cost
D = Annual demand
Ordering Cost
It is defined as the cost of placing an order from a vendor. This represents
the expenses involved in placing an order with the outside supplier. This
includes the costs involved in processing and ordering for purchase,
expediting over the orders, receiving the consignment and inspection.
C
Annual ordering cost = o ´ D
Q
where,
Q = Produced purchased or supplied throughout the entire time period
(one year) or order quantity
Co = Cost of placing an order
D = Annual demand
Carrying Cost
Carrying or holding costs are the costs incurred maintaining the stores in
the firm. It is proportional to the amount of inventory and the time over
which it is held.
a
Annual carrying cost Cui = Cu ´ i ´
2
where, Cu = Unit purchase cost,
i = Interest rate
Shortage Cost
When an item cannot be supplied on consumer’s demand, the penalty
cost for running out of stock is called shortage cost or stock out cost.
Shortage cost = Cost of being short one unit in inventory
´ Average number of unit short in the inventory.
Inventory
Maximum Inventory
Q Slope (r)
k
k–r
t1 t2 Time
t
EOQ versus time graph
t1 Q2 Time
EOQ versus time graph
438 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
o æ C1 ö
● Maximum inventory level Q o - Q 1 = Q o ç1 - ÷
è C1 + C2 ø
2Co D C2
=
C1 C1 + C2
Probabilistic Model
The ideal inventory models such as wilson and production models, do not
account for the rise and uncertainty in their formulation. In reality these
situations rarely occur. The
Probability of
major variations are in the el
l ev Stock out (a)
demand rate and lead time. e
r vi c
Both the demand rate and lead Se WF
(1 – a)
time may vary from cycle to m = DL Zs ROL (X)
cycle and their variations are Probabilistic Model
probabilistic in nature. In the
probabilistic models, the inventory decisions are based on the probability
distribution of demand and/or that of the lead time.
Reserve stock level for normally distribute Demand During Lead Time
(DDLT).
Reserve Stock (RS) = ROL - DLT = X - m
RS
Z = ( X - m )/ s =
s
where, X = Mean demand + Reserve stock
s = Standard deviation
ROL = Reorder Level
Industrial Engineering 439
Linear Programming
A linear programming is defined as it is the optimisation of a linear function
of variables subject to constrain of linear inequalities.
A Linear Programming Problem (LPP) consists of three components namely
(i) Decision Variables (Activities)
(ii) The Objective (Goal)
(iii) The Constraints (Restrictions)
Objective (Goal)
The linear programming problem must have an objective which should be
clearly identifiable and measurable in quantitative terms.
LPP-Graphical Solutions
LPP involving two decision variables can easily solved by graphical method.
Basic Solutions
Given a system of m simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns ( m < n).
A is an m ´ n matrix of rank m, let B be any m ´ n submatrix formed by m
linearly independent columns of A. Then,
A solution obtained by setting (n - m) variables not associated with the
columns of B equal to zero and solving the resulting system is called a
basic solution to the given system of equations.
A x = b, xT e R n
The m variables, which may be all different from zero are called basic
variables. The m ´ m non-singular submatrix B is called a basis matrix with
the columns of B as basis vectors.
n - m ® Non-basic variable
m ® Basic variable
Degenerate Solution
A basic solution to the system is called degenerate if one or more of basic
variable vanish (zero).
Simplex Method
When the decision variables are more than two, graphical method
becomes inadequate and linear programming problem is solved by
simplex method. Simplex method is defined as an algebraic procedure
that through a series of repetitive operations, progressively approaches
an optimal solution.
Conditions of Feasibility
It assume that if the initial solution is basic feasible, then during
computation only basic feasible solutions will be obtained.
Condition of Optimality
It guarantees that only better solutions will be encountered.
Key Points
✦ Infinite Solutions When a non-basic variable in an optimum solution has a
zero value for D j row, then the solution is not unique.
✦ Unbounded Solution When all replacement ratio are either infinite (or)
negative, then the solution terminate. This indicate the problem has unbound
solution.
✦ Infeasible Solution It is identified in the simplex table when optimality
condition is satisfied and there is a positive value for artificial variable in the
basic solution.
Dual Problem
Minimize z * = b1 w 1 + b2w 2¼ ¼ + bm w m
Subject to the constraints
a1j w 1 + a2 j w 2 +¼ ¼+ amj w m ³ c j ( j = 1, 2, ¼ n)
w i = ( i = 1, 2¼ ¼ m ) unrestricted
Minimization and Maximization Conditions in Dual Problem
Dual
Standard Primal Objective
objective constraints variables
Maximisation Minimisation ³ unrestricted
Minimisation Maximisation £ unrestricted
Key Points
✦ Optimum Solution A feasible solution is said to be optimal, if it minimises
the total transportation cost.
✦ Unbalance TP If total supply is not equal to total demand, then it balance
with dummy source or destination.
Step 3 Recompute the column and row differences for the reduced
transportation table and go to Step 2. Repeat the procedure until all
the rim requirements are satisfied.
Assignment Problem
The assignment problem is a special case of the transportation problem in
which the objective is to assign a number of resources to the equal number
of activities at a minimum cost ( or maximum profit).
