Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH)

Vol. 39, No. 3, July 2020, pp. 738 – 743

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http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njt.v39i3.12

COAL MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ACID MINE

DRAINAGE (AMD): A REVIEW

T. I. Ojonimi1,*, F. Asuke2, M. A. Onimisi3, C. Y. Onuh4 and N. Tshiongo-Makgwe5

1,
DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF JOS, PLATEAU STATE, NIGERIA
2,
DEPT. OF METALLURGICAL & MATERIALS ENGINEERING, AHMADU BELLO UNIV., ZARIA, KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA
3,
DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA, KIGALI, RWANDA.
4,
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING, COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.
5,
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY, UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA
E-mail addresses: 1 [email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected],
4
[email protected], 5 [email protected]

ABSTRACT
In spite of the growing global initiatives towards achieving clean energy, coal remains a dominant
source of electricity generation, a fuel for iron and steel production, an important entity among
road construction materials and a commodity for foreign exchange earnings for many nations. Coal
mining from old and active sites remains a source of an environmental problem described as acid
mine drainage (AMD). AMD is produced when sulfide present in waste rocks or tailings in coal mines
reacts with air and water in a microbes facilitated oxidation to form solutions with high acidity. The
acids formed by these chemical and biological conditions further release heavy metals present in
the host rock in concentrations higher than are acceptable by environmental standards (pb;0.01,
Zn;5, Cu;2, Fe;0.3 mg/l as prescribed by WHO and Encyclopedia of Environmental Science,2000)
such that soils, surface and underground waters are contaminated. Consequently, the human
population which derives her livelihood in the mine zones, in form of crop production and
fishing/modern aquaculture is endangered by terminal health diseases. This article aims at bringing
forth, the urgent need to work towards achieving goal six of the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals, 2030 (SDGs-6) which is clean water and sanitation while enriching the
knowledge repository of the environmental problem for the purpose of teaching, research,
community services and policy making. An overview of AMD menace, variables which influence its
formation, selected areas that have been impacted, and a brief analysis of its treatment cost have
been discussed with a list of concluding remarks in the paper.

Keywords: Coal, Mining, Environmental, AMD

1. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF AMD for driving full scale operation of the Ajaokuta Iron
The exploitation of minerals from the earth, Steel Company in Nigeria [2, 3]. Now, with the global
represents one of man’s early areas of civilization [1]. awareness and quest for introduction of stringent
No nation experiences significant advances in environmental regulations, profitability of mines in
technology and diversification of economy with the operation as well as approval of applications for new
associated increases in foreign exchange and mines licenses will depend on the impact of effluents
creation of jobs for her populace without mining. It is from these mines on the receiving downstream
on this premise, for instance, that researchers, waters. The quality of water and soils in mine zones
investors and the government view mining and is influenced by acid mine drainage (AMD). AMD
processing of local coal deposits as a great potential refers to stream of acidic effluent from a sulfide-rich

* Corresponding author, tel: +234 – 706 – 517 – 0928

 COAL MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE (AMD): A REVIEW, T. I. Ojonimi, et al

