Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 247 (2022) 114240

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Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoenv

Review

Harmful health effects of pesticides used on museum textile artifacts

- overview
Elena-Cornelia Tănăsescu a, b, *, Mihaela-Cristina Lite a, b
a
National Research and Development Institute for Textiles and Leather – INCDTP, Lucretiu Patrascanu, 16, 030508 Bucharest, Romania
b
Politehnica University of Bucharest, 1–7 Gheorghe Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The paper discusses the types of fibers contained in the museum textile artifacts and the types of pests and
Pesticides pesticides. Also, the main health problems associated with pesticide exposure are presented. Textile fibers
Health effects represent an excellent source of food for microbes and insects. The key to the long-term preservation of textiles is
Textile
by implementing an integrated management program for pest and environmental conditions control. The main
Museum
types of pesticides are insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, acaricides, and fumigants and a way for
Pest
classification can be made according to the LD50 (lethal dose) value which evaluates the toxicity of a pesticide.
Depending on the LD50 values, pesticides can be very toxic, moderately toxic, slightly toxic, and relatively non-
toxic. Exposure to pesticides can occur through 4 four routes: oral, dermal, respiratory, and eye exposure. The
main diseases that can be associated with exposure to pesticides are discussed in the paper. In the end, a basic set
of precautionary recommendations when handling museum objects that may contain hazardous materials was
presented.

1. Introduction and not only. All collections of a museum or collectors that may contain
or consist of organic materials (such as textiles, leather, feathers, wood,
The term textile has changed over time, now embodying a multitude plant materials, etc.) will be, most probably treated with pesticides
of meanings. The term was originally used for fabrics (natural and (biocides) or contain poisonous materials.
synthetic), but can now be applied to a wide range of products derived Currently, there may still be some isolated cases (especially in his­
from them (eg clothing, household textiles, industrial and medical tex­ toric houses and even museums) where staff may not be aware of the
tiles) and even for fibres, filaments and yarns. (Lomov et al., 2005). risks that may endanger their health, although the danger posed by the
The term fiber, in addition to textile, can also be attributed to parts of possible existence of toxic pesticides is generally known to the museum
a body, such as muscle or wood fiber. In contrast, textile fibers are those staff and those who deal with objects and collections of textile art.
fibers that meet a number of properties that make it possible to trans­ There are several collectibles that may present a hazard due to the
form them into textile products and that give the finished product manufacturing process rather than the intervention of collectors or
characteristics specific to the field of use (Bordeianu, 2012). museum staff. An example is given by silk textiles, which may contain
The classification of textile fibers according to their nature is pre­ arsenic and lead, added during the manufacturing process, and may
sented in Table 1: represent a serious health hazard. Lead quickly corrodes into a fine
Museums and public and private collections possess numerous and white powder, a powder that can be easily inhaled, ingested, or trapped
varied textile objects. They consist of either simple, unpainted textiles, in clothing (Gram, 2006). Moreover, many substances, such asbestos,
or fabrics made of coloured yarns and complex textiles such as em­ that were considered safe in the past were afterwards proven to be
broidery made of metal threads and beads, garments with special fin­ dangerous.
ishes and metal fasteners, or flags with painted patterns. Also, collectibles treated in the past with toxic pesticides, that have
Textile objects that can be contaminated with various toxic residues not been highlighted in the documents (Hawks et al., 2000) can
(e.g., pesticides) are not a completely new problem for museum workers endanger the health of museum staff and collectors. The objects which

* Corresponding author at: National Research and Development Institute for Textiles and Leather – INCDTP, Lucretiu Patrascanu, 16, 030508 Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (E.-C. Tănăsescu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114240
Received 13 July 2022; Received in revised form 4 October 2022; Accepted 24 October 2022
Available online 30 October 2022
0147-6513/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E.-C. Tănăsescu and M.-C. Lite Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 247 (2022) 114240

Table 1 population nearby.