Assignment problem is complete degenerate form of transportation
problem. That means exactly one occupied cell in each row and each
column of the transportation table i . e., only n occupied cells in place of the
required ( n + n - 1) = (2 n - 1)
Let xij denote the assignment of the ith resource to the jth activity such that
ì 1, if resource i is assigned to activity j
xij = í
î 0, otherwise
then the mathematical formulation of the assignment problem is minimise
n n
z= S S Cij xij
i=1j=1
Step 3 Locate the smallest element in each row of the given cost matrix
and then subtract the same from each element of that row.
Step 4 In the reduced matrix obtained in Step 3. Locate the smallest
element of each column and then subtract the same from each
element of that row.
Step 5 (a) Examine the rows successively until a row with single zero is
found. (o) this zero and cross all other zero. Do it same for all
rows.
(b) Repeat the procedure for each column.
(c) In case of two zero in same row or column choose arbitrary any
one of these zero and cross off other zeros.
(d) Repeat (a) through (c) above successively until the chain of
assigning (o) or cross (x) ends.
Step 6 If number of assignments (o) is equal to n an optimum solution is
reached. If number of (o) < n then go to next step.
Step 7 Draw the minimum number of horizontal or vertical lines to cover all
the zeros of the reduced matrix.
Step 8 Developed the new revised cost matrix.
Step 9 Go to Step 6 and repeat the procedure until an optimum solution is
attained.
Fixed Cost
The cost which do not vary with increase or decrease of its production and
sale activity for a given period. They are constant upto specific volume or
range of volume. e.g., rent
e.g., rent
Volume (V)
Fixed cost
448 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Variable Cost
Costs that are incurred by the enterprise which Material Variable
increase with the rise in the level of production cost cost
and decrease with its falls e.g.,electricity,
water, power taxes.
Volume
Variable cost
Semi Variable Cost
Costs which are partly fixed and partly variable such as maintenance costs
of machines and equipment depreciation etc., these however can be
broken up into variable and fixed portions.
Key Points
✦ Increase in fixed cost (possible owing to the purchase of a new machine)
increases the total costs and thus shift BEP towards the right hand side, so
profit will be decreased for the same units of output.
✦ Increase in variable costs and so in total cost possible owing to an increase in
labour cost would shift the BEP towards the right hand side. This involves a
decrease in profit for the same units of output.
✦ If the price of an article rises a new sales revenue will be drawn with a greater
slope, this shift BEP towards the left hand side and thus increase the company
profit for the same units of output.
Assumptions of BEA
●
Constant selling price, linear relationship between sales volume and cost.
●
Production match with sales. Break even chart
●
Only quantity can affect the cost, (Profit volume graph)
not any other factor. Variable cost
F = Fixed cost Revenue Break even point Profit
V = Variable cost per unit and cost q
Total cost
S = Sales price per unit
P = Profit Loss Fixed cost
Q = Quantity produces and sold
(BEP) Q = Break even quantity Units produce and sold quantity
(no loss, no profit) Break even graph
(BEP) Q*, (in units)
F
=
S -V
F F
Q * (in `) = ´S=
(S - V ) 1-
V
S
Industrial Engineering 449
Contribution Margin
The contribution margin is given as
= Total sales - Total variable cost
= Fixed cost + Profit
Contribution Margin Ratio or P/ V Ratio
The contribution margin ratio is given as
Contribution margin per unit
= ´ 100
Selling price per unit
S -V
= ´ 100
S
Note q large with high margin of safety marks the extremely favourable
business position. Profit volume ratio can also be defined as
Fixed cost + Profit
=
Quantity at profit
Line Balancing
Assembly line is a special case of product layout in which the operations
pertain to assembly of different parts at few station line (product) layout is
useful for high volume, single type of manufacturing activity.
Cycle Time
It is rate of production. TC ³ max {TSi }
Industrial Engineering 451
Smoothness Index ( SI )
n
SI = S [(TSi )max - TSi ]2
i=1
Activity
It lies between two events, called the preceding and succeeding. An effort
is a task or item of work to be done that consumes time, efforts, money or
other resources.
Key Points
✦ Predecessor Activity An activity which must be completed before one or
more other activities start is known as predecessor activity.
✦ Successor Activity An activity which started immediately after one or more
of other activities are completed is known as successor activity.
✦ Dummy Activity An activity which does not consume either any resource
and time is known as dummy activity. A dummy activity is depicted by
dotted line in the network diagram. It is used to maintain the logical
sequence.
Industrial Engineering 453
Event
An event represent the start or completion of some activity and as such it
consumes no time. It has no time duration and does not consume any
resources. So, an event is a node.
Activity
i j
Starting event Completion event
Activity-event flow diagram
Event Float
It is difference between its latest time ( Li ) and its earliest time ( e i ).
Event float = Li - e i
Activity Float
It is the float in the activity time estimates.
Total Float
The total float of an activity represents the amount of time by which an
activity can be delayed without delay in the project completion date.
Total float (TFij ) = L j - ( Ei + t ij ) = LFij - EFij
= ( L j - t ij ) - Ei
= LS ij - ES ij
Free Float
Free float is that portion of the total float within which an activity can be
manipulated without affecting the float of subsequent activities.
FFij = ( E j - Ei ) - t ij
= E j - ( E1 + t ij )
= min { ES ij } - EFij ( i < j )
Independent Float
It is that portion of total float within which an activity can be delayed for start
without affecting floats of the preceding activities.
