UNIT 2: AN INTRODUCTION TO A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

FOR TEACHING

A teacher must know, think, act and feel

like a teacher. As teachers, we enable
others to learn something. The fact that
you are teaching, doesn’t mean that
learners are learning.

How do we decide what and how to teach? While the CAPS document provides
guidelines in terms of the content and the pacing and sequencing of the content, as
teachers we still have to exercise professional judgement in so many other aspects
of our work, the selection of examples to explain a concept; assessment challenges,
classroom management decision, discipline, etc.

In Unit 2 we look at the 1Conceptual Framework for Teaching 2EMS and focus on:
• the cycle of 3pedagogical reasoning and 4action,
• lesson phases necessary to achieve the learning outcomes of a lesson and
• how to design a lesson plan

THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK USED FOR LESSON PLANNING:

SHULMAN’S MODEL OF PEDAGOGICAL REASONING

To teach all students according to today’s standards, teachers need to understand

subject matter deeply and flexibly so they can help students create useful cognitive
maps, relate one idea to another, and address misconceptions. Teachers need to
see how ideas connect across fields and to everyday life. This kind of understanding
provides a foundation for pedagogical content knowledge that enables teachers to
make ideas accessible to others (Shulman, 1987)

Lee Shulman (author of two recommended readings for Unit 2) developed a

theoretical framework for pedagogical reasoning and action. These are important
concepts to apply to your own teaching on a daily basis. A major goal of pedagogical
theory is to put the theory into practice.

Shulman introduced the phrase pedagogical content knowledge and emphasises

the need for teachers to understand the two types of knowledge for successful
teaching:

1
A system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs and theories that supports a particular field of study
2
or Business Studies and Accounting
3
teacher thinking
4
teacher action/doing
 • 5
Content Knowledge: Also known as “deep” knowledge of the subject itself –
the theories, principles and concepts of a particular discipline.
• 6
Pedagogical Knowledge: Knowledge of the curricular development, the
teaching process, including the best practices and tools for teaching and
learning.

THE CYCLE OF PEDAGOGICAL REASONING AND ACTION

Shulman created a Model of Pedagogical Reasoning and Action, which is a cycle of

six elements, a teacher should complete for good teaching. These are:

Comprehension
Before the lesson
Tranformation

Instruction
During the lesson
Evaluation

Reflection

New After the lesson

Comprehension

1. Comprehension: This is comprehension for understanding. This is where we as

teachers look at what is being taught (the subject matter), the purpose of the
lesson, goals and what our learners already know about the content. The teacher
must thoroughly know, understand and organise the content before teaching the
lesson.

2. Transformation: This is the transformation of ideas, where the teacher takes

his/her understanding of the content and change it into content that the learner
will understand. The teacher must consider how the ideas and content will be
represented. The content must be adapted/changed to suit the learners’ abilities,
age, gender, language, culture, level of development and interests or motivations
as well as prior knowledge and skills. Consider which teaching methods or
models, student materials and activities to use or adapt to suit the specific

5
Subject Content Knowledge: SCK
6
Pedagogical Content Knowledge: PCK
 learning styles of learners in our classroom. Form/representations, sequence,
language, level of difficulty must all be adapted, and appropriate activities/tasks
designed for those learners.

3. Instruction: This is the actual teaching of the lesson where the teacher
considers how he/she will teach and delivers the planned lesson. The lesson
must have pace – time management. Instruction includes a variety of teaching
acts as well as teaching and learning strategies and assessment including
presentations, class discussions, questioning, group work, interactions,
classroom management, discipline, etc.

4. Evaluation: This is where the teacher will check for understanding throughout
the lesson and tests learners’ understanding. Testing and evaluation should be
an extension of instruction. Through the technique of directed questioning,
moving among the learners while they work, checking their work, the teacher will
be able to evaluate the success or otherwise of the lesson. What are the learners
getting wrong? What have they understood? What have they misunderstood?
What needs to be re-explained/re-taught?

5. Reflection: This is where a teacher self-evaluates after the lesson, looking back
at the teaching and learning and critically analyse own teaching abilities. We
identify what needs to be adapted or changed to become a better teacher.

6. New Comprehension: Here a teacher takes his/her own reflection (no. 5 above)
and what he/she has learned to develop a new or deeper understanding of the
learners, the subject content and how they teach it in order to improve teaching
performance.