Classification of textile fibers according to their nature (adapted from AGIR,
2002). 2.1. Pest identification
Natural fibers vegetable fiber from seeds – cotton fiber
fibers from inner bark - flax, hemp, jute or ramie Textiles are mainly attacked by three main types of pests: carpet
fiber beetles, clothing moths and silverfish (Lepisma saccharin) (Klein, 2008).
feaf fibers – manila or sisal fiber
fiber on the fruit – coconut fiber
Most of the damage to textiles is caused by carpet beetles and clothing
animal from hair bulb – wool fiber moths.
from sericteries – silk fiber Immature carpet beetles feed on protein materials. This includes
mineral asbestos fibers (currently banned) wool, silk, hair, fur, and feathers.
Chemical fibers artificially from regenerated cellulose: viscose fiber, cupro Carpet beetles and fur beetles: the most common beetles are
(Man-made fiber etc. Anthrenus sp. and Attagenus sp. The adults have an approximate length of
fibres) from modified cellulose: diacetate and triacetate
2–3 mm and show a pattern of gray and gold stripes. All species of
fiber
from vegetable proteins: quince, pepper, soy fiber
beetles are active and produce larvae. These are very destructive,
from animal proteins: keratin or casein fiber A silverfish, although the name may suggest a fish, is an insect that is
from other polymers: alginic and rubber fiber commonly found in museum collections (Silverfish and Firebrats –
synthetics heterochained: polyamides, polyesters or Encyclopaedia Article). The lifespan of this insect is between 2 and 8
polyurethanes fiber
years (Jackman and Drees, 1998). Its scientific name - Lepisma saccharin
carbocatening: polyethylene or polypropylene
fiber indicates the type of diet preferred by this insect, namely sugars.
Favourite objects include bookbinders, carpets, clothes, glue, certain
paints, and other objects that contain high amounts of sugars.
were subsequently transferred to museums were often re-treated with The name moth is given to a large group of insects very similar to
chemicals by museum staff as a method of preventing pest infestation butterflies. The most important and common species of moths are Tinea
even if they had already been treated with pesticides by collectors at the pellionella and Tineola bisselliella They also feed on leather, silk, linen, or
time of purchase. wood with animal glue. The pupils are attracted to light. Adults are more
As there is evidence that various collections consisting of organic common during the summer (Pool et al., 2005).
material would not have survived over time without the application As a description, they are small, gray and 5–7 mm long. They walk
these treatments (Hawks 2011) the challenge of today’s researchers it is rather than fly and when they are at rest, they fold their wings along
given on the one hand to ensure the protection of museum staff by their backs. Clothes hide in dark areas, avoid light, and lay their eggs on
assessing the presence of pesticides and on the other hand to search for fur, feathers, skins, wool, or silk.
solutions for their possible removal: liquid and supercritical carbon di­ It is very important to carry out controls and inspections in museums.
oxide as a cleaning and decontamination agent for ethnographic mate­ The purpose of these controls and inspections is to obtain an awareness
rials and objects (Tello and Unger, 2010) or wet cleaning (Anderson of possible " breaches " favourable to pests, so that measures can be taken
et al., 2014). to prevent their entry and to identify problem areas and to carry out
effective monitoring.
2. Pests If the infestation is limited to one or a few items, the insects can be
removed by freezing the object. The textile material must be wrapped in
Among textile fibres, starch and other collectibles parts are an plastic and sealed under vacuum, then brought to freezing temperature
excellent source of food and nutrients for microbes and insects (Pinniger, as soon as possible, in order to avoid possible adaptation of the insects to
1994). the cold. The object can be left frozen for a few days, but to avoid further
The most encountered types of pests are: damage, it must be slowly brought back to room temperature. Even
- clothing moths. though this method should be efficient for adult insects, the eggs that
- carpet beetles. might be present could remain viable after the process.
- silverfish. If the use of chemicals is required, it is indicated to consult a pro­
- rodents. fessional conservator to make sure that the treatment will not affect the
Insects are the most numerous and persistent type of pest, and only textiles themselves.
certain types survive in the environment created in museums. Even if there are no signs of infestation, textiles should still be
Pest and environmental conditions control are the key for the long- inspected periodically to make sure that no outbreaks have gone un­
term preservation of textiles. noticed. In addition, when a new purchase is made that shows signs of
If possible, chemical pest control should be avoided mainly for two damage similar to those made by insects, the specimen should be
reasons: quarantined until it can be determined whether insects are present
- the toxic threat to people who come into contact with these before it is introduced into the rest of the collection (Cardamone et al.,
substances. 2001).
- the possibility of further damage to the textiles that the conservator Biodeterioration is a combination of 3 factors, namely: an organism
is trying to preserve. (a pest), a food source (textiles) and an appropriate environment. In
For rodents, quick traps are preferable, those with poisonous baits general, the organisms that "affect" museum objects are humans, fungi,
are to be avoided because rodents can die in inaccessible places and bacteria, insects, and rodents.
subsequently provide breeding ground for other pests. A professional It is very important to know the biology of pests and the environment
exterminator is also indicated and considered. Additionally, in the event in museums in order to prevent possible attacks of these pests. For this,
of a rodent infestation, all access points to the room should be located an integrated management program for each museum is recommended.
and sealed (Mailand and Alig, 1999). The basic principles of such a system are the following:
For insects, the best method of prevention is to keep the storage, - Knowledge of pests.
display, and work area clean. Sticky traps placed around doors, windows - Control and inspections.
and showcases can be useful for monitoring the insect population. - Exclusion.
Moreover, the observation of populations of carnivorous insects, such as - Cleaning/sanitation.
spiders, is indicated as they may indicate the existence of another insect - Elimination of vegetation.

