Industrial Power Distribution and

Illuminating Systems
 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS

A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

EXECUTIVE EDITORS

Marlin O. Thurston William Middendorf

Department of Department of
Electrical Engineering Electrical and Computer Engineering
The Ohio State University University of Cincinnati
Columbus, Ohio Cincinnati, Ohio

EDITORIAL BOARD

Maurice Bellanger Lionel M. Levinson

Telecommunications, Radioelectriques, et General Electric Company
Telephoniques (TRT) Schenectady, New York
Le Plessis-Robinson, France
V. Rajagopalan
J. Lewis Blackburn Department of Engineering
Bothell, Washington Universite du Quebec
a Trois-Rivieres
Sing T. Bow Trois-Rivieres, Quebec, Canada
Department of Electrical Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University Earl Swartzlander
University Park, Pennsylvania TRW Defense Systems Group
Redondo Beach, California
Norman B. Fuqua
Reliability Analysis Center Spyros G. Tzafestas
Griffiss Air Force Base, New York Department of Electrical Engineering
National Technical University
Charles A. Harper of Athens
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Athens, Greece
and Technology Seminars, Inc.
Timonium, Maryland Sakae Yamamura
Central Research Institute of
Nairn Α. Κ heir the Electric Power Industry
Department of Electrical and Tokyo, Japan
Systems Engineering
Oakland University
Rochester, Michigan
 1. Rational Fault Analysis, edited by Richard Saeks and S. R. Liberty
2. Nonparametric Methods in Communications, edited by P. Papantoni-
Kazakos and Dimitri Kazakos
3. Interactive Pattern Recognition, Yi-tzuu Chien
4. Solid-State Electronics, Lawrence E. Murr
5. Electronic, Magnetic, and Thermal Properties of Solid Materials,
Klaus Schroder
6. Magnetic-Bubble Memory Technology,//sw Chang
7. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
8. Electromagnetics: Classical and Modern Theory and Applications, Samuel
Seely and Alexander D. Poularikas
9. One-Dimensional Digital Signal Processing, Chi-Tsong Chen
10. Interconnected Dynamical Systems, Raymond A. DeCarlo and Richard
Saeks
11. Modern Digital Control Systems .Raymond G. Jacquot
12. Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture y Roydn D. Jones
13. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User's Guide
to Practice and Specification, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
14. Static and Rotating Electromagnetic Devices, RichardH. Engelmann
15. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, John C.
Andreas
16. Electromagnetic Compossibility,/fewz M. Schlicke
17. Electronics: Models, Analysis, and Systems, James G. Gottling
18. Digital Filter Design Handbook, Fred J. Taylor
19. Multivariable Control: An Introduction, P. K. Sinha
20. Flexible Circuits: Design and Applications, Steve Gurley, with contribu-
tions by Carl A. Edstrom, Jr., Ray D. Greenway, and William P. Kelly
21. Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, ThomasE. Browne, Jr.
22. Switch Mode Power Conversion: Basic Theory and Design, K. Kit Sum
23. Pattern Recognition: Applications to Large Data-Set Problems, Sing-Tze
Bow
24. Custom-Specific Integrated Circuits: Design and Fabrication,
Stanley L. Hurst
25. Digital Circuits: Logic and Design .Ronald C. Emery
26. Large-Scale Control Systems: Theories and Techniques, Magdi S.
Mahmoud, Mohamed F. Hassan, and Mohamed G. Darwish
27. Microprocessor Software Project Management, Eli T. Fathi and Cedric
V. W. Armstrong {Sponsored by Ontario Centre for Microelectronics)
28. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Design .Michael P. Perry
29. Multidimensional Systems: Techniques and Applications,
edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
30. AC Motors for High-Performance Applications: Analysis and Control,
Sakae Yamamura
31. Ceramic Materials for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications,
edited by Relva C. Buchanan
32. Microcomputer Bus Structures and Bus Interface Design, ArthurL.
Dexter
33. End User's Guide to Innovative Flexible Circuit Packaging,/ay/. Miniet
34. Reliability Engineering for Electronic Design,Norman B. Fuqua
35. Design Fundamentals for Low-Voltage Distribution and Control, Frank W.
Kussy and Jack L. Warren
36. Encapsulation of Electronic Devices and Components, Edward R.
Salmon
37. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications,/. Lewis Blackburn
38. Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, Richard F. Powell
39. Adaptive Control Systems: Techniques and Applications, V. V. Chalam
40. Computer-Aided Analysis of Power Electronic Systems, Venkatachari
Rajagopalan
41. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability, Eugene R. Hnatek
42. Systolic Signal Processing Systems, edited by Earl E. Swartzlander, Jr.
43. Adaptive Digital Filters and Signal Analysis, Maurice G. Bellanger
44. Electronic Ceramics: Properties, Configuration, and Applications, edited
by LionelM. Levinson
45. Computer Systems Engineering Management, Robert S. Alford
46. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation, edited by Nairn A. Kheir
47. Rigid-Flex Printed Wiring Design for Production Readiness, Walter S.
Rigling
48. Analog Methods for Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis and Diagnosis,
edited by Takao Ozawa
49. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
50. Power System Grounding and Transients: An Introduction,
A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
51. Signal Processing Handbook, edited by C. H. Chen
52. Electronic Product Design for Automated Manufacturing,
H. Richard Stillwell
53. Dynamic Models and Discrete Event Simulation, William Delaney and
Erminia Vaccari
54. FET Technology and Application: An Introduction, Edwin S. Oxner
55. Digital Speech Processing, Synthesis, and Recognition, Sadaoki Furui
56. VLSI RISC Architecture and Organization, Stephen B. Furber
57. Surface Mount and Related Technologies, Gerald Ginsberg
58. Uninterruptible Power Supplies: Power Conditioners for Critical
Equipment, David C. Griffith
59. Polyphase Induction Motors: Analysis, Design, and Application,
PaulL. Cochran
60. Battery Technology Handbook, edited by H. A. Kiehne
61. Network Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis, edited by Ricardo F.
Garzia and Mario R. Garzia
62. Linear Circuits, Systems and Signal Processing: Advanced Theory and
Applications, edited by Nobuo Nagai
63. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, edited by M. Khalifa
64. Large-Scale Systems Control and Decision Making, edited by Hiroyuki
Tamura and Tsuneo Yoshikawa
65. Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating Systems, Kao Chen
66. Distributed Computer Control for industrial Automation, edited by D.
Popovic and Vijay P. Bhatkar

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Computer-Aided Analysis of Active Circuits, Adrian Ioinovici

Electrical Engineering-Electronics Software

1. Transformer and Inductor Design Software for the IBM PC,

Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
2. Transformer and Inductor Design Software for the Macintosh,
Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
3. Digital Filter Design Software for the IBM PC,
Fred J. Taylor and Thanos Stouraitis
Industrial Power Distribution and
Illuminating Systems

Kao Chen
Carl-sons Consulting Engineers
San Diego, California

MARCEL DEKKER, INC. New York and Basel

L i b r a r y of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chen, Kao
Industrial power distribution and illuminating systems / Kao Chen.
p. cm. -- (Electrical engineering and electronics ; 65)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8247-8237-2 (alk. paper)
1. Electric engineering. 2. Industrial buildings--Lighting.
I. Title. II. Series.
TK146.C347 1990
621.319 f 24--dc20 89-71511
CIP

This book is printed on acid-free p a p e r .

Copyright © 1990 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. All Rights Reserved

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo-
copying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

270 Madison Avenue, New York, New. York 10016

C u r r e n t printing (last digit):

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Preface

The past three decades have witnessed a technological explosion in

the fields of solid-state electronics, microprocessors, lasers, fiber
optics, exotic signal processing, and space science, fields that have
come to dominate the technical interests of college faculty and s t u d e n t s .
Today, power engineering courses are almost excluded from the cur-
riculum of most engineering colleges and universities. As a result,
the shortage of electrical engineers with adequate knowledge of indus-
trial power distribution or illuminating theory and practice has now
reached a critical point.
This decline in the supply of power engineers is causing great
concern to i n d u s t r y . Many industrial firms are forced to hire gradu-
ate electronics or mechanical engineers for positions responsible for
power distribution and illumination design work. Normally, a college
graduate with basic knowledge in physics and engineering principles
should be able to master such subjects as industrial power distribu-
tion, application of protective relaying, principles of grounding and
shielding, and fundamentals of illumination design within two to three
semesters, given that academic institutions offer these subjects in a
continuing or evening education program. Unfortunately, this avail-
ability is not the case.
I n d u s t r y needs a continuing supply of qualified power engineers
because there are many problem areas that require sophisticated engi-
neering analysis. A near-term and perhaps effective way to overcome
this shortage might begin with continuing education programs to be
offered at local colleges and universities. This book provides a use-
ful reference for practicing engineers and designers. It can also
serve as an excellent text for a continuing education program in the
field of industrial power distribution and illuminating engineering.

iii
ίν Preface

Chapters 1—10 cover all important elements of industrial power

distribution—system planning; selection of distribution voltages and
systems; principles of grounding; methods of fault c u r r e n t calculations;
system protective relaying; power, switching, and carrying equipment
and devices; and, finally, special power distribution requirements
for computers and sensitive electronic equipment. Chapters 11—18
cover the illuminating engineering and design principles based on the
latest concepts and approaches; a review of light sources, luminaires,
and ballasts; applications and installations of industrial illuminating
systems; floodlighting design procedures and examples; energy con-
servation practices and c u r r e n t codes and s t a n d a r d s ; and a thorough
review of the up-to-date lighting controls and guidance for selection
and implementation of optimum controls for specifically chosen system.
There is an abundance of tables and diagrams giving practical values
and limits to aid in the design and evaluation of systems.
The long-range correction for the power engineer shortage will
require the concerted efforts of colleges and universities throughout
the nation to reorient their curricula and revive the interests of
faculty and s t u d e n t s . Manufacturing industries are just as important
to our national economic health and defense posture as the service
i n d u s t r i e s . Continuing availability of industrial power engineers is
essential to our nation T s ability to survive and excel in the coming
c e n t u r y . I hope that I have made some contribution toward this
majestic goal.
Special acknowledgment and thanks are extended to Rene Casten-
schiold, Rudy Elam, Ed Palko, Dan DelBianco, Gary Forcey, and Jim
Edwards for their photographic and additional technical assistance.
My gratitude also goes to D r . Eileen Gardiner, Ms. Beth Wooster,
Ms. Barbara Zeiders, Ms. Ruth Dawe, Ms. Rhonda Lillianthal and
Messrs. John L. Bottomley, Jon Tell, and Graham Garratt of Marcel
Dekker, I n c . , who most patiently encouraged and supported this e f f o r t .