mines or processing facilities and is formed as a result emanating from these reactions sites could have pH
of particles oxidation by water and air [4, 5]. AMD of as low as 2.5 and less which can be overwhelming
forms age long pollution streams and soils leading to by further addition of acid and formation of [Fe(OH) 3]
distortion of crops growth, destruction of aquatic life layers otherwise called yellow boy, under which crops
and shortening of design lifespans of civil never grow [6].
infrastructures such as water reticulation networks The understanding and prediction of AMD is based on
and bridges by corroding them [6] the chemical reactions above. AMD prediction has
The rate at which AMD is generated defers from one become a global practice since several evolving
sulfide mineral to another. For instance, crystalline technological advancements depend on mining with
pyrite (FeS) oxidises at a slower rate when compared many old mines still requiring remediation [9]. The
with Marcasite (FeS) [7]. It is worthy of note that severity of this problem is more in old mines sites
marcasite shares similarity with pyrite in terms of considering that nowadays, stringent environmental
physical appearance and chemical composition but regulations stipulate the use of new technologies for
differ in crystallinity; while marcasite is characterized in situ-monitoring, treatment and/or prevention of
by an orthorhombic structure, pyrite is isometric [8]. AMDs in active mines.
The current discussion however, focuses on pyrite
oxidation which has several unique characteristics 2. AMD GENERATION VARIABLES
that can be further explained by a convoy of complex This section highlights the array of variables
chemical reactions as shown in equations 1-7 [9] responsible for formation of AMD. Understanding
AMD is complex because the chemical reactions
2FeS2+7O2+2H2O→2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4 (1) which characterize it depend on a bundle of several
2+ + 3+
2Fe + 1/2O2 + 2H → 2Fe + H2O (2) factors since no two mines, be it old or active are
Fe3+ + 3H2O→ Fe(OH)3 + 3H+ (3) similar in topography, geochemistry and history of
FeS2 (s) + 15/4O2 + 7/2H2O → 4H + 2SO4- +
+
remediation. Strategies for remediation of abandoned
Fe(OH)3 (s) (4) and active mines could be optimised by
2FeS2(s)+2H2O+7O2→4H + 4SO4 +2 Fe
+ 2- 2+
(5) understanding the influence of these factors on AMD
4Fe2++ O2+4H+→ 4Fe3+ + 2H2O (6) Chemistry [4, 10].
3+ 2+
2FeS2 (s) +14Fe +8H2O → 15Fe + 2SO4 +2-

16H+ (7) 2.1 Effect of Particle Size

The influence of particle size is a necessary
Pyrite (FeS2) oxidation generally imparts acidity. In parameter for the purpose of AMD prediction at
open pit mines which are characterized by high bench scale. Prediction tests are conducted with small
concentrations of atmospheric oxygen (O 2) and rock particles sizes and may not amount to accurate
hydrogen (H+), the condition provides for oxidation simulation of same for waste rocks generated on
of (Fe2+) to (Fe3+) (equation 2). Oxidation of Fe3+ industrial scale. While trying to establish the effect of
(equation 7) imparts the highest acidity as indicated particle size on the rate of oxidation in actual mine
by 16 molecules of hydrogen ion. conditions, Erguler and Ergueler [11] mentioned that
Waters running over limestone rocks in the coal sulfide mineral particles are subject to environmental
catchment can resist little alterations in pH by factor of weathering. The research established that
developing a system of bicarbonate buffering at there is direct proportionality between AMD
normal conditions of undisturbed coal layers. At this generation rate and particle surface area. This implies
stage, the initiation and mobilization of AMD is so that oxidation of the exposed ores is a function of
insignificant to constitute a threat to the recipient particle size distribution. Lapakko and Antoson [12]
water and land environments. However, the oxidation also reported the dependence of pH values of mine
reaction progressively increases when large drainages on particle size variation where it was
quantities of the sulfide rocks are exposed via found that drains emanating from finer particles were
mining/processing and sometimes road construction. more acidic. Having said this, the effect of particle
Thus, waste products derived from heap leaching size on AMD generation in waste rock piles differs
technology, tailings ponds, waste rock piles, open from what obtains in tailings storage facilities. In
mines pit walls and underground mine workings are waste rocks, AMD can be generated in particles
all potential AMD generation sites. Streams averaging above 2cm while in tailings impoundments,
Nigerian Journal of Technology, Vol. 39, No. 3, July 2020 739
 COAL MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE (AMD): A REVIEW, T. I. Ojonimi, et al

