EBENEZER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY: VENGOOR

M.DIV. SYLLABUS
SURVEY OF THE MAJOR RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

INTRODUCTION
The course is a survey of the origin and development of prominent beliefs and practices of Major
religions of the world with special emphasis to Asia. It also includes contemporary developments
and their impact in the socio-religious life in a multi-religious cultural context of people.

OBJECTIVES

1. To understand the beliefs and practices of various religions of the world.

2. To analyze, compare and contrast major religious themes such as God, World, Salvation,
Faith and Life after Death.
3. To grasp the influences of religion on human spirituality and behaviour in society.
4. To develop a positive attitude towards the people of other religions
5. To equip student to respond positively towards inter-religious dialogues, communal
harmony and reconciliation in a multi-religious context

Learner’s Outcome

After studying the beliefs and practices of various religions in comparison with those of other
religions, the students will develop a positive attitude towards people of other religions and will
be better equipped to communicate the gospel effectively and intelligently in the pluralistic society.

Teaching Method

Seminar, Discussion, lecturing, and Assigned Readings

KEY TEXTS

1. James, Emmanuel.E. A Study of Religions, Bangalore: TBT, 2006.

2. Brown, D. A. A Guide to Religion, London, ISPCK, 1975.
3. Tirkey, Christopher Augustus Bixel. Major Religions of India. Delhi: ISPCK, 2001.

CONTENTS

I. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1. Meaning and Definition of the term, Religion
2. Method of Classifying Religion
3. Theories of Origin of Religion
4. Different Approaches to the Study of Religion

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II. PRIMAL RELIGIONS
1. Religion in Pre-historic/Primeval time
2. Characteristics of Primal Religions

III. TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS

1. The Religion of the Dinka in Sudan
2. The Religion of the Ga in Ghana
3. Maori Religion
4. Shamanism

IV. MAJOR LIVING RELIGIONS OF ASIA

A. HINDUISM
1. Derivation of the term 'Hinduism'
2. General Characteristics of Hinduism
3. Outline of the History of Hinduism
2. The Scriptures in Hinduism
3. Upanishads and Their Teachings
3. Important Teachings of Hinduism
i. Concepts of God
ii. Purushārthas: Goals of Human Life
iii. Varna dharma: Social Organization
iv. The Caste System
v. Āshrama dharma: Stages of Life
vi. The Three Ways to Become One with God

B. ISLAM
1. Political, Social and Religio-cultural background of Arabia, and the
significance of the life & work of Muhammad
2. Foundations of Islam
3. Faith (Iman) and Practices (Din) of Islam
4. Divisions among Muslims: Sunnis, Shias and Sufis
5. Comparison with Christianity

C. BUDDHISM
1. Socio-Religious-Political situation of India in the sixth century and the life
and work of Buddha
2. Buddhist Scriptures
3. Teachings of early Buddhism
a. Noble Truths and Eight-fold path
b. Ten Fetters
c. Doctrine of Karma and Rebirth
d. Nirvana
4. Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism
5. Historical Development of Buddhism
6. Different Sects

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 7. Comparison with the ethical teachings of Christianity

D. JAINISM
1. Brief historical survey of the Jain religious tradition from antiquity
2. Tirthankaras: Their times and teachings
3. Scriptures
4. The Tattvas
5. Five Great Vows
6. The Twelve Vows
7. Digambaras and Swetambaras

E. SIKHISM
1. Religious-socio-political background of fifteenth and sixteenth century Punjab
2. The Life and teachings of Guru Nanak
3. The Guru Tradition: Brief survey of the life and work of the other nine Gurus
4. Important Teachings
4. Guru Granth Sahib
5. Religious Ceremonies
6. Major Divisions and Sects
7. Comparison with Hinduism

F. SHINTOISM
1. Shinto History
2. Shinto Beliefs
3. Sacred Books
4. Types of Shinto
5. Worship

G. CONFUCIANISM
1. Confucius and His Teachings
2. Confucianism as a Religion
3. Religious Practises of Confucianism
4. Confucianism Today

H. TAOISM
1. Lao Tzu and Tao Te Ching
2. Teachings
3. Taoism as a Religion
4. Present-Day Taoism

I. ZOROASTRIANISM
1. The Life & Times of Zarathushtra
2. Basic Zoroastrian Beliefs
3. Zoroastrian Scriptures
4. Important Teachings:
God/World/Man/Sin/Salvation/Heaven/Hell/After Life

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 5. Comparison with Judaism/Christianity/Islam/Hinduism

V. CHRISTIANITY AND THE WORLD’S RELIGIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, Norman. The World’s Religions, Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994.

Basham, A. L. A Wonder That was India, London: Picador, 2004.
Bettris, D.D. Phenomenology of Religion, New York: Harper and Row, 1989.
Brown, D. A. A Guide to Religion, London, ISPCK, 1975.
Daniel, P.S. Religious Traditions of India. Delhi: ISPCK, 2001.
Farquhar, J.M. An Outline of the Religious Literature of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas,
1969.
Fernando, Ajith. Christian's Attitude Toward World Religions. Bombay: Gospel Literature
Service, 1988.
………. Relating to People of Other Faiths. Mumbai: GLS Publishing, 1989.
Finegau, Jack. The Archaeology of World Religions, 1952
James, Emmanuel.E. A Study of Religions, Bangalore: TBT, 2006.
Jones, Bevan, The People of the Mosque, Calcutta: B.M. Press, 1956.
Lalrinawma, V S. Major Faith Traditions of India. Delhi: ISPCK, 2007.
Lewis F. James, Travis, G. Williams. Religious Traditions of the World, Wipf and Stock
Publishers, 1999.
Lion Handbook: The World Religions, London: Lion Publishing House, 1994.
Lohin, C.H. The Sikhs and Their Religion. Delhi: ISPCK, 1974.
Mathew, O.M. Introduction to World Religions. Bangalore: CISRS, 2012.
McDowell, Josh & Stewart, Don. Handbook of Today's Religions. Nashville: Thomas Nelson
Pub., 1983.
Robertson, S. Approaching Religion in the Pluralistic Context. Bangalore:BTESSC/SATHRI,
2009.
Sarma D.S. Hinduism Through the Ages. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,1973.
Sahayam, John S. Religions of the World A-Z. Bangalore:Centre for Contemporary Christianity,
2010.
Swami, Raju. T. The Study of Religion: Methods & Perspectives, Bangalore:
BTESSC/SATHRI, 2004.
Tirkey, Christopher Augustus Bixel. Major Religions of India. Delhi: ISPCK, 2001.
Wolff, Richard. Popular Encyclopedia of World Religions. Authentic: Hyderabad, 2007.
Yandell Keith and Netland Harold. Buddhism: A Christian Exploration and Appraisal. Illinois:
IVP Academic, 2009.
Zaehner. R.D. Hinduism. Oxford University Press, 1966.

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I. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Etymology

The English word ‘religion’ is derived fom the Latin word ‘religio.’ There are conflicts of opinion
among scholars on the origin and meaning of the word ‘religio.’ Proposed interpretations are as
follows:

1. From Relego
a) Re-reading–from Latin re = again + lego (in the sense of "read"), referring to the repetition of
scripture.
b) Treating carefully–from Latin re (again) + lego (in the sense of "choose", meaning "go over
again" or "consider carefully."

2. From Religare
a) Re-connection to the divine–from Latin re (again) + ligare (to connect, as in English ligament).
This interpretation is favored by modern scholars such as Tom Harpur, but was made prominent
by St. Augustine.
b) To bind or return to bondage–an alternate interpretation of the "reconnection" etymology
emphasizing a sense of servitude to God.

3. From Res + legere

Concerning a gathering — from Latin res (with regard to) + legere (to gather), since organized
religion revolves around a gathering of people.

All the above opinions have some grains of truth because religion is concerned with repetition of
scriptures; it is in religion humans restores back with God; and it is about a gathering of people.

What is Religion?

Many efforts have been made by the scholars over the centuries to search for the fundamental
nature of religion. But, unfortunately, there is no common agreement on the subject. Therefore, a
several types of definitions are useful.

The English word “Religion” derives from the Latin word “Relgio”. There is no clear agreement
as to the meaning of the word. Servius and others, held that it came from the root “Lig”, which
means “to bind”. Religion in this sense would signify a relationship - The binding relationship
between man and God.

Cicero believed that the word was derived from the root “Leg”, which means “to take up, gather,
count, or observe.” The meaning here suggests the observation of the signs of divine
communication.

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There is no consensus among the scholars of religion about the nature of definition of religion.
There are many number of definition. Some compliment others. But some opposes and even
contradict others.

1. Max Mueller in his ‘Science of Religion’ defines religion as “a mental faculty or

disposition which enables man to approach the Infinite under different names and under
varying guises.”
2. Prof. Menzies in his ‘History of Religion’ defines religion as “the worship of
spiritual beings from a sense of need.”
3. F.B. Taylor: Religion is belief in spiritual being.
4. Immanuel Kant: Religion is the “recognition of all duties as divine commandments.
5. Schleiermacher: Religion is feeling - how man feels about the ultimate. The essence
of religion is the feeling of absolute dependence.”
6. Hyden: Religion is the co-operative quest for a completely satisfactory life.
7. Karl Marx: Religion is the “opiate of the people.”
8. William James: Religious life consists of the belief that there is an unseen order and
that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto.”

Apparently, no clear, final, or complete understanding of the nature of religion can be formulated
etymologically. For ordinary simple people religion is the way to God or Salvation. Simple
Christians defines religion “as God’s search for man and man’s submissive response to it which
moulds and controls his fellowship with God and with his fellow men.

On the basis of the above definitions religion is a complex thing. It involves many ideas such as
belief in supernatural, worship of the supernatural, morality, values, relationships, individual and
corporate rituals. The two most important constituent of religion are faith and practices, belief and
rituals.

A functional definition of religion is that it is a conceptual system that provides an interpretation

of the world and the place of human beings in it, bases an account of how life should be lived given
that interpretation, and expresses this interpretation and lifestyle in a set of rituals, institution, and
practices.

A different, but compatible, characterization of religion makes use of the notions of diagnosis and
cure. A religion proposes a diagnosis of what it takes the basic problem facing human beings: one
basic problem shared by every human person. It also offers a cure, a way of permanently and
desirably solving that problem: one fundamental solution that, however adapted to different
cultures and cases, is essentially the same across the board. Religions differ insofar as their
diagnoses and cures differ.

2. Method of Classifying Religion

Religions may be classified in a variety of ways. Historically Buddhism which originated in India,
spread beyond the borders of the land until it has become the most popular religion in Asia. On the
other hand, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism are almost exclusively to be found within India and
Pakistan. In other words, the geographical origin is the primary delimiting factor for classifying
the religions of the world.

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Secondly the religions may be classified chronologically. This can be done in terms of the date of
their founding. In this context, Hinduism is possibly the oldest living religions in the world.
Scholars say that it may have been born as early as 2000 BC. Sikhism is one of the youngest of
religions. Usually its origin is tied to the life of its founder, Guru Nanak, whose birth date is 1469
AD. Between these two points in time are found Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Islam,
Jainism, Judaism, Shintoism, Taoism and Zoroastrianism.

Thirdly, religions may be divided or classified as living or dead. Those mentioned thus far are
living religions. Many highly significant religions have come upon the world scene only to pass
out of existence as the cultures in which they survived lost their vitality and disappeared. The
religions of such ancient societies as Phoenicia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Mexico and
Peru all bear testimony, along with others, to the fact that religions are not necessarily permanent
in the world.

Fourthly, religions may be considered in terms of their aspiration to universality. The religions that
openly proclaim universal scope are Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. Other religions seem to be
hereditary or national systems.

3. Theories of Origin of Religion

The following are the man theories of the origin of religion.
1) Some scholars are of the opinion that primitive men were gripped by a sense of great
fear of the nature around him. Therefore they regard fear as the father of religion.
The savage men was overwhelmed with fear - fear of thunder, lightning, storm, floods, wild
beasts, sun, moon, huge trees, rocks, mountains etc. So men become conscious of his utter
helplessness and hence sought the help of the more powerful.
Lewis Brown puts it like this, “In the beginning there was fear, and fear was in the hearts of men,
and fear controlled men. All the days of men grew with fear because all his universe seemed to be
charged with fear.”
2) Arthur Schopenhauer says that fear of death, the most terrible of fears is the real cause of
the origin or religion. The sudden and abrupt end of human life perplexed the primitive man and
he was afraid of the future - the stage after death - because he knew nothing about it, but every
day he faced the rough and unpleasant reality of the death of his kith and kin. This forced him to
use his imagination and he came up with a kind of worship of something more powerful than him
who would secure his life here and hereafter.
3) The third theory look at religion as the creation of the priestly class. It is a plot or device
on the part of the power mongering priests to assert and keep their supremacy and domination
over the rest and thus to exploit them for their own sake. Thomas Hobbes, the 17th century
English political theorist held such a view. Today many who claim to be rationalists subscribe
to this theory.
4) The fourth theory regards the religion as a wishful fulfilment. Karl Marx said, “Religion is
the opiate of the people.” And this theory got a high appeal in the modern secular mind. Men

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longs for a pleasant and harmonious life but sadly fails to achieve it in this world. The inevitable
result is frustration and disappointment. In his disillusionment he resorts to his prolific (fruitful)
imagination creates an illusory but pleasant world with super powers to help him in his misery
here and now. He creates a loving heavenly father who understands and helps him. He creates a
future world where there is no suffering. This hope of a pleasant future world keeps him
happy in this world.

4. Different Approaches to the Study of Religion

The following are the most important methodological approaches that have been helpful in the
study of religion:

1. History of Religions
History of Religions is used here more precisely in terms of the specifically historical
approach to understanding religion. This approach uses the tools of historical research to
understand a religion in terms of its history in interaction with the wider cultural and political
historical environment in which that religion emerged and developed. This approach emphasizes
understanding each religion within its own historical context.

History reveals different aspects of religion with its original state and its present development.
Religion is always influenced by economic, geographical, political and cultural heritage. Therefore
we cannot understand the religion without studying the history of any religion.

Some scholars have supposed that at the dawn of human existence there was a belief in a single
god and that only later there occurred a development into a belief in many gods as well as animism
(a belief in souls or spirits in man and other aspects of nature). Other scholars have supposed an
evolutionary development of religion, which only reached monotheism--considered to be the
highest form of religious belief--after a long period of purification. The two approaches sponsor,
respectively, two contrasting myths about primitive man. According to the one, there was once a
golden age of innocence and harmony; and according to the other, the life of the earliest man was
nasty, brutish, and short.

2. Sociology of Religion
Sociology is a branch of the science of human behaviour that seeks to discover the causes
and effects that arise in social relations among persons and in the intercommunication and
interaction among persons and groups. It includes the study of the customs, structures, and
institutions that emerge from interaction, of the forces that hold together and weaken them, and of
the effects that participation in groups and organizations have on the behaviour and character of
persons. Sociology is also concerned with the basic nature of human society, locally and
universally, and with the various processes that preserve continuity and produce change.

In religion man comes to close contact with God. The resulting transformation influences the
society. Religion produces an ideal social order by means of a vital relationship with the Supreme
Being. Religion has often been a driving force in the reform of social abuses, but also it has been
associated with reaction and oppression. The relationship between society and religion is so great
that we cannot understand the one without the other. Without the study of society social laws

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cannot be explained in terms of religion. The ideas and images of a religion are much more
influenced by the social culture in which it emerges. The sociology of religion studies religion as
a social phenomenon. More recently, the sociology of religion - influenced by contemporary
sociology - has been concerned with making use of sociological criteria and of demographical and
statistical studies in planning the church’s mission and appraising its significance.

3. Psychology of Religion
Religion incorporates certain characteristics feelings and emotions such as wonder, awe
and reverence. The psychological study of religion utilizes the categories of psychology to analyse
religious experience and behavior. The psychology of religion looks within human experience to
understand religion. The area of investigation will be primarily the mental states, motivations and
attitudes found in religious contexts.

Psychology of religion usually gives great weight to unconscious attitudes said to underlie the
outward expressions of religions. That is, psychology tends to assume that believers statements
about their religious way of life should not be taken at their face value. More basic emotions and
motivations are said to underlie and therefore to account for them. Psychology, however, is
concerned not only with individuals but also with what is known about group behaviour, which
can also be of importance in any study of the Christian church or other religious institutions
regarded as communities of religious people.

4. Anthropology of Religion
Anthropology studies religion as an element of human culture with particular (but not
exclusive) attention to primitive, tribal or indigenous cultures. Fieldwork involving extended
ethnological observation of the religious culture of a community is basic to the anthropological
study of religion.

Anthropology is the discipline that has proved most effective in investigating primal religions in
particular. As the term implies, however, anthropology is essentially the study of man, or the study
of culture as a human phenomenon, religion being an integral part of culture. There is, of course,
a sense in which all religious activity is human culture, for everything that is done or said in
religion is done or said by human beings, even when the deeds and words are ultimately held to or
refer to or derive from some transcendent Focus. Religion is seen as merely human effort.

5. Comparative Method
This is the scholarly approach in which we compare different religions with its faith,
practices, literature etc. Each religious tradition is such an organically integrated system that it is
impossible legitimately to compare disconnected parts of one with parts of another tradition. The
meaning of a specific symbol or doctrine or action or functionary will depend upon the complex
inter-relationship with all the other symbols, doctrines, etc. of the concerned tradition. It is such
inter-connectedness that makes a religious system. Selection of individual parts for comparison,
ignoring the element of inter-connection, will necessarily lead us to a distorted meaning. Some
scholars, therefore, have expressed doubts regarding a comparative method. Now it is clearly not
possible, though such attempts have been made in the past, to compare the whole of one religious
tradition with the whole of another, except in the most superficial way.

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6. Philosophy of Religion
Like theologians, philosophers of religion are interested in religious truth claims. Unlike
theologians, they are interested in what we can say about those claims based on reason without
revelation. The theologian may say we know God exists because He has revealed Himself (e.g. in
the Bible or the Quran) but the philosopher asks whether we can prove that God exists without
appealing to any special revelation. Can reason alone prove that God exists? Some philosophers
argue yes, others argue no. Philosophers of religion also apply reason to religious questions such
as the nature of God, the possibility of miracles, life after death, the problem of evil and many
other issues.

7. Phenomenology of Religion
The basic approach is careful observation and thorough description of religious phenomena
(myths, symbols, rituals, doctrines etc.) Understanding of religious phenomena requires a
"bracketing" or setting aside of the religious researcher's own preconceptions or worldview in
order to empathetically enter into the viewpoint of the religious believer. The researcher must
avoid imposing an alien modern scientific explanation upon the religious phenomena and try to
understand how those phenomena are understood by the religious believer. The term
phenomenology refers to the attempt to describe religious phenomena in a way that brings out the
beliefs and attitudes of the adherents of the religion under investigation, but without either
endorsing or rejecting these beliefs and attitudes. Thus, the bracketing means forgetting about one's
own beliefs that might endorse or conflict with what is being investigated.

Generally phenomenologists of religion are concerned with the believers' awareness of the
manifestations of life, how they express that awareness, and how those expressions can be best
understood.

5. Religion in Pre-historic/Primeval time

Introduction
The religion of the people who live in isolation and in the hills and forests has been given
many names by the scholars. Since prehistoric times small groups of people throughout the world
have practiced their own unique forms of religion. Some of these religions continue to be practiced,
especially among the native inhabitants of Australia, Africa and the Americas. We refer to these
religions as "primal" because they tend to come first relative to the other religious traditions.

Primal Religions provide special insight into two of the basic elements of religions, one being
myth and ritual. Primal peoples have tended to preserve a mythic orientation toward life. Their
myths, and the rituals that re-enact them remain essential sources of knowledge and power for all
aspects of their lives. Another reason is that all religions stem, more or less directly, from primal
beginnings. Along with having originated first, primal religions are generally the traditions of
nonliterate on scriptures or written teachings, as do most other religions. What they lack in written
texts, however, they often make up for in oral material - myths or stories that are passed down
from generation to generation. Primal religious traditions tend to be the traditions of tribal peoples,
organized in small groups who dwell in villages as opposed to large cities. But primal religions
traditions are diverse therefore people should avoid making sweeping generalizations.

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Primitive religion is the beliefs and practices of people who lack writing and have a simple,
material culture. Apparently it has existed since the beginnings of mankind. It is the religion of
man without divine guidance, trying to make his peace with the terrifying and mysterious powers
of nature. It can be said that primitive man lays bare the basic character of all men because he is
stripped of the material benefits that often mask our need for God.

Probably most of the human race through the ages has adhered to primitive religion. It is still
widely practiced today in its pure form among preliterate peoples; in addition, many members of
major religions (including Christianity) partake of primitive thought and practice to varying
degrees.

In the West there is now a great interest in primitive religion. Many think that modern secular man
needs to recover primitive man's participation in the cycles of nature as well as his sense of the
sacred.

Because primitive religion has developed over every continent among peoples who have no contact
with each other, it is amazing that many basic similarities exist among primitive religions.

God
Primitive peoples believe in a large number of gods, each reigning over a family, clan, village, or
certain localities such as a river or a mountain. That belief has been called henotheism, meaning
close adherence to a certain god while recognizing the existence of others. (The sailors in the book
of Jonah, for example.)

Most primitives do believe in one supreme, "high" God, who is the first source of all existence.
But that God is usually considered too distant to be concerned with the affairs of men. Primitive
men are thus left to deal with local gods who are generally lacking in mercy and love. Their ways
are not always predictable, and primitive men are usually concerned either to appease their anger
or to gain material favors from them. The gods are generally connected in some way with dead
ancestors. That is, they relate to the tribe or clan and support the customs that have in the past kept
the group functioning.