LESSON PHASES NECESSARY TO ACHIEVE THE LEARNING OUTCOMES OF

A LESSON

From the Model of Pedagogical reasoning and action, we can see that good and
effective teaching involves much more than the transfer of information. It also
involves careful planning of all events in the teaching and learning situation. It is
important to consider the structure of a lesson which will support the teacher in
drawing up a lesson plan. A lesson structure consists of different phases or stages.
 LESSON PHASES

Application
(Originality, Orientation
relevance, (Introduction)
creativity)

Internalisation Exposition
(Consolidation) (Development)

Orientation (Introduction):
(Fun, exciting, interesting, creative, relevant, focus on a particular problem,
recognition of prior learning, preparation for learning that will take place)

Exposition (Development):
(Builds on the introduction, consists of a number of logical steps, integration of
topics, linked directly with the content, sufficient teaching and learning should take
place, active learning e.g. creative thinking skills, group work. One of the teacher’s
greatest challenges is to find ways of triggering spontaneous learning in learners. In
this phase, one teaching/learning strategy will most probably be dominate during this
stage of the lesson. These learning strategies include:
o Direct instruction
o Class discussion
o Small-group work
o Problem-solving
o Cooperative learning
o Research by learners

Internalisation (Consolidation) and/or:

Follows on exposition and requires of the teacher to assist learners to make the new
SKAV’s their own. This often requires a ‘re-teach’ of the content with an alternative
teaching strategy but can also entail an activity or exercise that allow for
consolidation.

Application (Originality, relevance, creativity)

The learner must get the opportunity to demonstrate that they have acquired new
knowledge, skills and values -… ‘that learning has been a meaningful experience’
STEPS IN DEVELOPING A LESSON PLAN (MICRO TEACHING)

A lesson plan is viewed as the vehicle for supporting or assisting learners on

reaching the destination set in the objectives. Every lesson is a learning experience
which forms part of a bigger plan that you will use to develop the 7SKVAs of learners
in a meaningful way. Planning the teaching process is an essential teacher
competency to prepare teaching and learning in a structured manner. The following
10 steps should be followed:

Step 1
Know which grade, term, the topic the lesson must cover/partially cover and the
duration of the lesson. In a school context this can be over two or three days. Study
the description of the content in the 8EMS CAPS policy document.

Step 2
Consider the context the lesson will be taught in terms of the learning environment
and the learners: individual learning styles; school policies; resources – depends on
what is available at school, etc.

Step 3
Unpack the core content (show in form of a framework with detailed sub-sections).
Research the content for comprehension.

Step 4
Formulate lesson outcomes for the lesson. Lesson outcomes should cover SKAVs
and should incorporate some of the general aims of the South African curriculum.
Start your lesson outcomes with: By the end of the lesson the learners should be
able to ….

Step 5
Consider and indicate the link between the SKAVs of this lesson plan and prior
knowledge

Step 6
Indicate the possible link of the SKAVs of this lesson plan with the following lesson.

Step 7
Develop Learning Experiences (teaching and learning activities) for the different
phases of your lesson. Add detail about teaching, learning and assessment
activities; Identify the teaching strategies/skills that will be used in the lesson plan;
Add details of assessment forms, methods and tools. You can use the following table

7
Skills, Knowledge, Attitudes and Values
8
Or Accounting and Business Studies
format for this section (lesson phases) of the lesson plan.

Activity What the What the Learners What assessment will

Teacher will do will do (also mention take place during the
(also mention resources) phase of the lesson
resources)
Example Exposition Show a video Learners will watch a Teacher gives each
that shows video and then work in group an opportunity to
informal traders groups to complete a give feedback and
worksheet worksheet is assessed.

Step 8:
Indicate potential barriers to learning and activities and ideas to address these.

Step 9:
Provide an addendum with copies of all the resources to be used: Worksheets;
printouts of PPT; scanned photographs/flashcards; etc.

Step 10:
Allow space for your own reflection.
You can use the following checklist after creating and teaching a new lesson. This
reflection will help you to further refine your lesson.

Lesson Reflection Checklist

• What went well?
• What didn’t go as you had planned?
• What came up during the lesson that wasn’t anticipated?
• Were the materials available and appropriate?
• Did I accomplish the goal of this lesson?
• If not, what were the barriers?
• Could someone pick up this lesson plan and replicate it? Is it clear and specific?
• Was the lesson student centered?
• What classroom management aspects were challenging?