the process can take place in particles as low as of selected impacted areas in different continents is
0.2mm [7] also presented in (Table 2)
2.2 Influence of mine type
The determining parameter for AMD formation in 3.1 Odagbo
open pit and underground mines is the presence of An analysis of drains from Odagbo coal mine was
relative proportions of alumunium and iron, simply conducted. The levels of lead, nickel, cobalt,
put as aluminium/iron ratio. This ratio is typically chromium, mercury, zinc, arsenic and iron were
higher in open pit mines. The reason is that, in the reportedly investigated. Nickel, chromium and iron
open space, the coal sediment is more distorted were found to be above the EPA acceptable
which allows exposure of mineral particles surfaces environmental limits (0.0-1.0: Nickel, 0.0-0.05:
for secondary interaction between sulfuric acid chromium, irion: 0.0-0.3). The research concluded
produced in AMD and alumino-silicates minerals such that the acid drainage if not curtailed could pollute
as feldspar present in the zone and consequent the water bodies in the environment [16]. This
impartation of more acidity by the release of supports the earlier findings by [17] which
aluminuim ion (Al3+) in high concentrations. established lead, nickel and copper as metals found
Conversely, in underground mines, the mentioned to have severely impacted the receiving soils and
secondary reaction is insignificant as atmospheric proposed the remediation of mines in the area.
oxygen required to facilitate sufficient pyrite
oxidation in the first instance is not abundant and 3.2 Enugu
therefore, the enclave is characterised by higher iron An analysis of water quality in Onyema and Okpala
oxide concentration compared with alumina. In mine districts in Enugu, Southeast, Nigeria was
general, AMD occurs faster in open pit mines than in reported by [18]. Mean values of heavy metals
underground mines [4, 13] namely; Cadmium, Arsenic, Lead, Chromium were
respectively reported as 0.33mg/l, 0.06 mg/l,
2.3 Influence of microbial elements 0.53mg/l and 0.06 mg/l with mean pH values of 5.4
The interactions between microbes and pyrite all of which exceeded the WHO permissible limits of
generates AMD as the organisms form a community 0.0-5.0mg/l for all the metals identified. [19]. It was
of acidophilic chemoautotrophs under waste rocks also reported that total dissolved solids (TDS) values
particles. Chemoautotrophs, refer to microorganisms ranging between 21.80 and 520 mg/l were below
which derive their sustenance from pyrite present in WHO permissible limits of 0.00-1500 mg/l but
coal and atmospheric oxygen. Low pH condition however injurious to the aquatic life in the catchment.
increases by five folds, the rate of iron oxidation by
the influence of these organisms with a 3.3 Lafia-Obi
corresponding increase in the rate of pyrite An assessment of AMD as a potential environmental
dissolution [14]. Since the influence of problem as a result of coal mining in Lafia-Obi, in
microorganisms on AMD generation is favoured by Nasarawa State, North-Central Nigeria was
low pH, one may safely mention that, presence of a conducted. The report envisaged environmental
neutralizing mineral such as calcite (CaCO3) in the problems associated with the mining/beneficiation of
mine catchment could progressively decrease their the coal deposits and proposed the inclusion of
activity. From the mineral processor’s view point, this detailed remediation plans in the environmental
factor presents an advantage as the biological stage impact assessment (EIA) report [2].
of selective sequential precipitation technology
utilizes these microbes for recovery of metals Table 1: Growth Conditions of Sulfide Ore Bacteria
dissolved in AMDs [15]. A summary of bacteria that Bacteria PH Temperature ( oC)
play important roles in catalyzing pyrite oxidation is Thiobacilus thioparus 4.5-10 10-37
provided in Table 1. T.ferrooxidans 0.5-6.0 15-25
T.thiooxidans 0.5-6.0 10-37
3. SELECTED AMD IMPACTED AREAS T.neapolitanus 3.0-8.5 8-37
The impact of AMDs from Odagbo, Enugu and Lafia- T.denitrificans 4.0-9.5 10-37
obi coal mines in Kogi, Enugu and Nasarawa States, T.novellus 5.0-9.2 25-35
Nigeria respectively is reviewed in this section. A list T.intermedius 1.7-7.0 25-35

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 COAL MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE (AMD): A REVIEW, T. I. Ojonimi, et al