IFij = ( E j - Li ) - t ij
= FFij - (Slack of event i )
e.g., E1 = 20 E2 = 39
t1 = 19
1 2
L1 = 38 L2 = 57
Total float = L2 - ( E1 + t 12 ) = 57 - (20 + 19) = 18
Free float = E2 - E1 - t 12 = 0
Independent float = E2 - ( L1 + t 12 ) = - 18
Industrial Engineering 455
Interfering Float
It can be defined as that part of the total float which causes a reduction in
the float of the successor activities. It can be defined as the difference
between the latest finish time of the activity under consideration and
earliest start time of the following activity or zero whichever is larger.
PERT
The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique is commonly
abbreviated (PERT)
It is used when the activity times are not known with certainity, for e.g., in
research and development. In PERT analysis, a beta distribution is
assumed because it is unimodal, has non-negative end points and is
approximate symmetric.
to + 4 t m + t p
Expected time te =
6
to = Optimistic time i.e., shortest possible time to complete the activity if
all goes well.
t p = Pessimistic time i . e., longest time that an activity could take if
everything goes wrong.
t m = Most likely time i . e., normal time of an activity would take.
t p - to
Standard deviation (s ) =
6
2
æ t p - to ö to tm tp
Variance (s 2 ) = ç ÷
è 6 ø Most likely time
segment
Crashing
For reducing time of activity, more resources and funds need. For instance
a point will be reached beyond which no further reduction in time will be
possible irrespective of resources spent.
Crash cost - Normal cost
Cost Slope (CS) =
Normal time - Crash time
Crash
Crash point
cost
Cost
Normal
cost
Crash Normal
duration duration
Activity time
Cost versus activity time
Quality
Quality in business, engineering and manufacturing has a pragmatic
interpretation as the non-inferiority or superiority of something. Quality is
also defined as the fitness for use at the most economic level.
Types of Quality
The types of quality are given below
1. Quality of design
2. Quality of conformance
3. Quality of performance
Control
Control can be defined as a process by means of which we observe the
actual performance and compare it with some standard.
Quality Characteristics
●
Technological
●
Psychological
●
Time oriented
●
Contractual
●
Ethical
Key Points
✦ Quality control should not be confused with inspection.
✦ Inspection means checking of materials, product or components of product at
various stages with reference to certain predetermined factors and detecting
and sorting out the faulty or defective items.
✦ Quality control is a broad term. It involves inspection at particular stage but
rise inspection does not mean quality control.
458 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Cost of Quality
Total cost/
Cost of quality is a means to quantify the
Minimum total
Cost of product
total cost of quality-related efforts and cost
deficiencies.
It can be defined in four categories
● Cost of prevention
● Cost of appraisal
● Cost of internal failures High Quality product Low
● Cost of external failures Cost of quality curve
Key Points
✦ KANBAN is the Japanese name to JIT, actually it means in Japanese language
‘A market used to control the sequence of jobs through a sequential process.’
✦ The purpose of JIT is to produce and deliver finished goods just in time to be
sold.
Industrial Engineering 459
Quality Assurance
It deals with the question of assuring the desired quality, reliability service
and other aspects in manufacturing product through scientific techniques.
X Chart
It shows the centering of the process i . e., it shows the variation in the
average of samples.
R Chart
It shows the uniformity or consistency of the process i . e., it shows the
variations in the ranges of samples.
Control Units
For plotting control charts generally ± 3s limits are selected. Therefore,
such control charts are known as 3 s control charts.
s-Chart
The larger the subgroup size the narrower the control limits on X chart and
the easier is to detect small variations. Generally speaking, the larger the
subgroup size, the more desirable it is to use standard deviation rather
range as measure of subgroup of dispersion.
Industrial Engineering 461
s
s6 = (when n > 25)
2n
1
s¢
s 6 = [2 ( n - 1) - 2 n C2 ]2 (when n £ 25)
2n
where, n = Sample size
The control limits are given by
UCL = s + 3 s 6 = B4s
LCL = s - 3 s 6 = B3s
Process Capability
Process capability may be defined as the minimum spread of a specific
measurement variation which will include 99.7% of the measurement from
the given process.
Process capability = 6 s
( Xmax - Xmin ) > 6s
where, Xmax = Upper specification limit, Xmin = Lower specification limit
In this type, situation processes are always in control.
X max X max
X min X min
± 2s - warning limit.
Increase in tolerances
462 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
P Chart
It is also known as fraction defective chart. This is made when the sample
size is varying.
N
Centre Line (CL) = P = S Pi
i=1
N
S ni
i=1
Average sample size ( n ) =
N
P (1 - P )
UCL = P + 3s = P + 3
n
P (1 - P )
LCL = P - 3s = P - 3
n
where, n = Sample size.
n P Chart
In the case of subgroup, size is constant n P chart is used for actual
number of defectives.
N
S Pi
i=1 SnP
P= =
N Sn
UCL = nP + 3s n p = nP + 3 n P (1 - P )
LCL = nP - 3s ¢ nP
= nP - 3 n P (1 - P )
Evaluation of P
d
Sample number Sample size Number of defective P=
n
1 n d1 d
P1 = 1
n1
2 n d2 ....
3 n d3 ....
.... ..... ....
N n dN dN
PN =
n
Industrial Engineering 463
C Chart
It is based on Poisson distribution, C chart is the control chart for defects. It
is made for number of defects which are present in a sample.
