0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views26 pagesLect5 - Series Ohmmeter
Uploaded by
Aliaa TarekCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views26 pagesLect5 - Series Ohmmeter
Uploaded by
Aliaa TarekCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 26
error= LBA.
ror Ste x 100%
= 42% of measured current
3-8 SERIES OHMMETER
Basic Cireuit
An olmmeter (ohm-meter) is normally part of a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), or multi-
Junction meter. Ohmmeters do not usually exist as individual instruments. The simplest
‘ohmmeter circuit consists of a voltage source connected in series with a pair of terminals,
a standard resistance, and a Jow-current PMMC instrument. Such a circuit is shown in
Figure 3-21(a). The resistance to be measured (R,.) is connected across terminals A and B.
The meter current indicated by the instrument in Figure 3-21(a) is (battery volt-
age)/(total series resistance):
Resistance to
be measured
R, Standard
resistance
RX
Meter
resistance
Battery By
ree
(a) Basic circuit of series ohmmeter
Ohms
15k :
< Infinity * 5 Zero ohms
®, 50 i
% %s
‘. °
9 so)
(b) Ohmmeter scale
Figure 321 Basie series ohmmeter circuit consisting of a PMMC instrument and a
seris-connected standard resistor (R,). When the ohmmeter termi
(Re = 0) meter full-scale deflection occurs. At half-scele defection Ry
>
37.5 WA
full scale = 0.0
(b) When R, = 24.2:
io 1sV
6” 24.04 142+ (10 ON
= 31.254 mA
109
fy = 31254 mA eee
= 18,72 WA
= half scale=242
Ohmmeter Accuracy
Referring to Figure 3-23(b), it is clear that the ohmmeter scale is nonlinear. On the R x 1
range the pointer indicates 24 1 at 0.5 FSD. At 0.9 FSD, the indicated resistance is
2.6 ©, and at 0.1 FSD the resistance measured is 216 0. (Although they are not marked
Sec.3-9 Shunt Ohmmeter or on the scale, these resistance values can be calculated for 0.9 and 0.1 FSD.) Therefore, in
the range 0.1 to 0.9 FSD, resistance values from 2.6 12 to 216 0 can be measured. But the
Portion of the scale from 0.1 FSD to zero deflection includes all resistance values from
216 © to infinity. Also, that part of the scale from 0.9 FSD to FSD covers all resistance
values from 2.6 © to 0 2. Clearly, on this range of the ohmmeter; resistance values from
0 to 2.6 Q and from 216 © to infinity cannot be measured or even roughly estimated, For
example, at what points on the scale would 0.01 2 and 200 kM? be found? The useful
range of the ohmmeter scale is seen 10 be approximately from 10% to 90% of FSD. Now
consider the actual accuracy of the resistance measurement.
As already demonstrated, an ohmmeter indicates 0.5 FSD when the measured re-
sistance R, is equal to the ohmmeter internal resistance, Also, it was explained in Section
3-7 that the current meter accuracy is usually specified as a percentage of full scale, Now
consider the errors that may occur in resistance measurement by an ohmmeter that uses
an instrument with an accuracy of 1%.
At 0.5 FSD, the accuracy of pointer deflection is +1% of FSD, which, when used
as a current meter, is +2% of the indicated current. Also, at 0.5 FSD, (measured resis-
tance R,) = (ohmmeter internal resistance R,) and
Since the current meter accuracy (at 0.5 FSD) is +2% of the indicated current,
the accuracy of J, is £2%. Consequently, the accuracy of the total circuit resistance is
+2% (assuming that the ohmmeter was initially zeroed to suit the battery voltage). If Ry is
‘made up of precision resistors, virtually none of the +2% resistance error can be assumed
to reside in Ry. All of the resistance error must exist in R,, the measured resistance.
The total resistance error is 42% of (R, + R,). Since R, = R, at 0.5 FSD, the total
error in R, is = £2% of (2R,) = +4% of R,. Thus, an ohmmeter that uses precision internal
resistors and a current meter with an accuracy of +1% of FSD measures resistance at 0.5
FSD with an accuracy of 4%.