Kao Chen
Contents

Preface in

PART I

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Purpose 1
1.2 IEEE Standards 2
1.3 Codes and Standards 2
1.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations 4
1.5 Edison Electric Institute 4
1.6 Handbooks and Periodicals 4
1.7 Manufacturers 1 Data 5

2. SYSTEM PLANNING 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Basic Design Considerations 6
2.3 Load Survey 8
2.4 System and Voltage Selection 14
2.5 Power Systems Studies 15
2.6 Codes and Standards 17
2.7 Maintenance 17
Bibliography 18

3. D I S T R I B U T I O N SYSTEM VOLTAGE
STANDARDS AND SELECTIONS 19
3.1 Introduction 19

ν
νίίί
Contents

3.2 Voltage Standards for the United States 19

3.3 Voltage Tolerance Limits 21
3.4 Definition of Nominal System Voltage 23
3.5 System Voltage Nomenclature 24
3.6 Voltage Ratings for Low-Voltage
Utilization Equipment 28
3.7 Phase Voltage Unbalance and Harmonics 32
Bibliography 34

4. POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FOR

INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 35
4.1 Introduction 35
4.2 Simple Radial System 35
4.3 Secondary Selective System 39
4.4 Primary Selective System 42
4.5 Looped Primary System 43
4.6 Secondary Network System 45
4.7 Selecting a Power Distribution System
for an Industrial Plant 49
Bibliography 51

5. FAULT CURRENT CALCULATIONS 52

5.1 Sources of Fault Current 52
5.2 Fundamentals of Fault Current Calculations 54
5.3 Procedures of Calculations 57
5.4 Examples of Simplified Calculations 60
5.5 Short-Circuit Ratings of Protective Equipment 78
Bibliography 82

6. GROUNDING 84
6.1 System Grounding 84
6.2 Equipment Grounding 96
6.3 Static and Lightning Protection Grounding 100
6.4 Connection to Earth 104
Bibliography 107

7. SYSTEM PROTECTION 109

7.1 System Behavior and Protection Needs 109
7.2 Principles of Relaying for Industrial Plants 111
7.3 Protective Relays and Their Applications 114
7.4 Protective Devices 135
7.5 Surge Protection 136
7.6 Coordination 141
Contents νίί

7.7 Examples of Coordination Study

of Protective Devices 143
Bibliography 148

8. POWER AND SWITCHING EQUIPMENT 150

8.1 Introduction 150
8.2 Switching Equipment for Power Circuits 150
8.3 Switchgear 175
8.4 Panelboards 187
8.5 Transformers 188
8.6 Unit Substations 196
8.7 Capacitors and Power Factor 199
8.8 Motors and Motor Controllers 208
8.9 Instruments and Meters 222
Bibliography 228

9. POWER-CARRYING DEVICES 231

9.1 Cable 231
9.2 Connectors and Terminations 255
9.3 Busway 264
Bibliography 274

10. POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR COMPUTERS 276

10.1 Power Problems 276
10.2 Computer Power Requirements 280
10.3 Power Conditioners for Computers 284
10.4 Power Distribution Design Considerations
for Computers 294
Bibliography 302

PART II

11. POWER DISTRIBUTION AND ILLUMINATION 303

11.1 Distribution Voltage Problems 303
11.2 Effects of Voltage Variation on Lamp Life
and Its Lumen Output 303
11.3 Operating Voltage Levels for Illuminating
Systems 305
11.4 Plant Power Distribution Considerations
for Lighting Loads 306
Bibliography 309
νίίί Contents

12. ILLUMINATING DESIGN PRINCIPLES 310

12.1 Basic Considerations for Illuminating Design 310
12.2 New Concepts in Lighting Design 313
12.3 Zonal Cavity Method of Lighting Computations 325
12.4 Point-by-point Lighting Computations 327
12.5 Computer Programs for Lighting Design 334
Bibliography 338

13. FACTORS AFFECTING INDUSTRIAL

ILLUMINATION 340
13.1 Introduction 340
13.2 Factors and Remedies 340
Bibliography 347

14. SYSTEM COMPONENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL

ILLUMINATION 348
14.1 Light Sources 348
14.2 Luminaires 361
14.3 Types of Industrial Lighting Systems 366
14.4 Special Considerations 371
Bibliography 372

15. APPLICATIONS AND INSTALLATIONS OF

INDUSTRIAL ILLUMINATING SYSTEMS 373
15.1 Introduction 373
15.2 Machine Shops 373
15.3 Generating Stations 375
15.4 Control Rooms 376
15.5 Manufacturing Areas 377
15.6 Warehouses 379
15.7 Engineering Offices, Conference Rooms,
and Plant Hospital Rooms 382
Bibliography 385

16. FLOODLIGHTING DESIGN 386

16.1 Introduction 386
16.2 Basic Floodlighting Effects 386
16.3 Choosing the Floodlight Sources 387
16.4 Choosing a Luminaire 390
16.5 Design Procedures 390
16.6 Application Guide 396
16.7 Examples of Floodlighting Installation 397
Bibliography 407
Contents νίί

17. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN ILLUMINATING

SYSTEMS 408
17.1 Introduction 408
17.2 Energy-Efficient Light Sources 409
17.3 Energy-Efficient Ballasts 411
17.4 New Luminaires for Energy-Efficient
Light Sources 414
17.5 Cost Analysis 416
17.6 Energy-Saving Lighting Techniques 420
17.7 Lighting and Energy Standards 437
Bibliography 439

18. LIGHTING CONTROLS 441

18.1 Introduction 441

18.2 Types of Controls 441
18.3 On-Off Controls 442
18.4 Level Controls 450
18.5 Energy-Saving Statistics from Different
Types of Lighting Controls 454
18.6 Bases for Selecting Lighting Controls
to Attain Optimum Savings 457
Bibliography 462

Index 463
Industrial Power Distribution and
Illuminating Systems
Parti
1
Introduction

1.1 PURPOSE

This book, which has been prepared by the author a f t e r more than
30 years' experience in designing and developing industrial power
distribution and energy-efficient illuminating systems, will hopefully
be of great value to those of today's power-oriented engineers who
have limited industrial plant experience. It can also be an aid to all
engineers responsible for the electrical design of industrial plants.
However, it is not intended as a replacement for many excellent engi-
neering texts and handbooks commonly in use today, nor is it detailed
enough to be a design manual. It should be used as a guide and up-
to-date general reference on power and illumination facilities design
for industrial plants.
Today's industrial plants, because of their increasing size and
complexity, and their extensive use of computer systems and program-
mable controllers, have become more and more dependent on reliable
and clean power systems. One can b e t t e r provide such required sys-
tems by understanding the principles of system protection and ground-
i n g , basic power distribution systems, the available power equipment
and carrying devices, and the specific requirements for computer
systems. It is the author's hope that this book will fill the needs of
those engineers responsible for designing and building demanding
power distribution systems aimed at higher productivity and attendant
higher profits from the products manufactured.

1
2 Chapter 2

1.2 IEEE STANDARDS

The I n d u s t r y Applications Society of the Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers has published the following "color book" stand-
ards:

1. ANSI/IEEE Standard 141-1986 (Red Book), Recommended Practice

for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants
2. ANSI/IEEE Standard 241-1983 (Gray Book), Recommended Practice
for Electric Power Systems in Commercial Buildings
3. ANSI/IEEE Standard 242-1986 (Buff Book), Recommended Practice
for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems
4. ANSI/IEEE Standard 739-1984 (Bronze Book), Recommended Prac-
tice for Energy Conservation and Cost-Effective Planning in
Industrial Facilities
5. ANSI/IEEE Standard 142-1982 (Green Book), Recommended Prac-
tice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
6. ANSI/IEEE Standard 399-1980 (Brown Book), Recommended Prac-
tice for Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Analysis
7. ANSI/IEEE Standard 446-1987 (Orange Book), Recommended Prac-
tice for Emergency and Standby Power for Industrial and Com-
mercial Applications
8. ANSI/IEEE Standard 602-1986 (White Book), Recommended Prac-
tice for Electric Systems in Health Care Facilities
9. ANSI/IEEE Standard 493-1980 (Gold Book), Recommended Prac-
tice for the Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems

The present author has been either the chapter author or con-
tributing author to various chapters in six of the above-listed stand-
a r d s during a span of 15 y e a r s . His deep involvement in preparing
materials for chapters on power distribution, power systems protec-
tion and grounding, power system analysis, and energy-efficient
illumination for industrial environment has given him a solid founda-
tion for constructing this timely book.

1.3 CODES AND STANDARDS

1.3.1 National Fire Protection Association Standards
The electrical wiring and design recommendations in the National
Electrical Code (NEC), ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, are vitally important
guidelines for industrial plant engineers. The NEC is published by
and available from the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
It does not represent a design specification, but simply minimum
requirements. The NEC is also available from the American National
Introduction 3

Standards Institute (ANSI) and from each state's Board of Fire

Underwriters.
Other NFPA publications cited throughout this book are:

1. NFPA 75, Electronic Computer/Data Processing Equipment

2. NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity
3. NFPA 78, Lightning Protection Code
4. NFPA 110, Emergency and Standby Power Systems

1.3.2 National Electrical Manufacturers

Association Standards
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) p r e p a r e s
standards that establish dimensions, ratings, and performance re-
quirements for electric equipment for manufacturers. Their standards
are widely used in the preparation of purchase specifications.

1.3.3 Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. Standards

Underwriters Laboratories (UL) p r e p a r e s safety standards for elec-
tric equipment, including appliances and test equipment for comp-
liance with these s t a n d a r d s . Manufacturers that have products ap-
proved by UL as meeting the standards are authorized to use the UL
label on the equipment. UL periodically publishes lists of approved
equipment.

1.3.4 American National Standards Institute

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) does not write
s t a n d a r d s . It promotes and coordinates the development of American
National Standards and approves as American National Standards those
documents that have been prepared in accordance with ANSI regula-
tions .
Standards that have been approved by other organizations and
then approved as American National Standards carry the identifica-
tion numbers of both organizations and may be purchased from either.
The sponsoring organization retains the responsibility for keeping
the standards c u r r e n t .
Standards carrying only an ANSI number were prepared by Ameri-
can National Standards Committees organized and administered by
other organizations in accordance with ANSI regulations. These
ANSI committees are used to coordinate participation by a large num-
b e r of organizations.
ANSI standards of interest to industrial plant engineers include
the following:

1. ANSI Y 1.1-1972 (R1984), American National Standard Abbrevia-

tions for Use on Drawings and in Text
4 Chapter 2

2. ANSI Y 32.9-1972, American National Standard Graphic Symbols

for Electrical Wiring and Layout Diagrams Used in Architecture
and Building Construction

1.4 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.4.1 Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Legislation by the U.S. federal government has had the effect of
giving s t a n d a r d s , such as those of ANSI, the impact of law. The
Occupational Safety and Health Act, administered by the U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor, permits federal enforcement of codes and s t a n d a r d s .
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) established
Design Safety Standards for Electrical Systems, published in the
Federal Register as 29 CFR Part 1910, Subpart S. The regulation
became effective April 16, 1981, and some articles and sections apply
to all electrical installations and utilization equipment, and thus are
retroactive.

