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4 | Appendix

Glossary of Key Words B

Bile—a substance secreted by the liver that is
A
essential for the digestion and absorption of fats.
Acetylcholine—a neurotransmitter that is critical
Bioavailability—the ability of an ingested
for optimum nervous system functioning.
nutrient to cross from the digestive tract into the
Adipose tissue—fat tissue in the bloodstream and then from the bloodstream into
the cells in which it will be utilized.
body. Aerobic—With oxygen.
Blood plasma—the liquid part of the blood; the
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)—an n-3 fatty acid substance in the blood that carries the red blood
that is essential in the diet because it cannot be cells.
synthesized by humans. Primary sources include
soybean oil, canola oil, walnuts, and flaxseed. Blood Pressure—the pressure of the
blood against the walls of the arteries.
Amenorrhea—loss of menstruation. Ammonia—
Blood-brain barrier—a semipermeable
A toxic metabolic waste product. membrane that keeps the blood that is
Anabolism—the biochemical process in which circulating in the brain away from the tissue
different molecules combine to form larger, fluids surrounding the brain cells.
more complex molecules. Body mass index (BMI)—BMI is a measure of
Anaerobic—Without oxygen. body weight relative to height. The BMI tool
uses a formula that produces a score often used
Anemia—a condition in which the oxygen- to determine if a person is underweight, at a
carrying capacity of the blood is reduced. It is normal weight, overweight, or obese. For
the most common symptom of iron adults, a BMI of 18.5 to 24.9 is considered
deficiency. healthy (or “normal”). A person with a BMI of
25 to 29.9 is considered overweight, and a
Anti-catabolic—describing a substance that
person with a BMI of 30 or more is considered
prevents catabolism.
obese.
Antioxidant—a nutrient that has been found
to seek out and neutralize free radicals in the C
body and to stimulate the body to recover more Calorie—a unit of measurement used to
quickly from free-radical damage. express the energy value of food.
Assimilation—conversion of food into Carbohydrates, fats, protein, and alcohol in the
living tissue. foods and drinks
we eat provide food energy or “calories.”
Carbohydrates and proteins provide 4 calories
per gram, fat has 9 calories per gram, and
alcohol has 7 calories per gram.

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 References and Glossary of Key Words | 5

Cannibalization—the breakdown of muscle

Creatine (also, phosphocreatine)—a compound
tissue by the body for the purpose of obtaining
produced in the body, stored in the muscle
amino acids for other metabolic purposes and
fibers, and broken down by enzymes to quickly
may also include other body tissues.
replenish the adenosine-triphosphate stores. Also
Capillary—a tiny blood vessel through which a supplement ingredient.
nutrients and waste products travel between the
Creatinine—a waste product of
bloodstream and the body’s cells.
creatine metabolism.
Carbohydrate drink—a sports beverage designed
to provide energy substrate and to replenish the D
glycogen (energy) stores.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—the substance in
Carbon dioxide—a metabolic waste product. the cell nucleus that contains the cell’s genetic
blueprint and determines the type of life form
Catabolism—the chemical reactions that break
into which the cell will develop.
down complex biomolecules into simpler ones
for energy production. Di-peptide—two amino acids linked together.

Cell membrane—the outer boundary of a cell. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)—DRIs

Also called the plasma membrane. are dietary reference values for the intake
of
Cellular uptake—absorption by the
nutrients and food components by Americans
cells. Coenzyme—an enzyme cofactor. and Canadians.

Cofactor—a substance that must be present for Dietary sodium—also called “salt,” sodium
another substance to be able to perform a certain helps your nerves and muscles work properly.
function. Table salt is composed of sodium and chloride.
Your kidneys control how much sodium is in
Collagen—a simple protein that is the your blood, releasing it when needed and
chief component of connective tissue. flushing out any excess. Too much sodium
Complete protein—a protein that contains building up in
the essential amino acids in amounts that are the blood may raise blood pressure. High blood
sufficient for the maintenance of normal growth pressure is linked to serious health problems.
rate and body weight. Digestive enzyme—an enzyme that acts as
Connective tissue—tissue that either supports catalysts for the breakdown of food
other tissue or joins tissue to tissue, muscle to components.
bone, or bone to bone. It includes cartilage, Disaccharide—a simple carbohydrate
bone, tendons, ligaments, reticular tissue, areolar composed of two sugar molecules.
tissue, adipose tissue, blood, bone marrow, and
lymph. Disordered Eating—abnormal/dysfunctional
eating behaviors resulting in inadequate caloric
and nutrient intake, with or without eating

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6 | Appendix

disorders.