Example 3-17
Analyze the accuracy of the ohmmeter in Figure 3-21(a) when the pointer is at 0.8 FSD if
the meter used has a 1% accuracy.
Solution
‘At 0.8 FSD:
Rt R,= ee
O80
and fe or,
Teso
s0 R+ R= BL 2 125K,
“ 08
6 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3 total error = 1% of FSD
1%. of pointer indication
= 1.25% of pointer indication
total R, error = 1.25% of (Ry + R,)
= 1.25% of (R, +R)
= 6.25% of Re
‘The analysis above demonstrates that when indicating half-scale deflection, the
ohmmeter error is 44 (current meter error). Also, at 0.8 FSD the ohmmeter error is +6.25
{meter error). Similarly, at 0.2 FSD the, ohmmeter efror can be shown to be +6.25 (meter
error). It is seen that for greatest accuracy the ohmmeter range should always be selected
to give an indication as close as possible to 0.5 FSD.
3-10 VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETER
As its name suggests, the volr-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) is a multifunction instrument
that can be used to measure voltage resistance and current. All VOMs can measure resis-
tance, de voltage, de cisrrent, and ac voltage. Some can also measure ac current, and some
have decibel scales. A typical good-quality analog VOM (the Simpson 250) is illustrated
in Figure 3-25.
Front Panel Controls
‘The left-hand and central knobs on the instrument in Figure 3-25 are used for function
and range selections. The righ-hand knob is a ZERO OHMS control for the ohmmeter
function, The mechanical zero control is just below the base of the pointer. The available
selections for the left-hand knob are:
AC VOLTS: for ac voltage measurements
DC or +DC: for de current and voltage measurements
Musical note symbol: for continuity testing
‘The central knob has the following function and range selections:
2.5 V to 1000 V: for ac or de voltage measurements
Sec.3-10 Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter o Figure 3-25 Typical deflection volt-chm-
smilliammeter, or multimeter. Courtesy of
‘bach-simpson limited.)
1 mA to 500 mA: for de current measurements (note that the instrument manufac-
turer uses MA as the symbol for milliamperes)
(R x 1) 10 (R X 10,000): for resistance measurements
Terminals
The terminals marked + (plus) and — (minus) (also identified as COMMON) are those
normally employed for all voltage, current, and resistance measurements. With the central
selector switch at the 250 V 500 V 1000 V position, the maximum measured voltage is
250 V when using the plus and common terminals. A maximum of 500 V can be mea-
sured if the input is applied to the common and 500 V AC DC terminals. Similarly, for
1000 V maximum, the input should be connected to the common and 1000 V AC DC ter-
minals. The ~/0 A and +10 A terminals’are used for 1 A to 10 A de measurements, and
the OUTPUT 350 VDC terminal is for decibel measurements.
Overload Protection
‘The deflecting coil in 2 PMMC instrument is normally wound of fine copper wire with a
plastic film or varnish-type insulation. If the coil current is too high, the insulation may
70 Electromechanical instruments Chap. 3 be destroyed by overheating, and in extreme circumstances the copper wire might be
melted. The instrument in Figure 3-25 is equipped with an overload protection circuit (as
well as fuses). When the meter current exceeds a maximum safe level, the overload de-
vice open-circuits the instrument internally, and the RESET button pops up. The device is
reset by pushing the button down.
Scales
‘The instrument shown in Figure 3-25 has a knife-edge pointer and a mirror scale to avoid
parallax error (see Section 3-7). The top scale is used only for resistance measurements.
When the (R x 1) range is selected, the resistance is read directly in ohms. On the (R x
100) and (R x 10,000) ranges, the scale reading must be multiplied by the appropriate
factor. Thus, at center scale, the measured resistance might be 15 0, 1500 02, or 150 kO,
depending on the range selected. The 0 to 250 V scale is read as 0 fo 2.5 V when the
2.5 V range is selected, and as 0 to 25 V for the 25 V range. For the 10 V and 50 V
ranges, the appropriate scale markings are read. An AC AMP CLAMP scale is provided
for use with a clamping-type high-current probe. (This is discussed in Section 4-7.) A
decibel scale is also included for measuring audio power levels.