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- Pest monitoring. Table 3

- Modification and manipulation of the environment. Toxicity classification, expressed as LD50 (mg/kg) (World Health Organization
- Education/training. 2009).
- Keeping a record. Group Level of toxicity LD50*World Health Organization 2009 (mg / kg by weight of a
- Treatment. laboratory mouse)
It is important to mention that treatments methods should not Oral Dermal
endanger the workers’ health and should not affect, or modify the fea­
I extremely toxic < 50 < 50
tures of the heritage object or those of the environment (Indrie et al., II strongly toxic 5–50 50–200
2021). III moderately toxic 50–2000 200–2000
IV low toxicity < 5000 –
3. Pesticides *
LD50 (50% lethal dose) is the dose that causes the lethal effect in 50% of the
animals in the test group.
Pesticides are chemicals created for pests’ removal. They can enter
the body of the pest through the skin (dermal), mouth (oral), or airways enter the pest’s body through airways.
(inhalation). Pesticides can also be classified according to toxicity, and their
Pesticides are both natural and synthetic and include, among others, toxicity is expressed according to the LD50 value.
hormone regulators that inhibit insect maturation. The treshold limit value (TLV) (Nielsen and Øvrebø, 2008) is the
Unregistered treatments with pesticides or fumigants turned the average toxic concentration of a substance present in air that can be
treated museum collections into potentially dangerous objects for peo­ tolerated repeatedly without side effects, usually over five days with an
ple who come into contact with them. Many types of pesticides, such as eight-hour schedule.
arsenic, mercury chloride, DDT, methyl bromide and others like these The short-term exposure limit (STEL) is given by the maximum
were used by collectors before "artifacts" reached museums. Unfortu­ concentration to which people can be exposed for 15 min without
nately, once they reached the museums, they were again exposed to suffering any of the following symptoms: irritation, chronic or reversible
other pest treatments. Due to the large number of uses of various pes­ tissue changes. If this type of exposure cannot be avoided, it will be
ticides in the past, both staff involved in restoration, conservation and considered that at the specified STEL value no more than four exposures
curatorial activities as well as researchers were and still are exposed to per day of 15 min maximum are allowed, and the rest period between
toxic substances, most often without their knowledge (Spiegel et al., exposures must be of at least 60 min (Nielsen and Øvrebø, 2008).
2016; Ornstein, 2010).
Table 2 presents a description of the occurrence of different types of
3.2. Physico-chemical properties of pesticides
pesticides used in museum.
Depending on the physical and physico-chemical properties of a
3.1. Classification of pesticides pesticide, its mode of operation is determined, as well as the dose, the
method of application and the possible chemo-dynamic actions. These
Pesticides used on textiles in museums can be classified according to properties vary by nature and formulation.
several criteria. Regarding chemical structure, pesticides can be:
- organochlorine pesticides. 3.2.1. Molecular weight and shape
- organophosphorus pesticides. The molecular weight of one pesticide is an inherent property that
- organocarbamic and thiocarbamic pesticides. distinguishes one pesticide from another, except for stereoisomeric
- nitrophenolic pesticides. pesticides that have similar molecular weights and differ only in the
- pyrethroid pesticides. spatial orientations of groups in chiral centres. This property is related to
Another way of classification is according to the mode of action on the volatility of the pesticides and the probability that these pesticides to
the pest (Pool et al., 2055): ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact. be released in the museum environment. (Martin, 1968).
Although all pesticides can be classified into each of the three cate­
gories, they show increased effectiveness in only one mode of action. 3.2.2. Vapor pressure
Dermal pesticides have the property of penetrating the cuticle or body The vapor (or vaporization) pressure of a substance is a measure of
wall of the pest, and this class also includes those that act as desiccants. how easily it can be volatilized and converted to vapor (the state of gas)
Oral pesticides are those pesticides that are generally ingested/ (Manahan, 2001).
consumed, and those that are included in the class of inhalant pesticides Vapor pressure is very important and has both advantages and