N
S Ci
i=1 Number of defects in all samples
C = =
N Total number of samples
UCL = C + 3 C , LCL = C - 3 C
Number of defects when exceed a particular limit they make an item
defective.
U Chart
When the sample size varies from sample to sample, it is necessary to use
U chart.
Type of Charts
Process Process
Size of shift
[Link]. Chart Process observation observations observations
to detect
relationships type
1. x and R Quality characteristic Independent Variables Large
chart measurement within ( ³ 15s
. )
one subgroup
2. P-chart Fraction Independent Attributes Large
nonconforming within ( ³ 15s
. )
one subgroup
3. nP-chart Number Independent Attributes Large
nonconforming ( ³ 15s
. )
withing one subgroup
4. C-chart Number of Independent Attributes Large
nonconformances ( ³ 15s
. )
within one subgroup
5. U-chart Nonconformances per Independent Attributes Large
unit within one ( ³ 15s
. )
subgroup
1.0
Producer Risk
Probability
of
Acceptable
Acceptance
Quality
Region
Indifferent Objectionable
Quality Region Quality Region Consumer
Risk
AQL LTPD
Proportion of defectives
Operating Characteristic Curve
Queueing Theory
Queues (waiting line) stands for a number of customers waiting to be
serviced. The Queue does not include the customer being serviced. The
process or system that performs the services to the customer is called
service facility. Queueing theory is used in service oriented organisation.
Queueing Model
N(t ) = Number of customers in queueing system at time t (t ³ 0)
S = Number of servers in queueing system
Pn(t ) = Probability of n units in queueing system
l n = Mean arrival rate (units/ unit time )
Lq = Average number of customers in the queue system
n = Mean number of units in the queueing system including the one
being served
w s = Average waiting time in the queue
wq = Average time in the queue system
M/M/1 : (¥ / FIFO)
Single service channel, poisson input, exponential service, no limit on the
system capacity.
First in, first out
l
Steady state solution Pn = r n (1 - r ), where r = < 1and n ³ 0
m
Industrial Engineering 467
1
● Inter arrival time =
l
l
● Traffic intensity factor or utilisation factor or channel efficiency r =
m
● Average number of customer in system
r l
L= =
1- r m - l
● Average number of customer of queue or average queue length
r l l
Lq = L - r = -r = -
1- r m-l m
● Waiting line in system
1 æ Lö
w= çw = ÷
m-l è lø
where, m = Average number of customer completing service per unit of
time
l = Average number of customer arriving per unit of time
●
Average or expected waiting line in queue
1 1 æ Lq ö
wq = - ç wq = ÷
m-l m è lø
●
Probability that the service facility is idle
P0(t ) = (1 - r )
●
Probability of n customer in the service at time
Pn (t ) = r n ´ P0 (t )
●
Average length of non-empty queue
1 m
Ln = =
1- r l - m
●
The fluctuation (variance) of queue length
r lm
v ( n) = 2
=
(1 - r ) (m - l )2
●
Probability of n arrival in time t P( nt )
e - l ( l t )n
P( nt ) =
n!
468 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
● Probability that the waiting time in the queue is greater than or equal to t
l
P ( wq ³ t ) = e - (m - l ) t
m
where, wq = Waiting time in queue
● Probability that waiting time in system is greater than or equal to t
P (w s ³ t ) = e- (m - l ) t
(M/G/1): (¥ / FIFO)
G = Gesal service time
s = Standard deviation for the service time
s 2= Variance
l2s 2 + r 2
Lq =
2 (1 - r )
L = Lq + r
Lq
wq =
l
1
w = wq +
m
where, Lq = Average queue length
wq = Waiting time in the queue
(M/D/1) : (¥ / FIFO)
D = Deterministic or constant service times i . e., standard deviation for
service time is zero (s = 0)
r2
Lq = and L = L q + r
2(1 - r )
Lq
wq =
i
1
Þ w = wq +
m
where, wq = Expected waiting times
Work Study and Value Engineering
The method of investigation of work done and finding best most efficient
way of using available resources i . e., money and machinery is called work
study.
It can be divided into two parts
Method Study
It find best possible manufacturing procedure involves least time and not
cause fatigue to workers.
Work Measurements
It is the application of technique designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a specific job at a defined level of
performance. It concern the total time allow to complete the job by that
procedure.
Ratio Delay
Ratio of percentage of the day the man working and the percentage time
man is idle.
Performance Rating
Rating as the assessment of the workers rate of working relative to
observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to the standard pace.
Standard Performance
Standard performance is the rate of output which qualified work will
naturally achieve without over exertion. It is denoted 100 on standard rating
and performance scalar.
Standard time
Operation
Storage
Transportation
Inspection
Combined Symbol
472 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Recording Techniques
There are three types of recording technique that are allowable for carrying
out work study
1. Charts 2. Diagrams 3. Photographic films
Charts
1. Outline process chart (Operation process chart)
2. Flow process chart
(i) Man type chart, (ii) Material type chart
(iii) Equipment type chart
3. Multiple activity chart
4. Two hand (Left hand Right hand) process chart
Trave Chart
It records the movement and or man between different departments.
Diagram
A diagram is used to define or describe the flow of a method involving step
by step considerations with their process charts symbols. Diagram can be
divided into flow and string diagram
Flow Diagram
It show the path of man material and components on a scale model of the
factory.