Man and the Universe

Because of their lack of technology and scientific understanding, primitives trust that the universe
is in control of the gods. Droughts, illnesses, and death pose great threats to primitive man, and his
religion provides him to a certain degree with a feeling of security and a sense of control. It is
thought that ancestors and the gods associated with them control human destiny, handing out
rewards and punishments for actions that help or hinder the group. Usually those gods and
ancestors are themselves as mysterious and fearsome as the natural world. Like Hinduism and
Buddhism--and unlike Christianity, Islam, and Judaism--the primitive world view is cyclical.
There is no purpose to history; various ages repeat themselves with no final goal. That view arises
from observation of the natural cycles of nature. Often primitives believe that only through their
own ritual actions will the world order be maintained. Many primitives report that they follow
customs and rituals without knowing why; tradition simply tells them that it has worked in the
past.

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Man and the Universe
Because of their lack of technology and scientific understanding, primitives trust that the universe
is in control of the gods. Droughts, illnesses, and death pose great threats to primitive man, and his
religion provides him to a certain degree with a feeling of security and a sense of control.
It is thought that ancestors and the gods associated with them control human destiny, handing out
rewards and punishments for actions that help or hinder the group. Usually those gods and
ancestors are themselves as mysterious and fearsome as the natural world.
Like Hinduism and Buddhism--and unlike Christianity, Islam, and Judaism--the primitive world
view is cyclical. There is no purpose to history; various ages repeat themselves with no final goal.
That view arises from observation of the natural cycles of nature. Often primitives believe that
only through their own ritual actions will the world order be maintained. Many primitives report
that they follow customs and rituals without knowing why; tradition simply tells them that it has
worked in the past.

Salvation and the Afterlife

Often primitive religions teach that a messiah will some day come and bring in a reign of peace
and prosperity for the tribe. Hopes for salvation generally relate to the group and to this world.
There is little doctrine concerning the next life. A primitive man expects to merge with his
ancestors in another world when he dies, but that other world is not vividly described, and it often
is seen as just as full of trouble and confusion as this world.
Salvation is thus piecemeal, relating to specific worldly distresses. It is not felt that a state of grace
can be reached in any final way: there will always be new problems. Sacrifice--most often blood
sacrifice of animals--is the usual means of atonement.
Temporary escapes into the realm of "sacred time" (or "dream time") are possible. Through
reenactments of mythological events primitive men mystically participate in the actions of gods
and ancestral heroes. In that way they inject a sense of meaning into a chaotic world.
The unenviable position of man without God is seen clearly in primitive man, who can only flee
for short periods of time from a terrifying and purposeless existence.

Morals
Survival of the group is of paramount importance. Without secular means of control (police, etc.),
ways must be found to make group members adhere strictly to codes of conduct. Primitive people
have developed communal ways of coping with the world, embodied in religious traditions they
are fearful of changing.
In many basic areas moral standards are much the same throughout the world. Lying, cheating,
stealing, and murder are generally forbidden. But often those rules apply only within the group.
Generally a sense of conscience is aroused only when some disaster occurs. If it is felt that an
illness, for example, is the result of a wicked deed, then the person will repent to the god.

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Primitive morality is thus largely a matter of transactions, of acting in ways that will benefit the
self and the community. Also, although primitive men are not devoid of natural feelings of love,
their morality is largely legalistic. "Sins" are usually a matter of overstepping concrete rules, even
when the reason for those rules is not understood.

Worship
Worship also has the purpose of binding members of the community together, of giving them a
sense of common purpose. (When people from different tribes with different gods meet, they
usually speak in terms of the "high" god.)
Totemism, the use of certain animals, plants, and even human artifacts such as skulls to contact
the spiritual realm, is common. Idolatry in a strict sense--believing that an image or animal actually
is a god--is rare. Most often such worship is symbolic.
Fasting, self-mortification, and drugs are used to attain states of trance. The purpose is sometimes
to obtain communication from the world of spirits and at other times actually to participate in the
life of the god, to "be" the god for a short period of time.
Each group usually has at least one "holy man," who regularly makes journeys to the land of the
gods and heroes for the good of the community. Power, rather than justice, love, or mercy, most
often characterizes the object of worship.

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 RELIGIOUS POPULATION

WORLD

Religion Adherents Percentage

Christianity 2.4 billion 29.81%
Islam 1.9 billion 24.60%
Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist 1.2 billion 13.91%
Hinduism 1.15 billion 14.28%
Buddhism 521 million 6.47%
Chinese traditional religion 394 million 4.89%
Ethnic religions1 300 million 3.37%
African traditional religions 100 million 1.24%
Sikhism 30 million 0.37%
Spiritism 15 million 0.19%
Judaism 14.5 million 0.18%
Bahá'í 7.0 million 0.09%
Jainism 4.2 million 0.05%
Shinto 4.0 million 0.05%
Cao Dai2 4.0 million 0.05%
Zoroastrianism 2.6 million 0.03%
Tenrikyo3 2.0 million 0.02%
Neo-Paganism 1.0 million 0.01%
Unitarian Universalism4 0.8 million 0.01%
Rastafari5 0.6 million 0.01%
Total 8.0507 billion 100%

INDIA
Total Population in 2011 is 121.09 crores;
Hindu 96.63 crores (79.8%);
Muslim 17.22 crores (14.2%);
Christian 2.78 crores (2.3%);
Sikh 2.08 crores (1.7%);
Buddhist 0.84 crores (0.7%);

1
Excluding some in separate categories
2
Cao Dai (also Caodaism or Caodaiism) is a new religious movement founded in Vietnam. It mixes ideas from other
religions. Cao Đài is a syncretic, monotheistic religion officially established in the city of Tây Ninh, southern Vietnam
in 1926. The religion combines Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, Confucianism, and Islam.
3
Tenrikyo is a Japanese faith founded in the 19th century, in 1838. The founder was a poor farmer's wife named
Nakayama Miki. Since 1908 it has been considered a Shinto sect although practitioners do not consider themselves
Shinto. Tenrikyo is monotheistic, with its single deity being Tenri-O-no-Mikoto.
4
Most Unitarian Universalists believe that nobody has a monopoly on all truth, or ultimate proof of the truth of
everything in any one belief. Therefore, one's own truth is unprovable, as is that of others. Consequently, we
should respect the beliefs of others, as well as their right to hold those beliefs.
5
A religious movement of Jamaican origin holding that Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia was the Messiah and that
black people are the chosen people and will eventually return to their African homeland.

14
Jain 0.45 crores (0.4%),
Other Religions & Persuasions (ORP) 0.79 crores (0.7%) and
Religion Not Stated 0.29 crores (0.2%).

KERALA
According to 2011 Census of India figures,
54.73% of Kerala's population are Hindus,
26.56% are Muslims,
18.38% are Christians,6 and the remaining 0.33% follow other religions or have no religion.
Various tribal people in Kerala have retained the religious beliefs of their ancestors.

6
Ernakulam is the district with largest population in the country, while Malappuram tops in Muslim population.
Kottayam has the second largest Christian population in the country

15
II. HINDUISM

Hinduism is a major world religion, not merely by virtue of its many followers (estimated at more
than 827 million in India alone) but also because of its profound influence on many other religions
during its long, unbroken history, which dates from about 1500 BC. The corresponding influence
of these various religions on Hinduism (it has an extraordinary tendency to absorb foreign
elements) has greatly contributed to the religion's syncretism—the wide variety of beliefs and
practices that it encompasses. Moreover, the geographic, rather than ideological, basis of the
religion (the fact that it comprises whatever all the people of India have believed and done) has
given Hinduism the character of a social and doctrinal system that extends to every aspect of
human life.

A. Derivation of the term 'Hinduism'

The name 'Hindu' carries us back to the period of invasion of India by the Aryan tribes from the
North/North-West. It is very difficult to give a precise definition for the words "Hindu" and
"Hinduism." It was not founded by a single person, but is something of a collective growth and its
roots reach back to the Indus valley civilization and the advent of Aryans about 3000 years before
Christ. The regular history of Hinduism starts with the conquest of India by the Aryans in the
second millennium BC.

Aryans, a group of pastoral nomads, one of the many Indo-European tribes in Central Asia
migrated to India bout 3000 years BC. These vigorous nomads entered into India through the north-
western mountain passes, Khyber and Bolan, and settled in Punjab in the valley of Indus.

From the history of Aryans, it is obvious to see that the term "Hindu" was a geographical area. It
originally referred to those who lived in the valley of "Sindu" (River Indus). The word "Hindu"
has got more of topographical connotation than of the religious one. In short, the word "Hindu"
(believers of Hindu faith) like the word Indian, is derived from the name of the River Indus (Sindu).

The Persians who came into contact with the Aryans and finally invaded India, gave the name
'Hindu' instead of Sindu in the 5th century BC, identifying them as the people of the land of the
Indus. In time it came to apply to the religion of the people of India. Thus the word 'Hindu' is only
a corrupt form of Sindu. "Hinduism" meant the faith of the people of the Sindu - the law of the
Sindus.

Hinduism is originally known as ‘Aryadharma’, the Aryan Way. Dharma is the key word in
Hinduism which means duty, rights, morality, virtue, law, truth, righteousness etc. Dharma is thus
the Religion, the essence of Hinduism. The Hindus define their community as "those who believe
in the Vedas" (see Veda) or "those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (Varnas) and
stages of life (ashramas)."

The important differences between Hinduism and other religions are:

1) Hinduism has no founder. It has no date of birth. It is the result of a process of gradual
evolution through 1000’s of years.

16
2) It has no common creed. There is no generally accepted system of dogma.

3) Hinduism is not institutionalized. It does not have a body of believers who follow one
common pattern of worship or live according to one common code of conduct.

4) Hinduism is a family of religions: Since there is a variety of beliefs and practices within
Hinduism, it is often described a “family” of religions that has evolved among the people of
India since about 1800 BC. It is very difficult to define who a Hindu is? To be a Hindu a
person may observe a complicated (Brahmins) system of rules or none (low caste) at all.

5) Hinduism is a flexible faith. It can accept new ideas and beliefs. Jawaharlal Nehru described of
Hinduism, “as a faith, vague, amorphous, many sided; all things to all men ... its essential
spirit seems to be ‘to live and let live.”

2. General Characteristics of Hinduism

Hardly anyone can give a precise definition of Hinduism. It does not give a precise
definition of Hinduism. The term 'Hindu' was a geographical one. It originally referred to those
who lived in the valley of Sindhu. It will be interesting to note the various general characteristics
of Hinduism as a religious system.

1) Unity in Diversity
One of the most significant aspects of Hinduism is a kind of unity in the midst of
diversity. It is not an exclusive system which upholds only one way of approach at the exclusion
of others. Different ideas are conglomerated in Hinduism. The jnana, karma, and bhakti margas
are well accepted and find no discrimination as such. With regard to scripture there is great
diversity - some believe in Vedas only, some others only in Upanishads, yet some others do not
believe in any of these scriptures. However, basically the Vedas are accepted as scriptures by
all.

2) Freedom of Choice
Freedom of individual liking, or selection of choice is upheld in Hinduism. Any one can
be a Hindu in his own way. Hinduism does not talk a way but about several ways. For instance, if
you don't like Vishnu but only Siva, still you can be a Hindu. If you don't believe in trimoorthy
but only in the impersonal absolute principle, still you can be a Hindu; or if you don't like idols
and temples then you can refrain from them and yet remain a Hindu.

3) Individualistic Approach
The emphasis in Hinduism is on the individual rather than on Society. The individual is
the center of attention. Hinduism's primary concern is with individual salvation. The social or
corporate dimension is generally lacking in traditional Hinduism, though today conscious
attempts are being made to rectify this weakness.

4) Spirit of Accommodation

17
 Hinduism represents a spirit of universalism and tolerance. It very easily and comfortably
accommodates diversified beliefs and practices. Any religious concept or ritual can be
accommodated in Hinduism without any serious threat to its essential and fundamental doctrines.
Both emotional and intellectual aspects are well taken care of. For simple illiterate people at the
grass root level it offers myths and superstitious stories in abundance. It offers highly advanced
and developed philosophy for the exercise of the intellectuals. Philosophical enquiries are very
much encouraged

5) A Way of Life
For a Hindu his religion is a way of life and consciously or unconsciously he translates his
religion into his daily life. Every aspect and stage of his life right from the time of conception to
the period beyond death is religious in essence. Religion is not a matter of a particular day of the
week or a particular stage in his life. It embraces every minute aspect of his practical life, his
imagination and his faculty of thinking.

6) All- inclusive Nature

Hinduism uniquely displays the capacity to assimilate. Quiet easily it can absorb any
foreign belief or practice and make it its own. This absorptive capacity results in providing
Hinduism with a policy of tolerance. Hinduism owes its continuance to this particular
characteristic. Hinduism can absorb and assimilate elements from Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism,
Islam, and Christianity and present them as its own.

7) The Other-worldly Character

By and large traditional Hinduism is other-worldly. Hinduism's otherworldliness is at the
expense of the life in this material world hear and now. Hindu spirituality neglects matter and
condemns it as evil. Life here on earth is counted as a curse. Fatalism is the keynote.

C. Outline of the History of Hinduism

1) THE PRE-ARYAN/
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVI.LIZATION (2500 BC - 1500 BC)

2) THE ARYAN PERIOD/

THE VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BC - 600 BC)

3) THE AGE OF KALPA SUTRAS/

THE AGE OF PROTESTS/
THE BUDDHIST AND SHRAMANA PERIOD (600 BC - 200 BC)

4) THE ITIHASA PERIOD (200 BC - 300 AD)

5) THE AGE OF PURANAS/

THE AGE OF DARSANAS/
THE CLASSICAL PERIOD OF HINDUISM (300 AD - 1000 AD)

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6) THE BHAKTI PERIOD/
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD OF HINDUISM
THE MUSLIM PERIOD (1000 AD - 1750 AD)

7) THE MODERN PERIOD (1750 AD ONWARDS)

D. The Scriptures of Hinduism

The whole sacred literature of the Hindus can be brought under the headings, Sruti and Smriti.
Sruti comes from the root Sru meaning to hear. Sruti means that which is heard or revealed. Smriti
means that which is remembered or traditional. Sruti is the primary authority and Smriti is the
secondary authority. Under the category of Sruti comes the four Vedas (2000 to 1200 BC). Great
rsis are said to have heard the eternal truths of religion and to have left a record of them for the
benefit of others. The word rsis means seer from the root Drs meaning to see. The rsis saw the
truth as they heard them.

1) Shrutis
Vedas are commonly known as Sruti, whereas the other scriptures are known as Smriti.
Sruti is considered primary because the experience is direct while smriti is seen as secondary
because the experience is only the recollection of the past. According to the Hindus the Sruti which
is made up of Vedas is not the composition of any human mind. The Vedas are said to be eternal
and impersonal.

The word Vedas (from the root Vid meaning to know) means knowledge or wisdom. The Vedas are
four in number - the Rigveda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. Of this the
Rig Veda is the first and the most important

a) THE RIG VEDA: is a collection of hymns dedicated mostly to the gods Indra, Agni
and Soma.

b) THE SAMA VEDA: is a collection of chants and mantras with a specific description as
to how they have to be sung by the priests who performed the Soma- puja.

c) THE YAJUR VEDA: consists of holy formulas, hails and sayings, which the priests
who executed the holy rites mumbled.

d) THE ATHARVA VEDA: is a book with magic spells, for worldly ambitions. It is
believed that this Veda was written much later than the above three.

Each Veda is consisting of four parts. The primary portion is the mantra or hymn section (samhita)
in praise of Vedic deities. To this are appended ritualistic teachings (brahmana) The brahmanas
are ceremonial instructions for the Brahman priests. They are really the books of Leviticus of the
Hindus and contain regulations for various rites for the sacrifices. There were sacrifices to please
gods. The Aranyakas (the philosophical speculations) are expositions of the mantras to prepare the
devotee for the life of a hermit in the forest - a substitute for rituals. And lastly the Upanishads
are often called the Vedanta - the end of the Vedas. These are secret instructions only for the fully
qualified pupil leading to a supreme knowledge and liberation. They are reflective and

19
philosophical in character and constitute the foundation of Hinduism. A sanyasan seeks to realise
Brahman or the absolute truth. They are also mystical utterances which revealed the most
important truths. The hymn sections are the oldest. The others were added at a later date and each
explains some aspect of the hymns.

i) Division of the Vedas

The Vedas can be divided into Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

(1) Samhitas : They are mantras consisting of hymns, prayers and sacrificial formulas. For e.g.,
the Rigveda Samhita consists of prayers to gods for help. It describes the religious, political, social
aspects of the vedic Aryans. The Puranas refer to 1000 veda Samhitas. The Atharva Veda Samhita
deal with the formula of magic to fight with demons and spirits.

(2). Brahmanas: They are prose text explaining the meaning and methods of sacrifices. They
also signify importance of ritualism. the Brahmanas also contains a lot of information about the
non-Aryans.

(3) Aranyakas: In line with the elitist tradition of the priesthood, high qualifications were
established for this advanced ritual practice, and the necessary knowledge was pased down as
restricted or secret teachings. A distinction was gradually made between the main body of ritual
texts and those that emphasised only the meaning of the rituals. Collection of these teachings were
called Aranyakas and constituted a further development of the Vedic literature. There name
Aranyaka, 'forest book' indicated that they were not for general circulation, but rather to be studied
in seclusion in the forest because of their abstruse nature or perhaps their dangerous mystical
power. In both language and content they form a transition between the predominantly speculative
Upanishads.

They are intended for those who are old and live in the forests. They serve as a bridge between
karma marga (as explained by the Brahmanas) and Jnana marga (as depicted in Upanishads). They
discuss the connection between God, man, and the world.

(4) Upanishads: Lastly, the Upanishads, ‘secret or esoteric doctrine’, are mostly either
imbedded in the Aranyakas or form their supplements. They deal with spiritual topics - the
universal soul, the Absolute, the individual self, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature.

The classes of literary work named above are alone classed as Sruti or Revelation and constitute
the Vedic literature proper. But closely connected with them are auxiliary treatises; though not
regarded as a part of the revelation, there exists a class of composition called Smritis, or literature
handed down by tradition from olden times.

2) Smritis
Smritis come next in importance to the Sruti. Smritis are secondary scriptures. The word comes
from the root Smr meaning to remember or to reflect. Smriti consist of the traditional teachings of
the Hindu sages. The Smritis derive their authority from Sruti, because their object is to expand
and exemplify the principles of the Veda. They consist of

20
(1) Sutras (2) Itihasas (History or Epics), (3) Puranas (Mythology), (4) Darsanas or (Schools of
Philosophy), (5) The Agamas or Manuals of Worship (The Sectarian Scriptures).

IMPORTANT TEACHINGS OF HINDUISM

1. HINDU BELIEFS ABOUT GOD AND THE WORLD

An understanding of the Hindu beliefs about God is important. What do Hindus believe about
God?

The early portions of the Hindu scriptures known as the Vedas describe a number of deities who
for the most part are personifications of natural phenomena, such as storms and fire. Prayers and
sacrifices were offered to these gods. An extensive system of priestly rituals and sacrifices was
eventually developed which served as means of obtaining the blessing of these gods.

The later portions of the Vedas, called the Upanishads, reflect a significant development in
Hinduism's concept of the divine. Many of the Upanishads, instead of speaking of a multitude of
gods, refer to an ultimate reality beyond our comprehension called Brahman. Though Brahman is
impersonal in nature, it is sometimes referred to in personal terms by the name Isvara.

Along with this idea of a single divine reality, the Upanishads also teach that at the core of our
being (referred to as "Atman") we are identical with this ultimate reality.

A popular saying in Hinduism is "Atman is Brahman!" In fact, all living things are Brahman at
their innermost core! In addition, instead of ritual sacrifice, intuitive knowledge of the oneness of
all things came to be endorsed as the way of contact with divine reality. Also found in the
Upanishads is the teaching that the material world (including our conscious personalities) is less
than fully real. The word "maya" is used to designate the power by which God, or ultimate reality,
brought this less than real world into existence.

Though this monistic or pantheistic philosophy provided a comprehensive intellectual

understanding of the divine reality for Hindus, it lacked a strong appeal to the heart. As a result,
just before the dawn of the Christian era, a great transformation occurred in Hinduism, spurred
particularly by the writing of the Bhagavad Gita, the "New Testament" of Hinduism. The Gita
records a conversation between the warrior-prince Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna (who is
unveiled as an incarnation of the god Vishnu), in which personal devotion to deity is endorsed as
a way of salvation for all classes of people.

From this time forward, these two major streams of Hindu thought and practice grew and
developed--the more intellectual and philosophical stream that emphasized the oneness of all
things, and the stream that emphasized personal devotion to a god. The latter stream has
predominated among the common people of India to this present day. Chief among the gods so
venerated are Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). In India
there are many temples devoted to Shiva (or to one of his "wives," such as Kali), or to Vishnu (or

21
to one of his ten incarnations known as avatars). All in all, it is often stated that Hinduism claims
330 million gods and goddesses!

One might wonder how such a multitude of beliefs about the divine could possibly co-exist in one
religion. But they do. There is, however, a widespread recognition that none of the personal gods
of Hinduism is in any way exclusive or unique. They are all simply different ways of conceiving
of the one reality behind all things-- Brahman.

2. PURUSHĀRTHAS: GOALS OF HUMAN LIFE

Hinduism takes a comprehensive view of our human condition and has classified all the things we
seek in the world and beyond into four broad categories: kāma, artha, dharma, and moksha.

Dharma is the duty that is determined by person’s caste, his birth, family status and sex. Dharma
has many facets which are laid down in the Dharma Shastras and other scriptures.

Artha refers to commerce or wealth. Each men must be a provider for his family and as such to
earn wealth is his bounden duty. Earning wealth will also bring about prosperity in society. Thus
commerce has to be encouraged, and religious sanction is given to it.

Kama is considered an essential aspect of man’s life. Kama includes love, desire and sensual
pleasure and sensual pleasures.

Moksha (liberation) is the final destiny of man. Moksha is the liberation from the cycle of birth,
death, and rebirth (karma samsara). Moksha is achieved when virtue, knowledge, and love of God
(dharma) cancel out the weight of karma which require the self to be reborn.