Diuretic—a substance that increases urination.

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 References and Glossary of Key Words | 7

E the nutrients that occur during processing.

Eating pattern (also called “dietary pattern”)— Enrichment of refined grains is not mandatory;
the combination of foods and beverages that however, those that are labeled as enriched
constitutes an individual’s complete dietary (e.g., enriched flour) must meet the standard
intake over time. This may be a description of identity for enrichment set by the FDA.
of a customary way of eating or a description When cereal grains are labeled enriched, it is
of a combination of foods recommended for mandatory that they be fortified with folic acid.
consumption. Specific examples include (The addition of specific nutrients to whole-
USDA Food Patterns and the Dietary grain products is referred to as fortification; see
Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Fortification.)
Eating Plan. (See USDA Food Patterns and Enteric coating—a coating on tablets that
DASH Eating Plan.) delays digestion of the tablets until they pass
Electrolyte Balance—the ratio of chloride, from the stomach into the intestines.
potassium, sodium, and the other electrolytes in Ergogenic Aids—a catchall term that
the body. describes anything that can be used to
Emulsifier—a substance that, during digestion, enhance athletic performance. Ergogenic aids
helps disperse fats in water mediums. can be dietary or non-dietary and include
dietary supplements, special training
Endurance sport—a sport that requires the techniques, and mental strategies.
ability to perform for long periods at low
intensities, such as marathon running and cross- Essential Nutrient—a nutrient that the body
country skiing. cannot produce itself or that it cannot produce in
sufficient amounts to maintain good health.
Energy Drink—a beverage that contains caffeine
as an ingredient, along with other ingredients, Euhydration—a term used to indicate a state
such as taurine, herbal supplements, vitamins, of adequate hydration.
and added sugars or other carbohydrates. It is Extracellular—outside the cell.
usually marketed as a product that can improve
perceived energy, stamina, athletic performance,
F
or concentration.
Fat—a major source of energy in the diet, fat
Energy Expenditure—The amount of energy that
helps the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins, such
you use measured in calories. You use calories to
as vitamins A, D, E, and K. Some kinds of fats,
breathe, send blood through your blood vessels,
especially saturated fats and trans fatty acids,
digest food, maintain posture, and be physically
may raise blood cholesterol and increase the risk
active.
for heart disease. Other fats, such as unsaturated
Enrichment—the addition of specific nutrients fats, do not raise blood cholesterol. Fats that are
(i.e., iron, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin) in foods are combinations of monounsaturated,
to refined grain products to replace losses of polyunsaturated, and saturated fatty acids.

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8 | Appendix

Food Groups—a method of grouping similar

comparable traditional food. When cereal grains
foods for descriptive and guidance purposes.
are labeled as enriched, it is mandatory that they
Food groups in the USDA Food Patterns are
be fortified with folic acid.
defined as vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy, and
protein foods. Some of these groups are Free-form amino acids—amino acids that are in
divided into subgroups, such as dark-green their free state, or single.
vegetables or whole grains, which may have
intake goals or limits. Foods are grouped G
within food groups based on their similarity in
nutritional composition and other dietary Gluconeogenesis—the metabolic process
benefits. For assignment to food groups, mixed in which glucose is synthesized from
dishes are noncarbohydrate sources.
disaggregated into their major component parts. Glucose polymer—a processed form of
Food pattern modeling—(Pg. 79) the process polysaccharides, or complex
of developing and adjusting daily intake carbohydrates.
amounts from food categories or groups to Glucose—a simple carbohydrate that is a
meet specific criteria, such as meeting nutrient monosaccharide. Also called dextrose or grape
intake goals, limiting nutrients or other food sugar.
components, or varying proportions or
amounts of specific food categories or groups. Glycogen Depletion—the draining of the
This methodology includes using current food body’s glycogen stores.
consumption data to determine the mix and
Glycogen depletion—the draining of the
proportions of foods to include in each group,
body’s glycogen stores.
using current food composition data to select a
nutrient-dense Glycogen replenishment—the refilling of
representative for each food, calculating nutrient the body’s glycogen stores.
profiles for each food group using these
Glycogen sparing—the saving of glycogen by the
nutrient- dense representative foods, and
body for other functions.
modeling various combinations of foods and
amounts to meet specific criteria. Glycogen-bound water—the water that is
stored in the muscles along with glycogen.
Fortification—as defined by the US Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), the deliberate Glycogen—a complex carbohydrate that
addition of one or more essential nutrients to a occurs only in animals; the form in which
food, whether or not it is normally contained in glucose is stored in the body.
the food. Fortification may be used to prevent
or correct a demonstrated deficiency in the Glycogenolysis—the metabolic process in which
population or specific population groups; glycogen is broken down.
restore naturally occurring nutrients lost Glycolysis—the metabolic process in which
during processing, storage, or handling; or to glucose is converted to lactic acid.
add a nutrient to a food at the level found in a