String Diagram
It is a scale diagram on which movement in a given area and over a given
period of time is plotted by means of a continuous thread.
Industrial Engineering 473
Photographic Films
Photographic film is a sheet of coated with an emulsion containing light-
sensitive silver halide salts with variable crystal sizes that determine the
sensitivity; contrast and resolution of the film. It consists Cycle graph and
Chromocycle graph which are defined below
Cycle Graph
It have been developed for studying the motion path of an operator.
Chromocycle Graph
Chromocycle graph have been appeared by using electric circuit with
circuit breaker and with the bulb. Switch ON and OFF create the dotted line
with pear shaped dotes by the bulb.
Value Engineering
It is the application of the concept of value analysis at the design or
premanufacture stage of the component parts with a view to cut down
the unnecessary costs, without impairing the function or utility of the
product.
Value
It is the cost of proportionate to the function i.e.,
Function (or utility)
Value =
Cost
Types of Values
1. Cost value Manufacturing component.
2. Use value e.g., Tie chip, water, salt, medicine.
3. Esteem value e.g., Jewellery, TV, Car.
4. Exchange value Product i.e., exchangable with other one.
Value Analysis
Value analysis examines the design functions and cost of each and every
component in order to produce it economically without decreasing its
utility, function and reliability. Value analysis is a much faster cost reduction
techniques.
474 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Sequencing
The selection of an appropriate order for a series of jobs to be done on a
finite number of facilities is called sequencing. When the number of jobs
and the number of machines are very few the problem can be solved by
making mental picture. As the number of jobs and machines increasers the
problem becomes complex.
M2 t2n
x21 t21 x22 t22 t23 t24 x25 x2n
t
O Time taken in hours
Gantt chart
Total elapsed time
n n
Where, T = S t 2 j + S x2 j
j=1 j=1
V3
Percentage V2
of usage Value
V1
A B C
I1 I2 I3
Percentage of item
Curve between item and usage value
Category A items
●
Most cost and valuable items.
●
More careful and close control is needed.
Category B items
●
Average consumption value. ●
Lesser costly than A.
●
Require lesser degree of control than A.
Category C items
●
Lowest consumption value. ●
Loose control of C item.
Industrial Engineering 477
Sales
Customer forecast
orders
Service parts
requirement
Engineering Master production
changes schedule Inventory
transactions
Bill of MRP
materials file processes Inventory
record file
Output reports
A system of MRP
Production plan
Resource
planning MPS
Capacity
requirement planning
A system of MRP II
Product Layout
This is also called line [Link] the product is produced in mass, this
type of layout is used. This type of layout is adopted in an industry whose
production is continuous.
Process Layout
It is also known as functional layout. In this layout machines or processes
of similar facilities are grouped together. In such a layout, the work usually
moves though a series of departments and rarely from one work station to
another within a single department.
Industrial Engineering 479
Steps in PPC
The various steps of PPC are given below
● Loadings Assignments of work to manpower machinery etc., without
specifying when the work is to be done.
● Scheduling Time phase of loading sequence of work.
● Dispatching Execute planning function properly implementation of
plans.
● Routing Flow of work in plant, what, where and how work done.
● Progress reporting It can be interpreted by comparison with present
level of performance.
(i) Bar chart (ii) Curve chart
(iii) Mechanical chart (iv) Gantt chart
● Expediting Taking action if the progress reporting indicates a deviation
of the plan from the originally set target.
●
Replanning Replanning of whole affairs become essential in case
expediting fails to bring deviate plant to its actual path.
13
Element of
Computation
Numerical Control & Computer
Numerical Control
NC is an acronym for Numerical Control and CNC is an acronym for
Computer Numerical Control. NC machines performed limited functions
and moments controlled by punched tape or punch cards. As the
technology evolved. NC machines become CNC machines. CNC
machines have far more capability than their predecessor.
Stepper Motor
The stepper motor is special type of synchronous motor which is
designed for rotate through a specific angle for each electrical pulse
received from the control unit.
Part Programming
The programming is the sequence of instructions, which describe the work,
which has to be done on a part, in the form required by a computer under
the control of a numerical control computer program.
CNC Programming
● Coordinate system
● Units incremental or absolute positioning
● Coordinates X , Y , Z , RX, RY, RZ.
● Feed rate and spindle speed.
● Coolant control : on/off, flood, mist.
● Tool control : tool and tool parameters.
Important G Codes
Code Meaning Format
G00 Rapid transverse N_G00X_Y_Z_
G01 Linear interpolation N_G01 X_Y_Z_F_
G02 Circular interpolation (clockwise) N_G02 X_Y_Z_R_F_
G02 Circular interpolation (anticlockwise) N_G02 X_Y_Z_R_F_
G04 Dwell N_G04 P_
G17 XY plane
G18 XZ plane
G19 YZ plane
G20/G70 Inch unit
G21/G71 Metric unit
G28 Automatic return to reference point
G40 Cutter compensation (Cancel)
G41 Cutter compensation left N_G41_D_
G42 Cutter compensation right N_G42D_
G43 Tool length compensation N_G43H_
G44 Tool length compensation N_G44H
G49 Tool length compensation (cancel)
G80 Cancel corved cycle
G81 Drilling cycle N_G81T_R_F
G90 Absolute positioning
G91 Incremental positioning
G92 Absolute present change the N_G92 X_Y_Z_
Element of Computation 483
Important M Codes
Code Meaning
M00 Program stop
M01 Optional program stop
M03 Spindle on clockwise
M04 Spindle on counter clockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Clamps on
M11 Clamps off
M02 or M30 Program stop, reset to start
Key Points
✦ Part programming is the task of preparing a program sheet from a drawing
sheet.