1.4.2 Environmental Considerations

The limited availability of energy sources and the steadily increasing
cost of electrical energy require that engineers be concerned with
energy conservation. Electrical engineer should participate in studies
such as total energy required compared to utility power available,
electric heating v e r s u s fossil fuel, and the like. In these studies the
effects of noise, vibration, exhaust gases, cooling methods, and energy
requirements must be considered in relation to the immediate and
sometimes general environment.

1.5 EDISON ELECTRIC INSTITUTE

The Edison Electric Institute (EEI), the trade association of privately
owned electric utilities, publishes the following handbooks, which are
of interest to electrical engineers:

1. A Planning Guide for Architects and Engineers

2. Industrial and Commercial Power Distribution
3. Industrial and Commercial Lighting
4. Underground Systems Reference Book

1.6 HANDBOOKS AND PERIODICALS

The following handbooks and periodicals have, over the y e a r s , estab-

lished reputations in the electrical field. The list is not intended to
Introduction 5

be all-inclusive; other excellent references are also available. The

list is limited primarily to subjects of special relevance to this book.

Handbooks

1. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, Westing-

house Electric C o r p . , T r a f f o r d , P a . , 1964.
2. Electrical Utility Engineering Reference Book, Vol. 3: Distribu-
tion Systems, Westinghouse Electric C o r p . , T r a f f o r d , P a . , 1965.
3. Beeman, D. L. , editor, Industrial Power Systems Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955.
4. Lighting Handbook, Illuminating Engineering Society, New York,
Application Volume, 1987, Reference Volume, 1984.
5. Underground Systems Reference Book, Edison Electric Institute,
Washington, D . C . , 1957.
6. Fink, D. G. and Beaty, H. W. , editors, Standard Handbook for
Electrical Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 12th Edition.

Periodicals

1. Consulting-Specifying Engineer, 270 St. Paul Street, Denver,

CO 80206
2. Electrical Construction and Maintenance (EC&M), 1221 Avenue of
the Americas, New York, NY 10020
3. Electrical Systems Design, 5123 West Chester Pike, Edgemont,
PA 19028
4. Transmission and Distribution, 5123 West Chester Pike, Edgemont,
PA 19028
5. Plant Engineering, 1301 South Grove Avenue, Barrington, IL
60010
6. Power Engineering, 1301 South Grove Avenue, Barrington, IL
60010
7. Lighting Design and Application (IES), 345 East 47 Street, New
York, NY 10017
8. Architectural Lighting, P.O. Box 10955, Eugene, OR 97440
9. Lighting Dimensions, 135 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010

1.7 MANUFACTURERS' DATA

Manufacturers' catalogs are a valuable source of equipment information.

Some of the larger manufacturers' complete catalogs are very exten-
sive, covering dozens of volumes; however, these companies may also
issue abbreviated or condensed versions that are adequate for most
applications. Data sheets r e f e r r i n g to specific items are always avail-
able from the sales offices. Manufacturers' representatives, both
sales and technical, can do much to provide complete information on
their p r o d u c t s .
2
System Planning

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A typical power distribution system is not adaptable to all industrial

plants because different plants have different specific requirements.
Analyses must be made of specific requirements before the engineer
is able to design the system that will meet the requirements of a
particular plant with due consideration given to both present and
f u t u r e operating conditions.

2.2 BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Several basic considerations should be carefully given before a power

distribution system is chosen.

2.2.1 System Reliability

The degree of importance in service reliability is dependent on the
type of manufacturing or process operation of the plant. Some plants
can tolerate momentary outages, whereas others require a high degree
of service continuity. The system should be designed with the capa-
bility to isolate faults with minimum disturbance and should have
f e a t u r e s to produce the maximum dependability consistent with specific
requirements. Many factors influence the reliability of a plant's
power supply. The most important factors are the following:

1. Reliability of the bulk power supply from utility a n d / o r local

generation. Faults in the supply system can cause momentary

6
System Planning 7

voltage depressions in the supply voltage which may adversely

affect industrial equipment.
2. Plant distribution system arrangement.
3. Simplicity of system.
4. Simplicity in operation and maintenance.
5. Reliability of equipment and installation.

Various recent studies of equipment reliability are reported in

the Bibliography at the end of the c h a p t e r . System design engineers
should pay special attention to equipment with high failure r a t e s .

2.2.2 Economics
In general, the power distribution cost represents only 2 to 10% of
plant investment. Economics is a very important consideration in the
design of a power distribution system; engineers must compare sys-
tems on the basis of cost as well as other factors. In making econo-
mic comparisons, it is important to include all p a r t s of the system,
from the power source down to and including the utilization equip-
ment. Economics studies should include installation as well as equip-
ment and operating costs. Selection of power incoming voltage and
utilization voltages has a serious impact on the economics of system
operation. The costs of switchgear, transformers, and cables are
varied according to the voltages selected for the system. The f u n -
damental consideration in selecting equipment is to choose the optimum
equipment consistent with the requirements of the plant. Some widely
accepted guidelines are:

1. Choose metal-clad or metal-enclosed equipment.

2. Choose nonflammable or d r y - t y p e transformers for indoor applica-
tions.
3. Use factory-assembled equipment for easier field installation.
4. Be sure that all equipment ratings are adequate, such as voltage,
c u r r e n t , momentary and i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s , and basic insula-
tion level.

2.2.3 Flexibility
Plants change manufacturing processes from time to time. Both pro-
cess and product may change as demands and style change. The
power distribution system should be flexible enough so that complete
new process layouts can be made without requiring major changes in
the distribution system. Flexibility for f u t u r e expansion should be
considered. The engineer should strive for a system design that
will permit reasonable expansion with minimum investment and minimum
downtime to existing production. Two types of equipment contribute
8 Chapter 2

significantly to flexibility: (1) the load center system and (2) plug-
in busway that permits the installation of equipment with a great de-
gree of flexibility.

2.2.4 System Quality

System stability and decent voltage regulation are important factors
in a well-designed power distribution system. Surges, t r a n s i e n t s ,
and dips occurring on the distribution line can result in poor or even
damaged products. Design must be aimed at minimizing any kind of
disturbances.

2.2.5 Operation and Maintenance

In planning the distribution system, the accessibility and availability
for inspection and repair should be given careful consideration.
Proper maintenance is as important to successful performance of the
system as is selection of the system and its components. Design
engineers can aid in maintenance by designing systems that can be
maintained economically with a minimum of downtime, or by providing
alternate power circuits. It should be possible to remove one circuit
for maintenance without dropping essential load. Drawout equipment
should be very easy to maintain. All this is possible by careful
equipment location and provision of convenient auxiliary services.

2.2.6 F u t u r e Expansion
Plant loads increase through the y e a r s . Selection of plant voltages,
equipment r a t i n g s , space for additional equipment, and capacity to be
allowed for expansion must be planned carefully. Figure 2.1 shows
a typical industrial unit substation incorporating the foregoing con-
siderations .

2.3 LOAD SURVEY

Determination of the load is the design engineer's first problem and

is difficult to solve. The size and number of primary and secondary
substations; the size, number, and arrangement of primary feeders;
and the type of secondary distribution are largely dependent on the
amount and nature of the load.

2.3.Ί Preliminary Load S u r v e y

How to make preliminary estimates of loads is a problem that deserves
careful s t u d y . These estimates may have to be used as the basis
System Planning 9

for major decisions. At this stage design engineers often have only
a few scanty building layout drawings. The location of major pieces
of equipment may not be known. Starting with the scanty information
on h a n d , engineers must depend on their knowledge and experience
to enable them to arrive at estimates that will stand up at a later
date. It is b e t t e r to consider the lighting and power loads separately
and combine them later to determine the demand in any one area,
since the usual practice is to supply these loads from a common load
center substation. Several factors frequently used in determining
distribution load are listed below:

1. Demand factor: the ratio of the maximum demand on a system to

the total connected load of the system. (The maximum demand
is usually the integrated maximum kilowatt demand over a 15- or
30-min interval rather than the instantaneous or peak demand.)

Figure 2.1 Typical industrial unit substation.

10 Chapter 2

2. Diversity factor: the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum

demands of the various p a r t s of a system to the maximum demand
of the entire system.
3. Load factor: the ratio of the average load over a designated
period to the peak load occurring in that period.

Information on the demand and diversity factors for various loads

and groups of loads is needed for system design. For example, the
sum of the connected loads on a branch load circuit multiplied by the
demand factor of these loads gives the maximum demand that the branch
circuit must c a r r y . The sum of the maximum demands of the branch
circuits associated with a subload center or panelboard divided by
the diversity factor of these branch circuits gives the maximum de-
mand at the subload center and on the circuit supplying it. The sum
of the maximum demands of the circuits radiating from a load c e n t e r ,
divided by the diversity factor of these circuits, gives the maximum
demand on the transformer at the load center. The sum of the maxi-
mum demands of the load center transformers divided by the diversity
factor of the transformer loads gives the maximum demand on their
primary feeder. By using the proper demand and diversity factors,
maximum demands on the various p a r t s of the system from the branch
load circuits to the power source can be determined.