Accuracy
“The specified accuracy for the Simpson 260 is +2% of full scale for de voltage and cur-
rent, +3% of full scale for ac voltage, and 2° to 25° ARC for resistance measurements.
The most accurate voltage or current measurement is made on the range that gives the
greatest on-scale deftection, Greatest accuracy of resistance measurement is made when
the pointer is closest to half-scale (see Section 3-9). VOMs can typically be used for ac
measurements up to a frequency of about 100 kHz.
Using a VOM as a de Ammeter
1. Set the function and range switches to +DC and 500 MA (the largest selectable
range).
2. If necessary, adjust the mechanical zero control to set the pointer exactly at zero on
the scale. Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when zeroing.
3. Connect the instrument in series with the circuit or component in which the current
is to be measured, with (conventional) current direction into the + terminal and out
of the COMMON terminal. (If the current direction is reversed, positive pointer de-
flection can be obtained by switching from +DC to DC.)
4, Adjust the range selection to give the greatest possible on-scale deflection.
5, Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when reading the pointer position.
When using the instrument as an ammeter, there will be a voltage drop across the
instrument, which might have some effect on the current being measured. The ammeter
voltage drop for the Simpson 260 ranges from 250 mV to 500 mV.
Sec. 3-10 Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter n Using a VOM as a de Voltmeter
1, Set the function and range switches to +DC and 250 V (the largest selectable
range)
2. If necessary, adjust the mechanical zero control to set the pointer exactly at zero on
the scale. Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when zeroing.
3. Connect the instrument in parallel with the circuit or component that is to have its
voltage measured, The + terminal should be connected to the most positive of the
two points at which the voltage is to be- measured. The COMMON terminal should
be connected to the most negative of the two points. (If che voltage polarity is re-
versed, positive pointer deffection can be obtained by switching from +DC to
-DC.)
4. Adjust the range selection to give the greatest possible on-scale deflection.
5. Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when reading the pointer position,
When using the VOM as a voltmeter, the instrument resistance might affect the
‘measured voltage. The voltmeter resistance can be calculated as (sensitivity x range), For
the Simpson 260, the specified sensitivity is marked on the lower left-hand side of the
scale as 20,000 OV,
Using a VOM as an ac Voltmeter
1. Set the function and range switches to AC VOLTS ONLY and 250 V (the largest se-
lectable range).
2. Continue as for a de voltmeter, with the exception that terminal polarity need not be
observed.
For ac voltmeter applications, the sensitivity of the Simpson 260 is 5 KQ/V.
VOM Probes
The range of a VOM can be extended by the use of high-voltage, high-current, and high-
frequency probes. These are exactly as discussed in Section 4-7.
3-11 ELECTRODYNAMIC INSTRUMENT
Construction and Operation
The basic construction of an electrodynamic or dynamometer instrument is illustrated in
Figure 3-26(a). When this is compared to:the PMMC instrument in Figure 3-4, it is seen
that the major difference is that two magnetic field coils are substituted in place of the
Permanent magnet. The magnetic field in which the moving coil is pivoted is generated
by passing a current through the stationary field coils. When a current flows through the
Pivoted coil, the two fluxes interact (as in the PMMC instrument), causing the coil and
Pointer to be deflected. Spiral’springs provide controlling force and connecting leads to
the pivoted coil. Zero adjustment and moving system balance are also as in the PMMC
instrument.
n Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3 Pointer
Field
Moving coil
spring
(a) Coil arrangement (b) Air damping system
Figure 3-26 An electrodynamic instrument has a moving coil, as in 2 PMMC instrument, but the
‘magneicfeld is produced by two curtent-carrying field coils instead of a magnet. Damping is pro:
Vided by an enclosed vane.
