AMMONIA’S ROLE

IN A NET-ZERO
HYDROGEN
ECONOMY

March 2023
Oscar Serpell,
Zakaria Hsain,
Amy Chu,
and Walter Johnsen
 1

AMMONIA’S ROLE IN A NET-ZERO HYDROGEN ECONOMY

Oscar Serpell, Zakaria Hsain, Amy Chu, and Walter Johnsen
March 2023 kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu

INTRODUCTION economically preferable over compressed or liquefied

hydrogen storage. Finally, we explore the infrastructure
considerations for each fuel, independent of its roundtrip
energy efficiency.
The use of hydrogen as a zero-carbon fuel for
transportation, energy storage, and difficult-to-
decarbonize industries is a very attractive idea for
policy makers and industry alike. After all, hydrogen is
lightweight, stable, and energy dense (when compressed
HYDROGEN’S ROLE IN THE
or liquefied). These qualities replicate many of the distinct ENERGY TRANSITION
advantages of fossil fuels, but without directly emitting
carbon dioxide or other planet-warming compounds.
The transition of our energy system to primarily
However, the practical storage and transportation of intermittent and variable energy sources such as wind
hydrogen poses significant challenges, for which several and solar will introduce wide-reaching energy storage
studies (Royal Society 2020) have suggested the use challenges. The ability to easily store and transport
of ammonia as a possible solution. Ammonia is already the energy contained within fossil fuels has been the
used extensively in agriculture, is distributed throughout primary reason for their primacy since the early industrial
much of the United States via an established network of revolution and continues to be a significant factor in our
pipelines and can be liquefied at relatively low pressures slow retreat from them.
and high temperatures.
By transitioning away from carbon-based energy
Compared to hydrogen and fossil fuels, it also poses sources, we are creating an energy storage vacuum that
little risk of combustion. As demand for hydrogen within must be filled by new, emissions-free technologies. Two
the energy system grows, storage of hydrogen in the promising emissions-free technologies for filling this void
form of ammonia could mitigate many of the practical are electrochemical batteries and hydrogen storage.
challenges to hydrogen utilization as a renewable
fuel. However, this solution assumes a carbon-neutral Electrochemical batteries such as the lithium-ion cells
method for synthesizing (creating) and cracking have improved rapidly over recent years in terms of
(breaking into constituent parts) ammonia, processes efficiency, safety, energy and power density, and cost.
that today remain costly and energy intensive. Functionally, they are well suited for applications where
the cells are cycled relatively frequently. However,
This digest explores how the incorporation of ammonia even the most ambitious and optimistic development
as a storage medium would impact the roundtrip energy roadmaps for battery density, cost, and longevity fall
efficiency of a carbon-neutral hydrogen network. We short of fulfilling the long-duration, grid-scale storage
offer insights into the conditions that must be met for demands of a decarbonized future (Mauler et al. 2021).
ammonia storage to be technologically feasible and
2 kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu

TABLE 1: COMPARISON OF ENERGY (KILOWATT HOURS) PER UNIT VOLUME (LITERS) OF BATTERIES, HYDROGEN, AND AMMONIA

Lithium Ion Battery Liquid Ammonia Hydrogen at 1 Hydrogen at 300 Hydrogen at 700 Liquefied
bar, 300 K bar, 300 K bar, 300 K Hydrogen

0.45 MWh/m3 3.58 MWh/m3 0.003 MWh/m3 0.67 MWh/m3 1.34 MWh/m3 2.3 MWh/m3

Existing lithium-ion cells can be permanently damaged leveraging either carbon capture and sequestration
if left uncharged and will slowly lose charge over time, (CCS) or carbon-neutral electricity or heat.
limiting their usefulness for long-duration storage cycles.
Electrolysis, the splitting of water into hydrogen and
Electrochemical batteries are also heavy and have
oxygen, is one of the most promising methods of
relatively low energy density (>0.5 kWh/L), making many
producing hydrogen without the use of fossil fuels and will
applications such as in long-distance commercial air
be the assumed production method for this digest. The
travel completely impractical.
analysis could easily be replicated assuming an alternative
Hydrogen could serve as exactly the complementary method of carbon-neutral hydrogen production.
storage solution that we need for deep decarbonization.
Renewable electrolysis allows hydrogen to effectively
serve as a stable store of energy which can then be
converted back to electricity using hydrogen fuel cells or THE LIMITATIONS OF HYDROGEN
thermal energy through combustion.