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 References and Glossary of Key Words | 9

H High-intensity sweeteners—ingredients
Heart rate—the rate at which the heart pumps commonly used as sugar substitutes or sugar
the blood through the body. alternatives to sweeten and enhance the flavor
of foods and beverages. People may choose
Hemoglobin—the oxygen carrier in red these sweeteners in place of sugar for a number
blood cells. of reasons, including that they contribute few
or no calories to the diet. Because high-intensity
Hemolytic anemia—a condition in which the
sweeteners are many times sweeter than table
hemoglobin becomes separated from the red
sugar (sucrose), smaller amounts of high-
blood cells.
intensity sweeteners are needed to achieve the
Hemorrhage—bleed excessively. same level of sweetness as sugar in food and
beverages. (Other terms commonly used to refer
High blood pressure—your blood pressure
to sugar substitutes or alternatives include non-
rises and falls throughout the day. An optimal
caloric, low-calorie, no-calorie, and artificial
blood pressure is less than 120/80 mmHg.
sweeteners, which may have different
When blood pressure stays high; greater than or
definitions and applications. A high-intensity
equal to 140/90 mmHg—you have high blood
sweetener may or may not be non-caloric, low-
pressure, also called hypertension. With high
calorie, no- calorie, or artificial.)
blood pressure, the heart works harder, your
arteries take a beating, and your chances of a Homeostasis—the tendency of the body to
stroke, heart attack, and kidney problems are maintain an internal equilibrium.
greater. Uncontrolled high blood pressure may
Hormone—one of the numerous substances
lead to blindness, heart attacks, heart failure,
produced by the endocrine glands that regulate
kidney disease, and stroke. Prehypertension is
bodily functions.
blood pressure between 120 and 139 for the top
number, or between 80 and 89 for the bottom Hyaluronic acid—a polysaccharide molecule
number. which is one of the chief components of
connective tissue, forming a gelatinous matrix
High-density lipoprotein (HDL)—HDL is a
that surrounds cells.
compound made up of fat and protein that
carries cholesterol in the blood to the liver, Hydrochloric acid—a stomach secretion that
where it is broken down and excreted. functions in protein metabolism, helps keep the
Commonly called “good” cholesterol, high stomach relatively bacteria-free, and assists in the
levels of HDL cholesterol are linked to a lower maintenance of a low pH balance in the stomach.
risk of heart disease. Men should aim for an
HDL of 40 mg/ DL or higher. Women should Hydrogenation—a chemical process that turns
aim for an HDL of 50 mg/DL or higher. liquid fats (oils) into solid fats, hydrogenation
creates a fat called trans fatty acid (also
known as “trans fat”). Trans fats are found in
frostings, shortening, some margarines, and

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10 | Appendix

some commercial baked foods, like cakes,

Intracellular—inside the cell.
cookies, muffins, and pastries. Eating trans fats
may raise heart disease risk. Federal dietary Ionic form—in the form of ions, which are
guidelines [found at http://www.health.gov/ atoms or groups of atoms that have either a
dietaryguidelines/External Link Disclaimer] positive or a negative charge from having lost or
recommend keeping trans fat intakes as low as gained one or more electrons.
possible.

Hydrolyzed protein—a protein that has already L

been broken down, usually by enzymes, and is a Lean body mass—all of a body’s tissues apart
mixture of free-form, di-peptide, and tri-peptide from the body fat—the bones, muscles, organs,
amino acids. blood, and water. Also called fat-free mass.
Hydrostatic weighing—a method for Limiting nutrient—a nutrient that has the ability,
determining body composition that involves through its absence or presence, to restrict the
weighing the body underwater. utilization of other nutrients or the functioning
Hyperhydration—excess body of the body.

water. Hypoglycemia—low blood Linoleic acid (LA)—one of the n-6 fatty acids,
is essential in the diet because it cannot be
sugar. synthesized by humans. Primary sources are
nuts and liquid vegetable oils, including
Hypohydration—occurs when water intake does
soybean oil, corn oil, and safflower oil. Also
not meet the body’s hydration requirements
called omega-6 fatty acids.