The first three goals pertain to the world we know, whereas moksha involves freedom from the
world and from desires for kāma, artha, and dharma. Attaining moksha is an extraordinary goal,
which only some people specifically seek. In preparing for it, the prior pursuit of dharma can be a
great help. Dharma, in the sense of duty or desire to do right, occupies a central role in regulating
artha and kāma and promoting moksha. On account of dharma’s centrality, the goals of human life
are often listed in the following order: dharma, artha, kāma and moksha.

3. VARNA DHARMA: SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

This is the organising principle of the Hindu society. The individual stands in relationship not only
to Brahman but also to the society in which he or she lives. Two Hindu concepts—varna and
āshrama—address this social dimension of human existence. Varna means ‘caste.’ Varna dharma
means ‘duties based on caste.’

There are four castes or Varnas in Hinduism such as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Shudra.
These four Varnas are having different duties. In Rig Veda there is a mythical account of the
division of Hindu society into four Varnas that Brahmins came from the face of the Brahman,
Kshatriya from the arms of Brahman, Vaishyas from his thighs and Sudras from his feet. There
are three qualities or ‘gunas’ as ‘Sattva’, ‘Ragas’ and ‘Thamas.’ Sattva is white; Ragas is red;

22
Thamas is black. We may find these three qualities in every people but in different ratios. The
persons who are having Sattva gunas in prominent ratio is known as Brahmanas. At the same time
these Brahmanas originated from the face of Brahman. Because of this quality they are wise and
are thinkers. They are the Priests, ministers and philosophers. They also guide the kings and rulers.
In some ‘Ragas’ is prominent. They are Kshatriyas. They are warriors and men of action. They
fight with the enemies and they are invaders and defend the country. In some ‘Thamas’ is
dominant. They are Vaishyas or traders. They do business, agriculture and amass wealth. Sudras
are the servants and none of the above qualities is highly developed in them. They should serve
the other three classes. A group sometimes known as untouchables has at times constituted a
subcategory within the shūdra class, sometimes referred to as a fifth group.

Hindu thinkers visualized these groups as constituting the four limbs of society conceived as a
body. This hierarchical system, with brahmans as the first category and shūdras as the last, is
known as the varna system. The system also indicates the different roles and responsibilities of
each group within society and the relationship of the groups within a harmonious whole. The varna
system was never intended as a permanent assignment of hereditary roles, and it once possessed
considerable flexibility even though people tended to inherit the family profession, as in many
other traditional societies.

4. THE CASTE SYSTEM

The system of caste developed during the Vedic period. Originally, perhaps, the caste of a man
was decided by his occupation. He could change his caste by changing his occupation. But later
on caste became a matter of heredity, and a man's caste - and thus his occupation - was decided
according to the caste of his parents. This led to a rigid social structure which preserved the
privileges of the few and perpetuated the exploitation of the masses. At first, caste probably had a
stabilizing effect on society, but its defects became greater than its merits. It controlled all social
relationships, and denied individual freedom. Innumerable sub-castes arose within the main caste
divisions, each with its own intricate rules. Outside these were the 'Untouchables', whose shadow,
even, was believed to be polluting.

5. ĀSHRAMA DHARMA: STAGES OF LIFE

Much as the varna system provides the organizing principle of Hindu society, the āshrama system
provides the organizing principle of an individual’s life. According to the āshrama system, human
life is divided into four stages, each succeeding the other. They are Ashrama dharma (life of a
celibate student), Grahastha (householder), Vanaprastha (hermit) and Sanyasin (ascetic). Each
stage has its own duties. The practice of four ashramas regulate the life of a man from beginning
to the end. The first two ashramas are known as ’Pravarthi margas’ meaning ’Path of work.’ Later
two margas are known as ’Nivrithi margasw’ or ’Path of withdrawal.’ Every man should pass
through the ashramas regularly i.e. he must not prematurely enter into any ashramas. In some cases
student is allowed to become a Sanyasi after the first stage.

Āshrama also addresses the four goals that constitute a fulfilling life: dharma, artha, kāma, and
moksha. The first stage is the life of a celibate student, a time when an individual acquires the
values of dharma—that is, preparation and training for leading a proper life. It is followed by that

23
of the householder, during which the individual seeks artha and kāma by marrying, working, and
raising a family as an active member of society. During this second stage, Hindu householders are
expected to carry out their responsibilities in accordance with dharma and free themselves of debts
owed to the gods, the sages, and their ancestors.

After the years of enjoyment and responsibility, the third stage of life begins. Around age 50, when
the children are grown, the individual gradually begins to give up acquisitions and worldly ties
and to take up spiritual contemplation in preparation for the next stage. The fourth and final stage
involves renunciation of the world to seek liberation in sublime isolation. Renunciation allows the
individual to be free of external responsibilities and to concentrate on an inner search. The life of
the sannyāsi (renunciant) focuses on achieving realization of the innermost self (ātman) and union
with the divine (moksha).

6. The Three Ways to Become One with God

Freedom from Samsara, the cycle of birth and death, is moksha. It implies union with Brahman –
the only Absolute Reality. By this experience of Brahman, avidya (ignorance) is destroyed. By the
power of Maya one is deceived into believing that the plurality of phenomenon is true. In
his avidya he is chained to samara, the manifest world filled with the cycle of events, of birth,
death, rebirth, etc. Moksha is the eternal, intrinsic nature of the Atman and is the chief goal of life.
It can neither be produced, modified, attained, nor refined since it is an accomplished fact, the
intrinsic nature of the Atman that needs to be discovered by intuition. Self-realization or realization
of the Atman (Self) as the reality of the universe is moksha. The key is detachment from the
phenomenal world and union with Absolute Reality.

Three ways have been prescribed by which one may attain perfection, or be liberated from the
bondage of Samsara. They are as follows:

1. The Karma Yoga, i.e., the path of work

2. The Jnana Yoga, i.e., the path of knowledge
3. The Bhakti Yoga, i.e., the path of devotion

The Karma Yoga is the practical method, the Jnana Yoga is the theoretical method, and the
Bhakti Yoga is the emotional method.

1. The Karma Yoga. This is the path of action. It essentially involves the working out of right
principles in ones life so as to be liberated from the chains of Samsara. The bad Karmahas its roots
in selfishness and the desire for the fruit of action. The Bhagvad Gita states that action should be
motivated by detachment from the desire of its fruit. Action is, indubitably, superior to inaction.
Only action that is selfless is liberating.
“If one performs all actions including daily duties dispassionately, without anger, without
attachment, in the spirit of selflessness, in dedication to God, without desire for the fruit, such
action will free the individual soul and will lead him to perfection.”

Such action alone constitutes sacrifice. Every single act must be a sacrifice (Yagna). Sanyasa is
the renunciation of the desire and not the renunciation of action. Tyaga is the renunciation of the

24
fruit of all works. Karma includes acts of sacrifices, gifts, austerity,dharma, etc. but true,
liberating Karma is desireless.

2. The Jnana Yoga. It is the way of knowledge, not the kind of scientific or physical knowledge
that the world pursues but a metaphysical, a mystical one. It is the knowledge of reality as it is by
union with it. While the plurality of the universe as it appears to us does constitute our experience
of self and the world, the Gita calls for consideration of the JnanaYoga. It calls for union with the
absolute non-dual Reality – the realization of self as Self. For this the mind must be disciplined
and tuned in with Reality. The individual self is the hindrance when it phenomenalises as a separate
entity from other entities. Jnana or knowledge happens when this self realizes that it is Brahman
– Being – Reality; and that all the other phenomena is itself in manifestation. It is held
that Jnana Yoga is difficult without Karma Yoga. Study of the Vedas and other scriptures is the
action followed by long periods of reflection and meditation.

3. The Bhakti Yoga. This is the way of devotion, the way of trust and love. Devotion is interpreted
as the bond of trust and love to a personal God. Unlike Jnana Yoga, which focuses on the
Impersonal Brahman, Bhakti Yoga focuses on a loving attachment to God, a longing for God for
its own sake. To be noted is the concept of this God as being transcendent and yet totally immanent.
All icons of this God are to be considered as symbolical. Absolute meditation and undivided
devotion to Ishwara is essential to Bhakti. God must become his/her sole refuge. For those who
have found Karma Yoga and JnanaYoga extremely difficult, the Bhakti marga comes in as solace.

A true devotee has three distinctive qualities: evenmindedness, undivided devotion, and skill in
action. These three qualities woven together in perfect harmony within the devotee knit him/her to
his/her Lord. By absolute devotion, one is united to his/her Lord in love. Stories abound of how
Vishnu finds the marks of the beating inflicted on his devotee’s body on his own. The Lord is so
tied to his devotee that in one story he forgets to bring his chakra along with him when he hurries
to rescue his devotee from peril. Thus, by following any of the above three ways a person can find
his/her way to God.

Parallels in Christianity

The Four Goals: Christianity also talks of righteousness, material prosperity, enjoyment of life,
and salvation (Matt. 6: 23; Ps. 1; Eph. 6:3; Ps.104: 14; Jn. 3: 16), but it has no division of class or
caste within it. It neither does set rules for ashrama dharmas. The moksha of Christianity
is moksha from sin, its condemnation, and its misery. Hinduism talks of liberation from the misery
of the world. But then it delimits that misery as being an illusion of the self and reduces it to a
picture of recurring birth. The difference centers on the diagnosis of the human problem. It also
consists on how the solution is formulated. “Why is a man here” (the goal of human existence) is
tied to “Where did man come from” and “Where is he going?” What a person believes about his
origin and his destiny (past and future) affects his decision (present) greatly. Christianity does
differ greatly from Hinduism in the explanation of all these three questions, although it resembles
superficially to it in its acknowledgement of the belief on creation and judgement.

The Four Stages of Life: Although Christianity doesn’t subscribe to the theory of ashram dharma,
it does uphold the virtues of social responsibility, duty, protection of family, respect of parents and
elders, detachment from carnal lusts, sacrificial giving, etc. One is required to fulfill his duty

25
according to his position. There is a time for everything.

The Three Ways: Christianity, especially in its Protestant form, emphasizes the fact and is built on
the assumption that man can never be reconciled to his God by his own works. Man is intrinsically
sin-proned, lustful, and proud. That is why, we have the concepts of Grace, Sacrifice, and
Atonement on which Christianity stands. But a Christian is saved unto good works (Eph. 2: 10).

Christianity does talk about spiritual knowledge, but it is the practical knowledge of knowing God
as ones Lord and accepting Jesus as ones Lord and Savior (Jn. 3:16). The world is not an illusion.
It is real – created by God. The self is not God. But man is created in the image of God and the
Christian is expected to grow up in the image of Christ the Son of God. In this way,
the Karma marga doesn’t is a failure according to Christianity. Jnana can be reinterpreted as
knowledge of God, not intellectual but personal and relational. It is notJnana of one being God
himself but Jnana of God as ones God.

Christianity finds great parallels in Bhakti Yoga. Devotion is sublime to Christianity. “Love the
Lord thy God with all thy heart, with all thy soul, and with all thy mind,” is said to be the greatest
of the commandments. Loving God and obeying his commandments (Bhakti andKarma) go
together. Christian Bhakti, however, is anti-idolatry. Idolatry is considered an affront on the dignity
of God. The devotional hymns of popular Hinduism are much parallel to Christian worship. The
only basic differentiating element is the cross of Jesus Christ, which also segregates Christianity
from any other religion of the world.

CONCEPT OF GOD IN HINDUISM

Hinduism is not just one type of belief. There are many belief systems in Hinduism. Rig Veda
enumerates numerous Vedic Gods. Vedic priests believed in ceremonies and rituals, which were
offered to appease these Gods. No one Vedic God has been considered the Supreme God. In fact,
different Gods have been considered as Supreme at different times, attributing the powers and
qualities of one to another. Apart from Gods who have been attributed specific characteristics,
several inanimate objects, qualities, emotions and various forms of nature had also been deified
and worshipped.

The Vedic Indians were overwhelmed by the forces of nature. Natural phenomena were given
anthropomorphic expressions. Majority of the Vedic gods are nature gods. The word used for the
nature spirit were referred to as devas, which means the shining one. Gods were classified as the
ones who occupied celestial, atmospheric and terrestrial regions. The principal Vedic gods are said
to be 33 in number. They are divided into eleven each belonging to the Upper world, Middle
atmosphere or air, and the Earth.

The Vedic Polytheism

Polytheism is an evident hallmark of the Vedic religion (2500 BC - BC 600). Some gods were
prominent in the Vedic period such as Varuna, the god of creation and ruler of the moral universe;
Indra, the god of storm whose character of warrior-king is emphasized; Agni, the god of fire, who
as priest mediates between the gods and men; Soma, the god of the intoxicating sacred juice
essential to sacrifice and symbol of creative power; Rudra, the god of destruction and healing who

26
later received the title of Pasupati, the ‘lord of cattle’, and who prefigures Siva, the great god of
classical Hinduism. Mention should also be made of Vishnu, a minor god in the Rig-Veda whose
functions are cosmic and who becomes the great god of later Hinduism.

There are, of course, a number of other gods and goddesses - symbolizing the sun, the moon and
the stars - as well as Dyauspitr, the heaven father (Jupiter in Roman religion and Zeus in Greek
religion), Vayu, the wind, and Prajapati, the father of the gods (devas) and the demons (asuras)
and lord of all creatures.

Towards the end of the Rigveda period the seers were less interested in the plurality of gods and
were concerned to go behind them and grasp the power of which they were the manifestation.
Their aim was to discover the unifying principle of the universe. The personalities of the various
gods became little more than names for the One Being. The function of the gods became more
important than their personal existence. Thus the creative function came to be ascribed to
Visvakarman, the maker of all things, or Prajapati, the lord of creatures, or Brahmanaspati, the
lord of Brahmans.

The Absolute

The chief god is replaced by Brahman in the Upanishads. The notion of one infinite Being
projecting Himself in many different form, which is introduced in the Rigveda, is later elaborated
upon in the Upanishads and becomes the all-pervading Brahman. Brahman is neutral and
impersonal - the origin, the cause and the basis of all existence. Brahman is without attributes
(nirguna) and impersonal. Brahman is the unknowable one. But the only way he can be considered
is in terms of a personal deity (saguna Brahman). So it was natural for the Indians to see the several
attributes or functions of divinity manifested in a multiplicity of forms.

In the Vedic hymns god is not fully seen in human terms. The gods are the manifestations of nature
or cosmic forces. The divine names may be countless, but they are all understood as expressions
of Brahman. For, although it may have limitless forms, it is still regarded as one in essence.

Pantheism

Vedic polytheism is later merged with the pantheistic monism (Advaita or non-duality) of the
Upanishads. Pantheism is the idea that god is in everything and therefore everything is god. They
teach that first of all there is nirguna Brahman, the impersonal absolute with no attributes. When
the shadow of maya fell upon the nirguna Brahman, saguna Brahman, the Supreme Being with
qualities, came into existence. One of the many theories of creation in Hinduism is that out of the
navel of the saguna Brahman, the Brahma, the world came into existence. Therefore the world is
spoken of as the body of Brahma.

Hindus believe that Brahma creates the world and also destroys the world. The world is likened to
the web that comes out of the body of a spider. It can again be absorbed into his own body. They
say that many creations have already taken place, and many creations will take place in the future.
Because the world is the body of Brahman, therefore god is in everything. We are all gods, because
the jivatma in us is part of the Paramatma (we are all of the essence of Brahman). According to

27
this belief, God is also in the stone or the silver or gold out of which idols are made and worshipped.
So Hinduism is not troubled by the fact that each village may have its own divinity or divinities.
The multiplicity is not seen as polytheism, since Brahman is One. The gods are simply ways of
approaching the Ultimate.. Hindus do not think in terms of belief in one God. They think in terms
of believing in all the gods that there are. They want to please all of them because they are afraid
that if they do not pacify and please all of them, one or another of them may do them harm.

Trimurti

The Vedic pantheon, however, gave place to another hierarchy of Aryan elements in the religion.
With the emergence of the epic age, which was a period of renaissance for Hinduism, Gods and
goddesses worshipped by the ordinary people were accepted in the Hindu pantheon and eventually
personified as the Supreme.

Brahma, Vishnu and Siva are the important manifestations of Brahman in the secondary realm
(maya). Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. are not three independent and separate deities, but three
different aspects of the same Supreme God, while engaged in the processes of creation, sustenance
and destruction of the universe, in that order. It is similar to the role played by the same person as
the father at home, as the boss in the office and as a customer in a shop. Other deities also should
be considered in the same light, as different aspects of the Supreme God, manifesting themselves
for specific purposes. Brahman is regarded as the Supreme Being, the God of gods; of whom
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva are manifestations. In the Rigveda (Purusha Sukta), the one spirit is
called Purusha. The more common name in the later system is ‘Brahman’, neuter. Brahman, in
neuter, being ‘simple infinite being’ - the only real eternal essence - which, when it passes into
actual manifested existence, is called Brahma; when it develops itself in the world, is called
Vishnu; and when it again dissolves itself into simple being, is called Siva; all the other
innumerable gods and demi-gods being also mere manifestations of the neuter Brahman, who is
eternal.

The Purana says creation is effected through the agency of Brahma, the manifestation of Brahman.
Again Purana says: “There are two states of this Brahman - one with, and one without shape; one
perishable, one imperishable; which is inherent in all beings. The imperishable is the supreme
being; the perishable is all the world. The world is nothing more than the manifested energy of the
supreme Brahman.

Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva are the most powerful energies of God (the blaze of fire burning in spot
diffuses light and heat around); next to them are the inferior deities; then the attendant spirits; then
men; then animals, birds, insects, vegetables; each becoming more and more feeble as they are
farther from their primitive source. Brahman generated the gods; Brahman generated this entire
world. Within him are all these worlds. He is addressed by the mystic word ‘Om’, associated
eternally with the triple universe (earth, sky, and heaven), and who is one with the four Vedas.

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In the earliest writings Brahman signified a hymn or mantra, whilst Brahma was the term used to
denote a priest or worshipper. It is in the later parts of the Vedas that Brahma (Brahman) is
identified with the Supreme, and Brahma becomes his great manifestation.7 [See Prajapati8 ]

The powers of these deities which are inseparable from them - just as the power of fire to burn
cannot be separated from fire itself, this power is conceived in the form of their consorts, Sarasvati,
Parvati (or Sakti) and Lakshmi. This is not to say that these deities are imaginary creations. All of
them, without exception, are different modes and aspects of Paramatman, the Supreme Self or
God.

In theistic movements, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva is believed to share the activities of Ishvara, the
god who symbolizes Brahman (the saguna Brahman). Saivism reflects the amalgamation of the
worship of the non-Vedic god Siva with the Vedic god Rudra. The three gods, Brahma, Vishnu
and Siva, form a Trimurti, or triad of three roles of the Supreme. Brahma is the creator, Vishnu
the preserver and Siva the destroyer. In some cases they claim to assume the supreme Brahman
itself.

1. Brahma, the Creator: He is the lord of all creatures. He is above and beyond worship,
and there are hardly any temples dedicated to him. Sarasvati is the consort of Brahma, the goddess
of knowledge, learning and truth.

2. Vishnu, the Preserver: He is the controller of human fate. He draws near to mankind in
ten incarnations (avataras); He is generally kind. Lakshmi is the wife of Vishnu. The goddess of
fortune and beauty.

7
Brahma (the final vowel in the name is short) stands for the Ultimate; also known as Brahman. Brahma (the final
vowel in the name is long) is one of the Trimurti.
8
Prajapati is the lord of creatures, was the creator according to the earlier teaching of the Vedas, and occupied the
position in the earlier Pantheon that Brahma did in the later. In several texts of the two are identified, and thus authority
is found for the idea that Brahma is to be worshipped as the Maker of all things. As the Aryan gods were not
satisfactory for the common people, attempts are made (in the Satapatha Brahmana) to identify Siva with Agni, as
though the writer wished to show that the later triad - Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva - was identical with the older one
composed of Agni, Indra-Vayu and Surya.When Brahma wished to populate the world, he created mind-born sons,
like himself; viz. Bhrigu, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Angiras, Marichi, Daksha, Atri, and Vashishta: these are the nine
Brahmas or Brahma-rishis celebrated in the Puranas. These Brahmarishis are also called Prajapati (lords of offspring),
Brahmaputras (sons of Brahma), and Brahmanas. Daksha, the mind born son of Brahma is one of the chief Prajapatis.
The term Prajapati means a lord of creatures; the Prajapatis, therefore, are therefore, are regarded as the progenitors
of mankind. The word is used in much the same manner as Patriarch in the Christian Scriptures. Sometimes Brahma
alone is intended by the term Prajapti; he is the “lord of creatures;” Sometimes it is employed for the first, formal men
from whom the human race sprang. The word was original employed as an epithet of Savitri and Soma, as well as of
Hiranyagarbha, or Brahma. It afterwards, however, came to denote a separate deity, who appears in three places in the
Rigveda Prajapati is sometimes identified with the universe, and described (in the same way as Brahman, or entity, or
non-entity in other places) as having alone existed in the beginning, as the source out of which creation was evolved:
“e.g. Prajapati was this universe; Vach was a second to him. She became pregnant, she departed from him, she
produced these creatures. She again entered into Prajapati.” At the same time he is “sometimes described as a
secondary or subordinate deity, and treated as one of thirty-three deities.”By the time Manu wrote, creation had come
to be regarded as the special work of Brahma, hence the term Prajapati is applied to him in the Dharmasastra, and in
the later writings it is given to those who sprang from him, and carried on his work of populating the world.

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3. Shiva, the destroyer: He is the source of both good and evil. The destroyer of life and also
the one who re-creates new life. Kali/Durga is the consort of Shiva. She is the 'great mother.' She
is the symbol of judgement and death.

Their three-fold activity corresponds to the rhythm of the world. This is seen first as emerging
from Brahman; next as reaching its full embodiment; then as being reabsorbed either into Brahman
or into the period which precedes the next age. Creation, like history, is understood in cyclical
terms. There is no true beginning or end. The beginning is an end and the end a new beginning.
In the Veda the ultimate or absolute is Brahman, defying all attempt at definition.