✦ In part programming, all data is fed into the numerical control system using a
standardized format.
✦ Programming is where all the machining data are compiled and where the
data are translated into a language which can be understood by the control
system of the machine tool.
APT Language
(Automatically Programmed Tools Language)
APT is a high level computer programming language used to generate
instructions for numerically controlled machine tools.
The APT language consists of many different types of statements made up
of the following valid letters, numerals and punctuations marks.
Letters : ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Numerals : 0123456789
( / ) A slash divides a statement into to sections.
e.g., GO/PAST.
(, ) A comma is used as a separator between the elements in a
statement generally to the right of the slash.
( = ) An equals is used for assigning an entity to a symbol name.
e.g., P1 = POINT/25, 50, 30
The complete APT part program consists of the following four type of
statements
1. Geometry 2. Motion
3. Post Precessor 4. Compilation Control
Robotics
Industrial Robot A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to handle material, parts, tools or specialised
devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks.
Wrist Assembly
Wrist assembly is attached to end of arm. End effector is attached to wrist
assembly function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector.
Two or 3 degree of freedom is needed to wrist for orientation and work
effectively.
Note A total of 6 degree of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand at any
point in its work force.
Types of Computer
According to size and capacity these are following types of computers
Micro Computer
These computers are used by individual, thus also called PC or Personal
Computer. These days [Link] are largely used for domestic and official
purposes etc.
Mini Computer
This type of computer is comparatively larger than that of micro computer.
This is 5 to 50 times more powerful than that of a Micro Computer.
Super Computer
These are very powerful computers and have more storage capacity.
These are the most expensive and the fastest computer able to process
most complex jobs with a very high speed.
Quantum Computer
The development of this type is in final stage. Probably Quantum
Computers will be more advanced than that of human brain. In Quantum
Computer Q-Bit will be used in lieu of Binary Bits.
486 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
Key Points
✦ A computer is a data processing machine.
✦ Hardware comprises of the physical units of a computer system.
✦ Both hardware and software together make a computer system functional.
✦ An operating system is an interface between the user and the computer
hardware.
✦ A database is a collection of interrelated data.
✦ A relational database is a collection of data items organized as a set of
formally described tables from which data can be accessed or reassembled in
many different ways without having to reorganize the database tables.
Appendix
Symbols and Units
K Absolute temperature degree Kelvin ha
a
Specific enthalpy of day air( kJ/kg)
C Temperature, degree Celsius
hs Specific enthalpy of saturated
F Temperature, degree Fahrenheit mixture (kJ/kg dry air)
r Density,( kg / m3) Ss Specific entropy of saturated
Cp Specific heat capacity,( kJ/kg.K) mixture, (J /K × kg dry air)
Cp / CV Specific heat capacity, ratio, t Thermodynamic temperature,
dimensi- onless degree C
m Viscosity, N- s /m2 ´ 10 6(For N - s / m2 T Thermodynamic temperature, K
( = kg / m.s) multiply tabulated values pV RT,(kJ/kg)
by 10 -6) u 0 Specific internal energy at zero
K Thermal conductivity, W / m.K ´ 10 3 pressure,( kJ/kg)
(For W / m.K multiply tabulated h0 Specific enthalpy at zero pressure,
values by 10 -3) ( kJ/kg)
Pr Prandtl number, dimensionless s1 Specific entropy of semiperfect
h Enthalpy,( kJ/kg) vapour at 0.1 MN /m2,( kJ /kg.K)
vs Sound velocity,( m/s)
y l Specific Helmholtz free energy of
T Absolute temperature, degree Kelvin semiperfect vapour at 0.1 MN /m2,
h Enthalpy, (kJ/kmol) (kJ /kg)
u Internal energy,( kJ/kmol) V1 Specific Gibbs free energy of
s° Absolute entropy at standard semiperfect vapour at 0.1 MN /m2 ,
reference pressure,( kJ/kmol K) (kJ /kg)
ps Pressure of water vapour at pr Relative pressure, pressure of
saturation. (N / m2) semiperfect vapour at zero entropy,
Ws Humidity ratio at saturation, mass of (TN / m2)
water vapour associated with unit
mass of dry air Vr Relative specific volume, specific
volume of semiperfect vapour at
Va Specific volume of day,( m3/ kg)
zero entropy, (mm3/ kg)
Vs Specific volume of saturated mixture, Cp 0 Specific heat capacity at constant
(m3/ kg dry air) pressure for zero pressure,
(kJ / kg × K)
488 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
●
Casting Any object made by pouring molten metal into a mold.
●
Chamfer A flat surface made by cutting off the edge or corner of a object
(bevel v). This process of creating a chafer.
●
Clevis A U-shaped piece with holes into which a link is inserted and through
which a pin or bolt is run. It is used as a fastening device which allows rotational
motion.
●
Collar A cylindrical feature on a part fitted on a shaft used to prevent sliding
(axial) movement.
●
Collet A cone shaped sleeve used for holding circular or rod like pieces in a
lathe or other machine.