Unlike batteries, which need to be transported by road or Unlike fossil fuels, which are extracted as an energy-
rail, hydrogen could, in theory, be moved long distances producing natural resource, hydrogen must be synthesized.
through pipelines or compressed as a lightweight fuel This is because it occurs naturally in low atmospheric
alternative for air travel. Because it does not degrade concentrations and capturing hydrogen is not economically
from disuse, hydrogen could be a favorable alternative to viable for the scale required in the energy sector. Instead,
lithium-ion cells in long-duration storage applications. it is produced by breaking down other molecules like
methane or water using industrial processes.

Therefore, hydrogen cannot serve as a net source of

HOW HYDROGEN IS MADE renewable energy—its only utility is in its ability to store
energy. Hydrogen stores 33.6 megawatt hours (MWh)
of energy per ton of hydrogen. However, the current best
The majority of hydrogen produced today is made using available technology to produce hydrogen electrolytically
a process called steam methane reforming (SMR). This requires approximately 48 MWh per ton of hydrogen. This
process uses methane as a feedstock and produces CO2 difference between the amount stored and the amount
as a byproduct. If hydrogen is going to play a role in a required to drive electrolysis is considered an inefficiency.
carbon-neutral energy future, carbon-neutral methods for
Additional energy is also required to convert hydrogen
producing it will need to be deployed at scale.
back into usable energy. This process can be achieved
Currently, a rainbow of color-coded hydrogen through a fuel cell or an internal combustion engine
production methods exist that could supplant SMR (ICE). Hydrogen fuel cells can derive a theoretical
as the dominant method of production in a clean maximum energy output of 33.6 kWh/kg of hydrogen;
energy future. Each of these alternative methods seeks however, most only achieve efficiencies of about 60%.
to prevent the production of carbon emissions by
 Ammonia’s Role in a Net-zero Hydrogen Economy 3

Energy yield from hydrogen combustion is similarly can be then extracted when and where it is needed by
limited by the same maximum energy output heating ammonia to high temperatures.
(approximately 33.33 kWh/kg). Whereas traditional
Despite enthusiasm for ammonia as an energy vector,
ICEs can scrape past 50% efficiency, hydrogen ICEs
there has been limited analysis of the energy requirements
achieve about half that efficiency making them largely
and situational suitability of this additional phase in
impractical as a clean transportation solution.
the hydrogen storage cycle. Because carbon-neutral
Since they are converting heat energy into kinetic production of hydrogen is already so energy intensive,
energy, these efficiencies, combined with the energy any additional energy needed for storage, extraction,
requirements of electrolysis result in a roundtrip and transportation may jeopardize the scalability and
efficiency of approximately 42% for fuel cells and just sustainability of this proposed storage solution.
17% for hydrogen powered combustion engines.

Although it is possible to compress or liquefy hydrogen

and transport it through pipelines or by rail, its properties
make this both a challenge and a risk. Hydrogen is
THE ENERGY DEMANDS OF STORING
the lightest element, escaping even air-tight vessels, HYDROGEN AND AMMONIA
and can cause embrittlement in unprotected metals
including steel, aluminum, and titanium. This means that
repurposing any existing infrastructure, such as natural Synthesis and conversion of hydrogen are only the
gas pipelines, would require significant retrofitting. beginning and end of a longer and more energy-
intensive process for successfully using hydrogen as a
The storage and transportation of compressed or store of renewable energy. To be efficiently stored and
liquefied hydrogen, like natural gas, also poses a transported (by ship, train, or truck) in its pure form,
significant risk of combustion when exposed to oxygen. hydrogen needs to be liquefied or compressed.
This could pose a major public safety risk. Storing or
transporting compressed or liquefied hydrogen will Liquefying hydrogen requires cooling below -253°C,
require stringent oversight, possibly exceeding the the energetic cost of which amounts to ~44.7% of
precautions used in the natural gas industry. the energy contained in the gas phase (Dias et al.
2020). Although cryogenic storage of hydrogen uses
thick vessels that meet stringent sealing and insulation
standards, additional energy losses occur due to
AMMONIA TO THE RESCUE? evaporation (or boil-off) at a rate of about 0.520% of the
total volume per day (Al-Breiki and Bicer 2020).