2.3.2 L i g h t i n g Loads
To estimate lighting loads, the general type of construction must be
known as well as mounting height and space and location of roof
t r u s s e s and columns so that the optimum arrangement can be made
against physical requirements. The intensity of illumination and the
type of lighting system [fluorescent or high-intensity discharge (HID)]
desired, together with general construction f e a t u r e s , will make pos-
sible computation of load using u p - t o - d a t e recommended practice or
data from fixture manufacturers.
For a quick estimate of lighting load today, the engineer must
not ignore various mandatory lighting energy conservation guidelines
adopted by different states which indicate unit power density figures
to be observed. Also, many new and efficient light sources are avail-
able for selection and application. Once followed, these practices
tend to reduce the lighting load and yet to produce satisfactory re-
sults. Table 2.1 shows the IES recommended power limits for a num-
ber of typical industries. Information on outdoor lighting is readily
available. Fence lighting can be estimated at 200 W per 100 f t .
Total outdoor lighting will seldom exceed 25% of all lighting load and
may be as low as 5%. Table 2.2 shows estimated lighting requirements
for various industries which can be used as a guide. The diversifi-
cation of the lighting load will be low and the demand factor of the
System Planning 11

Table 2.1 IES Recommended Lighting Power Limits

Industry Power limit a (W/ft 2 )

Aircraft manufacturing 2.5—6.9

Automobile manufacturing 1.8—7.1
Brewing 1.4
Cement 1.0-11.0
Dairy products 0.8-3.8
Electrical equipment manufacturing 3.3
Electric generating station 0.7—2.5
Explosive manufacturing 0.9
Foundries 0.8-4.5
Glass works 1.4—6.4
Iron and steel manufacturing 0.8—7.4
Machine shop 1.7-3.7
Paper manufacturing 1.1—4.4
Petroleum and chemical plants 0.5—4.0
Printing 2.4-7.8
Rubber tire manufacturing 1.3—3.3
Sheet metal works 1.5—6.8
Textile mills 1.4-3.8
Welding 1.8
Woodworking 1.8
a
T h e range given is used to indicate that certain functions will r e -
quire a higher lighting level than the others for a typical i n d u s t r y .
For detailed information, reference should be made to IES publications.
12 Chapter 2

Table 2.2 Estimated Lighting Requirements for Various Industries

Industry Lighting (% of total connected load)

Steel foundries 1-3

Rolling mills, oil refining 3-5
Heavy electric equipment 5-8
Auto equipment, baking 8-10
Machine p a r t s 10-15
Auto assembly p a r t s 15-25

lighting load connected to a lighting panelboard may vary as shown

in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Typical Lighting Demand Factors

Distribution system component Demand factor

Lighting panelboard bus and 1.0

main overcurrent device
Lighting panelborad feeder and 1.0
feeder overcurrent device
Distribution panel board bus and
main overcurrent device
First 50,000 W or less 0.5
All over 50,000 W 0.4
Remaining components 0.4

2.3.3 Power Loads

Estimating the power loads is considerably more difficult than estimat-
ing the lighting loads. Load densities for various industries are diffi-
cult to obtain, and if obtained, could be misleading. The technology
advancement and recent energy conservation efforts have had an
impact on density figures published previously. However, some de-
mand factors established through long years of experience may still
serve as a useful guide in estimating load requirements. Table 2.4
shows some typical demand factors. When the loads of individual
System Planning 13

Table 2.4 Typical Power Load Demand Factors

Load Estimated demand factor

Arc furnaces 1.00

Arc welders 0.30
Induction furnaces 0.80
Lighting 1.00
Motors
General-purpose application 0.30
Semicontinuous process 0.60
Continuous process 0.90
Resistance ovens, h e a t e r s , and furnaces 0.80

machines or areas are known, it is necessary to combine them to

obtain the maximum demand that determines system capacity. Apply-
ing demand factors such as those listed in Table 2.4 to the total con-
nected load will yield a total plant demand assuming a unity diversity
factor. If the diversity factor is also known, the demand t h u s ob-
tained, divided by the diversity factor, gives the actual demand.
The National Electrical Code contains several tables of demand
factors on lighting loads for dwelling u n i t s , hospitals, hotels, ware-
houses, and so on; and on nondwelling receptacle loads, electric
clothes d r y e r s , and electric r a n g e s . Some of these demand figures
may be used to estimate industrial loads.

2.3.4 Electronic Data Processing

Large computers require that special consideration be given to the
electric distribution systems that supply them. Special requirements
are usually stipulated, but the requirements vary with the computer
design. A more detailed treatment is presented in Chapter 10. Power
requirements of typical large computer systems range from 200 to
500 kVA, with an air-conditioning load of 25 to 75 kVA.

2.3.5 Conclusion
After a survey or estimate of loads is made, the design engineer
will be able to predict the required system capacity. At this point
before a complete power distribution system is determined, analyses
must be made concerning the characteristics of various loads that
will be supplied by the system. Impact loads and loads that when
14 Chapter 2

energized can cause s u r g e s a n d / o r dips in the system can be handled

advantageously with separate load c e n t e r s , not mixed with the same
load center supplying dedicated electronic equipment a n d / o r computer
systems. This can be accomplished easily at the planning stage.
Purifying power supplies for different loads will be much more diffi-
cult and costly once the plant is in operation.

2.4 SYSTEM AND VOLTAGE SELECTION

At the planning stage the design engineer must have a well-established

concept in mind about the selection of a system and voltage ratings
for various components that are to make up the entire distribution
system to meet various requirements of the loads from the s u r v e y .

2.4.1 Selection of System

Many types of circuit arrangements are commonly used: radial,
secondary selective, primary selective, looped primary, and secondary
network. Detailed discussions on each system and its advantages or
disadvantages are given in Chapter 4. Although the various systems
may be compared on several bases, the choice usually resolves itself
into the selection of a system that will provide the required degree
of service reliability at minimum cost.
In controlling initial investment, far more can be accomplished by
proper selection of the system than by economizing on equipment de-
tails. Cost reductions should be obtained by using a less expensive
distribution system, with some sacrifice in r e s e r v e capacity and reli-
ability, instead of using inferior a p p a r a t u s . The degree to which
extra expenditure should be added to a plant distribution system to
increase its service reliability depends on (1) the characteristics of
the manufacturing process and (2) the reliability of the power source.
For many manufacturing plants, a short power outage can be tolerated.
In other plants, a short outage can result in spoilage of considerable
material in process. In the latter case, it might be possible to jus-
tify an extra expenditure to increase the reliability of the distribu-
tion system.
If the source circuits are u n d e r g r o u n d cable, the probability of
faults will be much less than in overhead, open wire circuits. Al-
though the frequency of occurrence is low, it usually takes as long
as 24 hours to locate and reapir the fault. On the other h a n d , faults
on overhead wire circuits normally require much less time to locate
and repair. Historical records of similar installation u n d e r similar
conditions will provide a reasonable guide as to what to expect.
System Planning 15

2.4.2 Selection of System Voltage

The selection of utilization and distribution voltage levels is one of
the most important considerations in the power distribution system
design. System voltage usually affects the economics of equipment
selection and plant expansion more than does any other single fac-
t o r . The various voltage levels may be classified broadly as follows:

Low voltage: 1,000 V or less

Medium voltage: 1,000-100,000 V
High voltage: above 100,000 V

Factors affecting voltage selection are as follows:

1. Service voltage available from utility. When the best distri-
bution voltage for application is not available from the utility, the
design engineer must determine the relative costs of using the ser-
vice voltage for distribution or providing substation transformer
capacity to obtain the desired distribution voltage.
2. Magnitude of the load. This is also an important factor in
selecting distribution voltage. It is usually the determining factor
for selecting distribution voltage when the plant is compact and where
the load is concentrated in one area.
3. Distance over which power is to be carried. Distance is
another important consideration in the selection of distribution voltages.
It becomes particularly important when sizable loads are located at a
distance from the main plant.
4. Ratings of utilization devices. Lamps, small motors, business
machines, appliances, and so on, are generally available with 115- or
120-V r a t i n g s . A 120-V single-phase supply must be made available
for service. Three phase motors are available for voltages from
208 V to 13.2 kV. Large arc furnace transformers are generally
limited to a maximum of 23 to 34.5 kV because of switching equipment
limitations.
5. Safety. Safety is a major consideration in selecting system
voltage in the area of 120 V or below. A voltage of 32 V has been
selected for some ungrounded frame portable tools because voltages
above 50 V to ground can be lethal. For safety reasons work on
c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g p a r t s should be done only with the circuit deener-
gized.
6. Codes and standards. The National Electrical Code places
limitations on the voltage ratings of equipment and distribution cir-
cuits within buildings and should be consulted to assure conformance.

2.5 POWER SYSTEMS STUDIES

Besides being familiar with the characteristics of loads, effects of

loads on the power system, and effects of system irregularities on
16 Chapter 2

individual loads, system design engineers must incorporate the find-

ings from the power systems studies in the design of new industrial
power distribution system. The principal objective of power system
studies is to provide design engineers with a convenient and relatively
inexpensive source of information needed to make a system fulfill its
goals. These goals are outlined in Section 2.2. Principal types of
studies include short circuit, protective device coordination, load
flow, transient overvoltage, power-factor improvement, transient sta-
bility, and motor starting and grounding.
The transient stability study is most useful to industries that
have their generation tied in with utility supplies. Many industrial
systems are equipped with under-frequency-load shedding relays that
can detect drops in frequency due to severe overload and trip the
b r e a k e r s feeding noncritical loads. This can help to prevent complete
system collapse. The proper delay settings for these relays are
determined by a transient stability study which calculates the rate of
frequency decrement upon loss of utility tie.
A load flow study is primarily an aid to system planning. It can
accurately predict changes in voltage level, power factor, and line
and transformer loading in an existing system due to a projected in-
crease in system load, permitting the required modifications in the
system to be planned for. Another important study is the motor
s t a r t i n g s t u d y . Starting large motors across the line on a relatively
weak system can cause severe voltage dips. Whether the voltage at
critical load locations will fall to dangerously low levels or whether
voltage will be adequate to accelerate the load can be answered by
such a s t u d y .

2.5.1 Some Practical Solutions to the New

Load Requirements
To maintain the quality level of power to computers and other solid-
state equipment, it is essential to minimize t r a n s i e n t s , voltage spikes,
and dips caused either externally or internally. A typical externally
caused transient is lightning or the result of capacitor and regulator
switching by the utility. Internal transients can be caused by the
operation of compressor motors. Voltage spikes from radio-frequency
sources within a plant can cause not only power problems but can
also ruin equipment. A solution to this type of problem is to ground
equipment separate from the neutral grounding of the electrical sys-
tem. The neutral should be isolated from the building ground all
the way back to the transformer. Other means to eliminate transients
are by use of rotating equipment (motor-generator set with flywheel),
diesel-driven ac generators, or static equipment (rectifiers and in-
verters) .
In view of the inadequacy of utility systems in meeting the strin-
gent requirements of new equipment and devices, whether or not an
System Planning 17

uninterruptible power supply is included as part of the system de-

sign should be given due consideration at an early stage. Some
fundamental questions should be answered before a decision can be
reached about incorporating a proper interface in the system design:

1. What tangible consequences result from computer failures ascribed

to voltage transients?
2. What degree of system reliability is warranted by the consequences
of system failures?
3. Which alternative power source can supply the required level of
reliability most economically?
4. What voltage and frequency variations can the important sections
of the information system tolerate? What are their transient s t a r t -
ing characteristics?
5. What are tolerable levels of noise, vibration, and radio-frequency
interference (RFI) from the power interface?

2.6 CODES AND STANDARDS

Safety to life and protection of p r o p e r t y from electric arcing, f i r e ,

and explosions that may result from power distribution system instal-
lation and use of electrical equipment should be considered during
the design stages. State and municipal regulations will vary to some
e x t e n t , and fire and casualty insurance carriers usually have specific
requirements for safeguarding from certain hazards associated with
the use of electrical equipment. Details of the proposed system
should be reviewed with representatives of these groups. In some
cases, the only authorities having any jurisdiction are the insurance
carriers.
In general, all distribution system construction should conform
to the latest requirements of the National Electrical Code and the
National Electrical Safety Code. Where the requirements are not
covered by code, the design of the system and selection of the dis-
tribution equipment should conform to all applicable ANSI/IEEE Stand-
a r d s , particularly C37-1986 and C57-1986. The National Electrical
Code is published by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
It has generally been accepted by most s t a t e s , municipalities, and
insurance authorities as comprising the minimum requirements neces-
sary for safety.