●
Core To form the hollow part of a casting, using a solid form placed in the mold
(n) .The solid form used in the coring process, often made of wood, sand, or metal.
●
Counterbore A cylindrical flat-bottomed hole, which enlarges the diameter of
an existing pilot hole.
●
Countersunk A conical depression added to an existing hole to
accommodate and the conic head of a fastener recessing it below the surface of a
face.
●
Coupling A device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the
purpose of transmitting power may be used to account for minor misalignment or
for mitigating shock loads.
●
Die One of a pair of hardened metal plates or impressing or forming desired
shape. Also, a tool for cutting external threads.
●
Face To machine a flat surface perpendicular to the axis of rotation of a piece.
●
Fillet A rounded surface filling the internal angle between two intersection
surfaces.
●
Fit The class of contact between two machined surfaces, based upon their
respective specified size tolerances (clearance, transitional, interference).
●
Fixture A device used to hold a workpiece while manufacturing operations are
performed upon that workpiece.
●
Flange A projecting rim or edge for fastening, stiffening or positioning.
●
Gage A device used for determining the accuracy of specified manufactured
parts by direct comparison.
●
Gage Blocks Precision machined steel blocks having two flats, parallel
surfaces whose separation distance is fabricated to a guaranteed accuracy of a
few million of an inch;
●
Gear Hobbing A special form of manufacturing that cuts gear tooth
geometries. It is the major industrial process for cutting involute form spur gears.
490 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
●
Geneva Cam A device to turn constant rotational motion into intermittent
rotational motion.
●
Gusset (Plate) A triangular metal piece used to strengthen a joint.
●
Hasp A metal fastener with a slotted, hinged part that fits over a loop and is
secured by a pin, bolt, or padlock.
●
Idler A mechanism used to regulate the tension in belt or chain. Or, a gear used
between a driver and follower gear to maintain the direction of rotation.
●
Jig A special device used to guide a cutting tool (drill jig) or to hold material in the
correct position for cutting or fitting together (as in welding or brazing).
●
Journal The part of a shaft that rotates within a bearing.
●
Kerf A channel or groove cut by a saw or other tool.
●
Key A small block or wedge inserted between a shaft and hub to prevent
circumferential movement.
●
Keyseat A slot or groove cut in a shaft to fit a key. A key rests in a keyseat.
●
Keyway A slot cut into a hub to fit a key. A key slides in a keyway.
●
Knurl To roughen a turned surface, as in a handle or a knob.
●
Lug Projection on (typically) a cast or forged part to provide support or allow
mounting or the attachment of another component.
●
Neck To cut a groove around a shaft, usually toward the end or at a change in
diameter. A portion of reduced diameter between the ends of a shaft.
●
Pad A rectangular or irregular projection, as on a casting or a forging. Usually
provides a contact surface around a set of holes.
●
Pawl A device used to prevent a toothed wheel (ratchet) from rotating
backwards, or a device that stops, locks, or releases a mechanism.
●
Pillow Block A bearing housing which typically mounts to a single planar face.
May be split or un-split to accommodate insertion /removal of the bearing.
●
Pinion A plain gear, often the smallest gear in a gearset, often the driving gear.
May be used in conjunction with a gear rack (rack and pinion, see below).
●
Planetary Gears A gearset characterised by one or more planet gear(s)
rotating around a sun gear.
●
Rack (w/pinion gear) A toothed bar acting on (or acted upon), by a gear
(pinion).
●
Ratchet A mechanical device used to permit motion in one direction only.
●
Relief A groove or cut on a part used to facilitate machining.
●
Retaining Ring A tool steel ring used in conjunction with a shaft groove or
internal groove to located or control position of a component.
Appendix 491
●
Rocker Arm A pivoted arm-like lever used to transfer the application direction
of a linear force.
●
Round A rounded external intersection between two surfaces. Compare to
Fillet.
●
Scotch Yoke Mechanism used to convert rotational motion to linear motion.
●
Sheave A grooved wheel used to accommodate a belt for the transmission of
power. Sometimes referred to as a pulley sheave.
●
Shim A thin strip of metal inserted between two surfaces to adjust for fit. The
process of inserting shims.
●
Shoulder A plane surface on a shaft, normal to the axis, produced by a
change in diameter.
●
Spline A cylindrical pattern of keyways. May be external (L) or internal (R).
●
Spotface A round machine surface around a hole on a casting or forging,
usually to provide a contact surface for a fastener or other mating component, the
process used to create that feature.
●
Standoffs A mounting designed to position objects a predetermined distance
above or away from the surface upon which they are mounted.
●
Tap To cut internal machine threads in a hole, the tool used to create that
feature.
●
Undercut A cut having inward sloping sides, to cut leaving an overhanging
edge.
●
Yoke A clamp or vise that holds a machine part in place or controls its
movement or that holds two such parts together. A crosshead of relatively thick
cross section, that secures two or more components so that they move together.
●
Compressive Stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an
applied load that acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member)
in the axis of the applied load, in other words stress state caused by squeezing the
material.
●
Tensile Stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to
elongate the material in the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress
caused by pulling the material.
●
Shear Stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of
opposing forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material.
●
Yield Strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation
in a material.
●
Compressive Strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to
failure in the manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle.
492 Handbook Mechanical Engineering
●
Tensile Strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that
leads to tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure.
●
Fatigue Strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component
under cyclic loading, and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
measures.
●
Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend
of the deformation change among the material field.