I Lipoprotein—a compound made up of fat and

protein that carries fats and fat-like substances,
Incomplete protein—a protein that is usually such as cholesterol, in the blood.
deficient in one or more of the essential amino
acids. Lipotropic—a substance that prevents fatty
buildup in the liver and helps the body
Insulin—a hormone made by the pancreas, metabolize fat more efficiently.
insulin helps move glucose (sugar) from the
blood to muscles and other tissues. Insulin Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)—LDL is a
controls blood sugar levels. compound made up of fat and protein that
carries cholesterol in the blood from the liver
International unit (IU)—a measure of potency to other parts of the body. High levels of LDL
based on an accepted international standard. It cholesterol, commonly called “bad”
is usually used with beta-carotene and vitamins cholesterol,
A, D, and E. Because this unit is a measure of cause a buildup of cholesterol in the arteries and
potency, not weight or volume, the number of increase the risk of heart disease. An LDL level
milligrams in an IU varies, depending on the of less than 100 mg/dL is considered optimal,
substance being measured. 100 to

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 References and Glossary of Key Words | 11

129 mg/dL is considered near or above

sugars, refined starches, and sodium. Ideally,
optimal, 130 to 159 mg/dL is considered
these foods and beverages also are in forms that
borderline high, 160 to 189 mg/dL is
retain naturally occurring components, such as
considered high, and 190 mg/dL or greater is
dietary fiber. All vegetables, fruits, whole grains,
considered very high.
seafood, eggs, beans and peas, unsalted nuts
and seeds, fat-free and low-fat dairy products,
M and lean meats and poultry—when prepared
Macronutrient Modulation—the practice of with little or no added solid fats, sugars, refined
varying the ratio of the macronutrients in starches, and sodium—are nutrient-dense foods.
the diet to meet specific metabolic needs to These foods contribute to meeting food group
enhance performance. Also called macronutrient recommendations within calorie and sodium
manipulation. limits. The term “nutrient dense” indicates the
nutrients and other beneficial substances in a
Macronutrient—a macronutrient is any nutrient food have not been “diluted” by the addition of
that the body uses in relatively large amounts. calories from added solid fats, sugars, or refined
Macronutrients include carbohydrates, fat, and starches or by the solid fats naturally present in
proteins. Macronutrients are different from the food.
micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals,
which the body needs in smaller amounts. Nutrition—the process of the body using food to
sustain life.
Malabsorption—incorrect absorption.

Metabolic pathway—a sequence of O

metabolic reactions. Oils—lipids that are liquid at room temperature,
Metabolic Rate—the body’s total daily caloric oils come from many different plants and from
expenditure. seafood. Some common oils include canola,
corn, olive, peanut, safflower, soybean, and
Metabolic water—the water that is produced sunflower oils. A number of foods are naturally
in the body as a result of energy production. high in oils, such as avocados, olives, nuts, and
some fish.
Metalloenzyme—a mineral-containing enzyme.
Osteoporosis—disease associated with loss of
Micronutrients—nutrients present in the diet
bone tissue, bone fragility, and increased risk to
and body in small amounts
bone fracture.
N
Oxidative pathways—the systems that supply
Nutrient Dense—a characteristic of foods and energy for low-intensity, high-duration activities
beverages that provide vitamins, minerals, and lasting more than approximately three or four
other substances that contribute to adequate minutes, such as marathon running and aerobic
nutrient intakes or may have positive health dance. They include oxidative glycolysis and
effects, with little or no solid fats and added beta oxidation.