In practice, boil-off losses can be up to 5 vol%/day

Ammonia (NH3) contains 17.8% hydrogen by weight.
when little attention is paid to using and maintaining
Today, about 70% of ammonia is used for the synthesis
proper insulation (Langeraar 2019). The remaining
of agricultural fertilizers. The remaining 30% is used
volume Vr of liquefied hydrogen after d days of storage
in a wide array of industrial chemicals including many
can be determined by the following expression where V0
plastics and explosives. Very little ammonia is used
is the initial volume of liquefied hydrogen:
today as an energy vector, and nearly all ammonia is
produced from fossil fuels. Vr = V0(1-0.0052)d

A process to store renewable hydrogen in ammonia Per this expression, 1,000 cubic meters (m3) of liquefied
could neutralize many of the storage challenges of hydrogen stored for 100 days would be reduced to
hydrogen. Hydrogen can be stored in ammonia through 594 m3 solely due to boil-off losses. Boil-off losses,
the Haber-Bosch process, which combines hydrogen combined with the energy used to liquefy the hydrogen
gas with nitrogen gas to make ammonia. Hydrogen in the first place, results in the short-term (7 days)
4 kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu

storage efficiency of 53%, and a storage efficiency of FIGURE 1: NET REMAINING ENERGY OF HYDROGEN AND AMMONIA
just 21% in seasonal storage applications (182 days), as STORAGE OVER TIME
shown in Figure 1.

Technologies are available to effectively eliminate boil-off

losses and can be economically sensible to implement
if the cost of operating and maintaining them (such as
the cost of electricity to power cryocoolers and the cost
of manufacturing multi-layered insulating vessels) is
lower than the cost of hydrogen losses that they prevent
(Salerno et al. 2002, Notardonato et al. 2017).

To avoid the high energy cost of liquefaction, hydrogen

can also be stored and transported at pressures ranging
from 350 to 700 bar. At these pressures, adequately
sealed vessels can effectively eliminate any leakage.

Though storing hydrogen as a compressed gas is

relatively energy efficient (91%) in both short-term and
seasonal storage applications, it sacrifices some of the Each metric ton of hydrogen can yield a maximum of 33.6 MWh. Figure 1 shows the share
volume savings that high-density liquefied hydrogen of that energy remaining after subtracting the energy inputs required for storage (including
compression, liquefaction, and cracking) and the losses from boil off.
enables. Depending on application, this may pose a
significant additional logistical challenge.

Ammonia, on the other hand, can be liquefied by either

THE ENERGY DEMANDS OF
cooling it below -33°C (at atmospheric pressure) or SYNTHESIS AND CRACKING
pressurizing it above 7.5 bar (at 20°C)—significantly
more achievable conditions than those required for
hydrogen. This process can be close to 99% efficient. Clearly, ammonia offers significant advantages in
storage and transportation over hydrogen. However,
Liquefied ammonia also benefits from having an energy before ammonia can be deemed a viable energy
density of 3.83 MWh/m3 (Bartels 2008) compared to vector, the steps to store and extract hydrogen
2.64 MWh/m3 for liquid hydrogen (Rohland et al. 1992) must be considered.
meaning that liquefied ammonia maintains a higher
volumetric energy density than liquefied hydrogen in far Synthesis of ammonia is achieved by combining nitrogen
less demanding storage conditions. gas and hydrogen in the reaction N2 + 3H2  2NH3.
This reaction is realized on an industrial scale through
Ammonia also benefits from a lower boil-off rate (~0.025 the Haber-Bosch process, which requires demanding
vol%/day) (Al-Breiki and Bicer 2020), which contributes reaction temperatures and pressures that necessitate a
to its superior retention of energy potential during substantial energy input.
long-duration storage and long-distance transportation.
Conversely, ammonia storage requires an additional While the theoretical minimum energy required for this
process to extract the hydrogen before use, leading to a process is 6.17 MWh/t-NH3 (34.9 MWh/t-H2), the
small but meaningful decrease in the net energy yield for current best available technology (in terms of efficiency)
every ton of hydrogen produced. requires > 7.61 MWh/t-NH3 (43.0 MWh/t-H2) (Smith et
al. 2020).