2.7 MAINTENANCE

Dirt is probably the greatest enemy of all electric equipment. It

results in greater heating of p a r t s , with resulting lowered efficiency
18 Chapter 2

and therefore progressively increased heating. At the same time,

this shortens the life of the insulation, because the life expectancy
of most insulating materials decreases rapidly as the temperature rises.
Insulation usually depreciates with age. A sudden drop in the insula-
tion resistance of any piece of equipment is an indication of develop-
ing trouble. This can be prevented by immediate corrective measures.
Protective devices will function properly only if regularly examined
and checked. The essence of good maintenance can be summarized
as follows:

1. Cleanliness of equipment
2. Regular inspections
3. Lubrication of rotating equipment
4. Repairs and adjustments
5. Record keeping

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chen, Kao, Power Systems Analysis: An Essential Step in the Plan-

ning of a Future Industrial System, IEEE-IGA Conference Record
71C1-IGA, p p . 459-463.
Guideline on Electric Power for ADP Installations, Federal Information
Processing Standards Publication 94, U.S. Department of Com-
merce, Sept. 21, 1983.
IEEE Committee Report, Reliability of Electric Utility Supplies of In-
dustrial Plants, IEEE-IC&PS Technical Conference Record, 75-
CH0947-1-ΙΑ, Toronto, Canada, May 5 - 8 , 1975, p p . 131-133.
IEEE Committee Report, Report of Switchgear Bus Reliability Survey
of Industrial Plants, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
M a r . / A p r . 1979, p p . 141-147.
IEEE Committee Report, Report on Reliability Survey of Industrial
Plants, Parts 1—6, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
M a r . / A p r . , p p . 213-252; July/Aug. , p p . 456-476; S e p t . / O c t . ,
p . 681; 1974.
IEEE Standard 141-1976, Recommended Practice for Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants.
IEEE Standard 493-1980, Recommended Practice for Design of Reliable
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
Recommended Procedure for Lighting Power Limit Determination,
Illuminating Engineering Society Publication, LEM-1-1982.
Regotti, A. R . , and T r a s k y , J . G. , What to Look for in a Low-
Voltage Unit Substation, IEEE Transactions on Industry and
General Applications, vol. IGA-5, Nov./Dec. 1969, p p . 710-719.
3
Distribution System Voltage
Standards and Selections

3.1 INTRODUCTION

An understanding of system voltage nomenclature and the p r e f e r r e d

voltage ratings of distribution apparatus and utilization equipment
provides a solid foundation for design engineers to make proper
selections of industrial power distribution systems and equipment.
Satisfactory power supply voltage levels must be maintained under
all conditions of plant operation to ensure good-quality production.

3.2 VOLTAGE STANDARDS FOR THE

UNITED STATES

The voltage standard for electric power systems in the United States
is ANSI C84.1-1982, Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Systems and
Equipment (60 Hz). This standard lists all the standard nominal sys-
tem voltages at the point of delivery by a utility and the point of
utilization. Two sets of tolerance limits are provided: range A,
which specifies the limits under most operating conditions, and range
B, which allows minor excursions outside the range A limits. Table
3.1 shows the Standard Nominal System Voltages and Voltage Ranges
A and Β at t h r e e different voltage classes: low voltage (600 V and
below), medium voltage (2.4 to 69 k V ) , and high voltage (115 kV
and above).

19
 20 Chapter 2

Table 3. 1 Standard Nominal System Voltages and Voltage Ranges

Standard Nominal System Voltages and Voltages Ranges
VOLTAGE NOMINAL VOLTAGE R A N G E A VOLTAGE RANGE Β
CLASS SYSTEM VOLTAGE
(Not
* *} Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
^ _ „ Utilization 8*r»lc· s.rete J V ^ U a · Utilization Sorvtc· Utilization and
Two-wira Thr^-wlr. Four-wlr. vo*t.a· VoiUe· XVd) Vottag· VoMag· S«rvtc· Vottag·

Low Singla-Pha»· System»

Ϊ Ϊ Ϊ Χ 120 Γ [ Τ " 110 1 114 ~Ί 126 | 106 ΓΐΟ 127

ί 120/240 J 110/220 114/228 126/2S2 1| 106/212 110/220 127/254
_ Three-Phaie Systemt

208Υ/120 1 SI Υ/110 Π 197Υ/114 Ί Τΐ8Υ/126 184Υ/10βΤ 191Υ/110 220Υ/127

[Not· ·) (Not· f) (Not· f)
240/120 220/110 228/114 252/128 212/106 220/110 254/127
240 220 228 252 212 220 254
480Y/277 440Y/254 466Y/263 504Y/291 424Y/245 440Y/254 508Y/293
480 440 456 504 424 440 508
600 550 570 630 530 550 635
_ ( N <»· 0) (Not· g) (Not· a)
Medium 2400 2 160 2 340 2 520 2080 2 280 2 540
ν ο Ι Ι β β β
4160Y/2400 3 740Y/2 160 4050Y/2 340 4 370/2 520 3 600Y/2 080 3 950Y/2 280 4400Y/2540
4180 3740 4050 4370 3600 3950 4400
4800 4 320 4 680 5040 4160 4560 5080
6900 6210 6730 7240 5940 6560 7260

8 320Y/4800 \ / 8110Y/4680 8 730Y/5040 \ / 7900Y/4 560 8800Y/5080

12 0 0 0 Y / 6 9 3 0 \ / 11700Y/6-760 12600Y/7270 \ / 11 4 0 0 Y / 6 5 8 0 12700Y/7330
12470Y/7200 (Not.h) 1 2 1 BOY/7 0 2 0 13090Y/7560 IN*.») 11850Y/6840 13200Y/7620
13200Y/7 620 / \ 12870Y/7 430 13860Y/8000 / \ 12540Y/7240 13970Y/8070
13800Y/7970 ' \ 13460Y/7770 14490Y/8370 / \ 13110Y/7570 14520Y/8380
13800 12420 13460 14490 11880 13110 14520

20780Y/12 000 \ / 20260Y/11 700 21820Y/12600 \ / 19740Y/11 400 22000Y/12700

22 8 6 0 Y / 1 3 2 0 0 \ / 22290Y/12870 24000Y/13860 \ / 21720Y/12540 24200Y/13970
23000 ( N o t · h> 22430 2 4150 (N o»h) 21850 24340
24940Y/14400 / \ 24320Y/14040 26190Y/15120 / \ 23690Y/13880 26400Y/15240
34500Y/19920 33640Y/19420 38230Y/20920 Ν 32780Y/18930 36510Y/21080
34 500 33640 3 6230 [ 32780 36510 J

Maximum M i n i m u m utilization v o l t a g e s for in a p p l y i n g the R a n g e Β m i n i m u m

Voltage 1 2 0 6 0 0 volt c i r c u i t s n o t s u p p l y i n g v o l t a g e s of Table 1 a n d N o t e ( c ) to
l i g h t i n g l o a d s a r e as f o l l o w s e x i s t i n g 2 0 8 volt s y s t e m s s u p p l y i n g
46000 (Not. o ( 4 8 3 0 0 Nominal such motors
690
—0—
0 '72500 System
Voltage Range
A Range
Β
( g ) C e r t a i n k i n d s of c o n t r o l a n d p r o -
High 115000 121000 7^) tective e q u i p m e n t p r e s e n t l y avail-
108 104
Voltage 1 3 8 0 0 0 145000 120/240 108/216 104/208 a b l e h a v e a m a x i m u m v o l t a g e limit
161 000 169000 <ΝΟ«·208Υ/120 187Y/108 180Y/104 of 6 0 0 volts, t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r o r
230000 242000 240/120 216/108 208/104 p o w e r supplier or b o t h s h o u l d be
216 208 c o n s u l t e d to a s s u r e p r o p e r appli-
2 4 0
Extra-High 345000 362000 480Y/277 432Y/249 416Y/240 cation
Voltage 500 ooo 550000 480 432 416
tNo,
*l) 765000 800000 600 540 520 (h) Utilization e q u i p m e n t d o e s not gen-
e r a l l y o p e r a t e d i r e c t l y at t h e s e
Ultra-High 1100000 1200000 ( d ) F o r 1 2 0 - 6 0 0 volt n o m i n a l s y s t e m s , voltages For e q u i p m e n t supplied
Voltage
\Not*n L__l
v o l t a g e s in this c o l u m n a r e m a x i - t h r o u g h t r a n s f o r m e r s , refer t o limits
m u m service voltages M a x i m u m f o r n o m i n a l s y s t e m v o l t a g e of t r a n s -
utilization v o l t a g e s w o u l d n o t b e former output
NOTES: e x p e c t e d to e x c e e d 125 volts for
( a ) T h r e e - p h a s e t h r e e - w i r e s y s t e m s a r e s y s t e m s in w h i c h o n l y t h e n o m i n a l s y s t e m v o l t a g e of 120, (i) For these systems R a n g e A a n d
the three-phase c o n d u c t o r s are carried out f r o m the s o u r c e nor appropriate multiples thereof R a n g e Β limits a r e n o t s h o w n be-
l o r c o n n e c t i o n of l o a d s T h e s o u r c e m a y b e d e r i v e d f r o m a n y for other n o m i n a l system voltages c a u s e , w h e r e they are u s e d as
t y p e of t h r e e - p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r c o n n e c t i o n , g r o u n d e d o r t h r o u g h 6 0 0 volts s e r v i c e v o l t a g e s , t h e o p e r a t i n g volt-
u n g r o u n d e d T h r e e - p h a s e f o u r - w i r e s y s t e m s a r e s y s t e m s in a g e level o n t h e u s e r ' s s y s t e m is
w h i c h a g r o u n d e d n e u t r a l c o n d u c t o r is a l s o c a r r i e d o u t f r o m ( e ) A m o d i f i c a t i o n of this t h r e e - p h a s e , n o r m a l l y a d i u s t e d by m e a n s of volt-
t h e s o u r c e for c o n n e c t i o n of l o a d s F o u r - w i r e s y s t e m s in f o u r - w i r e s y s t e m is a v a i l a b l e as a a g e r e g u l a t i o n t o suit their r e q u i r e -
T a b l e l a r e d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e p h a s e - t o - p h a s e v o l t a g e , fol- 1 2 0 / 2 0 8 Y volt s e r v i c e for single- ments
l o w e d by t h e letter Y ( e x c e p t for t h e 2 4 0 / 1 2 0 volt delta phase, three-wire, o p e n - w y e appli
s y s t e m ) , a slant line, a n d t h e p h a s e - t o - n e u t r a l v o l t a g e S i n g l e - cations I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m A m e r i c a n Na
p h a s e s e r v i c e s a n d l o a d s m a y b e s u p p l i e d f r o m e i t h e r single- tional Standard C 9 2 2-1978 N o m i
p h a s e or t h r e e - p h a s e systems (f) M a n y 2 2 0 volt m o t o r s w e r e a p p l i e d n a l v o l t a g e s a b o v e 2 3 0 , 0 0 0 volts
o n e x i s t i n g 2 0 8 volt s y s t e m s o n the are not standardized The n o m i n a l
a s s u m p t i o n that t h e utilization volt- v o l t a g e s listed are typically u s e d
a g e w o u l d n o t b e less t h a n 187 w i t h t h e a s s o c i a t e d p r e f e r r e d stan
volts C a u t i o n s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d d a r d m a x i m u m voltages
Distribution System Voltage Standards 21