Avatara

Another important development was in the period of renaissance (600 BC to AD 300) was the
concept of Avatara (decent) or incarnation, reflecting the strong theistic desire to make imminent
the transcendence of God. Great national heroes are considered as manifestations of god on earth.
The concept is absent in the Vedas but becomes central in the great epics of the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. Lord Vishnu's preserving, protecting powers have been manifested to the world in
a variety of forms, called Avatars, in which one or more of his divine attributes were embodied in
the shape of a human being or an animal or a human-animal combined form, possessing great and
sometimes supernatural powers. All these Avatars of Vishnu appeared in the world either to correct
some great evil or to effect some great good on earth. These avatars are ten in number, however,
the Bhagwad Purana increases them to twenty two and adds further that are innumerable.

Of the ten universally recognized avatars, nine have already manifested whereas the tenth is yet to
appear. It is important to note that the all the Avatars are earthly form of Lord Vishnu, who himself
is eternal, unchangeable and immutable.

1. Matsya: The fish. He appeared at the time of the great flood, to warn mankind.

2. Kurma: The tortoise. He rescued treasures from the flood.

3. Varaha: The boar. He raised the earth from the flood.

4. Nara-Simha: The man-lion. He defeated evil demons.

5. Vamana: The dwarf. He defeated evil demons.

6. Parashu Rama: 'Rama with an axe'. He destroyed the members of the Kshatriya
warrior caste who threatened to dominate the world.

7. Rama Chandra: The hero of the Ramayana epic. He was a noble hero who
combatted the evil in the world. He is the epitome of virtue.

8. Krishna: As well as being an avatar of Vishnu, Krishna is a god in his own right,
the most popular of all the gods. He is also the hero of many myths, depicted as a
lover, a warrior and a king.

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9. Buddha: 'The enlightened one'. The ninth avatar is Gautama the Buddha, founder of
Buddhism.

10. Kalki: The tenth avatar is yet to come.

Rama and Krishna, the two most popular avataras of Vishnu as God temporarily manifest
in human forms, are loved by the masses. Bhakti movement flourished centring on Vishnu and
consort Lakshmi. And also Saivism or the exultation of Siva above all other gods, is the other great
movement. The period of sectarianism thus strengthened all over India. In the popular Hinduism
of India, almost all of the temples, are dedicated to one of the sectarian gods or their avatars or
consorts.

A COMPARISON OF THE DOCTRINE OF AVATARA AND SALVATION IN

HINDUISM AND CHRISTIANITY

Avatara and Incarnation

Some consider avatara as equal to the incarnation of Christ and thus detract from his absolute
uniqueness. The word Avatar means “a descent.” There is an idea in popular Hinduism that Vishnu,
the preserver god, comes down to the world, when order or righteousness has been lost, to help
restore order and protect the good and destroy evil-doers. Hinduism’s best-loved scripture the
Bhagavadgita (which is part of the third or second century BC epic the Mahabharata) says,
“Whenever righteousness declines and unrighteousness grows powerful, the, O Bharata, I manifest
myself. I come into being from age to age to protect the good, destroy the wicked and establish
righteousness” (4:8-8).

There is a common idea in Hindu literature that there will be 10 avatars of Vishnu, some of the
last of whom are still to come. Rams and Krishna are the most famous Avatars. Some include the
Buddha and/or Jesus in this list of ten. Some modern Gurus also claim to be Avatars. Some include
Buddha and/or Jesus in this list of ten. Some modern Gurus also claim to be Avatars. Sai Baba is
the most famous of the modern Gurus, and he is unusual in that he claims to be an incarnation of
the god Shiva (the god of contrasts who is viewed both as creator and destroyer).

Several scholars have pointed out the similarities and points of contrast between the incarnations
of the Avatars and that of Jesus.

1. In Hinduism avatars are repeated while in Christ it is only once.

2. In Hinduism all the avatara are incomplete since only the ‘Krishnavatara’ is called the full
or ‘purna avatara’ of Vishnu, whereas Christ’s avatara is a complete one.

3. In Hinduism after the avatara is over the deity usually returns to his original state while in
Christ it is a permanent one.

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4. In Hinduism, as Bhagavadgita says, the avataras are for the destruction of the wicked and
the reward of the righteous, whereas the avatara of Christ is to seek and to save the lost. Christ’s
incarnation was once-for-all.

5. Hindu avataras are merely theophanies rather than real incarnation.

In Saiva Siddhanta the avataras do not have a real physical body but only an apparent one. Christ’s
is a real physical body. Christ’s avatara is not an appearance or illusion but it was real. He became
flesh. The real significance of incarnation is that in Jesus God has come down to us to abide with
us forever. He will ever remain the God-man. God’s assumption of humanity was a permanent
one.

Hindus understands Christ as one of the avatars, like Ram or Krishna or Chaitanya etc. In some
ways devotion (bhakti) to some of the Avatars, such as to Krishna, is the closest that Hinduism
comes to the Christian concepts of salvation by grace and faith in and devotion to a personal God.
When the Beatles sang the song of devotion and commitment, “My Sweet Lord,” it was to Krishna
that the devotion was addressed. This could be a point of contact when communicating the gospel
to the Hindus. But it is also a problem because, given their pluralistic approach, they could simply
add Jesus to their list of gods, especially if they get the idea that he is another incarnation of Vishnu.

Some of the avatars “are depicted as falling very far short of what we should regard as moral
perfection." The moral dimension of divinity was not so important in some Eastern cultures. But
today because of a universal commitment to human rights and justice what seen like the unjust
actions of Avatars will begin to pose a more serious challenge than before.

The biggest difference between the Hindu idea of incarnation and the Christian one is that in
Hinduism the incarnations are repeated several times. They come when things have deteriorated
so much that there is a special need to save the world. As there is no universally accepted doctrinal
basis for Hinduism the approach to the idea of avatar varies among Hindus. Some view the avatars
as mythical figures whose historicity is doubtful. Some view them as not being hundred percent
involved in humanity with its struggles and experiences, somewhat like the understanding of
Christ’s incarnation in the docetic heresy.

The Christ event was a once-and-for-all event. He sacrificed for our sins once for all when he
offered himself (Heb. 7:27). He saves us through the blood of the eternal covenant (Heb. 13:20).
Jesus is the Lord of creation himself - God’s answer to the problems of the world he created. As
such he is unique in an absolute sense. Pluralists say there is no such thing as absolute truth. We
cannot say that for the Creator of the world has given humanity a unique and once-for-all message
in the person and work of the Lord of the universe : Jesus Christ.

The Hindu use of avatar (literally meaning "descent") for incarnation may be a point of contact but
it is doubtful if it can be used as a bridge to the truth for it reflects a world view that conflicts with
the biblical view of the relationship of God to the world. Biblical salvation is unique because
Christ's incarnation, death, and resurrection are unique. They are once and for all unique events
that have eternal meaning. Therefore, the Gospel brings a new understanding of society.

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Salvation and the Afterlife

The chief aim in Hinduism is to gain release from the cycle of reincarnation caused by karma--the
consequences of past actions, in this or in previous lives!

Hindus recognize three possible paths to moksha, or salvation. The first is the way of works or
karma yoga. This is a very popular way of salvation and lays emphasis on the idea that liberation
may be obtained by fulfilling one's familial and social duties thereby overcoming the weight of
bad karma one has accrued. The Code of Manu lists many of these rules. Most important among
them are certain rituals conducted at various stages of life.

The second way of salvation is the way of knowledge or jnana yoga. The basic premise of the way
of knowledge is that the cause of our bondage to the cycle of rebirths in this world is ignorance or
avidya. According to the predominant view among those committed to this way, our ignorance
consists of the mistaken belief that we are individual selves and not one with the ultimate divine
reality called Brahman. It is this ignorance that gives rise to our bad actions which result in bad
karma. Salvation is achieved through attaining a state of consciousness in which we realize our
identity with Brahman. This is achieved through deep meditation, often as a part of the discipline
of yoga.

The third and final way of salvation is the way of devotion or bhakti yoga. This is the way most
favored by the common people of India; it satisfies the longing for a more emotional and personal
approach to religion. It is self-surrender to one of the many personal gods and goddesses of
Hinduism. Such devotion is expressed through acts of worship, puja, at the temple, in the home,
through participation in the many festivals in honor of such gods, and through pilgrimages to one
of the numerous holy sites in India. In the way of devotion, the focus is one obtaining the mercy
and help of a god in finding release from the cycle of reincarnation. Some Hindus conceive of
ultimate salvation as absorption into the one divine reality, with all loss of individual existence.
Others conceive of it as heavenly existence in adoration of the personal God.

Hindus are correct in their recognition that all is not right with the world and with human existence
in it. They are correct as well in suggesting that the ultimate remedy to the human dilemma is
spiritual in nature. Beyond these two points, however, there's little common ground between
Hinduism and Christianity.

Hinduism, first of all, lacks any understanding that God created this world for a good purpose. It
is common for Hindus to speak of God bringing the universe into existence simply as a "playful"
exercise of His power. Also lacking is a conception of God as infinitely holy and righteous and as
the One to whom we as His creatures are accountable for the way we conduct our lives.

The second major area of contrast between Hinduism and Christianity is the conception of human
nature and of the source of our estrangement from God. According to Hindu teaching, man is
divine at the core of his being. He is one with God! The problem is that man is ignorant of this
fact. He is deceived by his focus on this temporal and material world, and this ignorance gives rise
to acts that result in bad karma and traps us in the cycle of reincarnation.

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According to the biblical teaching, however, the source of our alienation from God (and ultimately
of all that is imperfect in this world), is not ignorance of our divinity, but our sinful rebellion
against God and His purpose for our lives.

This leads to the third and final point of contrast--the way of salvation. According to most Hindu
teaching, salvation from the cycle of reincarnation is achieved by our own efforts--whether through
good works, meditation, or devotion to a deity. According to the Bible, however, our spiritual need
is for deliverance from God's judgment on our sin and for restoration to a life under His direction
and care. This salvation can be provided only by God's gracious and undeserved action in our
behalf.

It is true that in certain Hindu groups there is a similar emphasis on God's grace (probably as a
result of past Christian influence). But even here, there is a major distinction. The Hindu teaching
about grace sees no need for an atonement for sin, but simply offers forgiveness without any
satisfaction of the judgment on sin required by a holy God.

In contrast, the Christian gospel is this: God the Son became a man, died a sacrificial death on the
cross, making real forgiveness of real sins against the real God possible to those who place
complete trust in Christ. All who do so can experience true forgiveness, know God and His purpose
for their lives, and have the certainty of eternal life with Him!

The salvation offered by Jesus Christ is clearly described in the Holy Bible, the sacred scriptures
of Christians. God initiated this salvation by sending His Son, Jesus Christ to the world (John
3:16). Bible affirms that all have sinned (Rom. 3:23), and deserve eternal punishment. Christian
salvation is deliverance from sin and its condemnation. It pertains to deliverance here on earth
from sin and its negative effects and eternal blessings which awaits in the life after death.

Christian salvation includes the activity of both God and man. Man changes his mind (repentance),
trusts in God (faith) and turns to God (conversion). Once man do his part, God makes him a New
Creation (regeneration), declares him not guilty (justification), and takes him into His family
(adoption). God and man also work together in perfecting man's nature (sanctification - a whole
life process), in maintaining salvation (perseverance), and in accomplishing God's purposes
(through prayer). The final goal of salvation is Glorification when man is transformed to like God.

Christian salvation is available only by God's grace. It is on the ground of Christ's cross alone; and
it is by faith alone.

In Christianity God justifies a sinner who repents and turns to God by faith (Rom. 1:16-17; 3:21).
The propitiating death of Christ on the cross constitutes the very foundation and essence of
Christian salvation. The gospel is the unique message of what God has done in Christ on the cross
for the salvation of man. Christian dharma is passive righteousness, receiving from God freely in
grace, through Christ, through faith. God's imputed righteousness means forgiveness of sins and
eternal life or salvation.

the means of salvation is not through one's merit but on his faith by God's grace (Eph. 2:8,9). We
are saved by faith in Christ alone and not by good deeds we perform (Rom. 3:28)

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Salvation offered in the Bible is available only through Jesus Christ (Acts. 4:12). Jesus is the only
way to the Father god (John. 14:6). Salvation in Christ is universal in scope and is available to all
those who believe (John 3:16).

The believer in Christ starts experiencing deliverance from sin and its negative effects and
undergoes the experiences of regeneration, justification and adoption quite in this earthly life and
earnestly look forward to the final consummation of the redemption - the Glorification - when
Christ appears the second time as promised in the Bible.

Salvation to a Hindu means "moksha" or liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth attained
through self-effort while in Christianity it is the liberation from moral guilt, sin and its
condemnation attained by simply believing on the vicarious atonement of Jesus Christ in the stead
of a believer. And in Christianity the salvation is by grace alone (Eph. 2:8-9). Hinduism is a
pluralistic religion believing that there are many ways to one God, while Christianity has the only
one way to God and that is through Jesus Christ (John 14:6). The Hindu scriptures teach different
ways of salvation - karma, jnana, bhakti, and yoga. However, all these are man's righteousness and
work righteousness. The Bible teaches that man has no righteousness of his own; man can have no
righteousness of his own. Only imputed righteousness through faith in Christ is the saving
righteousness.

Salvation in Hinduism can be attained in one of three general ways: the way of knowledge,
knowing one is actually a part of the ultimate Brahman and not a separate entity; the way of
devotion, which is love and obedience to a particular deity; or the way of works, or following
ceremonial ritual. This salvation is from the seemingly endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
By contrast, in Christianity salvation is from a potentially eternal separation from god and cannot
be obtained by any number of good deeds.

ÜPANISHADS AND THEIR TEACHINGS

The Upanishads or Secret Teachings (about 600 BC) are the spiritual discourses between
the rishis and their disciples. The Upanishad literally means, "sit down at the feet of a guru
(teacher) and learn "or" Sitting near devotedly". Hindu esoteric and mystical writings grouped in
the Aranyakas, which are part of the Veda. The philosophical concepts contained in the
Upanishads served as the basis of one of the six orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy, Vedanta.
Some 150 Upanishads exist (108, according to the traditionally accepted number). Most are written
in prose with interspersed poetry, but some are entirely in verse. Their lengths vary: The shortest
can fit on 1 printed page, while the longest is more than 50 pages. In their present form, they are
believed to have been composed between 400 and 200 BC; thus they represent a comparatively
late aspect of Vedic Hinduism. (Some texts, however, are believed to have originated as early as
the 6th century BC.). Of all the Upanishads twelve are important.

1. Katha: The secret of immortality is to be found in purification of the heart, in meditation,

in realization of the identity of the self within and Brahman without. For immortality is union with
God.

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2. Isha: Life in the world and life in the spirit are not incompatible. Work, or action, is not
contrary to the knowledge of God, but indeed, if performed without attachment, is a means to it.
On the other hand, renunciation is renunciation of the ego, of selfishness - not of life. The end of
the work and of renunciation is to know the self within and Brahman without, and to realize their
identity. The Self is Brahman.

3. Kena: The power behind every activity of nature and of man is the power of Brahman. To
realize this truth is to be immortal.

4. Prasna: Human being is composed of such vital elements as breath, deeds, thought, and the
senses - all of them driving their being from the Self. They have come out of the Self, and in the
Self they ultimately disappear - even as the waters of a river disappear in the sea.

5. Mundaka: Since the manifold objects of sense are merely emanations of Brahman, to know
them in themselves is not enough. Since all the actions of human beings are but phases of the
universal process of creation, action alone is not enough.

The Sage must distinguish between knowledge and wisdom. Knowledge is of things, acts and
relations. But wisdom is of Brahman alone; and beyond all things, acts and relations, he abides
forever. To become one with him is the only wisdom.

6. Mandukya: The life of human being is divided between waking, dreaming, and dreamless
sleep. But transcending these three states is superconscious vision - called the fourth.

7. Taitriya: People in their ignorance identify themselves with the material sheaths that
encompass their true self. Transcending these, they become one with Brahman, who is pure bliss.

8. Titareya: Brahman, source, sustenance, and end of the Universe, partakes of every phase
of existence. He wakes with the waking man, dreams with the dreamer, and sleeps the deep sleep
of the dreamless sleeper; but he transcends these three states to become himself. His true nature is
pure consciousness.

9. Chandogya: Brahman is all. From Brahman come appearances, sensations, desires, and
deeds. But all these are merely name and form. To know Brahman, one must experience the
Identity between him and the self, or Brahman dwelling within the lotus of the heart. Only by
doing so can a person escape from sorrow and death and become one with the subtle essence
beyond all knowledge.

10. Brihadaranyaka: the Self is the dearest of all things, and only through the Self is anything
else dear. The Self is the origin of all finite happiness, but it itself pure bliss, transcending
definition. It remains unaffected by deeds, good or bad. It is beyond feelings and beyond
knowledge, but it is not beyond the meditation of the sage.

11. Kaivalya: The sage who, by faith, devotion, and meditation has realized the Self and
become one with Brahman, is realised from the rebirth, sorrow, and death.

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12. Svetasvatara: Meditation can be learned, and it must be practiced according to accepted
rules. Through it's menus, it is possible to realize the personal Brahman, who, in union with Maya,
creates, preserves, and dissolves the universe, and likewise the impersonal Brahman, who
transcends all forms of being, who eternally is without attribute and without action.

Om is the most sacred word of the Hindus, occurring first in the Upanishads. Om also means 'Hail'
and 'Amen' respectively in the beginning and at the end.

The Upanishads specialize in speculative philosophy and especially concerned with the universal
soul, the Absolute, and the individual self. They deal with the self realization and the knowledge
of the ultimate truth. According to the Upanishads a man attains the highest knowledge when he
recognizes the existence of Brahman. Human salvation is possible by knowledge of Brahman (the
ultimate reality).

IMPORTANT TEACHINGS OF THE UPANISHADS

The later portions of the Vedas, called the Upanishads, reflect a significant development in
Hinduism's concept of the divine. Many of the Upanishads, instead of speaking of a multitude of
gods, refer to an ultimate reality beyond our comprehension called Brahman. Though Brahman is
impersonal in nature, it is sometimes referred to in personal terms by the name Isvara.

Along with this idea of a single divine reality, the Upanishads also teach that at the core of our
being (referred to as "Atman") we are identical with this ultimate reality.

A popular saying in Hinduism is "Atman is Brahman!" In fact, all living things are Brahman at
their innermost core! In addition, instead of ritual sacrifice, intuitive knowledge of the oneness of
all things came to be endorsed as the way of contact with divine reality. Also found in the
Upanishads is the teaching that the material world (including our conscious personalities) is less
than fully real. The word "maya" is used to designate the power by which God, or ultimate reality,
brought this less than real world into existence.

1. Brahman and Atman

Brahman is the Ultimate Reality. According to Vedānta, the highest aim of existence is the
realization of the identity or union of the individual’s innermost self (ātman) with the ultimate
reality. Although Vedānta states that this ultimate reality is beyond name, the word Brahman is
used to refer to it.

Whether this ultimate reality is itself ultimately without distinguishing attributes (nirguna) or with
personal attributes (saguna) has been a subject of extensive debate among Hindu scholars. To be
ultimate Brahman must transcend (exist above and beyond) all limiting attributes, such as name,
gender, form, and features. But how can the human mind, with its limitations, conceive of this
transcendent reality? Human comprehension requires a more personal reality, with attributes.

Saguna Bhraman is also called Ishvara, a name best translated as “Lord." Although the notion of
Brahman as the sustaining power of the cosmos had been introduced in the earlier Vedas, it is in

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the Upanishads that we first find serious concern with the nature of Brahman and its relation to the
human person. Most schools of Hinduism accept the notion of an all-pervading ultimate reality,
Brahman, although the specific details vary widely. Brahman is generally said to be the ultimate
reality, the Supreme Being, the ground underlying all that is, that upon which all else depends. The
central question of the Upanishads was the relation between this ultimate reality (Brahman) and
the human self (atman), and in what is perhaps the most famous passage in the Upanishads the
‘atman’ is identified with Brahman - “That thou art” (tat tvam asi). Thus the one eternal Reality
underlying all the appearances of the phenomenal world is in actuality identical to the Self.

The problem is that humans ascribe independent reality to individual entities in the world, not
realizing that they are but manifestations of that which is ultimately Real. The individual self is
mistakenly taken to be self-existent in its own right, when in fact it is one with that ultimate Reality
pervading all that is. Brahman is present in the phenomenal world as the human self. And
attainment of true insight into the ultimately Real results in release from the cycle of deaths and
rebirths caused by one’s ignorance of the fact that one’s essential self (which is identical with
Brahman) does not die. What breaks the cycle of rebirths and the bondage of ‘samsara’, then, is
the knowledge of the unchanging Brahman and of one’s essential identity with Brahman. Thus,
the religious goal in the early Upanishads was to become one with the ultimate Reality, Brahman,
or rather to recognize that one’s true self is already identical with Brahman, and through this
knowledge to attain ‘moksha’ or release.

Brahman was generally held to be utterly beyond characterization, incapable of being expressed
in human concepts or linguistic symbols and without qualities - no personal Being (nirguna
Brahman). But the later Upanishads reveal a growing interest in the personal aspect of Brahman
and give evidence of an emerging theistic emphasis. This shift is apparent in the Svetasvatara
Upanishad (fifth or sixth century B.C.), which, while still concerned with release from samsara,
suggests that such release comes not from knowledge of the no personal ‘nirguna’ Brahman but
rather from knowledge of the personal Lord identified as Rudras or Shiva, the personal
manifestation of Brahman. Thomas Hopkins states, “Saving knowledge is not knowledge of the
impersonal Brahman but of the personal Lord, and it is gained by coming to know Him as resident
within one’s self.” Such knowledge was said to come through rigorous self-discipline and
meditation (dhyana).