Proposed solutions for renewable hydrogen storage in

ammonia are based on variations of the Haber-Bosch
 Ammonia’s Role in a Net-zero Hydrogen Economy 5

process. One possibility is to use hydrogen obtained require 1.17–1.76 MWh/t-NH3 (6.63–9.97 MWh/t-H2)
through electrolysis instead of SMR. The theoretical (Salmon and Bañares-Alcántara 2021).
minimum for such a process is 5.92 MWh/t-NH3 (33.5
MWh/t-H2) (Smith et al. 2020). However, current best
available technologies have efficiencies closer to 10–12
MWh/t-NH3 (56.7–68 MWh/t-H2) including the energy COMPARING ENERGY EFFICIENCIES
required for electrolysis (Giddey et al. 2017).

Extraction of hydrogen from ammonia can be achieved Generally, compression of hydrogen, rather than
through the ammonia cracking process, 2NH3  N2 + liquefaction of ammonia or hydrogen, is the more energy
3H2. This is also an energy intensive process, typically efficient method of storing hydrogen, if space and
requiring temperatures exceeding 900ºC (Giddey et al. transportation are not limiting factors. This is attributable
2017). The high temperatures are required to give high to the boil-off rates associated with hydrogen
yields of hydrogen. liquefaction and the energy costs of ammonia synthesis
and cracking. Compressed hydrogen still requires
Lower temperatures afford larger concentrations of
energy for the initial compression process, but once
unreacted ammonia and make the utilization of the
it is fully sealed and stable within appropriately-rated
product hydrogen challenging due to the high purity
canisters or pipelines, it has effectively zero losses.
demands of fuel cells. The theoretical minimum
required for the cracking process is around 0.88
MWh/t-NH3 (5.0 MWh/t-H2 released) (Thomas and
Parks 2006), though currently available technologies

FIGURE 2: ENERGY DEMANDS OF HYDROGEN AND AMMONIA SUPPLY CHAINS

Electric Energy   The energy demands in MWh per metric ton of hydrogen for each step (1) Dias et al. 2020 (7) El-Breiki and Bicer 2020
along the hydrogen storage processes using three different techniques: (2) Ni et al. 2006 (8) Giddey et al. 2017
Hydrogen (H2) compressed hydrogen, liquefied hydrogen, and liquefied ammonia. (3) Blain 2022 (9) U.S. DOE 2015
Ammonia (NH3) (4) Tolga et al. 2010 (10) Hosseini and Butler 2019
(5) Sheffield et al. 2014 (11) Rohland et al. 1992
(6) Gardiner 2009
6 kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu

TABLE 2: RETURN ON ENERGY INVESTMENT FOR FIVE STORAGE PATHWAYS

Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Scenario 5

Production 1 Electrolysis Electrolysis Electrolysis Electrolysis Electrolysis

Production 2 Haber-Bosch Haber-Bosch

Storage and Transport Compression Liquefaction Liquefaction Liquefaction Liquefaction

(7 days) (182 days) (7 days) (182 days)

Conversion Cracking Cracking

MWh Required per t-H2 39.7–52.7 63.7–78.3 65.1–79.75 50.5–63.5 73.5–86.5

Overall Return on Energy Investment 63–84% 42.5– 52.3% 41.8–51% 52.5–66% 38.5%–45%

Shows the total energy input requirements for five scenarios of hydrogen synthesis, storage, transportation, and consumption for the purposes of storing renewable electricity using compressed or
liquefied hydrogen of liquefied ammonia. The total energy required to produce and store 1 metric ton of hydrogen is given in row five with values ranging from 39.7 MWh/t-H2 in Scenario 1 to 86.5
MWh/t-H2 in Scenario 5.