3.2.1 Power Transmission and D i s t r i b u t i o n

in the United States
A general u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the principles of power transmission and
distribution in utility systems is essential for a design e n g i n e e r ,
since most i n d u s t r i a l plants obtain t h e i r power from the local utility.
Most g e n e r a t i n g stations are located near a source of fuel and water.
The electric power generated is transformed in a substation to a
transmission voltage, generally 69 kV or h i g h e r . This power is
classed as u n r e g u l a t e d . Note in Table 3.1 that ANSI specifies only
the nominal and maximum values for systems over 34.5 kV. T r a n s -
mission lines supply a distribution substation with t r a n s f o r m e r s to
step down to a primary distribution voltage, generally in the r a n g e
4.16 to 34.5 kV, with 12.47 kV and 13.2 kV as the most widely used
voltages. In recent y e a r s t h e r e has been an increasing t r e n d toward
the use of 34.5 kV as the primary distribution voltage. This is where
voltage control is normally applied when n e c e s s a r y for t h e p u r p o s e
of maintaining satisfactory voltage to t h e terminals of utilization equip-
ment. Substation t r a n s f o r m e r s are generally equipped with t a p - c h a n g -
ing-underload devices in o r d e r to maintain a more constant voltage.
The r e g u l a r controls are provided with compensators that raise the
voltage as the load increases and lower the voltage as the load de-
c r e a s e s , to compensate for any voltage drop in t h e primary d i s t r i b u -
tion system. T h u s a fixed average voltage can be maintained along
the primary distribution system. Figure 3.1 illustrates t h e compensa-
tion effect of r e g u l a t o r .
In general, p l a n t s close to t h e substation will receive voltages
h i g h e r than those received by plants remote from the s u b s t a t i o n .
The primary distribution system supplies power to distribution t r a n s -
formers , which then step it down to utilization voltages in the r a n g e
120 to 600 V. Supply voltages to an industrial plant a r e often varied
depending on t h e size of the plant load. Large plants with loads
g r e a t e r than a few thousand kVA a r e connected to the transmission
system and will have to provide t h e primary distribution system, the
distribution t r a n s f o r m e r s , t h e secondary distribution system, and may
even provide t h e s u b s t a t i o n . Small plants with loads only u p to
several h u n d r e d kVA may be supplied from low-voltage secondary
distribution systems. If power is supplied by in-plant generation,
t h e g e n e r a t o r s will replace t h e utility supply system wholly or in
p a r t . Generators may replace the distribution t r a n s f o r m e r s if they
deliver power at 600 V or below.

3.3 VOLTAGE TOLERANCE LIMITS

The voltage tolerance limits for ANSI C84.1-1982 are based on NEMA
MG1-1972, Motors and G e n e r a t o r s , which established t h e voltage
22 Chapter 2

tolerance limits of the standard induction motor at ±10% of nameplate

ratings of 230 V and 460 V. Since motors represent the major portion
of utilization equipment, they were given primary consideration in
the establishment of the voltage s t a n d a r d .
One convenient way to show the voltage in a distribution system
is in terms of a 120 V base. The tolerance limit of the 460 V motor
in terms of 120 V base becomes 115 V plus 10% or 126.5 V, and 115
V minus 10%, or 103.5 V. This tolerance range of 23 V should be
divided among the primary distribution system, the distribution t r a n s -
former, and the secondary distribution system. Table 3.1, range B,
shows a maximum service voltage of 127 V, allowing a 13 V drop in
the primary distribution system and a 4 V drop in the distribution
transformer, resulting in 110 V as a minimum service voltage. A
4 V drop is also allotted in the plant wiring; thus a minimum utiliza-
tion voltage of 106 V is established. The range A limits for the
standard were established by reducing the maximum tolerance limits
from 127 V to 126 V and increasing the minimum tolerance limits from
106 V to 110 V. The spread of 16 V was then allotted as follows:
9 V for the voltage drop in the primary distribution system to pro-
vide a minimum primary service voltage of 117 V; 3 V for the voltage
drop in the distribution transformer and the secondary connections
to provide a minimum utility secondary service voltage of 114 V; and
4 V for the voltage drop in the plant wiring to provide a minimum
utilization voltage of 110 V. Table 3.2 shows a standard voltage pro-

Ui
VOLTAGE LEVEL AT LIGHT LOAD
^ +5% WITHOUT COMPENSATION
—I
<
Ζ
Σ VOLTAGE LEVEL AT FULL LOAD
Ο
Ζ
Έ
Ο
ε ο
ζ
VOLTAGE LEVEL AT LIGHT LOAD
ο
WITH COMPENSATION
> NOMINAL LINE
LU VOLTAGE
Ω
LU DISTANCE FROM SUBSTATION
Ο
Η -5%
Ο
>

Figure 3.1 Effect of regulator compensation on primary distribution

system voltage.
Distribution System Voltage Standards 23

file for a low-voltage regulated power distribution system (120 V

base) which summarizes the discussions above.
Electric supply systems are to be designed and operated so that
most service voltages fall within the range A limits. User systems
are also to be designed and operated within range A. Range Β is
to allow limited excursion of voltage outside the range A limits which
result from practical design and operating conditions. The supplying
utility is expected, within a reasonable period, to take action to re-
store service voltage to range A limits. The user is also expected
to take action to restore utilization voltage to range A limits. In
general, utilization equipment may be expected to give acceptable
performance at a voltage outside range A but within range Β.

3.4 DEFINITION OF NOMINAL SYSTEM VOLTAGE

The term "nominal system voltage" designates not a single voltage,

but a range of voltage over which the actual voltages at any point
in the system may vary and still provide satisfactory operation for
equipment connected to the system. The voltage range for all stand-
ard nominal system voltages in the utilization and distribution range
120 V to 34.5 kV is specified in Table 3.1 for two critical points in

Table 3.2 Standard Voltage Profile for Low-Voltage Regulated Power

Distribution System with 120-V Base a

Range A Range Β
(V) (V)

Maximum allowable voltage 126(125*) 127

Voltage drop allowance for primary 9 13
distribution line
Minimum primary service voltage 117 114
Voltage drop allowance for 3 4
distribution transformer
Minimum secondary service voltage 114 110
Voltage drop allowance for plant 6(4+) 6(4+)
wiring
Minimum utilization voltage 108(110+) 104(106+)
a
* , For utilization voltage of 120 to 600 V; + , for building wiring
circuits supplying lighting equipment.
24 Chapter 2

the distribution system: the point of delivery by the supply utility

and the point of connection to utilization equipment. For transmission
voltages over 34.5 kV, only the maximum voltage is specified, because
the voltages are normally unregulated and only a maximum voltage is
required to establish the design insulation level for the line and asso-
ciated apparatus.

3.5 SYSTEM VOLTAGE NOMENCLATURE

The nominal system voltages in Table 3.1 are designated in the same
way as on the nameplate of the transformer for the winding or wing-
ings supplying the system.

1. Single-phase systems
a. 120: a single-phase two-wire system in which the nominal
voltage between the two wires is 120 V.
b . 120/240: a single-phase three-wire system in which the nomi-
nal voltage between two phase conductors is 240 V, and be-
tween each phase conductor and the neutral is 120 V.
2. Three-phase systems
a. 240/120: a three-phase four-wire system supplied from a
delta-connected transformer. The midtap of one winding is
connected to a neutral. The three-phase conductors provide
a nominal 240 V three-phase system, and the neutral and the
two adjacent phase conductors provide a nominal 120/240 V
single-phase system.
b. Single number: a three-phase three-wire system in which
the number designates the nominal voltage between phases.
c. Two numbers separated by a Y /: a three-phase four-wire
system from a wye-connected transformer in which the first
number denotes the nominal phase-to-phase voltage and the
second number denotes the nominal phase-to-neutral voltage.

Figure 3.2 shows principal transformer connections that supply

the various nominal system voltages as described above.

3.5.1 Standard Nominal System Voltages

in the United States
The nominal system voltages listed in the left-hand column of Table
3.3 are officially designated as "standard nominal system voltages"
in the United States by ANSI C84.1-1982. In addition, those shown
in boldface type in Table 3.1 are designated as p r e f e r r e d standards
to provide a long-range plan for reducing the multiplicity of voltages.
 5
S>*
?
cr
SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEMS
ο
NEUTRAL 00
^
CO
cS"
(1) (2) <
TWO-WIRE THREE-WIRE
ο
THREE-PHASE THREE-WIRE SYSTEMS
Ω

Co
Ω
Λ
Ω
-s
(3) (4) (5) (6) Ω-
CO
WYE TEE DELTA OPEN-DELTA

THREE-PHASE FOUR-WIRE SYSTEMS

NEUTRAL NEUTRAL

NEUTRAL

(7) (8) (9) (10)

WYE TEE DELTA OPEN-DELTA

Figur e 3.2 Principal transformer connections t o suppl y variou s nominal voltages.

cn
26 Chapter 2

Table 3. 3 Nominal System Voltages

Associated Nonstandard
Standard Nominal System Voltages Nominal System Voltages
Low voltages
120 110, 115, 125
120/240 110/220, 115/230, 125/250
208Y/120 216Y/125
240/120
240 230, 250
480Y/277 460Y/265
480 440
600 550, 575
Medium Voltages
2400 2200, 2300
4160Y/2400
4160 4000
4800 4600
6900 6600, 7200
8320Y/4800 11000, 11 500
12 000Y/6930
12 470Y/7200
13 200Y/7620
13 200
13 800Y/7970 14 400
13 800
20 780Υ/12 000
22 860Y/13 200
23 000
24 940Y/14 400
34 500Y/19 920
34 500 33 000
46 000 44 000
69 000 66 000
High Voltages
115 000 110 000, 120 000
138 000 132 000
161 000 154 000
230 000 220 000
Ultra-High Voltages
345 000
500 000
765 000
1 100 000
Distribution System Voltage Standards 27

For the utilization voltages of 600 V and below, the associated nominal
system voltage in the right-hand column are obsolete and should not
be used. In the case of medium distribution voltages, the numbers
in the right-hand column may designate an older system in which the
voltage tolerance limits are maintained at a different level than the
standard nominal system voltage, and special consideration must be
given to the distribution transformer ratios, t a p s , and tap settings.
There are two situations that necessitate the use of taps:

1. Taps are needed if the primary voltage has a nominal value that
is slightly different from the transformer primary nameplate rat-
ing. For example, if a 13,200/480 V transformer is connected to
a nominal 13,800 V system, the nominal secondary voltage would
be 502 V.
2. Taps are used to adjust the utilization voltage spread band to
provide a closer fit to the tolerance limits of the utilization equip-
ment .