Ātman is the Innermost Self. We as individuals are also a part of this changing universe. Our
bodies are constantly undergoing change, while our minds, formed of thoughts and feelings, are
also in a state of flux. According to Vedānta, however, our self consists of more than mind and
body. At its core lies the unchanging ātman, our innermost, transcendental self, as opposed to the
material self (our body, thoughts, and feelings) that is part of the universe. The ātman is our true
self. But we lose sight of it because of our passionate involvement with our material self and its
search for happiness in this universe. The universe can never provide perfect and permanent
happiness, however, because it, like our material self, is in a state of constant flux. We attain true
happiness only through an awareness of our ātman and the discovery of its true relationship with
Brahman.

By achieving awareness of our ātman and its unity with Brahman, we attain not only happiness,
but also moksha, or liberation. But liberation from what? At one level, the liberation is from

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unhappiness, but the answer provided by Vedānta Hinduism goes deeper: Moksha is liberation
from a chain of lives.

2 Moksha: Paths to Brahman

How do we proceed if we wish to rise toward Brahman? Hindu thought takes the
personality of the seeker as the starting point. It divides human personalities into types dominated
by physicality, activity, emotionality, or intellectuality. The composition of our personality
intuitively predisposes us to a type of yoga—that is, a path we might follow to achieve union with
Brahman. Although many people associate the word yoga with a physical discipline, in its original
Hindu meaning yoga refers to any technique that unites the seeker with the Ultimate. Embodying
the wisdom of ancient mystique the Upanishads form the core of India's most sacred scriptures and
constitute the highest authority for Hindu believers everywhere. These meditations of Upanishads
offer the world today profound insights into the spiritual truths underlying all great religion. It
means "Secret teachings." It is the 'knowledge of God.' - the knowledge of Brahman, the
knowledge that destroys the bonds of ignorance and leads to the Supreme goal of freedom -
Sankara. According to the Upanishads salvation or deliverance or moksha depends on the
individual self becoming lost or identified with Brahman. However, what happens to those who
do not reach this bliss in this world? This conception and a study of the inequalities of this life as
produced by caste, suffering, etc. led clearly to the doctrines of Transmigration (Samsara) and
Works of Karma.

3. Karma

The word karma means "action." But the religious concept has more to do with the results
or consequences of actions. The doctrine of karma states that every thought and action results in
certain consequences born by the actor or thinker. If a person lies or steals, he will be wronged in
some way in the future. Hindus believe that all suffering is due to one's own past actions, in this
or in a previous life. Some believe that karma implies strict determinism or fatalism (that one must
simply resign himself to living out his karma). Most, however, believe that though our present is
determined by our past, nonetheless we can influence our future by conducting ourselves in a
proper manner in the present.
Some have equated the doctrine of karma with the statement in Galatians 6:7 that "whatever a man
sows, that he will also reap." It is certainly a biblical teaching that our actions have consequences-
-for good or ill. But this is not the same as believing that every experience in life is a consequence
of one's own past actions. This is definitely not a biblical idea.

3. The doctrine of Transmigration

Another core belief of Hinduism is the doctrine of reincarnation, or transmigration of souls,

called samsara. Since it is impossible that all of one's karma be experienced in one lifetime, the
Hindu scriptures state that after death individual souls are "reborn" in this world, in another body-
-human or otherwise. The nature of one's rebirth is determined by the karma resulting from past
actions.

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The Upanishads also gave rise to the principle of the trans-migration or doctrine of karma and
rebirth. After the death the soul enters into another body. Good actions lead to good birth and bad
deeds result in suffering in the next life. So 'karma' determines the joy or sorrow in the next life.
The present life is the effect of the past actions. It is the cause of the next existence. When a man
gets vidya (knowledge) of the True Self (Atman), he is able to break the chains of existence and
free himself from Samsara, the cycle of birth and death. The true enlightenment alone leads to the
merging of man's soul with Brahman. And ultimately becomes one with Brahman.

From this time forward, these two major streams of Hindu thought and practice grew and
developed--the more intellectual and philosophical stream that emphasized the oneness of all
things, and the stream that emphasized personal devotion to a god. The latter stream has
predominated among the common people of India to this present day. Chief among the gods so
venerated are Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). In India
there are many temples devoted to Shiva (or to one of his "wives," such as Kali), or to Vishnu (or
to one of his ten incarnations known as avatars). All in all, it is often stated that Hinduism claims
330 million gods and goddesses!

One might wonder how such a multitude of beliefs about the divine could possibly co-exist in one
religion. But they do. There is, however, a widespread recognition that none of the personal gods
of Hinduism is in any way exclusive or unique. They are all simply different ways of conceiving
of the one reality behind all things-- Brahman.

The Upanishads thus led to three basic implications:

1. The World and life is unreal - it is illusion or maya. Only as the external objects are related
to the self do they exist at all, only Self is real - all else is illusion and part of our ignorance which
prevent us becoming one with Brahman. This idealism however easily slips into a pantheism which
thinks of everything as atman - the world is atman and everything is a projection of it.

2. God and Self are unknowable. As everything is one and there is no duality then God is
inevitably unknown. As soon as Self becomes both the subject and object it is automatically
unknowable - neti, neti. This however is very inadequate for any religion and so in the Upanishads
there are often contradictions and God is often very nearly personal and instead of the neuter
Brahman we have the masculine Brahma and Atman is depicted as the creator of the world and its
sustainer. There is almost a theism which is just as just as suddenly withdrawn and replaced again
by the abstract.

3. Redemption does not change the heart of an. Deliverance finally comes through knowledge
- a knowledge of what already exists within us. Dreamless sleep in which all life has lost its
meaning, good and evil are the same. There is no ethical content in redemption it is pure
recognition of the unknowable self as being identical with the unknowable Brahman.

A CHRISTIAN RESPONSE TO HINDUISM

What should be the appropriate Christian perspective on Hinduism? At the outset we must say
that as Christians we concur with Hindus on a couple of points. Hindus are correct in their

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recognition that all is not right with the world and with human existence in it. They are correct as
well in suggesting that the ultimate remedy to the human dilemma is spiritual in nature. Beyond
these two points, however, there's little common ground between Hinduism and Christianity. Let's
note just a few of the more important areas of divergence.

First, Hinduism lacks any understanding that God created this world for a good purpose. It is
common for Hindus to speak of God bringing the universe into existence simply as a "playful"
exercise of His power. Also lacking is a conception of God as infinitely holy and righteous and as
the One to whom we as His creatures are accountable for the way we conduct our lives.

The second major area of contrast between Hinduism and Christianity is the conception of human
nature and of the source of our estrangement from God. According to Hindu teaching, man is
divine at the core of his being. He is one with God! The problem is that man is ignorant of this
fact. He is deceived by his focus on this temporal and material world, and this ignorance gives rise
to acts that result in bad karma and traps us in the cycle of reincarnation.

According to the biblical teaching, however, the source of our alienation from God (and ultimately
of all that is imperfect in this world), is not ignorance of our divinity, but our sinful rebellion
against God and His purpose for our lives.

This leads to the third and final point of contrast--the way of salvation. According to most Hindu
teaching, salvation from the cycle of reincarnation is achieved by our own efforts--whether through
good works, meditation, or devotion to a deity. According to the Bible, however, our spiritual need
is for deliverance from God's judgment on our sin and for restoration to a life under His direction
and care. This salvation can be provided only by God's gracious and undeserved action in our
behalf.

It is true that in certain Hindu groups there is a similar emphasis on God's grace (probably as a
result of past Christian influence). But even here, there is a major distinction. The Hindu teaching
about grace sees no need for an atonement for sin, but simply offers forgiveness without any
satisfaction of the judgment on sin required by a holy God.

In contrast, the Christian gospel is this: God the Son became a man, died a sacrificial death on the
cross, making real forgiveness of real sins against the real God possible to those who place
complete trust in Christ. All who do so can experience true forgiveness, know God and His purpose
for their lives, and have the certainty of etc.

ISLAM

Jesus Christ is the common Point of Difference for Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Jews
believe that Messiah is yet to come. The Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God and
the Messiah promised in the OT Scriptures. Muslims believe that Jesus Christ is not the Messiah,
nor did he die nor did he resurrect. Allah is the only name of the true God.

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Socio- Political and Religious condition of Arabia at the time of Mohammed
While studying about any religion and religious tradition, we have to examine at least three things.
They are: - 1. Place, 2. People and 3. Religion.

1. Place.
The cradle of Islam is Arabia. Technically speaking it is called the island of Arabia. On the western
side of Arabia lies the Red Sea, on the east the Persian Gulf, on the North the Arabian Desert, and
on the South the Indian Ocean. One third of Arabia is desert and two third is cultivable but the soil
is not alluvial. At the centre it has an altitude of 3000 ft., but the rest of it is sand. Southwest, West
and East are also sand and the North is filled with the stone. Between the coast of Red Sea and the
sand area there are many oases. During the 6th century AD there were 11 million people residing
in this region. The place of their settlement was called Hijaz . Mecca and Medina were the most
important cities. Mecca was more important because it was a commercial and religious centre
where as Medina was a place of agriculture.

2. People
There were two types of people staying here. One was the nomads, and the other was the city
dwellers. The nomads were the true Arabs and had the majority. But outsiders were also staying
there in the cities. The nomads were called Bedouins. They were traders as well as robbers. During
some months they don’t do jobs. The important tribe of the city dwellers was the Quraish.
Mohammad was born in this tribe. We also find women engaged in the business here.

3. Religion
They had the Khaba, a kind of temple there. This was actually a cube shaped shrine. It was 39 ft.
long, 33 ft. wide and 49 ft., tall. It was a black-stone. The word Khaba means house of god
(Baithulla). There are many stories about the stone. Some say that it directly came from the heaven;
some others say that Gabriel gave this stone to Abraham to build the sanctuary. There are still
others who argue that it was brought by Adam. Here they had 360 small stones too. The people
worshiped each stones every day. It is like idol worship. But they don’t believe that it is an idol
worship.
The name Allah also was pre- Islamic. Al-lah- the god, is the higher god of Arabs. During the
festivals, they go around this Khaba as a ritual which is called circumambulation. In Sanskrit it is
called ‘Prediskhana’. They say that they continue this ritual because Gabriel told them to do that.
Near the Khaba there is a stream which they call ‘zam-zam’. They believe that this stream is the
one that was opened for Hagar by god. In addition to khaba they had stone worship in others places
too. Similarly, near every stones there was a spring/well. It was for ablution. This they retained
most probably because of the geographical reason. Since it was a desert land and there was lot of
dust, they preferred to have this custom. In pre-Islamic Arabia there were no priests. Instead of
priests, they had ‘ Kahin’ which means ‘Soothsayer’. There were women also who were engaged
in the act of performing rituals. They believed that Allah has three daughters. 1. Al-hat, 2. Al-uzza,
3. Manat. Therefore, those women who helped in rituals are supposed to have occultic power. They
were also fatalist. They believed in predestination. They believe that everything is already
determined. They also believe in Jinn. Jinn is the manifestation of evil, which is half human and
half satan. They also claim that Jinn whispers in the ears of believers to distract them from god.
The genuine people in their culture were called ‘Hanif’ which means ‘upright’, that is people who

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are travelling in the straight- way. In Quran also the name Hanif has been mentioned. It is said that
those references might have been about the Jews.

There was an impression among scholars that the pre-Islamic period was a period of ignorance
(Jahiliya). Therefore, they call it Dark Age. All kinds of evil activities prevailed during this period.
There was no morality or ethics. But some Christian scholars deny this argument saying that it is
an attempt on the part of the Muslims to project the religion of Islam as a religion that brought
about light in that Dark Age.

It is also believed that there were Jews and Christians in Arabia. The Jews were mainly staying in
three places, Mecca, Medina, and Taif (Zaif). Like the Arabs the Jews were also traders. But they
were less in numbers. However, they considered themselves superior to Arabs because they had
scripture (Book-kitab), rabbis and synagogues.

Christians were insignificant mainly because they were scattered on the borders. But some argue
that there were few Christians in Mecca and were doing the same trade as Jews and Muslims. The
Christian also had kitab. But they were the ones fled to Arabia due to persecution in Palestine.
They had a book in which Father, Son and Mary was supposed to be the members of trinity. That
is why Quran also considers the Father, Son, and Mary as the three characters in the trinity.

The Life and work of Mohammad

Mohammad, the founder of religion of Islam was the posthumous son of ‘Abdullah’ in his wife
Amina. He was born on the 20th of August, AD 570 in, Mecca. In his sixth year, Mohammad was
taken by his mother to al-Madinah. But during the return journey she fell ill and died at a place
called Al-Abwa and was buried there. The little orphan was then carried on to Mecca by Umm-
Aiman, who although young became his faithful nurse and companion. The charge of Mohammad
was later undertaken by Abdul-Muttalib, but he also died after two years. Then the child was left
to the control of his paternal uncle, Abu Taoib. When Muhammad was twelve years old, he was
taken by his uncle on a mercantile journey to Syria, and preceded as far as Busra. The expedition
lasted for some months. It was at Busra, he met the Christian monk Buhair, who is supposed to
have some influence on Mohammad. It was on this journey that Mohammad was brought in to
contact with the profession of Christianity in Syria and had an opportunity of obtaining some
information as to the national and social customs of Christians. He must also have passed through
many Jewish settlements. It is, therefore, highly probable that Mohammad’s mind became first
impressed with the absolute necessity of reforming, not only the gross idolatry of Mecca but the
degrading social habits of the Arabian people.

The youth of Mohammad passed away uneventfully. However, at this time he was employed in
tending the sheep and goats of Mecca upon the neighbouring hills and valleys. When Mohammad
has reached his 25th years, on the recommendation of his uncle, he entered into the service of
Khadijah, a rich widow of Mecca. She placed him in charge of her merchandises and he again got
a chance to travel the same route which he traversed nearly 13 years back. By this time, he visited
Aleppo and Damascus and was brought himself in contact with the Jews and Christians. This in
fact has enabled him after years to embody so much of the teachings of the Bible in the verses of
Quran.

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Mohammad, having proved himself faithful in the commercial interest of his mistress, was soon
rewarded with her hand in marriage. When Mohammad married her, she was a widow of 40 years
of age, and had already been married twice, and had born to her former husband’s two sons and a
daughter. The home of Mohammad and Khadija was bright and happy one, and their marriage was
fortunate and fruitful, they got two sons and four daughters.

Muhammad, while approaching his 40th year had increased contemplation and reflection engaged
his mind. The idolatry and moral debasement of his people pressed heavily upon him and the dim
and imperfect shadow of Judaism and Christianity increased his doubts and he was without
satisfaction. It is probable that Muhammad by this time had the revelation which resulted in the
composition of those Surahs of the Quran. As a result of these revelations, Mohammad believed
himself to be a commissioned apostle sent to reclaim a fallen people to the knowledge and service
of their God. This was how the religion of Islam began.

As result of the establishment of a new religion, an important change took place in the attitude of
the citizens of Mecca towards Mohammad. The hostility aroused to the extent of persecution and
many Muslims were subjected heavy torturing and indignity. However, Mohammad, in the 4th year
of his mission took possession of the house of Arqam (a convert) and held meetings there for those
who wished to know the teachings of the prophet more perfectly. When the opposition of the
people increased he left for Abyssinia. This is termed as the first flight or hijrah. After three months
of self-imposed exile, the refugees came back to Mecca and propagated the new religion, but later
when his enemies wanted to kill him, he along with his followers fled to Medina. The day of his
flight or hijrah mark the Mohammadan era or Hijrah. It is supposed to be on the 20th of June 622
AD. Later with an army he came back to Mecca and defeated his enemies and spread his religion
all over Mecca. The waves of Islam reached in India too. During the years and centuries gone by,
it grew by using all means and became the second largest religion in the world as well as in India.

Four Foundation of Islam

i) The Qur’an:
Muslims accept four fundamental principles as the foundations of their faith and law. For Muslims
the verdict of the Qur’an is final in all theological and legal matters. They believe that ‘What lies
between the two covers of the Qur’an is the Word of God.” There are other books that Allah had
revealed to his Prophets in former times. The Law (Tawrat) was given to Moses, Psalms (Zabur)
David and the Gospel (Injil) to Jesus. In their present form, however, these books have been
perverted by their followers. Qur’an is the only true scripture, inspired as the last word. It may not
be translated except in the interlinear form.

ii) Sunna
The Qur’an was not exhaustive enough to cover all points of law and doctrine and the
requirements of daily life. Hence the “fine example” of the Prophet, his “custom” (Sunna) was
accepted as the second root of Islam, Hadith or Sunnah is a large collection of legal provisions,
religious obligations which include the duties of the five pillars of Islam and Farz which is Wajib
(necessary duties). These are duties which are permitted or allowed known as Halal and duties that
are forbidden known as haram especially regarding ritual purity and laws pertaining to food. Large

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collections of traditions were made of the things that Muhammad said or did. These were
meticulously recorded on the basis of the witnesses of the companions (ashab) of the Prophet.
Today there are six accepted collections of traditions for Orthodox Islam. Muslims everywhere
regulate their personal and social lives according to the Sunna following the injunction of
Muhammad: “He who tires of my sunna, does not belong to me”

iii) Qiyas:
Muslim scholars refer to the approval of the Prophet for the use of analogical reason
(Qiyas) whenever necessary. The tradition quoted in this regard refers to the words of the Prophet
to Muadh whom he sent as Quazi to the province of Yemen” “How will you decide when a question
arises?” he replied: “According to the Book of Allah and if I do not find an answer there, then
according to the Sunna of the Prophet.” “And if you find an answer neither in the Sunna nor in the
Book?’ “Then I shall come to the decision according to my own opinion without hesitation.” Then
the Messenger of Allah slapped Maudh on the chest with his hand saying: “Praise be to Allah who
has led the Messenger of Allah to an answer that pleased him.”

iv) Ijma:
There have been situations in the history of the Muslims when the Qur’an, the Sunna, or
Quiyas was adequate to guide for conduct in difficult situations. In such cases they found a way
out in Ijma (consensus). Ijma does not mean the agreement of the people as a whole but the verdict
of the Ulema, the doctors of law. It is not so much conscious decision on a point of dispute as an
official approval of what has already become based on the Prophet’s conviction, “My people will
never agree in an error”. Educated Muslims consider the doctrine of Ijma as a progressive
principle. Through this Muslim dogma and practice can be interpreted to suit the contemporary
needs of the community. Historically this principle of the ijma has been on the side of the forces
of conservatism in Islam and for the vast majority it remains the same today.

There has always been considerable diversity of opinion among the Muslims on the relative
validity of these basic principles. Since the completion of the Muslim Law in the early centuries,
the Qiyas and Ijma were practically denied to succeeding generations. Enlightened Muslims in
recent times have stressed the need to reopen these principles and give them a more democratic
interpretation. It is through the help of these that Islam can regain some of its early dynamism and
become relevant once again for Muslims to meet the challenge of the present times. On the other
hand, conservative Muslims prefer Islam to go “back to the Qur’an” and reject what they call the
accretions of later ages.

Muhammad is Islam’s highest Prophet, but the Koran also speaks often of Jesus, known as Isa.
The Koran refers to Jesus as Kalimatallah, which means The Word of God. Muslims do not believe
in his death on the cross, his resurrection and his deity. Jesus is the second Prophet in Islam. The
belief of angels and evil spirits (Jinn) plays a very prominent part in the lives of Muslims. Within
the Koran and the Hadith there are instructions for every detail of a Muslim’s daily life.

FAITH AND PRACTICES OF ISLAM (IMAN & DIN)

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1) The Basic Beliefs of Islam

Though the beliefs of Muslims worldwide are about as diverse as those among Christians, there
are six basic articles of faith common to nearly all Muslims.

The first of these is that there is no God but Allah. The pre- Islamic Arabs were polytheists. But
Muhammed succeeded in leading them to devote themselves solely to the chief God of the
pantheon whom they called Allah (which simply means God). To worship or attribute deity to any
other being is considered shirk or blasphemy. The Koran mentions numerous names of Allah, and
these names are found frequently on the lips of devout Muslims who believe them to have a nearly
magical power.

The second article of faith is belief in angels and jinn. Jinn are spirit beings capable of both good
and evil actions and of possessing human beings. Above the jinn in rank are the angels of God.
Two of them are believed to accompany every Muslim, one on the right to record his good deeds,
and one on the left to record his evil deeds.

The third article is belief in God's holy books, 104 of which are referred to in the Koran. Chief
among these are the Law given to Moses, the Psalms given to David, the Gospel (or Injil) given to
Jesus, and the Koran given to Muhammed. Each of these is conceived to have communicated the
same basic message of God's will to man. Obvious discrepancies between the Jewish and Christian
Scriptures and the Koran (particularly with reference to Jesus and Muhammed) were accounted
for by Muhammed in his suggestion that the Bible had been tampered with by Jews and Christians.

The fourth article of faith is belief in God's prophets, through whom Allah appealed to man to
follow His will as revealed in His holy books. There is no agreement as to how many prophets
there have been--some say hundreds of thousands. Among them were Adam, Noah, Abraham,
Moses, and Jesus. But all agree that Muhammed was God's final and supreme prophet--the "seal"
of the prophets. Though Muhammed himself said that he was a sinner, nonetheless there are many
Muslims throughout the world who appear to come close to worshiping him.