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12 | Appendix

P S
Polypeptide—four or more amino acids linked Saturated fatty acids—fatty acids that have no
together. double bonds. Fats high in saturated fatty acids
Polysaccharide—a complex carbohydrate. are usually solid at room temperature. Major
sources include animal products such as meats
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)—fatty and dairy products, and tropical oils such as
acids that have two or more double bonds and coconut or palm oils.
are usually liquid at room temperature. Primary
sources are vegetable oils and some nuts and Seafood—marine animals that live in the sea and
seeds. PUFAs provide essential fats such as n-3 in freshwater lakes and rivers. Seafood includes
and n-6 fatty acids. fish (e.g., salmon, tuna, trout, and tilapia) and
shellfish (e.g., shrimp, crab, and oysters).
Precursor—an intermediate substance in the
body’s production of another substance. Skinfold calipers—the specialized calipers used
to measure the thickness of skinfolds.
Protein—one of the nutrients that provides
calories to the body. Protein is an essential Skinfold measurement—a method for
nutrient that helps build many parts of the body, determining body composition that involves
including blood, bone, muscle, and skin. Protein measuring the thickness of selected folds of skin
provides 4 calories per gram and is found in using special calipers.
foods like beans, dairy products, eggs, fish, Solid fats—fats that are usually not liquid at
meat, nuts, poultry, and tofu. Proteins are room temperature. Solid fats are found in animal
composed of amino acids, nine of which are foods, except for seafood, and can be made from
indispensable (essential), meaning they cannot vegetable oils through hydrogenation. Some
be synthesized by humans and therefore must be tropical oil plants, such as coconut and palm,
obtained are considered as solid fats due to their fatty
from the diet. The quality of dietary protein is acid composition. The fat component of milk
determined by its amino acid profile relative and cream (butter) is solid at room temperature.
to human requirements as determined by the Solid fats contain more saturated fats and/
body’s requirements for growth, or trans fats than liquid oils (e.g.,
maintenance, and repair. Protein quality is soybean,
determined by two factors—digestibility and canola, and corn oils), with lower amounts of
amino acid composition. monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty
acids. Common fats considered to be solid fats
R include—butter, beef fat (tallow), chicken fat,
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)—the substance that pork fat (lard), shortening, coconut oil, palm
carries the coded genetic information from the oil and palm kernel oil. Foods high in solid
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), in the cell fats
nucleus, to the ribosomes, where the instructions include—full-fat (regular) cheeses, creams, whole
are translated into the form of protein molecules. milk, ice cream, marbled cuts of meats, regular
ground beef, bacon, sausages, poultry skin, and

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 References and Glossary of Key Words | 13

many baked goods made with solid fats

Triiodothyronine—a thyroid hormone that
(such as cookies, crackers, doughnuts,
affects almost every physiological process in
pastries, and croissants).
the body, including growth and development,
Starch—a complex carbohydrate that occurs metabolism, body temperature, and heart rate
only in plants.
U
T Unsaturated fat—unsaturated fats are liquid
Thermogenesis—the process by which the body at room temperature. Vegetable oils are a
generates heat, or energy, by increasing the major source of unsaturated fat in the diet.
metabolic rate above normal. Unsaturated fats include polyunsaturated fats
and monounsaturated fats. Other foods, such as
Thermogenic Response—the rise in the avocados, fatty fish like salmon and tuna, most
metabolic rate. Also known as the thermogenic nuts, and olives are good sources of unsaturated
effect or specific dynamic action (sda). fat.
Trans fatty acids—a type of fat produced when Urea cycle—the metabolic process in which
liquid fats (oils) are turned into solid fats ammonia is converted to the waste product urea,
through a chemical process called which is then excreted from the body.
hydrogenation. Eating a large amount of trans
fatty acid, or “trans fats,” also raises blood Uric acid—toxic metabolic waste product.
cholesterol and risk of heart disease.
USDA Food Patterns—a set of eating patterns
Transamination reaction—the process in which that exemplify healthy eating, which all include
an amino group is transferred from an amino recommended intakes for the five food groups
acid to a molecule, usually to produce another (vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy, and protein
amino acid. foods) and for subgroups within the vegetables,
grains, and protein foods groups. They also
Transmethylation—the metabolic process in recommend an allowance for intake of oils.
which an amino acid donates a methyl group to Patterns are provided at 12 calorie levels from
another compound. 1,000 to 3,200 calories to meet varied calorie
Tri-peptide—three amino acids linked together. needs. The Healthy U.S.-Style Pattern is the base
USDA Food Pattern. See—Healthy U.S.-Style
Triglycerides—a type of fat in your blood, Eating Pattern, Healthy Mediterranean-Style
triglycerides can contribute to the hardening and Eating Pattern, and Healthy Vegetarian Eating
narrowing of your arteries if levels are too high. Pattern.
This puts you at risk of having a heart attack
or stroke. Triglycerides are measured along
with cholesterol as part of a blood test.
Normal triglyceride levels are below 150
mg/dL. Levels above 200 mg/dL are high.

International Sports Sciences

14 | Appendix

V Whole fruits—(Pg. 79) all fresh, frozen, canned,

Vascularization—the creation of new and dried fruit but not fruit juice.
blood vessels in the tissues. Whole grains—grains and grain products
Vitamin toxicity—vitamin poisoning. made from the entire grain seed, usually
called the kernel, which consists of the bran,
V• O max—the maximum rate at which germ, and endosperm. If the kernel has been
2
oxygen can be consumed. cracked, crushed, or flaked, it must retain the
same relative proportions of bran, germ, and
W endosperm as the original grain to be called
whole grain. Many but not all whole grains
Weight control—this refers to achieving and
are also sources of dietary fiber.
maintaining a healthy weight with healthy eating
and physical activity

Whole food—food that is in its natural, complete

state; unprocessed food.

Sports
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