Table 3.4 shows the voltage tolerance limits of standard 460 V and
440 V three-phase induction motors. Table 3.5 shows the tolerance
limits for 277 V and 265 V fluorescent lamp ballasts. A study of these
two tables shows that a tap setting of "normal" will provide the best
fit with tolerance limits of the 460 V motor and 277 V ballast. Note
that the examples above assume that the tolerance limits of the supply
and utilization voltages are within the tolerance limits specified in
ANSI C84.1-1982. This may not be t r u e , so the actual voltages should
be measured with a recording c h a r t . The actual voltages can then
be used to assist the selection of transformer taps.
When a plant has not yet been built, the supply utility should be
requested to provide the expected spread band. Recommendations
should be obtained from the supply utility on transformer ratios, t a p s ,
and tap settings. If the supply voltage offered by the utility is one
of the associated nominal system voltages listed in Table 3.3, the taps
on a standard distribution transformer will generally be sufficient to

Table 3.4 Tolerance Limits for Low-

Voltage Three-Phase Motors

Tolerance limit (V)

Motor rating
(V) -10% + 10%

460 414 506

440 396 484
28 Chapter 2

Table 3. 5 Tolerance Limits for Low-Voltage

Standard Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts

Tolerance limit (V)

Ballast rating
(V) -10% +10%

277 249 305

265 238 292

adjust the distribution transformer ratio to provide a satisfactory

utilization voltage range. Taps serve only to move the secondary
voltage spread band up and down in the steps of the t a p s . They
cannot correct for excessive spread in the supply voltage or exces-
sive drop in the plant wiring system.

3.6 VOLTAGE RATINGS FOR LOW-VOLTAGE

U T I L I Z A T I O N EQUIPMENT

Utilization equipment is defined as electric equipment that uses electric

power by converting it into another form of energy: light, heat, or
mechanical motion. Most utilization equipment carries a nameplate
rating which is the same as that of the voltage system. The major
exception is that of motors and equipment containing motors. Single-
phase motors for use on a 120-V system have been rated 115 V for
many y e a r s . Single-phase motors for use on 208 V single-phase sys-
tems are rated 200 V, and for 240 V single-phase systems, they are
rated 230 V.
Prior to the late 1960s, low-voltage three-phase motors were rated
220 V for use on both 208 V and 240 V systems, 440 V for use on
480 V systems, and 550 V for use on 600 V systems. The reason
was that in large industrial plants, relatively long circuits resulted
in considerable voltage drop at the end of the circuits. Also, the
utility supply system had a limited capacity and low voltages were
fairly common. By the mid-1960s surveys indicated that the average
voltage supply for 440 V motors on a 480 V system was 460 V. At
about the same time MEMA decided that the improvements in motor
design and insulation systems would allow a reduction of two frame
sizes for standard induction motors rated 600 V and below. Con-
sequently, the nameplate voltage rating of the new Τ-frame motor
was raised from 220/440 V (for U-frame motors) to 230/460 V. A
motor rated 200 V is to be used on a 208-V system. Table 3.6 shows
the nameplate voltage ratings of standard induction motors.
Distribution System Voltage Standards 29

Table 3. 6 Motor and Motor Control Equipment Nameplate

Voltage Ratings

Nameplate voltage rating (V)

Integral horsepower Fractional horsepower

Voltag
Voltagee (V
(V)) Three-Phase One-Phase Three-Phase One-Phase

120 - 115 - 115

208 200 - 200 -

240 230 230 230 230

480 460 - 460 -

a
600 575 - 575 -

2400 2300 - - -

4160 4000 - - -

4800 4600 - - -

6900 6600 - - -

13800 13200 - - -

a
Certain kinds of control and protective equipment presently available
have a maximum voltage limit of 600 V; the manufacturer or power
supplier, or both, should be consulted to ensure proper application.

3.6.1 Effect of Voltage Variations on

Utilization Equipment
When the voltage at the terminals of utilization equipment deviates
from the value of the nameplate of the equipment, the performance
and operating life of the equipment will be affected.

Induction Motor
The variation in characteristics as a function of the applied voltage
is shown in Table 3.7. It might appear that motors operating on a
voltage over 110% of the motor nameplate rating would run cooler,
but it does not work that way. Above 110% voltage can cause severe
overheating. Motor c u r r e n t should be analyzed into two components:

1. Load current: varies almost directly with load and inversely

with voltage
30 Chapter 2

Table 3. 7 General Effect of Voltage Variations on Induction

Motor Characteristics

VOLTAGE V A R I A T I O N

Function 90 Percent 110 Percent

Characteristic of Voltage Voltage Voltage

Starting and m a x i m u m
running torque (Voltage)' D e c r e a s e s 19% Increase 21%
S y n c h r o n o u s Speed Constant N o Change N o Change
P e r c e n t Slip l/(Voltage)' Increase 23% D e c r e a s e 17%
F u l l - L o a d Speed (Synchronous D e c r e a s e 1^4% Increase 1%
Speed-Slip)

Efficiency*
Full Load Decrease 2% Increase ^ - 1 %
Load Practically Practically
N o Change N o Change

y 2 Load Increase 1-2% D e c r e a s e 1-2%

Power Factor

Full Load Increase 1% D e c r e a s e 3%

Load Increase 2-3% D e c r e a s e 4%
y2 L o a d Increase 4-5% D e c r e a s e 5-6%
Full-Load Current Increase 11% D e c r e a s e 7%
Starting Current Voltage D e c r e a s e 10-12% Increase 10-12%

Temperature Rise,*
Full L o a d Increase 6-7C Decrease 1-2C
M a x i m u m Overload (Voltage)' D e c r e a s e 19% Increase 21%
Capacity
M a g n e t i c N o i s e — N o Load Decrease Increase
in particular Slightly Slightly

K
This data applies to motors of over 25 horsepower.

2. Magnetizing current: is essentially constant with load, but in-

creases with voltage

Because these two are in quadrature relationship, they must be

added vectorially to arrive at total motor c u r r e n t . Magnetizing c u r -
rent changes linearly with load up to about 110% of voltage, and
rises sharply beyond 110% volts if the motor goes into saturation.
Power factor and efficiency go down. Therefore, excess voltage can
make the motor hot.
Distribution System Voltage Standards 31

Lamps
The light output and life of incandescent filament lamps are critically
affected by the supply voltage. The variation of life and light out-
put with voltage is shown in Table 3.8. Lamp ratings of 125 V and
130 V are also included because these ratings are useful in signs and
other applications where long life is the predominant consideration.
Maintenance of the proper voltage is therefore an important factor in
obtaining good performance from lamps.

Fluorescent Lamps. The voltage at the luminaire should be kept

well within the normal operating range for the ballast. Both low and
high voltage reduce efficiency and shorten lamp life. This is in con-
trast with filament lamps, where low voltage reduces efficiency but
prolongs life. Low voltage may also cause starting difficulty. Slow
or delayed starting results in shortened lamp life. High voltage
causes overheating of the ballast and premature end blackening and
early lamp failure. The normal operating range for "low-voltage"
ballasts is 110 to 125 V; for "high-voltage" equipment, 220 to 250 V.

High-Intensity-Discharge Lamps. Mercury lamps using conven-

tional unregulated ballast will experience a 30% decrease in light out-
put for a 10% decrease in terminal voltage. If a constant-wattage
ballast is u s e d , the decrease in light output for a 10% decrease in
terminal voltage will be about 2%. Low-voltage conditions that require
repeated starting will shorten lamp life. Excessive high voltage raises

Table 3. 8 Effect of Voltage Variations on Incandescent Lamps

Lamp rating

120 V 125 V 130 V

Applied
voltage Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent
(V) Life Light Life Light Life Light

105 575 64 880 55 - -

110 310 74 525 65 880 57

115 175 87 295 76 500 66
120 100 100 170 88 280 76
125 58 118 100 100 165 88
130 34 132 59 113 100 100
32 Chapter 2

the arc temperature, which could damage the glass enclosure. High-
pressure-sodium and metal halide lamps have characteristics similar
to those of mercury lamps, although the starting and operating volt-
ages may be somewhat d i f f e r e n t . Ballasts for these lamps are not
interchangeable except in special cases.

Solid-State Equipment

T h y r i s t o r s , t r a n s i s t o r s , and other solid-state devices do not have

thermionic heaters. They are not nearly as sensitive to voltage varia-
tions as are electronic t u b e s . Internal voltage regulators are nor-
mally provided for sensitive equipment. An individual study of the
maximum voltage of the equipment, including surge characteristics,
is essential to determine the effect of maximum system voltage or ab-
normal low voltage in terms of possible malfunction.

3.7 PHASE VOLTAGE U N B A L A N C E AND HARMONICS

3.7.1 Phase Voltage Unbalance

Most utility lines are four-wire grounded-wye primary distribution

systems that provide power to both single-phase and three-phase
loads. Variations in single-phase loading cause the c u r r e n t s in three-
phase conductors to d i f f e r , causing the phase voltages to become un-
balanced. Sometimes blown f u s e s on a three-phase capacitor bank can
cause phase voltage unbalance. Industrial plants make extensive use
of either 208Y/120 V or 480Y/277 V utilization voltage to supply light-
ing loads connected across phase to neutral. It is always desirable
to keep the load unbalance and the corresponding phase voltage un-
balance within reasonable limits. The amount of voltage unbalance
can b e t t e r be expressed in symmetrical components as the negative-
sequence component of the voltage:

, . ο ^ negative-sequence voltage
voltage
& unbalance factor = ^rrr ——B—
positive-sequence voltage

3.7.2 E f f e c t of Phase Voltage Unbalance

When unbalanced phase voltage is applied to three-phase motors, the

phase voltage unbalance causes additional negative-sequence c u r r e n t s
to circulate in the motor, increasing the heat losses in the rotor.
Table 3.9 shows the effect of phase voltage unbalance on motor tem-
p e r a t u r e rise for both U-frame and Τ-frame motors. Although phase
voltage unbalance will cause an increase in the motor lead c u r r e n t ,
the increase is generally insufficient to indicate actual temperature
rise. Some electronic equipment, such as computers, may also be
Distribution System Voltage Standards 33

affected by phase voltage unbalance of more than 2 to 2.5%. This is

discussed in more detail in Chapter 10. In general, single-phase loads
should not be connected to t h r e e - p h a s e circuits supplying equipment
sensitive to phase voltage unbalance. A separate circuit should be
provided.