The fifth article of faith is belief in the absolute predestinating will of Allah. Muslims believe in
the absolute decree of God and the Divine predestination of both the good and evil. Surah 3:145
states, “No one dies unless Allah permits. The term of every life is fixed.” At the same time, this
Surah holds that God is omnipotent to reverse His own decree and He has endowed humans with
free will.
Human beings have their free will. Muslim faith subscribes to freewill of human beings and
indicates that people can choose between right and wrong but they are held responsible for their
choices. Divine predestination includes belief in four things: (a) God knows everything. He knows
in advance what will happen (b) God records everything that has happened and that which will
happen. (c) Everything happens according to the will of God. If He wills something not to happen,
it will not happen (d) God is the Creator of everything. Some people object to this doctrine but the
faithful believe that it is an expression of gratitude to God that He saves man out of His mercy and
supreme compassion. Hence the doctrine of pre-destination is the expression of faith, trust and
complete surrender to the will of God. Surrender to the will of God is the meaning of Islam and

46
one has to be faithful to Allah otherwise even a Muslim is sent to the hell. Those who conclude
that Islam is a fatalistic religion have good reason for doing so.
The sixth and final article of faith is belief in the resurrection and final judgment. At the end of
history, God will judge the works of all men. Those whose good deeds outweigh their bad deeds
will enter into paradise (pictured in rather sensual terms). The rest will be consigned to hell. Human
souls have the capacity for both good and evil. At death, the soul separates from the body, and
feels God's rewards and punishments, as it is kept in a transitional state (barzakh), awaiting the
Day of Reckoning for all of humanity. Those with good records are generously rewarded; those
with bad records are fairly punished. The time of the Day of Reckoning is known to God, and to
God alone. As the moment of death approaches, a believer should recite the 'shahadah' ("There is
no deity but God, and Muhammad is His Messenger"). A Muslim close to the dying, should read
Surah 36 of the Quran, and ask God for mercy and forgiveness. Death itself must be received with
dignity and emotional balance by survivors. A ritual washing is performed by a close Muslim
relative or friend. A funeral service asks again for God's compassion and blessings. The
enshrouded body is placed facing Mecca for burial. Water is sprinkled over the covered grave.

The paramount feature of Islamic belief, aside from its strong monotheism, is that it is a religion
of human works. One's position with regard to Allah is determined by his success in keeping His
laws.

2) The Basic Practices of Islam

Now we want to focus on the most important of those works. These are summarized in what are
usually called the "Five Pillars of Islam."

The first pillar is recitation of the creed: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammed is his
prophet." It is commonly held that to recite this creed in the presence of two witnesses is to
constitute oneself a Muslim--one in submission to God. Of course, the word Islam simply means
"submission."

The second pillar is the regular practice of prayers. Sunni Muslims are required to recite specific
prayers accompanied by prescribed motions five times daily. (Shi'ites do so only three times a
day.) All male Muslims are also enjoined to meet for community prayer (and sermon) each Friday
at noon.

The third pillar is almsgiving. Born an orphan himself, Muhammed was deeply concerned for the
needy. The Koran requires that 2.5% of one's income be given to the poor or to the spread of Islam.

The fourth pillar of Islam is the fast during the month of Ramadan (the ninth lunar month of the
Muslim calendar, during which Muhammed is said to have received the first of his revelations
from God, and during which he and his followers made their historic trek from Mecca to Medina).
During this month, Muslims in good health are required to forego all food and liquid during
daylight hours. This fast promotes the Muslim's self-discipline, dependence on Allah, and
compassion for the needy.

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The fifth pillar is the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. At least once in a lifetime obligation is there
for those who are physically and financially able to hold pilgrimage to the holy city Mecca and its
sacred shrine, the Kabba and offer prayer. It is estimated that about two million people go to
Mecca every year all over the world. The annual Hajj is performed in the twelfth month of the
Islamic calendar. Male pilgrims wear special simple clothes which strip away distinction and
culture so that all stand equal before God. The rites of the Hajj include circling the Kaaba seven
times and seven times between the hill rock of safa and Marwa, as Hagar did during her search for
water. Then at Arafa the pilgrims stand and ask God their wishes and for His forgiveness,
remembering the Day of Judgment. The last thing of the Hajj is celebrating the festival of Eid Al-
Adha, celebrated with prayers. By fulfilling these obligations and remembering God often, the
Muslim is assured of God’s favor both on earth and at the judgment. While Muslim may observe
each of these pillars there is still no guarantee of salvation. People who obey God’s commandments
and live a good life will go to heaven after death; those who disobey will go to hell. All souls will
be resurrected for a last judgment at the end of the world.

A sixth pillar, that of jihad, is often added. (The term means "exertion" or "struggle" in behalf of
God.) Scholars have suggested that to the five pillars of Islam, the sixth pillar of Jihad or ‘holy
war’ may be added. But it is not one of the pillars of Islam. Jihad is the means by which those who
are outside the household of Islam are brought into its fold. Jihad may be by persuasion, or it may
be by force or "holy war." The fact that any Muslim who dies in a holy war is assured his place in
paradise provides strong incentive for participation! Jihad literally means ‘striving’ or struggle. It
is understood to mean, readiness to give even one’s life for the sake of Allah and his message. In
other words it means readiness for a religious war. Surah 5.5 calls upon the Muslims to declare
Jihad against the Jews and the Christians. The Surah 5.9 asks Muslims to declare Jihad against all
atheists who do not accept Islam. Muslims are also allowed to declare Jihad in self-defense (Surah
2.190). All those Muslims who lay down their lives in these religious wars are regarded as martyrs
who go to Paradise immediately (Sura 2.154; 3.169, 195). According to Muslim belief, every male
Muslim is under the obligation to share in the struggle to spread Islam. It was the important duty
among the first Muslim community in Medina. However, over the centuries this duty has declined
in importance. In times of danger, Muslims use Jihad to arouse the religious sentiments of Muslims
and rouse them to action. They have resorted to this when non-Muslim nations have attacked
Muslim states in war. Jihad is the sure way to enter Paradise and with the approval of Allah.

Islam is based on a religion of self-righteousness. Muslims often think about the day of Judgment,
where they believe Allah will take a balance and weigh each person’s deeds. His hope is that his
good deeds will outweigh his bad deeds, but even Allah’s judgment is up to His will. Another
interpretation is that man’s deeds are written in a book and on the Day of Judgment Allah will
open the book and the sum of a man’s account will be placed in either His right or left hand. The
only sure way to paradise is to die as a martyr during an Islamic Holy War Jihad.

GROUPS AND SECTS OF ISLAM

Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam is reported to have stated that his followers will
be divided into 72 groups and now there are more than 72 sects among Muslims. Early leadership
controversies within Muslim community led to divisions that still have an impact on the body of
believers. When Muhammad died, leadership fell into his father-in-law, Abu Bakr, who became

48
the first Caliph (Khalifa or successor), a position that combined spiritual and secular power. A
separate group advocated the leadership of Ali’s son Hussein, but in the power struggle that
followed, in 680 Hussein and seventy-two followers were murdered at Karbala (now in modern
Iraq).
This leadership dispute formed the most crucial dividing point in Islamic history. The victorious
party went on to found the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750), which had its headquarters at Damascus,
leading the majority of Muslims in the Sunni path. The disaffected Shiat Ali (or Party of Ali)
viewed only his line as legitimate and continued to follow the descendants of Hussein as their
leader (imam). Among the followers of this path, there is a party of “Seveners” who trace lineage
of imams down to Ismail (d. 762), the Seventh Imam and eldest son of the Sixth Imam.

So, when Muhammad died, a division arose over succession to the Prophet. The division between
Sunni and Shia dates back to purely political struggles in the seventh century, however, the rift
between the two major communities grew gradually in many ways including differences in ritual
and legal interpretations.

This resulted in the emergence of the Sunnis now constituting about 90 percent of all Muslims-
who consider themselves the orthodox branch of Islam. The other group, the Shi’tes, who primarily
live in Iran, also consider themselves as authentic Muslims. Sunnis and Shi’ites differ on the issue
of succession and in some of their interpretations of the Shari’ah (the straight path), a
comprehensive code of morality and religious duties based on the Qur’an and the Hadith (traditions
of the Prophet’s words and deeds).

Sunni, Muslims
In virtually all other countries in which one branch of Islam is predominant, the
predominant branch is Sunni. Sunnis consider themselves as the orthodox branch of Islam. There
are other branches of Islam which are considered heretical by Sunnis, such as Ahamadiyyans and
Druze, but these do not form the majority of the population in any nation.

Sunni Muslims revere the Sunnah, the teaching of Muhammad based upon hadith, the traditions
and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad as recollected and transmitted by his companions. Most of
the hadith deal with the specific Islamic Law. But some speak of matters of faith, morality, and
eschatology. The six great classical compilers of the Sunnah are: Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud,
Tirmidhi, an-Nasai, and Ibn Majah, with Bukhari and Muslim are the most authoritative. These
collections are the fruits of ‘ilm al-hadith, the science of Traditions, classifying them as ‘sound,’
“good”, “weak”, or “infirm”.

The vast majority of Muslims is Sunnis, and in contemporary India 90 percent of Muslims follows
this path. Regulation of the Muslim community rests primarily on rules in the Qur’an, then on
authenticated accounts of the conduct (sunna) of the Prophet Muhammad, then on reasoning , and
finally on the consensus of opinion. By the end of the eighth century, four main schools of Muslim
jurisprudence had emerged in Sunni Islam to interpret the sharia (Islamic Law).

Prominent among these groups was the Hanafi School, which dominated most of India. The Shafi
School was more prevalent in South India. Because Islam has no ordained priesthood, direction of

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the Muslim community rests on the learning of religious scholars (ulaima) who are expert in
understanding the Qur’an and its appended body of contemporaries.

Shiite Muslims:
The Shi’ites, who primarily live in Iran, consider themselves as authentic Muslims. The
Shi’ite Muslims believe in a tradition of honorable martyrdom and in times of crisis the need to
employ strong action including Holy War. According to Shi’ite beliefs the government of a nation
should be a theocracy, a government ruled by God through the Imam (a special spiritual leader).
As with any group Shi’ites includes moderates and extremists.

The Shi’ites Muslims have their collections of hadith which differ only in minor details from the
Sunni collections. But these do not have the authority of the Sunnah. Shi’ite Islam has its reverence
for Ali (d. 661), the son-in-law of Muhammad, who became the fourth Caliph and ruled the Muslim
people for seven years until death as a martyr. ‘Ali is regarded as the perfect exemplar of Islam.
Ali was assassinated at Kufa, his elder son Hassan was poisoned and his younger son Hussein was
cruelly killed at Karbala by the order of Yazid the usurper whom the Shi’ites call “the polluted”.
The tombs of Ali at Najaf and Hussein at Karbala have become sacred places of pilgrimage for the
Shi’ites. The matter of succession has caused a schism between the Shi’ites and the Sunnis. There
are considerable hostilities between them. The Shi’ites are also “called the Imamiyyas because
they give the successor of Muhammad the title of imam and Khalifa, in the belief that the Muslim
religion consists in true knowledge of the Imam, or rightful leader of the faithful.” There are also
many doctrinal differences between the Sunnis and the Shiites.

In the following nations the majority of the population is Shi’ites Muslims: Iran, Azerbaijan,
Bahrain, Oman, and Iraq. Notably, Shi’ite Islam is the predominant form in Lebanon, but they do
not make up the majority of the nation’s population, as Muslims are only a slim and recent majority
in the country. Large proportions of the nation’s population are Christians and Druze. If one does
not count Druze as Muslims, the Muslim majority in the country is slim and difficult to confirm.

What is the theology behind groups?

The Shias say that Imam and not Khalifa is the real successor of Mohammad. So they call
themselves as Imamiyas. They claim that God gave some direct guidance to the prophet concerning
the successorship of Ali. What is the difference between Kalifa and Imam? Kalipha is just a
political leader, but Imam is not political but religious (spiritual). Is the Imam having a spiritual
authority? Can we elect an Imam? Shias say no. Since kalifas are elected they are not spiritual
leaders.
Shias believe that Muhammad is actually created from light (nur). They argue that the same
light now is there in Imam through Ali. According to Shias there are 12 Imams, and the 12th Imam
is called Mahadi. Mahadi is hidden. His original name is Abdl-Qasim. He is Mahadi and is still
guiding people. He disappeared in 940 AD.
So they argue that if Mahdi is guiding why we need consensus of Ijma. They believe that
ijma is not the guidance of the scholars, but the guidance of Mahadi. They argue that Al-Mahadi
will come again. And this coming back is to convert the world into Islam. (Like 2nd coming of
Christ).
Shias believe that the hidden Imam will be coming. But the advent of Christ is believed by
Sunnis. The Shias also have an idea of Mujtahids. That is people who know law. For Sunni there

50
are schools of law. But for Shias, they have a set of scholars called (like Christian pastor)
Mujtahids. They also believe that the Mujtahids have the ability to receive the guidance of the
hidden Imam, but shall not contradict with Quran or Hadith.

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BUDDHISM

Buddhism, a major world religion, was founded in northeastern India and based on the teachings
of Siddhartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha, or Enlightened One.

Originating as a monastic movement within the dominant Brahman tradition of the day, Buddhism
quickly developed in a distinctive direction. The Buddha not only rejected significant aspects of
Hindu philosophy, but also challenged the authority of the priesthood, denied the validity of the
Vedic scriptures, and rejected the sacrificial cult based on them. Moreover, he opened his
movement to members of all castes, denying that a person's spiritual worth is a matter of birth.

Buddhism today is divided into two major branches known to their respective followers as
Theravada, the Way of the Elders, and Mahayana, the Great Vehicle. Followers of Mahayana refer
to Theravada using the derogatory term Hinayana, the Lesser Vehicle.

Buddhism has been significant not only in India but also in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia,
Myanmar (formerly known as Burma), and Laos, where Theravada has been dominant; Mahayana
has had its greatest impact in China, Japan, Taiwan, Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Korea, and Vietnam,
as well as in India. The number of Buddhists worldwide has been estimated at between 150 and
300 million. The reasons for such a range are twofold: Throughout much of Asia religious
affiliation has tended to be nonexclusive; and it is especially difficult to estimate the continuing
influence of Buddhism in Communist countries such as China.

Buddha's Life

No complete biography of the Buddha was compiled until centuries after his death; only
fragmentary accounts of his life are found in the earliest sources. Western scholars, however,
generally agree on 563 BC as the year of his birth. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in
Kapilavastu near the present Indian-Nepal border, the son of the ruler of a petty kingdom.
According to legend, at his birth sages recognized in him the marks of a great man with the
potential to become either a sage or the ruler of an empire. The young prince was raised in sheltered
luxury, until at the age of 29 he realized how empty his life to this point had been. Renouncing
earthly attachments, he embarked on a quest for peace and enlightenment, seeking release from
the cycle of rebirths. For the next few years he practiced Yoga and adopted a life of radical
asceticism.

Eventually he gave up this approach as fruitless and instead adopted a middle path between the
life of indulgence and that of self-denial. Sitting under a bo tree, he meditated, rising through a
series of higher states of consciousness until he attained the enlightenment for which he had been
searching. Once having known this ultimate religious truth, the Buddha underwent a period of
intense inner struggle. He began to preach, wandering from place to place, gathering a body of
disciples, and organizing them into a monastic community known as the sangha. In this way he
spent the rest of his life.

Buddha's Teachings

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The Buddha was an oral teacher; he left no written body of thought. His beliefs were codified by
later followers. At the core of the Buddha's enlightenment was the realization of the Four Noble
Truths:

A. The Four Noble Truths

(1) Life is suffering: Suffering is perhaps the most common translation for the Sanskrit word
duhkha, which can also be translated as imperfect, stressful, or filled with anguish. This is more
than a mere recognition of the presence of suffering in existence. It is a statement that, in its very
nature, human existence is essentially painful from the moment of birth to the moment of death.
Even death brings no relief, for the Buddha accepted the Hindu idea of life as cyclical, with death
leading to further rebirth.

Contributing to the anguish is anitya -- the fact that all things are impermanent, including living
things like ourselves.

Furthermore, there is the concept of anatman -- literally, "no soul". Anatman means that all things
are interconnected and interdependent, so that no thing -- including ourselves -- has a separate
existence.

(2) All suffering is caused by ignorance of the nature of reality and the craving, attachment,
and grasping that result from such ignorance. Suffering is due to attachment: Attachment is a
common translation for the word trishna, which literally means thirst and is also translated as
desire, clinging, greed, craving, or lust. Because we and the world are imperfect, impermanent,
and not separate, we are forever "clinging" to things, each other, and ourselves, in a mistaken effort
at permanence. And finally there is avidya, ignorance or the refusal to see. Not fully understanding
the impermanence of things is what leads us to cling in the first place.

(3) Suffering can be ended by overcoming ignorance and attachment. Attachment can be
overcome. Perhaps the most misunderstood term in Buddhism is the one which refers to the
overcoming of attachment: nirvana. It literally means "blowing out," but is often thought to refer
to either a Buddhist heaven or complete nothingness. Actually, it refers to the letting go of clinging,
hatred, and ignorance, and the full acceptance of imperfection, impermanence, and
interconnectedness.

(4) The path to the suppression of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path (the path, called
dharma). Buddha called it the middle way, which is understood as meaning the middle way
between such competing philosophies as materialism and idealism, or hedonism and asceticism.
This path, this middle way, is elaborated as the eightfold path which consists of right views, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right-mindedness, and right
contemplation. These eight are usually divided into three categories that form the cornerstone of
Buddhist faith: morality, wisdom, and samadhi, or concentration.

B. The Eightfold Path

1. Right view is the true understanding of the four noble truths.

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2. Right aspiration is the true desire to free oneself from attachment, ignorance, and hatefulness.

These two are referred to as prajña, or wisdom.

3. Right speech involves abstaining from lying, gossiping, or hurtful talk.

4. Right action involves abstaining from hurtful behaviors, such as killing, stealing, and careless
sex.

5. Right livelihood means making your living in such a way as to avoid dishonesty and hurting
others, including animals.

These three are refered to as shila, or morality.

6. Right effort is a matter of exerting oneself in regards to the content of one's mind: Bad qualities
should be abandoned and prevented from arising again; Good qualities should be enacted and
nurtured.

7. Right mindfulness is the focusing of one's attention on one's body, feelings, thoughts, and
consciousness in such a way as to overcome craving, hatred, and ignorance.

8. Right concentration is meditating in such a way as to progressively realize a true understanding

of imperfection, impermanence, and non-separateness.

The last three are known as samadhi, or meditation.

C. Anatman
Buddhism analyzes human existence as made up of five aggregates or "bundles"
(skandhas): the material body, feelings, perceptions, predispositions or karmic tendencies, and
consciousness. A person is only a temporary combination of these aggregates, which are subject
to continual change. No one remains the same for any two consecutive moments. Buddhists deny
that the aggregates individually or in combination may be considered a permanent, independently
existing self or soul (atman). Indeed, they regard it as a mistake to conceive of any lasting unity
behind the elements that constitute an individual. The Buddha held that belief in such a self results
in egoism, craving, and hence in suffering. Thus he taught the doctrine of anatman, or the denial
of a permanent soul. He felt that all existence is characterized by the three marks of anatman (no
soul), anitya (impermanence), and dukkha (suffering). The doctrine of anatman made it necessary
for the Buddha to reinterpret the Indian idea of repeated rebirth in the cycle of phenomenal
existence known as samsara. To this end he taught the doctrine of pratityasamutpada, or
dependent origination. This 12-linked chain of causation shows how ignorance in a previous life
creates the tendency for a combination of aggregates to develop. These in turn cause the mind and
senses to operate. Sensations result, which lead to craving and a clinging to existence. This
condition triggers the process of becoming once again, producing a renewed cycle of birth, old
age, and death. Through this causal chain a connection is made between one life and the next.

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What is posited is a stream of renewed existences, rather than a permanent being that moves from
life to life—in effect a belief in rebirth without transmigration.

D. Karma
Closely related to this belief is the doctrine of karma. Karma consists of a person's acts and
their ethical consequences. Human actions lead to rebirth, wherein good deeds are inevitably
rewarded and evil deeds punished. Thus, neither undeserved pleasure nor unwarranted suffering
exists in the world, but rather a universal justice. The karmic process operates through a kind of
natural moral law rather than through a system of divine judgment. One's karma determines such
matters as one's species, beauty, intelligence, longevity, wealth, and social status. According to the
Buddha, karma of varying types can lead to rebirth as a human, an animal, a hungry ghost, a
denizen of hell, or even one of the Hindu gods.

Although never actually denying the existence of the gods, Buddhism denies them any special role.
Their lives in heaven are long and pleasurable, but they are in the same predicament as other
creatures, being subject eventually to death and further rebirth in lower states of existence. They
are not creators of the universe or in control of human destiny, and Buddhism denies the value of
prayer and sacrifice to them. Of the possible modes of rebirth, human existence is preferable,
because the deities are so engrossed in their own pleasures that they lose sight of the need for
salvation. Enlightenment is possible only for humans.

E. Nirvana
The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is release from the round of phenomenal existence
with its inherent suffering. To achieve this goal is to attain nirvana, an enlightened state in which
the fires of greed, hatred, and ignorance have been quenched. Not to be confused with total
annihilation, nirvana is a state of consciousness beyond definition. After attaining nirvana, the
enlightened individual may continue to live, burning off any remaining karma until a state of final
nirvana (parinirvana) is attained at the moment of death.

In theory, the goal of nirvana is attainable by anyone, although it is a realistic goal only for
members of the monastic community. In Theravada Buddhism an individual who has achieved
enlightenment by following the Eightfold Path is known as an arhat, or worthy one, a type of
solitary saint.

For those unable to pursue the ultimate goal, the proximate goal of better rebirth through improved
karma is an option. This lesser goal is generally pursued by lay Buddhists in the hope that it will
eventually lead to a life in which they are capable of pursuing final enlightenment as members of
the sangha.

The ethic that leads to nirvana is detached and inner-oriented. It involves cultivating four virtuous
attitudes, known as the Palaces of Brahma: loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and
equanimity. The ethic that leads to better rebirth, however, is centered on fulfilling one's duties to
society. It involves acts of charity, especially support of the sangha, as well as observance of the
five precepts that constitute the basic moral code of Buddhism. The precepts prohibit killing,
stealing, harmful language, sexual misbehavior, and the use of intoxicants. By observing these
precepts, the three roots of evil—lust, hatred, and delusion—may be overcome.

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 SIKKHISM

A progressive religion well ahead of its time when it was founded over 500 years ago, The Sikh
religion today has a following of over 19 million (1.9%) and more than 20 million people
worldwide and is ranked as the worlds 5th largest religion. Kerala has got a population of 2,224.
They have a growth rate of 24.3% in India for the years 1991-2001. Sikhism preaches a message
of devotion and remembrance of God at all times, truthful living, equality of mankind and
denounces superstitions and blind rituals. Sikhism is open to all through the teachings of its 10
Gurus enshrined in the Sikh Holy Book and Living Guru, Sri Guru Granth Sahib.