Both ammonia and hydrogen liquefaction experience energy demands for ammonia synthesis and cracking
constant boil-off, reducing the roundtrip efficiency of are overtaken by the combined energy demands of
these pathways over time. However, while the boil-off electrolysis and liquefied hydrogen storage.
rate of ammonia only reduces the stored energy by
However, slight variations in the assumed efficiencies
a small fraction over a six-month storage period, the
of reactions or changes in the boil-off rate for hydrogen
overall quantity of liquefied hydrogen falls by close to
or ammonia could significantly impact the time frame for
60% over that same period.
this break-even point. The efficiency ranges in Table 2
Furthermore, ammonia can be liquefied using only a demonstrate the difficulty in precisely calculating the return
small fraction of the stored energy, while liquefying on energy invested for any of the five storage scenarios.
hydrogen requires almost 50% of the stored energy.
On the other hand, using ammonia directly as an energy
This comparative advantage of ammonia is somewhat
source through combustion produces toxic NOx gasses,
offset, however, by the synthesis and cracking of
necessitating NOx scrubbers at any point of direct
ammonia. Ultimately, the roundtrip energy efficiency
combustion. Current studies on ammonia combustion
of liquefied ammonia and hydrogen for 182 days is
have widely explored using ammonia fuel blends with
comparable, with range overlaps between 41.8–45%
hydrogen or traditional fossil fuels in combustion engines.
If a liquid fuel is required, the choice between liquefied
In general, lower purities of ammonia creates more
hydrogen and ammonia will depend on a number of factors
CO2 and NOx emissions, and distributed scrubbing
including the efficiency of electrolysis, ammonia synthesis,
would be difficult to regulate (Erdemir 2020). It is
and ammonia cracking, the expected duration of storage,
worth mentioning that while energy generation through
and the available storage and transportation infrastructure.
combustion of 100% ammonia eliminates the possibility
If we assume a 40 MWh/t-H2 energy cost of electrolysis, of CO2 emissions, it may still produce NOx due to the
a 60 MWh/t-H2 cost of renewable ammonia synthesis, partial oxidation of ammonia or the product nitrogen gas.
and 8 kWh/t- H2 for ammonia cracking, we can use the
boil-off rates of both fuels to calculate a break-even
point of 11 days. Before this point, liquefied hydrogen is
more energy efficient than ammonia. After this point, the
 Ammonia’s Role in a Net-zero Hydrogen Economy 7

TAPPING INTO PIPELINE INFRASTRUCTURE The repurposing of existing natural gas pipelines to
transport carbon-neutral alternative fuels offers an
invaluable opportunity to bypass many of these new
infrastructure challenges. The energy transition will require
Independent of the roundtrip efficiency of each fuel, one
enormous infrastructure investments, but any opportunity to
of the most commonly stated advantages of ammonia
utilize existing infrastructure can save time and cut costs.
over compressed hydrogen or liquefied hydrogen is that it
could benefit from the extensive existing ammonia pipeline Repurposing natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen
infrastructure used primarily by the agriculture sector. would require extensive modifications, which include
replacing components such as compressors, valves,
The United States, for example, has a network of more than
pressure regulators, and sealing membranes to conform
5,000 kilometers of pipeline in operation today. Recently,
with the flow properties of hydrogen. Aging pipelines
this pipeline network shrank with the decommissioning
that are at or near the end of their lifetimes would need
of the 1,800-km Magellan pipeline, which connected the
to be replaced.
Southern Plains and Western Corn Belt with production
facilities in Texas and Oklahoma; however, it still exceeds Additionally, as hydrogen is known to cause embrittlement
existing hydrogen transport infrastructure (~2,500 km in and premature cracking in steel, it might be more prudent
the United States) (Bouwkamp et al. 2017). to use novel embrittlement-resistant grades of steel or
fiber-reinforced polymers in any new pipeline construction
For comparison’s sake, the U.S. has 490,000 kilometers
(Bouwkamp et al. 2017). Existing pipelines that are deemed
of high-pressure natural gas transmission pipelines and
safe to carry hydrogen could benefit from a polymer
over 3 million kilometers of lower-pressure natural gas
coating on their inner walls to enhance their resistance to
distribution pipelines for last-mile delivery to end users
embrittlement and, thus, their operating lifetime.
(Hydrogen Council and McKinsey 2021). Neither the
existing hydrogen nor the existing ammonia infrastructure In financial terms, retrofitting existing land transmission
comes anywhere close to meeting the demands of a pipelines to carry hydrogen could cost between $0.6 and
heavily hydrogen-dependent energy system, and therefore $1.2 million per kilometer, while the cost of constructing
does not offer either fuel a significant leg up. new pipelines could be between $2.2 and $4.5 million
per kilometer (Hydrogen Council and McKinsey 2021).
Globally, demand for ammonia is equivalent to 176 million
metric tons per year. If hydrogen were to replace the energy Retrofitting existing natural gas infrastructure for
demands of just 50% of present-day natural gas, it would ammonia may be significantly more involved, since the
require at least 3.49 billion metric tons of ammonia per characteristics of existing ammonia pipelines are quite
year. This represents a 20-fold increase in global ammonia distinct from natural gas pipelines. Whereas natural gas
production and a similar increase in available transportation transmission pipelines are typically pressurized to 500–
and storage infrastructure. 1,200 psi, ammonia pipelines typically operate at just 250
psi. At this pressure, ammonia is a relatively heavy liquid.
The story is the same for hydrogen. Today, global hydrogen
production is approximately 74 million metric tons. To meet This means that if natural gas pipelines were to be
50% of the energy demand currently met by natural gas repurposed for ammonia transport, they would either
would require at least 617 million metric tons per year—an need to be adapted to operate at much lower pressures
increase of more than 800%. or under a much higher weight burden. On the other
hand, liquid ammonia is non-corrosive and does not
Arguably, the true infrastructure advantage lies in how
exhibit the same embrittlement properties as hydrogen,
these two energy vectors can make use of existing natural
meaning that materials restrictions are not as stringent.
gas infrastructure. Fuel pipelines are notoriously difficult
to complete. They are expensive, require collaboration
across multiple jurisdictions, and often meet fierce public
resistance and legal roadblocks.
8 kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS lower return on energy investment than the compressed