Another major difference from the PMMC instrument is that the electrodynam-
ic instrument usualy has air damping. A lightweight vane pushes air around in an
enclosure when the pivoted coil is in motion [see Figure 3-26(b)]. This damps out
all rapid movements and oscillations of the moving system. As will be explained.
dynamic instruments can be used on ac. The altemating current would induce —
wanted eddy currents in a_metall former. Therefore. the damiping method
employed in a PMMC instrument would not be suitable for an electrodynamic
ment.
Normally, there is no iron core in an electrodynamic instrument, so the flux path is
entirely an air path. Consequently, the field flux is much smaller than in a PMMC instru-
ment. To produce a strong enough deflecting torque, the -moving-coil current must be
much larger than the small currents required in a PMMC instrument.”
As in the case of the PMMC instrument, the deflecting torque of an electrodynam-
ic instrument is dependent on field flux, coil current, coil dimensions, and number of
coil tums. However, the field flux is directly proportional to the current through the field
coils, and the moving-coil flux is directly proportional to the current through the mov-
ing coil. Consequently, the deflecting torque is proportional to the product of the two
currents:
To © Isets cit Foving coi
When the same current flows through field coils and pivoted coil, the deffecting
torque is proportional to the square of the current:
Tox P
Sec. 3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument 3 This gives the deflection angle as
(B-6)
direction is such that
Poles at the bottom of each coil
s and side of the coil, and an § pole
¢ of the moving coil is adjacent to the N pole of the upper
Held coil, and the S pote of the moving coil adjacent to the S pole of the lower field
coil. Since like poles repel, the Moving coil rotates in a clockwise direction, causing the
Poiner {0 move to the right from its zero position on the seale
Seale
Scale
8. %o
Moving \\ Field
coil coils
(a) Current flowing from
top to bottom
Produces positive
deflection
(b) Current flowing from
bottom to top also.
Produces positive deflection
Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3 Now consider what occurs when the current through all three coils is reversed. Fig-
ture 3-27(b) shows that the reversed current causes the field coils to set up N poles at the
top and S poles at the bottom of each coil. The moving-coil flux is also reversed so that it
has an S pole at the right-hand side and an N pole at the left. Once again similar poles are
adjacent, and repulsion produces clockwise rotation of the coil and pointer.
Iis seen that the electrodynamic instrument has a positive deflection, regardless of
the direction of current through the meter. Consequently, the terminals are not marked +
and - (ie., the instrument is not polarized).
As already explained, the electrodynamic instrument deflection is proportional to J?
(ie., when the same current flows in the moving coil and field coils). When used on ac,
the deftection settles down to a position proportional to t ue of J This,
‘deflection is proportional to the mean-squared value of the current. Since the scale of the
meter is calibrated to indicate [rather than 7°, the meter indicates root-mean-squared”
‘current, or the rms value. The rms value has the same effect as a numerically équivalent
“de Value. Therefore, the scale of the instrument can be read’as either de or rms ac. This is
“the characteristic of a transfer which nd then used to_
measure ac. (Yoltmeters are available that operate on an electrostatic principle. These are
~TGso ac7de transfer instruments.)
Because the reactance of the coils increase rapidly with increasing frequency, elec-
trodynamic instruments are useful only at low frequencies. Electrodynamic wattmeters, in
particular, perform very satisfactorily at domestic and industrial power frequencies.
Electrodynamic Voltmeter and Ammeter
Figure 3-28(a) shows the usual circuit arrangement for an electrodynamic voltmeter.
Since a voltmeter must have a high resistance, all three coils are connected in series, and
a multiplier resistor (made of manganin or‘constantan) is included. When the total resis-
tance of the coils, and the required current for FSD are known, the multiplier resistance is
calculated exactly as for de voltmeters. The instrument scale can be read either as de volt-
age or rms ac voltage.