God is love and love is God. As God cannot be confined, restricted or limited to any particular
creed, cult, race, similarly Religion of love cannot be restricted or confined in geographical limits
and boundaries. Sri Guru Nanak Sahib's Religion of Love is cosmic and universal in its appeal,
holy folds and dimensions.

It is a Religion of perfect and universal Love totally free from man-made barriers of colour, caste,
creed and status. It is a Religion which radiates with a deep thirst for the Divine and
with the highest gospel of purity of heart, mind, body, speech and deeds.

It is a Religion which establishes brotherhood of the whole global community irrespective of

colour, caste, creed, race and nationality purely on the basis and foundation of love and equality,
all being the children of the same lovable God.

 The Punjabi word ‘Sikh’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘sishya’ (the Pali ‘sikkha’) meaning
‘disciple’ or a ‘learner’. The first Sikhs were disciples of Guru Nanak. The Sikhs may still be
defined as the disciples who believe in the teaching of the ten Sikh Gurus and who venerate The
Guru Granth Sahib as their sacred scripture.

 The founder is Guru Nanak (1469-1539 A.D,) Born in a Kshatriya family in Talvandi village
from Lahore. Was a disciple of poet Kabir, who was a weaver under Ramananda, leader of the
Rama sect of Vaisnavite Bhakti. Kabir was a Muslim.

 Kabir called his god as Allah and Rama interchangeably. He condemned idolatry and caste.
He being uneducated learned of both religion from the gurus and fused them together into a system
of his own. Although he spoke of God in Hindu terms and the Hindu doctrines of the human soul,
transmigration and liberation. Did not think of God in personal terms nor did he believe in the
unique mission of the prophet Muhammed. Believed in the need of a spiritual guru to guide, prayer
and devotion and use of song and music. He was very popular and at his death was claimed by
both Hindu and Muslims. He had 12 disciples and one of them was Nanak, the founder of true
Sikhism.

 Guru Nanak(1469-1539 A.D,) studied Islam and Hinduism. An ascetic after marriage. Spent
many days in fasting and prayer till he is confirmed that he is qualified to preach. His doctrine was

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“There is no Hindu, there is no Mussulman.” He took a Hindu friend and a Muslim musician with
him and the three went everywhere preaching He got a large following in the Punjab and these
disciples were called “shish” (disciples) To unit Muslims and Hindus as one brotherhood. His
successor Lehna (later changed name to Angat) compiled the ‘Granth Sahib.’ His own reflections
are also added to this. Gurumukhi is the language. Nanak claimed to be nothing more than a guru.
His crusaded against all hypocrisy. He ridiculed all magical ideas and went opposite to many
popular opinions; strongly opposed asceticism; apparently travelled all over India and went to
Persia and Arabia and spent his life trying to get Hindus and Muslims together and when he died
his body became a subject of dispute between Hindus and Muslims. Nine other gurus who followed
him organised them into a sect, with their own language, literature and religious beliefs and
practises.

2. Guru Angad (1538-52). He is credited with the invention of Gurumukhi language. He is

the compiler of Granth Sahib.

3. Guru Amardas (1552-74). It is said that he originally started the tradition of Langar, the
social kitchen to remove caste distinctions and establish social harmony among his followers.

4. Guru Ramdas (1574-81). He was the son-in-law of Guru Amardas. He founded the city
of Ramdaspur, which is now known as Amritsar. The construction of Guru Harminder Sahib (the
Golden temple) began here during his time.

5. Guru Arjan (1581-1606). He was the youngest son of Guru Ramdas. He compiled the Adi
Granth which is the most important segment of the Guru Granth Sahib. He made Sikhism very
popular during his life time and there by attracted the attention of the Mughal Emperors.

6. Guru Har Gobind (1606-45). Son of Guru Arjan, he perfected the dress code introduced
by his father and started the tradition of wearing two swords, one signifying his political (amiri)
authority and the other his religious (fakiri). He tried to organize the Sikhs and the Hindus against
the Mughals for which he had to face the wrath of the Mughal Emperor, Jehangir.

He renamed the Sikh army as “Khalsa” (Pure). He introduced typical customs which distinguished
them from Hindus and Muslims. Khalsa is a concept of “chosen” race of soldier saints committed
to five principles, in short known as “Five K’s.” these are five symbols every Sikh should wear:

i. Kesh (The uncut hair and beard)

ii. Kanga (the comb to keep the heir clean)
iii. Kachcha (Short trouser which protects one’s fidelity)
iv. Kara (The iron bangle which is an indication of courage or a “Steel fist” and
reminds the Sikh to think before he acts so that he never commits a moral mistake.
v. Kripan (The sword meant for self defence and a sign of bravery.

Drinking alcohol, eating meat (swine), smoking etc. were exempted for them.

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7. Guru Har Rai: He supported Dara Shukoh, the elder brother of Aurangazeb in his conflict
with the latter and had to pay dearly for it. His son was held hostage by Aurangazeb and Har Rai
could not secure his release.

8. Guru Har Krishan (1661-64): He was the second son of Guru Har Rai, who succeed his
father at the age of five under unfortunate circumstances since his brother was taken away as a
hostage by the Mughals. The Mughal Emperor summed him also to Delhi and he died shortly
thereafter at the age of eight.

9. Guru Teg Bahadur (1675-1708): Though he was able to spread Sikhism to a greater
degree, Sikhism also suffered from schism during his time. Aurangazeb executed him for his
defiance of the Mughal authority. We are told that when he was in the prision awairing his
execution, Guru Teg Bahadur predicted the coming of the Western powers to the Indian
subcontinent and the downfall of the Mughals.

10. Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708):He was the tenth and the last Guru and also the most
famous after Guru Nanak. He was born at Patna. Because of the execution of his father, he became
the Guru at the age of nine. He organized the Sikhs into Khalsa to oppose the tyranny of the
Mughals. He began the tradition of adding the suffix 'Singh' to the names of the Sikhs. He
introduced the baptism of the sword, abolished the succession of the Gurus and made the Guru
Granth Sahib the symbol of the Guru himself. He spent most of his time opposing the Mughals to
whom he lost his two sons and finally he himself was assassinated by a Pathan at Nanded in the
present day Maharashtra. Swami Vivenkananda called him rightly "the most glorious hero of our
race."

He declared that the line of Gurus would end with him and Guru Granth should be considered as
the perpetual guru.

SIKH RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY

 There is only one God, he is the Creator, Sustainer and Destroyer. Sikhism teaches strict
monotheism. There is only One god. God is One and the sole reality. He is conceived as both
immanent and transcendent. He is both nirguna (unattributed) and saguna (attributed). God is
remembered as Sati Namu (the True Name), Ek Onkar (the one Eternal Being), Sati Guru
(Enlightener) and Waheguru (the Wonderful Lord). He is beyond time, birth and death. Sikhism
clearly rejects the concept of incarnation of God known as avataras. God cannot take human
form. Idolatry is forbidden. Brahma, Vishnu and Siva are considered as witnesses to eternal
transcendant truth. He manifests in everything. He is formless and transcendant.

 God’s name, Word, and Guru: God is incomprehensible, indescribable and formless. There
should be an intermediary who should help common people to reach this God. Two intermediaries
are (i) the name of God, and the (ii) Guru. the name ‘Guru’ is used as the synonym for God. People
should meditate upon God. to attain Moksha. God’s will which must be obeyed can only be learned
from those specifically appointed to teach --guru. They guru is not an incarnation of God and not
to be worshipped. To these gurus God has spoken his words. God himself is considered as supreme
guru or sanathan Wahguru (the wondrous teacher). God was Nanak’s guru. His followers, the nine

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gurus are considered as lamps of same light. When nine gurus ended, the God-given word
remained embodied in the Granth.

 Pantheism and Fatalism: Sikkhism teaches Pantheism, i.e. God is in everything. Universe is
God and world is real to Sikhs. Man acts because God acts. Man wills because God wills. Thus
everything is controlled by God. They consider God as the spectator and man as the actor. Each
man dances as God wills.

 Hukum: They believe will of God is supreme. All forms of things are created by the will of
God. God’s will is known as hukam. Literally hukam means an order but as a divine attribute it
means God’s will or His order beyond human comprehension. The faithful have their being under
God’s hukam. God ordered creation through his hukam. According to the Adigranth, the Hukum
(order) of God is responsible for the entire creation and the existence of every thing in this world.
All things, our joys as well as our suffering, prosperity and adversity, births and deaths,
transmigration of beings, every thing that was, that is and that is yet to come, happen because of
the divine Hukum. The Hukum is the ultimate and there is nothing beyond it or comparable to it.

 God, soul and man: God is the supreme creator and commander, the one god, the eternal, all
pervading, divine light. His form is beauty, his form is love, his form is justice, his form is bliss,
eternal and immortal. All the virtues exist in Him. Man contains with in himself a tiny fragment
of Him. As a fragment dwells in a flower, or an image in a mirror so does the soul resides in the
human body. Man is truly a reflection of the glory of God, a true micro specimen of the
infinitesimal Universal Soul. "Such is the divine play of God that He has reflected the whole
cosmos in the human body."

 Karma and rebirth: Sikhism accepts the ancient Hindu belief in karma and rebirth. However
Sikhism preaches a far simpler way to end transmigration of souls. It is through the grace of God,
by constantly repeating the name of God and contemplating upon Him. By leading a life of pure
devotion, virtuous living and true humility one can liberate oneself from the cycle of births and
deaths. Good actions do lead to good karma, but there is no place here for ascetic practices or mere
performance of superficial rituals. Guru Nanak preached that the birth is due to ones karma, but
the final liberation is due to God's grace.

 Sikhism believes that it is not God, but ones own actions which are responsible for ones
suffering. A person can change his life and the effects of his karma by living a virtuous life and
performing good deeds. No amount of ritualism and superficial chanting of mantras would help
him, but only the grace of God which comes to a devotee through pure devotion and complete
submission to His name and word.

 The goal of human life is to break the cycle of births and deaths and merge with God.
This can be accomplished by following the teachings of the Guru, meditation on the Holy
Name and performance of acts of service and charity.

 The five cardinal vices are; Kam (lust), Krodh (anger), Lobh (greed), Moh (worldly
attachment) and Ahankar (pride). If one can overcome these, they will achieve salvation.

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 Sin: The Sikh Gurus taught egoism is selfishness separates human beings from God and from
each other. This selfishness results from ignorance. Human beings express their selfishness and
ignorance through their attitude of self-reliance. The Sikh Gurus used the word ‘haumai’ to
describe this rebellious attitude. It leads to a scramble for possession of worldly things embroiling
human beings into lust (kama), anger (krodh), greed (lobh) and attachment (moha). It becomes the
cause of unhappiness and misery. The human soul needs the grace of God to break the bonds of
haumai.

 Grace and Salvation: Sikhism believes that a disciple’s discernment of hukam comes through
God’s grace called nadar, or nazar. This over-riding attribute of God’s nature, is similar to the
concepts of kripa, prasad and daya. God’s self revelation comes through His grace. Nevertheless
the Sikhs do believe in the concept of karma, that is the present state of birth and life of an
individual are determined by one’s conduct in the previous life. Of all forms of life, the human is
the best because a human being alone can distinguish right from wrong and can make moral
choices. Salvation is by action and not predestination. Deliverance is by righteous acts and divine
grace. But a human being alone cannot reach the stage in which there is no more coming and going,
no more rebirth. Thus divine grace overrides karma.

 The goal of spiritual progress according to Sikhism is absolute merger, blending or union of
human soul with God. Salvation is looked upon as deliverance or emancipation implying the idea
of deliverance from the cycle of transmigration and from karma. The doctrine of grace occupies a
crucial position in relation to salvation. The door to salvation is opened by God’s grace. In His
gracious glance is found the door of salvation. Karma only determines birth, but it is divine grace
which leads the faithful towards salvation. Good karma in itself cannot procure salvation nor bad
ones obstruct salvation. Divine grace is the ultimate deciding factor. However Sikhism insists
upon the superiority of inward devotion and inner cleansing. The devotee while fulfilling the duties
of a householder can follow the path of spiritual progress. This path is called sahaj involving an
experience of cleansing one’s heart and mind and having a loving devotion to God and thus craving
for His grace. One who achieves this state of being is called a jivanmukta (liberated one).
 Narm Marg; emphasizes daily devotion to the remembrance of God. Naam : In Sikhism
we frequently come across references to the word naam, which when literally translated means,
"the name". It is through the constant and sincere repetition and remembrance of the Name that
God reveals Himself to the human beings. The constant repetition of God's name is the door way
to salvation and freedom from the cycle of birth and death.

 Prayer: There is a strong emphasis on prayer which is usually repeating the name of God and
chanting humns and praise. They do not believe in austere asceticism, celibacy or penance. All
live normal family lives. There is no priesthood and all adults are competent to carry out ritual.

 Rituals and Sikhism: Rejection of all forms of blind rituals such as fasting, religious
vegetarianism, pilgrimages, superstions, yoga, as well as any form of idol worship. According
to Sikhism, rituals, pilgrimages, idol worship, sacraments etc., are a mere waste of time and do not
in any way contribute to ones liberation. In the Adi Granth, we are told that mere recitation of the
scriptures without performing ones spiritual duty leads only to pain and suffering. If the mind is
unclean how can it be purified through the worship of stones, study of the Puranas or the Vedas,
going on pilgrimages, living in the forests, or leading an ascetic life? The only way to liberation is

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to remember the Name, to constantly meditate upon the Name, follow the Guru and accept the
Word as final.

 Society: The Sikh society is the law giver for the community. A majority decision is law for
the people.

 Normal Family life (Grasth) is encouraged, celibacy or renunciation of the world is not
necessary to achieve salvation. The devotee must live in the world yet keep his mind pure.
He must be a soldier, a scholar, a saint.

 The Sikh Holy Book (Guru Granth Sahib) is the perpetual Guru, there is no place in
Sikhism for a living Guru today. Adi Granth: The sacred book of the Sikhs containing 1430
pages and 5894 sayings and hymns of various Sikh gurus, 15 Hindu and Muslim saints form
various parts of India. Of these Guru Nanak contributed 974 hymns composed in 18 ragas.
Compiled in the sixteenth century and composed entirely in lyrical form, the hymns are mostly
devotional in nature and are sung by the Sikh devotees melodiously with utmost devotion, love
and humility during various public or private ceremonies and functions. The Guru Granth Sahib
can be truly called the essence of all religions, since it contains hymns and verses from many
sacred books of various religions and sects of Hinduism. You can read the entire translation of this
scripture from our Sacred Scriptures Archives.

 The Guru's stressed the full equality of women, rejecting female infanticide, sati (wife
burning), permitting widow remarriage and rejects purdah (women wearing veils).

 Honest labour and work (Kirat Karna) are the approved way of living ones life. It is
considered honourable to earn ones daily bread through honest work and not by begging or
dishonest means.

 Vand Chhakna, sharing with others is also a social responsibility. The individual is
expected to help others in need through charity.

 Seva, community service is also an intergral part of Sikhism. The free community kitchen
(langar) found at every gurdwara and open to people of all religions is one expression of this
community service.

 Casteism and Sikhism: Sikhism rejects all distinctions of caste, creed, race or sex. Sikhism
does not recognize the caste distinctions of Hindu society. Guru Nanak showed the way by openly
criticizing the caste system prevailing during his time and the Gurus who followed him admitted
many lower caste Hindus into Sikhism and paved the way for a more equitable society in the
Punjab.

While Sikhism was originally much nearer Islam in doctrine it never departed very far from Hindu
practises and slowly it has reverted back to Hinduism. Sikhs are very opposed to cow slaughter,
carryout ritual in their temples very likd Hindus. Some wear caste marks and their weddings and
funerals follow Hindu patterns. This strong drift back to Hinduism has continued until the present
when they are a fast dying out community being absorbed back to Hinduism.

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 ZOROASTRIANISM

I. The Life & Times of Zarathushtra:

Zoroastrianism is a very ancient religion. The founder of this religion was Zarathushtra. He was
born in a princely family in the ancient city of Rae or Ragha in ancient Persia. Pourushaspa was
his father's name and Dugdhova was his mother's. When he was born, he was named Spitama, after
one of his great heroic ancestors.

At the age of fifteen, young Spitama, instead of taking up household duties, retired into solitude,
renouncing the worldly life. He spent fifteen strenuous years in the contemplation of God, facing
numerous difficulties and innumerable temptations. The evil spirit Ahirman tried his best in
various wicked ways to wean him away from his chosen path. But Spitama was steadfast in his
determination to seek God and find answers to his perplexing questions. Finally, at the end of
fifteen years he got enlightenment.

After returning home, he started preaching his new religion. Many were reluctant to accept his
teachings, because they had fallen into wicked ways. For several years he had only one disciple,
his cousin, Maidyoimaongha. He wandered from place to place teaching men what he believed in.
But it was in vain. In Iran, people were not yet ready to accept him as a prophet and follow his
teachings.

But Vishtaspa, ruler of the neighboring Bakhdi ( Bactria), welcomed him with open arms. He
embraced the new religion and also inspired two of his ministers and two of his brothers to become
his disciples. With their support the new religion became popular. Vishtaspa waged several wars
in the defense of the new creed. Finally all opposition to the new religion was overcome and
Zorastrianism was firmly established in Bactria as well as ancient Persia and also some of the
neighboring countries. Zarathushtra continued to preach the new religion to the people of his times
till he reached an advanced age.

There is a controversy as to the date of his birth. Historians believe that he lived some time around
1000 B.C. According to another opinion he might have lived some time around 600 B.C. While it
is not possible to arrive at an exact date, we can safely assume that he might have lived during the
early Rig Vedic period, when the Rigvedic people were busy consolidating their gains in the
northwestern parts of the subcontinent.

II. Basic Zoroastrian Beliefs

1. Good & Evil in Zoroastrianism:

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According to Zoroastrianism the world is a combination of both good and evil. Creation cannot
exist without the presence of both. In the beginning of creation, Ahura Mazda, the Supreme God,
created two Mainyus or twin spirits called Spenta Mainyu, the good spirit and Angra Mainyu
(Ahirman), the evil spirit. Creation is possible only when they both come together.

Spenta Mainyu is responsible for all the good works in the creation of God. He exists in all of us
and helps us see the light within ourselves. Ahirman is an illusion. He exists in order to make us
understand what true existence means. By opposing good, he makes us realize the importance and
necessity of good in our lives.

In this eternal conflict, Ahirman ultimately loses out to Spenta Mainyu. The resulting cosmic
conflict involve the entire universe, including humanity who is required to choose which to follow.
Evil and the Spirit of Evil, will be completely destroyed at the end of time. Dualism will come to
an end and Goodness will be in all. It is to be noted that neither Ahirman nor Spenta Mainyu are
absolute powers. They are the creation of God and work according to His Divine Plan, or Asha.
Asha is a form of righteous all encompassing, natural law.

2. The three great Commandments:

Zarathushtra gave three commandments to his followers to enable them lead perfect lives and work
for their own evolution. These are humata (good thought), hukhta (good word), and havarshta
(good deeds). Good thoughts are very important in the spiritual journey of man, because all else
comes out of out of thoughts only. Without good thoughts, there cannot be progress on the spiritual
path. Without good thoughts one cannot subject oneself to Divine will and become qualified to
receive boons from Vohu Mano. Thinking good alone is not sufficient. But one must have the
courage to speak Truth all the time. One must be truthful to oneself and to others. There is no place
for hypocrisy or duplicity in the life a of a true Zoroastrian. Performance of good deeds is equally
important. The supreme Power of God, in the aspect of Kshatra Vairya comes to Him who engages
himself in good actions. Good actions include Sraosha or service.

3. Zoroastrian Scriptures

Avesta (knowledge is the inclusive name for the Zoroastrian scriptures. Iavestan, the language in
which they have been written, is cognate and contemporary with Sanskrit, the two being sister
languages. The scriptures as used by the Parsis today are generally known to Europeans as the
Zend Avesta - the extant remnants of the original Avesta with commentary (Zend). The larger and
more important of the two parts is called the Great Avesta. It contains three divisions:

1. The Yasna (sacrifice), consisting mostly of miscellaneous prayers offered at the sacrificial rites,
has embedded within it seventeen chapters by Zarathustra written in dialect distinct from the rest
of the Avesta. These seventeen chapters are arranged into five Gathas or Psalms as follows

i. Gatha Ahunavaiti, Yasnas 28-34

ii. Gatha Ushtavaiti, Yasnas 43-46
iii. Gatha Spenta Mainyu, Yasna 47-50

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iv. Gatha Vohu Xshatharem, Yasna 51
v. Gatha Vahishta Istish, Yasna 53 (Chapters 35-42 are written in prose rather than verse and
belong to a different period.

2. The Visparad (All the Lords), containing twenty-four prayers in honour of the heavenly
“authorities” similar to those in the Yasna, is used with it in priestly worship.

3. The Vendidad (Law Against Demons) including ceremonial law, cosmology, history, and
eschatology, is the Leviticus of the Avesta.

The smaller second part of the Avesta is not reserved for the use of the priests as is the Great
Avesta, but is the prayer book of the layman, called the Small Avesta. It contains:

i. The Yashts, twenty-one prayers and hymns in adoration of specific deities or angels as Parsi
theology terms them.
ii. The Afringan, miscellaneous rituals
iii. The Sirozah, a devotional calendar with invocations to the beings that preside over the thirty
days of the month
iv. The Gahs, prayers to be used in the five divisions of the day
v. The Nyayish, petitions to the powers of nature

4. Ahura Mazda and His Six Aspects:

According to Zoroastrianism, God, the Creator, Ahuramazda, is one. Every thing emanates from
Him and in the end dissolves in Him. He is the one and only. He is formless and He alone should
be worshipped. Though He is formless, He has six aspects or emanations, called Amesha-Spentas,
through which men are expected to approach Him. These aspects are like the rays emanating from
the single eternal source of light. The first three aspects represents the Father-aspect of God while
the remaining three represent the Mother-aspect.