Table 2
Brief history of pesticide use (adapted after Pool et al., 2005).
Pesticide First mentions Targeted pests Persistance

Arsenic trioxide, arsenous acid 1700 General insecticies High

Boric acid 1890 Roaches, silverfish Moderate-high
Camphor 1830 Moths Moderate
Carbon disulfide 1887 Moths, beetles Low
Chlorpyrifos 1964 Beetles, moths, silversfish, flies Low-moderate
Diazinon 1953 Beetles, moths, silversfish, ants Mow-moderate
DDT – Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane 1942 Moths, general pesicides High
Endrin 1951 Rodenticides High
Formaldehyde, formalin 1890 Fungicides, fumigant insecticides Low-moderate
Lead arsenate 1892 General insecticides High
Malathion 1949 Beetles, moths, silversfish, ants, crickets, roaches Low-moderate
Mercuric chloride 1830 Roaches, beetles, termites High
Methoxychlor 1944 Flies, beetles, moths Moderate-high
Methyl bromide 1938 Rodents, moths, roaches, beetles Low-moderate
Permethrin 1973 Moths, beetles, roaches Low-moderate

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disadvantages. For example, if a fumigant is used, the vapor pressure is one of the most common reactions that pesticides suffer in the envi­
high, but this means that the resulting vapors may be diverted to the ronment. In the museum environment, the relative humidity (RH%) is
atmosphere. These types of pesticides must be handled with care so as kept below given limits in a concept called ”conservation heating”
not to reach the atmosphere. (Broström et al., 2012). Degradation due to hydrolysis is a process that
increase with a raised temperature and RH and affects organic sub­
3.2.3. Solubility (Manahan, 2001) stances (the textile materials but also the pesticides with which they
Represents the property of a substance to dissolve in a solvent. Sol­ were treated).
ubility is influenced by temperature, pH, polarity of the substance,
hydrogen bonds, molecular size, and the solubilization method used 3.2.6.3. Photodegradation reaction. The photodegradation reaction, also
(Manahan, 2001). known as photolysis, represents the decomposition or transformation of
pesticides under the action of sunlight that causes a break in chemical
3.2.4. Partition coefficient Octanol/Water - Kow (Log Kow) bonds (Linde, 1994).
Partition coefficient is a ratio (at equilibrium) of the dissolved mass Sometimes, photodegradation of pesticides produce chemical prod­
of the substance between equal layers of n-octanol and water (Mallhot ucts which are more toxic or persistent than the initial pesticide (Bur­
and Peters, 1988). rows et al., 2002).
Concentration in n − Octanol Phase An example is chlorpyrifos, a pesticide with low toxicity, that can be
Kow = degraded to its main metabolite – 3,5,6-trichloropyridinol (TCP)
Concentration in Water Phase
(Abraham and Silambarasan, 2013) a product that can enter the body
The Kow values for organic substances can varied, so Log Kow is more easily. (Tanvir et al., 2016).
preferred, the values being in the range 3–7. Kow is a good indicator for
the bioaccumulation of pesticides in organisms and food chains and it
can influence sorption to textiles. Positive Log Kow values indicate that 3.3. Exposure to pesticides and the main diseases associated with
pesticides are more likely to have bioaccumulation effects. exposure to pesticides
In general, Kow will increase when the following factors will in­
crease: molecular surface, molar volume, molecular mass, and density. Human exposure to pesticides in the museum environment is an
occupational type of exposure and can occur most often due to the use of
3.2.5. Henry’s law constant - H ’(HLC) sprays that treat textile materials against pests, but also during their
It is a measure of the concentration of a chemical in the air divided by everyday work (handling or cleaning contaminated textile materials)