and liquefied hydrogen pathways.

Since compressed hydrogen shares many similarities

As we transition away from fossil fuels and toward with natural gas and can be blended into existing natural
inherently variable generation technologies, it is gas supplies, this analysis concludes that developing new
essential that we develop affordable and sustainable infrastructure and retrofitting existing infrastructure for the
solutions for moving and storing energy. Batteries and storage and transportation of compressed hydrogen is
the electricity grid will accommodate and balance much the strongest path forward for realizing the full potential of
of this load, but there are likely to be some energy and hydrogen as a store of renewable energy.
storage needs for which electrochemical batteries and
transmission lines will be poorly suited. Stable liquid or Recent analyses suggest that blending hydrogen
gaseous renewable fuel may still be needed for long- into natural gas may not be an effective long-
term seasonal storage, high heat processes, and poorly term decarbonization solution. In a first-of-its-kind
integrated demand centers. demonstration in New York, a blend with 44 vol%
hydrogen only reduced the carbon dioxide emissions
Hydrogen is, in many respects, an ideal vector for energy of natural gas combustion by 20% (EPRI, NYPA, and
transfer. It can be produced from water and electricity GE 2022). Nevertheless, retrofitting pipelines to allow
and has a very high energy potential by weight. However, for blending and eventually exclusive transportation of
as this analysis makes clear, it is a difficult and costly hydrogen to demand centers and distributed fuel cells
fuel to store. Our findings indicate that compressing could repurpose existing infrastructure and reduce
hydrogen is the most energy efficient method of storing the burden placed on new electricity transmission
and moving it, but this requires extensive pipeline infrastructure in the long run (Topolski et al. 2022).
retrofits and bulky storage containers.
Although ammonia offers a more energy-efficient
Liquefied hydrogen improves on storage density but is method than liquefied hydrogen for storing hydrogen
even more challenging to store and transport without on the scale of weeks or months, this analysis suggests
significant boil-off losses. Ammonia is a relatively stable that from both an energy efficiency standpoint and an
and easy to transport vector for hydrogen, but the infrastructure standpoint, compressed hydrogen offers
energy costs of synthesis and cracking are considerable the best hydrogen storage solution in most situations.
and, over short storage durations, this method offers
 Ammonia’s Role in a Net-zero Hydrogen Economy 9

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