First among the six aspects is Asha-Vahishta. Asha means hope, an expectation. Asha Vahishta
represents the divine event that is already ordained in the divine scheme of things. He is the reality
that is continuously manifesting itself through divine will, according to the divine law. When a
human being submits himself to the divine will and follows the divine laws, he is following Asha-
Vahishta in the expectation of his own spiritual evolution.

It is difficult for common people to conceptualize Asha-Vahishta and understand. As a solution,

the prophet suggested fire to be used as the symbol for Asha by which people can easily recognize
Him and meditate upon Him. Asha is divine, very remote and beyond human intelligence. But fire
is very earthly and is regarded as one of the most common and familiar symbols known to the
mankind since earliest times. Fire has certain special and distinct characteristics. It can consume
as well as transform every thing it touches. Fire thus became the earthly symbol for the divine
Asha and Zoroastrians started worshipping Him as fire. Fire thus has become a very central aspect
of Zorastrianism.

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The second aspect of Ahuramazda is Vahu-mano, (Bahman), the divine wisdom, the supreme and
immortal love, who sustains and supports mankind in times of difficulties and leads people on their
path to God. He is the bestower of the pure mind or the good mind which is the basis for further
spiritual evolution. He loves not only human beings but also all other creatures and therefore is
truly a 'guardian angel' of the animals. We can please him by being kind to animals. The Parsis do
not eat meat on certain occasions as a mark of respect to Him.

Kshatra-Vairya is the third aspect. He is the supreme creative power of God and responsible for
the maintenance of the whole creation. As the dynamic aspect of God, He teaches mankind the
importance of action (karma) in their lives. On the physical plane he commands all the minerals,
and through them measures and controls the physical strength of beings.

The fourth aspect, Spenta Armaiti, is the Mother-aspect of God. She represents faith and single
minded devotion to God. She is the friend and mother of those who are dvijas or the twice-born,
that is those who have been initiated into the secrets of religion and spiritual life. On the physical
plane she is the mother earth, who sustains all and nourishes all.

The fifth aspect is Hauravatat. She is perfection personified. She represents all that is perfect,
beautiful and harmonious in the creation of God. On the physical plane she is the water goddess
who rules over the elements of water and the physical health of beings.

Ameretat is the sixth aspect who is always found in the company of Hauravatat. She is the bestower
of immortality and dispeller of fear of death. She rules over the vegetable kingdom and is
associated with the tree of life and the tree of immortality found in the heaven.

Ahura Mazda with these six aspects constitute the seven fold Lord of the Universe and fire is his
purest and holiest creations on earth. In addition to these there is another divine power , the yazata
Srosha, which was referred by Zarathushtra as the means to attain the path of salvation. Srosha is
service (sushrusha of Sanskrit), obedience and devotion to God. When we cultivate this virtue we
will be able to see the path of salvation clearly in front of us.

6. Important Concepts

i) God: The God of Zoroastrian religion is known as Ahura Mazda “Ahura’ means ‘The Lord’,
‘Mazda’ means ‘the wise’. Hence, Ahura Mazda means ‘The Wise God.’ Ahura Mazda is
considered as the only one Supreme God. He is also regarded as the Creator and Ruler of the
world. As such, a Zoroastrian God is essentially monotheistic. He is essentially transcendent for
he is much beyond and above His creatures. He is also immanent only in a metaphorical or
secondary sense in as much as He enters into relation with His worshippers as their father, brother
and friend. In other words, God is subtle and, therefore, He is not to be given to ordinary knowledge
of human beings. However, He sometimes reveals Himself to men through His archangels.

ii) The Devil, Angra Mainyu: Angra Mainyu is the hostile spirit, the deceit, personalized as Druj
(the Lie-demon).

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iii) Spirits: Zoroaster believed in a number of other spirits. Some of those were nature deities in
contemporary religion, and some were dreaded evil spirits. The first chapter in the first book of
the Avesta directs that worship be accorded first to Ahura Mazda, and then to a long unsystematic
list of objects; for e.g., to Sun, Moon, and Stars, to fire, Wind, Waters, and Mountains; to the spirits
of departed Saints, and “to all the holy creatures of Spenta Mainyu, male and female.

(a) An Array of Good Spirits: There is a group of “Bountiful Immortals,” Amesha Spentas, later
abbreviated to Amshapands. Vohu Manah, Asha, Kshathra, Armaiti, Kaurvatat, Ameretat were
common nouns denoting religious characteristics. Perhaps they were treated poetically as
Messengers, functionaries, or attributes of Ahura Mazda. In the history of Zoroastrianism they
have become technical theological terms, for personalized beings, connected with Ahura Mazda,
yet distinguished from the deity. They have also been designated as archangels.

(b) An Array of Evil Spirits: Systematically opposed to Ahura Mazda and his good spirits are
Angra Mainyu, and “numberless myriads” of demons. Among them are Hunger, thirst, Wrath,
Arrogance, Greed, False Speech, Drought, Winter, etc. The general name for these evil spirits is
‘Daeva,” which in the later Persian language became “Diu,” which in turn, became the origin of
the English word “devil.”

iv) World: The word is created by God and is also sustained and ruled by him. The world is fully
dependent upon God, such that nothing happens in it beyond his will and knowledge. However,
the Zoroastrian world is a perfectly real world, a real ground for a person’s moral exercise. Ahura
Mazda has made the world with a perfectly ethical purpose.

The world has been created by Ahura Mazda for the enjoyment of his creatures. Nature delights
people and gives them infinite enjoyment, if they are prepared to live according to the rules given
to them by his prophet Zarashutra.

Ahura Mazda has established a stable order in the whole universe. The sun and the moon and
everything in the universe work according to the laws called ‘Asha.’ The Spenta Mainyu brings
about the univers, but the Ahriman (Angra Mainyu) creates disorder. Ahriman brings about
pestilence, floods, droughts, earthquakes and so on. Thus, the entire world is represented in
Zoroastrianism as a stage of constant struggle between the forces of light and good on the one side
and the forces of evil and darkness on the other. The fight between the two sides is to go unabated
until the forces of good prevail upon those of evil and darkness.

The present world is a ground for the exercise of an individual’s free moral choice. The world with
all its multiplicity is real and one is not to abandon it in any case. Being a real creature of the world,
one is to lead a life of perfect righteousness by following the moral virtues of truthfulness, chastity,
kindness, etc. One will have a future life strictly in accordance with one’s performance in this
world. This world is very real and very vital for a person. An individual is not to neglect his ethical
duties here.

On the whole, Zoroastrianism holds on to a cheerful view of life on this earth. For on this earth,
life is a blessing, and therefore a Parsi prays for a happy, healthy and long life on this earth.

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v) Man: In Zoroastrianism an individual is a creation of God. One has been given a free choice,
a free will. A person has a significant status of being a partner with god in His ultimate scheme of
establishing complete good all over the world by defeating the force of evil.

Ahura Mazda has created this world and has endowed it with laws so that the world, with stars and
skies, flora and fauna, may be stable and wholly dependable. It is said that a person is born pure
and sinless and is free to choose either the path of good or of evil. According to Zoroastrianism,
man is absolutely free to choose any side according to his will either to good or God or evil. Ahura
Mazda wants man to take the side of good so that Ahura may be assisted in his ultimate aim of
establishing the rein of good on earth. According to the Zoroastrian conception, man is free from
all kinds of original sin or past Karmas. Man in Zoroastrianism is completely free from all such
burden and he has to work in this life with full responsibility for promoting the cause of good
which is really the cause of the Great God Ahura Mazda.

vi) Woman: A chaste woman is the noblest creation of Ahura Mazda. She is a marvel of creation.
She is the blooming flower in the garden of life. She is a help to man to grow in morality. She is
the sustaining power of man’s life.

vii) Sin and Salvation: According to Zoroastrianism, man is born pure and sinless and so he is
free to choose either the path of good or of evil. Man is taught an active ethical conduct in
Zoroastrianism. It depreciates asceticism, and teaches an ethical life of good thought, good words
and good deeds; and one who performs accordingly, would cross the Bridge of the Separator (the
Chinvad Bridge) and would enter into paraqdise, and that is salvation. On the other hand, the evil
doers will not be able to cross the Bridge of Separator and will go to hell, and that is their reward
as punishment.

viii) Heaven and Hell: The righteous doers will enter into Heaven. The Heaven is devoid of
sensual feature, but is rather “the glorious heritage of good thought.” It is both the “House of
Songs” and the dwelling place of the Ahura Mazda. Thus the righteous are rewarded in Heaven.
On the other hand, the wicked will be punished in Hell which is the “House of Demons”, a place
of torment, the age long lonely punishment provided to the liars. In righteous crosses the Chinvad
Bridge and enters into Heave, whereas the wicked fails to cross the bridge and goes into hell for
his punishment.

ix) Zoroastrian Practices:

Their worship includes prayers and symbolic ceremonies.

The rituals are conducted before a sacred fire. Some believe that they actually worship fire. This
is not true. They regard fire as a symbol of their God.

Zoroastrians do not generally accept converts. One has to be born into the religion. This belief is
disputed by some members.

Members are dedicated to a three-fold path, as shown in their motto: "Good thoughts, good words,
good deeds"

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 HOW DO YOU ANSWER A HINDU WHO SAYS
ALL RELIGIONS ARE THE SAME”?

The Fact of Non-Christian Religions

Few facts have become more evident in our lifetime than the fact that we live in a pluralistic world
and society. With the rapid increase in the transmission of information and the ability to travel on
a worldwide scale has also come an increasing awareness that both our world and society contain
a multitude of diverse and conflicting viewpoints on many different issues.

Nowhere is this pluralism more evident than in the realm of religion. More than ever before, we
are conscious of the existence of the world's many religions-not only the major religions of
Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, but also a host of smaller yet enduring religious
movements.

According to the World Christian Encyclopedia, there are approximately 1 billion Muslims, over
650 million Hindus, over 300 million Buddhists, over 200 million followers of Chinese folk
religion, in addition to the world's 1.6 billion nominal Christians. What is important for us to
understand is that these figures are more than statistics in a book or almanac. They represent real
people; people who are born, live, and die every day.
What brings this reality home even more, however, is the fact that an increasing number of
followers of non-Christian religions are living in our cities, in our communities, and in our
neighborhoods. Islamic mosques and Buddhist and Hindu worship centers can be found in every
metropolitan area of the United States.

As followers of Jesus Christ, what should our attitude be toward non-Christian religions and
toward those who embrace them? Among those who are seeking to respond to this question, three
distinct answers can be heard today. Some are saying that we must acknowledge that all religions
are equally (or nearly equally) valid as ways to approach God. Though there may be superficial
differences among the world's religions, at heart they are fundamentally the same. Often the
analogy is used of people taking different paths up the same mountain, but all arriving at the same
summit. This is the viewpoint known as religious pluralism.

Others, more anxious to preserve some sense of uniqueness for the Christian faith, yet equally
desirous of projecting an attitude of tolerance and acceptance, are committed to the viewpoint
known as Christian inclusivism. In their opinion, though people of another religious conviction
may be ignorant of Christ--or possibly even have rejected Him--yet because of their positive
response to what they know about God, or even due to their efforts to follow the dictates of their
conscience, they are unknowingly included in the number of those who are recipients of Christ's
salvation. The analogy is sometimes used of a person who receives a gift, but is unaware of who
the ultimate giver of the gift may be.
A third viewpoint is known as Christian exclusivism. This is the viewpoint traditionally held by
the majority of those who accept the Bible as their authority in spiritual matters. It is the view that
though there are indeed truths and values in many other religions, there is only one saving truth,

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namely the gospel of Jesus Christ. This view is most naturally deduced from Jesus' well known
statement: "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except by me" (John
14:6).

What should the Christian's attitude be toward non-Christian religions and their followers? This is
a question becoming more difficult to ignore. To answer this question accurately and fairly we
must look into the way non-Christian religions began.

The Origin of Non-Christian Religions

There are, of course, what we might call "naturalistic" explanations of the origin of all religions.
Those committed to a naturalistic world view that denies the existence of God or of a supernatural
realm see all religions as the product of man's imagination in some way. They might say that
religion is the expression of man's fear of the overwhelming forces of nature, or of his desire to
overcome death. While such naturalistic factors may indeed play a role in the development of some
religious sentiments, they are hardly sufficient to account for the origin of all religious belief.

From the perspective of one committed to a supernaturalistic world view, and particularly from
the Christian viewpoint, there are several elements that may have contributed to the origin of non-
Christian religion. First, where we find truth in non-Christian religion, we must attribute this to
God. He is the source of all truth. We know that, in the beginning, the truth about God was
universally known. And it is possible that remnants of this "original revelation" have survived in
the memory of peoples around the world. It is also possible that some elements of truth were
implanted in some cultures by ancient contact with God's people, Israel, with early Christians, or
with portions of the Scriptures. We know, for example, that Islam owes a great deal to the influence
of both Judaism and Christianity due to Mohammed's early contact with representatives of both
religions.

Second, we must recognize that where there is falsehood or even a twisted perspective on the truth,
this is the result of man's sinful nature in repressing the truth about God. Romans 1 states that
man's nature is to suppress the truth about God that is evident to him, and to substitute for it what
Paul calls "futile speculations" (Rom. 1:21).

Third, we cannot deny the influence of Satan and his demons in inspiring "counterfeit" religious
expressions and experiences. For example, Psalm 106:36-37 states that those who serve idols offer
sacrifices to demons. The apostle Paul says the same thing in 1 Corinthians 10:20. And in his first
letter to Timothy he attributed false religious teachings to "deceitful spirits" (1 Tim. 4:1). In his
second letter to the Corinthians, he stated that Satan "disguises himself as an angel of light" (2 Cor.
11:14) and that he disguises many of his agents as "servants of righteousness" (2 Cor. 11:15). Satan
often promotes what is evil. But he can just as easily promote a high level of morality or religion
so long as it discourages people from recognizing their need for the unmerited grace of God,
expressed through the death of Jesus Christ.

In summary, non-Christian religions can (1) represent man's response to the truth about God that
he knows. It can also (2) represent man's attempt to suppress the truth and substitute his own
speculations. Finally, it can (3) represent the deception of Satan, who replaces the truth with a lie.

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Are There Many Ways to God?

Now we must turn our attention to a related issue concerning non-Christian religions, the idea or
attitude called religious pluralism. Religious pluralism suggests that there are only superficial
differences among the religions and that these differences are greatly overshadowed by their
similarities. Thus, to this school of thought all religions share a fundamental unity that renders
them equally valid as approaches to God.

Of course, the most immediate difficulty posed by religious pluralism for the Christian is that it
compels him to deny any claims to the uniqueness of Christ or of Christianity.
The claims of the New Testament that Jesus Christ is the unique Son of God and Savior of the
world must be recast as mere exaggerations of the early Christians. It is impossible to embrace
religious pluralism and hold to the authority of the New Testament when it speaks of the
uniqueness of Christ and of the salvation He has provided.

Beyond this, however, religious pluralism significantly underestimates the differences between the
teachings of the various religions. This can be seen, for example, in the differences between
Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity, with regard to their teaching concerning salvation.
In classical Buddhism, the problem facing humanity is the suffering caused by desire. Since
whatever man desires is impermanent, and ultimately leads to frustration and sorrow, the way to
peace of mind and ultimate "salvation" is through the elimination of all desire-even the desire to
live! In classical Hinduism, the problem facing humanity is our being trapped in this illusory,
material world over the course of many lifetimes primarily due to our ignorance of our true identity
as fundamentally divine beings! The solution to our dilemma is our recognition of our true divine
nature. In Islam, man's problem is his failure to live by the law of God which has been revealed
through His prophets. The solution is to commit ourselves to obeying God's laws, in hope that our
good deeds will outweigh the bad. In Christianity, the problem is similar--our rebellion against the
will of God. But the solution is much different. It is through faith in the sacrifice of Jesus for our
sins, provided by God's unmerited grace. From these examples alone, it is evident that though there
may be superficial similarities among the world's religions the differences are fundamental in
nature!

Not surprisingly, most pluralists are unfazed by these differences in belief. They emphasize that
in spite of these differences, if the various religions foster a common "religious experience" or
result in the moral and ethical improvement of man, this is enough to show that they are valid ways
to God. The problem is that with regard to "religious experience." Even here there are significant
differences. And with regard to the moral and ethical effect of the various religions, this is
something impossible for us to measure. For, as Jesus so strongly emphasized, morality is as much
a matter of the heart as it is of action. And this is something only God can know!

We must conclude, then, that due to its denial of the uniqueness of Christ, and to its failure to take
seriously the vast differences among the world's religions, religious pluralism does not represent a
valid point of view for the Christian.

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Are the Followers of Other Religions Recipients of Christ's Salvation?

A more subtle and attractive theory of reaching out to non-Christians is the concept called Christian
inclusivism. Inclusivists hold that, though Christ is the unique Savior, nonetheless there are many
people included in His salvation who are ignorant of this fact--even followers of other religions.

Inclusivists generally hold that Christ's salvation is available to those who positively respond to
the truth they have--whether it be through creation, conscience, another religion, or some other
means. Such individuals are sometimes termed anonymous Christians.
There is no question that this is a very attractive approach to the problem of world religions.
Inclusivism seeks to widen the extent of God's grace while still preserving a commitment to the
uniqueness of Christ. It must be acknowledged also, that God could have arranged things in this
way if He had so chosen. The question is not, however, whether inclusivism is an attractive
position, or a logically possible one, but whether the evidence is convincing that it is true. And for
the Christian, this means the evidence of Scripture.

Inclusivists generally recognize this and seek to find support for their view in Scripture. We will
briefly look at one biblical example that is often used to support the idea of inclusivism--the case
of Cornelius the centurion recorded in Acts 10.

In this chapter Cornelius is referred to as "a devout man, who feared God," even before he heard
the gospel. This is often pointed to as evidence that he was an anonymous Christian before
believing in Christ. It must be remembered, however, that in the next chapter (specifically in Acts
11:14), it is clearly stated that though Cornelius was favorably disposed to God he did not receive
salvation until he heard and believed in the gospel.
Other examples could be discussed. But in each case we would see that a good deal must be read
into (or out of) the text to arrive at the conclusion that salvation can come to those who do not
know Christ.

Furthermore, there are clear statements that it is necessary to hear and believe in the gospel to
receive salvation. Perhaps the clearest is Romans 10:17, "So faith comes from hearing, and hearing
by the word of (or about) Christ." Hebrews 9:27 also strongly suggests that this faith in Christ must
be expressed before we die: "It is appointed for men to die once and after this comes judgment."

What then of people, like Cornelius, who do respond to the truth they know about God, but do not
yet know of Christ? Is there no hope for them? Actually, the case of Cornelius provides a good
illustration of what seems to be the biblical solution to this problem. Because he had responded to
what he knew about God, God saw that he eventually received the gospel--in his case through
Peter. But it was only then that he experienced Christ's salvation and the forgiveness of sins. This
principle was also well summarized in Jesus' statement: "To him who has, shall more be given"
(Mark 4:25).

Based on our confidence in the faithfulness of God, we can be assured that the gospel will come
to all those whom God knows would be prepared, like Cornelius, to receive it. And He has
commissioned us to carry the message to them!

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What Should Our Attitude Be Toward Other Religions?

In the course of this short discussion we have examined the attitude of religious pluralism, as well
as that of Christian inclusivism. The former holds that all religions are equally valid. The latter
holds that Christ is the unique savior, but that His salvation can extend to followers of other
religions. In both cases, we concluded that the evidence in support of these views is inadequate.

The only remaining option is the attitude of Christian exclusivism--the view that biblical
Christianity is true, and that other religious systems are false. This is more than implied in
numerous biblical statements, such as in Acts 4:12: "And there is salvation in no one else; for there
is no other name under heaven that has been given among men, by which we must be saved."

This is not to say, however, that there are no truths at all in non-Christian religions. There are
certainly moral and ethical truths, for instance, in Buddhism. In Buddha's Eightfold Path, he
appealed to his followers to pursue honesty, charity, and service, and to abstain from murder and
lust. We should certainly affirm these ethical truths.

Likewise, there are theological truths in other religions--truths about God that we could equally
affirm. These may be more scarce in religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism. But Orthodox
Judaism and Islam certainly share our belief in a personal Creator--God, though Christianity is
unique in the monotheistic tradition with regard to the doctrine of the Trinity. There are even truths
about Jesus that we share in common with Muslims--that He was a prophet of God, and the
Messiah, and that He worked many miracles, though they deny that He was the Son of God, or
that He died for the sins of the world.

We can, and should affirm these moral and theological truths that we share in common with
followers of other religions. We must acknowledge, however, that in no other religion is any saving
truth to be found. And as mentioned earlier, there is no other religion that presents the human
dilemma, or solution to that dilemma, in quite the same way as does the Christian faith. In
Christianity, the problem is not ignorance of our divine nature--as in Hinduism--nor simply our
desire--as in Buddhism. The problem is our alienation from God and His blessing due to our failure
to live according to His will--what the Bible calls sin. And the solution is neither in self-discipline,
nor in revised thinking, nor even in moral effort. The solution lies in the grace of God, expressed
in His provision of His Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for our sin. Salvation is not something we
achieve; it is something we receive.

It is clear, then, that though there are superficial similarities among the world's religions, there are
fundamental differences. And the most important difference is the person and work of Christ.

What should our attitude be toward followers of other religions? It is important for us to distinguish
our attitude toward non-Christian religions from our attitude toward followers of those religions.
Though we are to reject the religion, we are not to reject them by mistakenly perceiving them to
be "the enemy." The biblical injunction is to love our neighbors as much as we love ourselves no
matter what their religion. Rather than viewing them as "the enemy," we should see them as "the
victims" of the enemy who are in need of the same grace that has freed us from spiritual slavery--
in need of the gospel of Jesus Christ.

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