its concentration in water and expresses the tendency to volatilize in the (Glastrup et al., 2000; Marcotte et al., 2014).
air (Manahan, 2001). Exposure routes encountered are through dermal contact, inhalation
16.04 × P × M (volatile pesticides), or ingestion (handling contaminated museum ob­
H, = ject and then passing the hands to the mouth and lips area.) (Marcotte
T ×S
et al., 2014; Musshoff et al., 2010; Burroughs et al., 2006; Amaral,
P- vapor pressure.
2014).
M- molecular mass.
The respiratory exposure can be significant when applying pesticides
T-temperature.
indoors. In addition, if the room temperature is high (above 30 ◦ C) the
S- solubility.
vapor level for many pesticides will increase so the respiratory exposure
A high H′ value indicates that the pesticide volatilizes, reaching the
will be higher (US EPA, 2007).
air, thus being distributed over a wide area, while a low H′ value means
It is very difficult to make a generalization of pesticides from the
that the pesticide tends to persist in the material.
point of view of their toxicity, considering the variety of pesticides. Even
In a 6-week study conducted by Pagonis and his colleagues (Pagonis
so, their effects can be divided into acute and chronic symptoms (Rossol
et al., 2019), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon dioxide (CO2),
and Jessup, 1996).
ozone (O3), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and other trace
gases that can be found in museum were measured continuously. They
1) Acute effects
used VOC saturation vapor concentrations (C*) and Henry’s Law con­
If museum objects are handled correctly, acute effects are very
stants (H) to evaluate the deposition of indoor pollutants in art mu­
unlikely to occur.
seums. The results obtained indicate the analogy between VOC sorption
Among the practices that could produce acute effects are accidents
to indoor surfaces and gas-particle partitioning in the atmosphere.
during the application of approved fumigants and pesticides (Rossol
and Jessup, 1996).
3.2.6. Reactions to which pesticides may be subjected in the environment
The most common symptoms of acute effects exposure includes:
headaches, rashes or even neurological symptoms (Rossol and
3.2.6.1. Oxidation reaction. The process of pesticide oxidation is given Jessup, 1996).
by the fact that the pesticides react with the dissolved oxygen in the 2) Chronic effects
environment. The oxidation process can also be achieved by reacting
pesticides with singlet oxygen, ozone, hydrogen, peroxide, or other A greater possibility of occurrence is that of chronic effects, given by
hydroxy radicals (Wolfe et al., 1977). exposure to low levels of pesticides over time (Rossol and Jessup, 1996).
For example, arsenic was used primarily as arsenic trioxide, As2O3, Cancer development is a special form of chronic effect (Boyer et al.,
and sodium arsenite, NaAsO2 (Odegaard and Sadongei, 2005). The 2005). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) reviews
oxidation states of arsenic compounds found in museum are − 3, 0, + 3, the animal and human literature on chemical and physical agents in
+ 5. The trivalent state is being the biggest concern to toxicologists order to categorize their carcinogenicity (IARC 2001).
(Hughes, 2002) because of its LD50 value of 41 mg/kg that threaten For example, mercury-based pesticide is known as a health concern
human health. for the museum staff (Martin and Kite 2003). Long-exposure to all forms
of mercury can produce permanently damage to the brain, kidneys or
3.2.6.2. Hydrolysis reaction. The hydrolysis reaction of pesticides is even severe issues in fetus developing (ToxFAQs for Mercury 2010,
dependent on the pH value at which pesticides react with water (eg, Ornstein, 2010).
hydrogen ion and hydroxy ion) (Linde, 1994). This type of reaction is Another example is inorganic arsenic that can cause over time