Because electrodynamic instruments usually require at least 100 mA for FSD, an
electrodynamic voltmeter has a much lower sensitivity than a PMMC voltmeter. At 100
mA FSD, the sensitivity is 1/100 mA = 10 /V. For a 100 V instrument, this sensitivity
gives a total resistance of only 1 k0. Therefore, an electrodynamic voltmeter is not suit-
able for measuring voltages in electronic circuits because of the loading effect.
In an electrodynamic ammeter, the moving coil and its series-connected swamping
resistance are connected in parallel with the ammeter shunt. This is illustrated in Figure
3-28(b). The two field coils should be connected in series with the parallel arrangement
of shunt and moving coil, as shown.
Because the field coils are always passing the actual current to be measured, resis-
tance changes in the coils with temperature variations have no effect on the instrument
performance. However, as in PMMC ammeters, the moving coil must have a manganin
or constantan swamping resistance connected in series, Also, the shunt resistor must be
made of manganin.
The scale of the electrodynamic ammeter can be read either as de levels or rms ac
values. Like the electrodynamic voltmeter, this instrument can be calibrated on de and
then used to measure either de or ac.
Sec.3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument 15 Multiplier
resistor
Field
Moving ‘
ea coils
v.
(a) Electrodynamic voltmeter
Swamping
resistor
Field
coils
Figure 3.28 Foruse as a voltmeter, an
electrodynamic instrument has the field
coils, moving coil, and multiplier resister al!
Connected in series. For use as an ammeter,
the field coils are seriesed with the parallel.
(t) Electrodynamic ammeter Connected shunt and moving-coil circuit,
Electrodynamic Wattmeter
r——r—S—r—r———S—Ss—S——S—S.
‘Thus, the field coils carry the load current, and the moving-coil current is proportional to
the load voltage. Since the instrument deflection is proportional tothe produet ofthe tay
Fiuents deflection = Cx El, where C is a constant, or meter indication = EI watts. In
Figure 3-29(b) the electrodynamic wattmeter is shown in a slightly less complicated form
shan in Figure 3-29(a). single-coil symbol is used to represent the two seris-connesent
field coils,
tive deflection. In ac circuits where the supply polarity is reversing continuously, the elec-
\rodynamic wattmeter gives a positive indication proportional 10 Emly, Like electrody-
namic ammeters and voltmeters, the wattmeter can be calibrated on de and then used tp
mn ac circuits the load current may lead or lag the load voltage by a phase angle ¢.
‘The wattmeter deflection is proportional to the in-phase components of the cones et
voliage. As shown in Figure 3-29(c), the instrument deflection is proportional to El ens
6 Electromechunical Instruments Chap. 3 Multiplier Load in which power
resistor is to be measured
(b) Another way to show the wattmeter circuit
1 eos
E
2
\ Figure 329 An lectrodynamic watncter
has the moving col and multiplier resistor
connected in parallel withthe load, and the
fed coils in eres with the load. Instrument
(6) Wattmeter measures EI cos 6 ‘detection is proportional 1 2s 6.
6. Since the tnie power dissipated in a load with an ac supply is EI cos , the electrody-
namic wattmeter measures true power.
‘An important source of error in the wattmeter is illustrated in Figure 3-30(a) and
(b). Figure 3-30(a) shows that if the moving coil (or voltage coil) circuit is connected in
parallel with the load, the field coils pass a current (! + J,), the sum of the load current
and the moving-coil current. This results in the wattmeter indicating the load power (El),
plus a small additional quantity (EI,). Where the load current is very much larger than /,,
this error may be negligible. In low-load-current situations, the error may be quite signifi-
cant.
Sec. 3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument 7 Supply
(a) Error due to moving-coil current
Supply E+E,
|
Supply E
(©) Compensated wattmeter using an,
‘additional coil wound alongside
the field coils
Figure 3.30 Wattmeter
Load
Load
Load
Deflection « E( + Iy)
aE +E,
ao
Error
Deflection a(E + Ep)1
XEL + Bgl
fener
Error
Deflection a E( + ly ~ fy)
ael
‘connections can result in significant reading errors. The