Bacteria PH Temperature ( oC) which could have been more expensive if personnel
T.perometabolis 2.8-6.8 25-35 cost was added [29]. In spite of this advantage,
Sulfolobus acidocalderius 2.0-5.0 55-85 studies on the use of In situ limestone remediation
Desulfobivrio desulfuricans 5.0-9.0 10-45 system conducted reported that about USD4000 in
Source: [7] savings was achieved for an active mine [30]. These
scenarios indicate that, it is more economical to
It can be inferred that significant volumes of water practice treatment while a mine is still active than
and farm lands in the mentioned mine districts have leaving the burden of same on state environmental
been polluted and will require sufficient efforts in agencies to bear after closure. As per specific material
terms of technology, community participation and costs, equation 8 can be used to measure the
political will to address the issue. quantity of reagent needed per annum for AMD
treatment. The conversion factor Q, determines the
4. AMD REMEDIATION COST ANALYSIS quantity of material needed annually for treatment.
In weighing AMD remediation costs, it is needful to Neutralization Efficiency is the measure of the relative
mention the two major technologies adopted; one, is effectiveness of the reagent used [31].
the passive remediation option which involves
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑔
construction of limestone drain characterised by 𝑄 = 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚) (8)
capacity for neutralising acid and curtailing excessive
contamination of downstream areas. This passive
For instance, if 100 mg of acid per annum is the
technology option applies to abandoned mines which
amount of acid to be neutralized, then it can be
do not require maintenance cost, can be constructed
estimated that 82 mg of hydrated lime would be
without requiring men going inside the portal and
needed to neutralize the acidity of the waste stream.
saves labour cost. For instance, in constructing
A summary of application of the formula is provided
limestone drains of 20 by 100 feet nearly USD 70,000
in Table 3
was spent annually between year 1994 and 2000

Table 2: A Collection of some AMD Impacted Areas World Wide

Continent Impacted Area/Mine Length of Impacted area(Km)/Description Source
Odagbo, Okaba, Enugu, Lafia-Obi
[2,16-
Africa (Nigeria); West Rand Gold Field, Unknown
20]
Witwatersrand (South Africa)
Mines in the Bor Region (Serbia);Avoca
About 130m of Lake Robule impacted due
mine, Wicklow (Ireland); Aznalcollar
to 108 tons of tailings dumps; Avoca mine
Europe mine (Spain); Wheal Jane (England); [21,23]
severely impacted with pH in the
River Tinto (Spain), Libiola mine
neighborhood of 3.5.
(Italy)
AMD of upto 60 million gallons per day from
North Elizabeth , Gold King, Montana (USA); old forge borehole has impacted River
[24,25]
America Beach of Britannia, (Canada) Lackawanna; Montana has impacted the
Clark Fork River and 200Km2 of land
Mineral fields in the West Coast,
Brukunga mine, Zinc mine on the River
OK Tedi mine impact on the environment is
Oceania McArthur, Mount Morgan (Australia); [26,28]
described as disastrous
Ok Tedi (Paupa New Guinea); Grasberg
mine (Indonesia)
Adapted from Various Authors Mentioned on Colum 4 on the Table

Table 3: Summary of AMD Treatment Chemicals

Common Name Chemical Name Formula Conversion Factor Neutralisation Efficiency (%)
Limestone Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 1.00 30
Hydrated Lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 0.74 90
Quick Lime Calcium Oxide CaO 0.56 90
Soda ash Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 1.06 60
Caustic Soda: Solid Sodium hydroxide NaOH 0.8 100
Nigerian Journal of Technology, Vol. 39, No. 3, July 2020 741
 COAL MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE (AMD): A REVIEW, T. I. Ojonimi, et al

Common Name Chemical Name Formula Conversion Factor Neutralisation Efficiency (%)
20% Liquid caustic Sodium hydroxide NaOH 784 100
50% Liquid caustic Sodium hydroxide NaOH 256 100
Ammonia Anhydrous Ammonia NH3 3.4 100
Source: [31]

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