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E.-C. Tănăsescu and M.-C. Lite Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 247 (2022) 114240

redness and swelling of the skin and even skin or lung cancer (ToxFAQs student Elena-Cornelia Tănăsescu developed the conceptualization and
for Arsenic 2010, Ornstein, 2010, Naujokas et al., 2013). wrote the original manuscript. PhD student Mihaela-Cristina Lite guided
Pyrethrins are frequently used pesticide in museum (Pinniger et al., and revised the manuscript’s completion.
1994) and most common effects after dermal exposure is rash associated
with itching. If the pyrethrins are inhaled, symptoms like fever, Ethical approval
wheezing and breathing difficulties may occur. The most common
symptom observed after exposure is allergic reaction (OSHA 1999). Not Applicable.
According to a review published by Pool (Pool, 2001) regarding
textile collections the most widely used pesticides in the form of fumi­ Consent to participate
gants are naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene.
Acute exposure to naphthalene is related to anemia, liver or neuro­ Not Applicable.
logical damage (Bosworth et al., 2003). If the exposure is on long-term
(chronic), the health effects associated are cataracts and retina dam­ Consent to publish
age. Moreover, EPA classified naphthalene as possible human carcin­
ogen (EPA 2003). Not Applicable.
Paradichlorobenzene can cause mainly acute irritation of the eyes,
throat, and skin. Chronic effects include liver and kidney damage, Funding
abdominal tenderness and even leukemia (OSHA 1999, Bosworth et al.,
2003). The publication of the scientific paper is funded by the Ministry of
Research, Innovation and Digitization within Program 1 - Development
3.4. Basic precautionary recommendations of the national R&D system, Subprogram 1.2 - Institutional Performance
- RDI excellence funding projects, Contract no. 4 PFE/2021.
The concern has increased due to the long-term negative conse­
quences over environment and human health as a result of pesticides Declaration of Competing Interest
exposure (Nikonorow, 1979).
It is in the best interest of the museum stuff to follow basic set of The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
precautionary recommendations when handling museum objects that interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
may contains hazardous materials. the work reported in this paper.
Leslie A. Ornstein (Ornstein, 2011) elaborate a paper which includes
a list of Safety Guidelines for Handling Contaminated Museum Collec­ Data availability
tions based on recommendation by Monona Rossol and Jane Sirois
(Davis et al., 2001). Their recommendation is to post this list throughout No data was used for the research described in the article.
the workplace. This list contains, but is not limited to:
•If possible, work in a well-ventilated area. Acknowledgment
•Treat all objects as you would if pesticides were present and as little
as possible. The publication of the scientific paper is funded by the Ministry of
•Wear nitrile gloves and a lab coat or other protective clothing while Research, Innovation and Digitization within Program 1 - Development
handling objects. Also, choose an appropriate type of respirator to wear. of the national R&D system, Subprogram 1.2 - Institutional Performance
•Keep hands (gloved or not) away from the face and do not touch any - RDI excellence funding projects, Contract no. 4 PFE/2021.
other objects besides the objects of interest.
•If you are working with dust contaminated objects, remove your
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