●
Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element
bends under a load.
●
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is
released.
●
Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is
defined as unrecoverable strain.
●
Thermodynamics is a branch of natural science concerned with heat and its
relation to energy and work.
●
Equilibrium Thermodynamics In thermodynamic equilibrium, a
system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time.
●
Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics
that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium; it is also called
thermodynamics of irreversible processes.
●
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics If two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
●
First law of Thermodynamics The increase in internal energy of a closed
system is equal to the difference of the heat supplied to the system and the work
done by it: DU = Q - W
●
Second law of Thermodynamics Heat cannot spontaneously flow from
a colder location to a hotter location.
●
The Internal Combustion Engine is an engine in which the combustion
of a fuel occurs with an oxidiser in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of
the working fluid flow circuit.
●
A Two-Stroke Two-cycle, or two-cycle engine is a type of internal
combustion engine which completes a power cycle in only one crankshaft
revolution and with two strokes, or up and down movements, of the piston in
comparison to a “four-stroke engine”, which uses four strokes to do so.
●
A Four-Stroke Engine (Also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion
engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes-intake, compression,
power, and exhaust-during two separate revolutions of the engine's crankshaft,
and one single thermodynamic cycle.
Appendix 493
●
The Six-Stroke Engine is a type of internal combustion engine based on
the four-stroke engine, but with additional complexity intended to make it more
efficient and reduce emissions.
●
A Diesel Engine also, known as a compression-ignition engine and is an
internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to
burn the fuel that has been injected into the combustion chamber.
●
A Petrol Engine known as a gasoline engine in North America and is an
internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol
(gasoline) and similar volatile fuels.
Frontiers of Research in
Mechanical Engineering
●
Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Micro-scale mechanical
components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devices are
fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers
like SU8.
●
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) This innovative steady state (non-fusion)
welding technique joins materials previously un-weldable, including several
aluminum alloys. It plays an important role in the future construction of airplanes,
potentially replacing rivets.
●
Composites or composite materials are a combination of materials which
provide different physical characteristics than either material separately.
●
Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering and software engineering. The purpose of this
interdisciplinary engineering field is the study of automation from an engineering
perspective and serves the purposes of controlling advanced hybrid systems.
●
Nanotechnology At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes
nanotechnology -one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler
to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis.
●
Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to biological
systems, such as humans, animals, plants, organs and cells.
●
Computational Fluid Dynamics Computational fluid dynamics, usually
abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods
and algorithms to solve and analyse problems that involve fluid flows.
Thermodynamics Relationships
●
Entropy S = - kB S pi ln pi
i
●
Enthalpy H = U + pV
●
Gibbs free energy G = H - TS
●
Helmholtz free energy F = U - TS
●
Grand potential fG = U - TS - mN
●
General heat/thermal capacity C = ¶Q / ¶T
●
Heat capacity (isobaric) C p = ¶Q / ¶T
●
Specific heat capacity (isobaric) C mp = ¶ 2Q / ¶m¶T
●
Molar specific heat capacity (isobaric) C np = ¶ 2Q / ¶n¶T
●
Heat capacity (isochoric/volumetric) C V = ¶Q / ¶T
●
Specific heat capacity (isochoric) C mV = ¶ 2Q / ¶m¶T
●
Molar specific heat capacity (isochoric) C nV = ¶ 2Q / ¶n¶T
●
Specific latent heat L = ¶Q / ¶m
●
Ratio of isobaric to isochoric heat capacity, heat capacity ratio
g = C p /C V = C p /C V = C mp /C mV
Phase Transitions
●
Adiabatic transition D Q = 0, DU = W
●
Isothermal transition DU = 0, D W = - DQ
●
Isothermal transition W = KTN ln (V2 / V1 )
p = p2 , p = constant
●
Isobaric transition 1
DW = pDV, DU = DQ + pdV
V1 = V2 , V = constant
●
Isochoric transition
DW = 0, DQ = DU
●
Adiabatic expansion p1 V1g = p2 V2g
T1 V1g -1
= T2 V2g -1
●
Free expansion DU = 0
v1
●
Work done by an expanding gas Dw = òv
1
pdv
H (S, p) = Enthalpy æ ¶T ö æ ¶V ö ¶ 2H
Thermodynamic ç ÷ =+ ç ÷ =
è ¶ p øS è ¶ S øp ¶ S ¶ p
potentials as
F (T, V) = Hemholtz free + æç ¶S ö÷ = æç ¶ p ö÷ = ¶ F
2
functions of their
natural variables energy è ¶ V øT è ¶ T ø V ¶T¶ V
2
G (T, p) = Gibbs free - æç ¶S ö÷ = + æç ¶ V ö÷ = ¶ G
energy è ¶ p øT è ¶ T øp ¶ T ¶ p
1 æ ¶V ö
●
Coefficient of thermal expansion (constant pressure) ap = ç ÷
V è ¶pT ø p
●
Heat capacity (constant pressure)
¶Q ¶U ¶V ¶H ¶S
C p = æç rev ö÷ = æç ö÷ + p æç ö÷ = æç ö÷ = T æç ö÷
è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p è ¶T ø p
¶Q ¶U ¶S
●
Heat capacity (constant volume) C V = æç rev ö÷ = æç ö÷ = T æç ö÷
è ¶T ø V è ¶T ø V è ¶T ø V