3.7.3 Harmonics
Harmonics are integral multiples of the fundamental f r e q u e n c y . For
example, for 60-Hz power systems, the second harmonic would be
120 Hz and the third harmonic would be 180 Hz. Harmonics are caused
by devices that change the shape of the normal sine wave of voltage
or c u r r e n t in synchronism with the 60-Hz supply. Any distorted
wave must be made up of a fundamental and harmonics of various
frequencies and magnitudes. The harmonics content and magnitude
existing in any power system is largely unpredictable and effects
will vary widely in different p a r t s of the same system. Harmonics
may be t r a n s f e r r e d from one circuit or system to another by direct
connection or by inductive or capacitive coupling. Since 60-Hz har-
monics are in the low-frequency audio r a n g e , the t r a n s f e r of these
frequencies into communication, signaling, and control circuits employ-
ing frequencies in the same range may cause objectionable interference.
Studies have identified the following areas where harmonics can cause
operating problems:

1. Interference with ripple control and power-line carrier systems,

causing misoperation of systems that accomplish remote switching,
load control, and metering
2. Excessive losses, resulting in heating of induction and synchro-
nous machines

Table 3.9 Effect of Phase Voltage Unbalance on Motor Temperature

Rise

Percent Percent Insulation Temperature

Motor voltage added system rise
type Load unbalance heating class (°C)

U frame Rated 0 0 A 60
Rated 2 8 A 65
Rated 3* 25 A 75
Τ frame Rated 0 0 Β 80
Rated 2 8 Β 86.4
Rated 3i 25 Β 100
34 Chapter 2

3. Overvoltages and excessive c u r r e n t s on the system from resonance

to harmonic voltages or c u r r e n t s on the network
4. Dielectric breakdown of insulated cables or capacitor b a n k , re-
sulting from harmonic overvoltages on the system
5. Inductive interference with telecommunications system
6. Signal interference and relay malfunction, particularly in solid-
state and microprocessor-controlled systems
7. Interference with large motor controllers and power plant excita-
tion systems
8. Unstable operation of firing circuits based on zero-voltage-cross-
ing detection or latching

How to Reduce Harmonics Effects

Where harmonics interference exists, the regular measures of increas-
ing the separation between the power and communication conductors
and the use of shielded communication conductors should be considered.
Where resonant conditions exist, the capacitor bank should be changed
in size to shift the resonant point. Where harmonics pass from a
power system to a communications, signal, or control circuit through
a direct connection such as a power supply, filters may be required
to s u p p r e s s the harmonic frequencies. During preliminary meetings
with the supplying utility, the anticipated harmonics problems should
be identified. This information, together with other information pro-
vided by manufacturers of any equipment to be installed that may
generate a voltage distortion, should be used to govern the specifi-
cations for other equipment that may be exposed to the harmonic
conditions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSI C84.1-1982, Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Systems and

Equipment (60 Hz).
F r a n k , Jerome Μ. , and Luebke, C. R . , Transients and Hermonics in
Industrial and Commercial Electrical Systems, IAS Conference
Record, Part II, 86CH2272-3, p p . 974-981.
IEEE Standard 141-1976, Recommended Practice for Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants.
Lighting Handbook, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield,
N . J . , Jan. 1976.
NEMA MG1-1972, Motors and Generators.
4
Power Distribution Systems
for Industrial Plants

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A variety of basic circuit arrangements are available for industrial

plant power distribution. Selection of the best system or combination
of systems will depend on the needs of the manufacturing process.
In general, system costs increase with the system reliability. Assum-
ing that component quality is equal, maximum reliability per unit in-
vestment can be obtained by using properly applied and well-designed
components. For processes that are little affected by power i n t e r r u p -
tions, a simple radial system is satisfactory. For other processes
that may sustain long-term damage by even a brief interruption, a
more complex system with an alternate power source for critical load
may be justified.
For the majority of applications today, the radial and secondary
selective arrangements are p r e f e r r e d , with the radial system account-
ing for 55 to 65% of industrial plant installation. With modern equip-
ment properly installed and maintained, these two arrangements offer
optimum reliability, flexibility, and expendability consistent with mini-
mum cost. The secondary network system is used only in a small
percentage of the total. In the following sections we discuss in detail
several of the most commonly used distribution systems for modern
industrial plants.

4.2 SIMPLE RADIAL SYSTEM

In this system a given secondary feeder is fed from only one t r a n s -

former and one primary cable. Each substation operates independently

35
36 Chapter 2

and there is no duplication of equipment. No extra tie cables, cir-

cuit b r e a k e r s , or transformers with large reserve capacity are needed.
System investment is usually the lowest of all circuit arrangements.
Despite this, for a well-planned and well-maintained system, the
service reliability of the radial system is usually high. Figure 4.1
shows a typical simple radial system. It is t r u e that the loss of a
primary cable or transformer will cut off service to the affected loads
until repairs can be made. This is often the reason for design engi-
neers to select one of the other circuit arrangements, which can
minimize production shutdown.

4.2.1 Expanded Radial System

The advantage of the radial system may be applied to larger loads by
using a radial primary distribution system to supply a number of unit
substations located near the centers of load, supplying the load
through radial secondary systems. This will result in better voltage
regulation and in lower power loss than in a system using heavy low-
voltage feedres of extensive length. Figure 4.2 shows a single
medium-voltage service entrance circuit breaker supplying a number
of unit substations. The National Electrical Code permits the installa-
tion of transformers without individual primary protection under speci-
fied conditions. If the transformers are installed without individual

Medium-Voltage
Incoming Power Source(s)

Service Switching and

Protective Device

Transformer

Low-Voltage Main
Switching and Protective Device

Rus

Β Β Β
Feeder or Branch Circuit Switching
and Protective Device

Figure 4.1 A typical simple radial system.

Industrial Power Distribution Systems 37

primary protection, a fault in any one transformer will result in loss

of the entire system. Since the transformers are very dependable
devices, this arrangement has been used in many installations. In
Figure 4.3 the transformers are shown with primary f u s e s . In this
arrangement, a fault on the primary system up to the transformer
f u s e s will result in a complete loss of power. A fault in a t r a n s -
former or on the secondary bus will cause loss of power to the load
served by the transformer only. In Figure 4.4 a fault in the supply
circuit or on the medium-voltage bus will result in a complete loss of

Β Β Β

Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β

Figure 4.2 Expanded radial system —transformers without individual

primary protection.
38 Chapter 2

Incoming Power Source (s)

Power
Circuit Breaker

Interrupter Switch

Primary Fuse

Transformer

Β Β Β

Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β

Figure 4.3 Expanded radial system—transformers with individual

primary protection.

power. A fault in one of the medium-voltage feeders will result in

loss of the load connected to that feeder only. The first cost for
the arrangement in Figure 4.4 would be higher than that of the sys-
tem shown in Figure 4.3, due to the additional length of the medium-
voltage cable.
Industrial Power Distribution Systems 39

Incoming Power Source(s)

Power
A A A
Circuit Breaker

Transformer

Β Β Β

Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β Β

Figure 4.4 Expanded radial system-independently protected medium-

voltage supply for each transformer.

4.3 SECONDARY SELECTIVE SYSTEM

The next widely used system in industrial power installation is the

secondary selective system. Two varieties of the secondary selective
system are shown in Figure 4.5. The system is somewhat similar to
the radial system. If pairs of unit substations are connected through
a normally open secondary tie circuit b r e a k e r , the result is a secon-
dary system. Use of this system increases reliability by reducing
40 Chapter 2

Medium-Voltage
Incoming Power Source(s)

Service Switching and

Protective Device

A Feeder Switching and Protective Device A

Interrupter Switch

Transformer

Low-Voltage Main Switching and

Protective Device
Β Interlocks Β

Β'
Normally Open

Β Β Β Low-Voltage Feeder Switching

Β Β Β
and Protctive Device

Figure 4.5 (a) Secondary selective system.

Industrial Power Distribution Systems 41

Low-Voltage Main Switching and

Protective Device

Normally Open
v
B B B B ' Β' Β Β Β

(Cable Tie)

Figure 4.5 (b) Secondary selective system.

the time that a load is without power due to a fault in a unit sub-
station transformer or its primary f e e d e r . It provides flexibility in
operation, particularly when equipment is being maintained or ser-
viced. Any part of a primary f e e d e r , or transformer and associated
equipment, can be deenergized for inspection or maintenance without
loss of power to the loads.
Under normal conditions the system is operated with the tie
b r e a k e r open and each transformer supplies its own load. Should a
fault occur in a transformer or its primary feeder, or if a transformer
or primary feeder is deenergized for maintenance, the transformer
secondary switching device or b r e a k e r is to be opened and the tie
breaker is to be closed. The load connected to both buses is sup-
plied by the energized transformer. Each transformer and its primary
42 Chapter 2

feeder must have sufficient capacity to carry the total load. T r a n s -

formers used in this system are often equipped with cooling fans to
provide additional capacity during emergency operations. Otherwise,
nonessential load will have to be shed.
The tie breaker should be interlocked with the transformer secon-
dary b r e a k e r s to prevent the transformers from being operated in
parallel. Parallel operation of the transformers would increase the
available secondary short-circuit c u r r e n t and would risk the loss of
power to both secondary buses in the case of a transformer fault or
primary cable fault.
If electrically operated circuit b r e a k e r s are used for the tie
switching device and for the transformer secondary switching device,
the control may be arranged to t r a n s f e r the load automatically upon
failure of one transformer or its primary feeder. This can reduce
loss of power on either bus to a very short time.
The time-current characteristics of the several protective devices
connected to the secondary b u s should be arranged so as to provide
selective operation between the transformer secondary protective de-
vice and the tie and the feeder or branch-circuit protective devices.
This tends to minimize the amount of load being disconnected under
fault conditions.

4.4 PRIMARY SELECTIVE SYSTEM

This system is another means of reducing the time required to r e -

store voltage to a load in the event of loss of a primary feeder as
compared with a radial system. In this system two or more primary
feeders are provided. Two primary feeders are extended to each
t r a n s f o r m e r , and selector switches are provided so that any t r a n s -
former may be connected to either of the two primary feeders. Each
primary feeder must have sufficient capacity to carry the maximum
load that may be connected at one time.
Figure 4.6 shows a typical primary selective system. Under nor-
mal conditions, the system is operated with the load divided approxi-
mately equally on each primary feeder. When a fault occurs on one
primary feeder, there will be an interruption of power to the load
connected to that feeder. The i n t e r r u p t e r switch connected to the
faulted feeder will be opened and the respective transformer will be
reconnected to the energized feeder. The two switches associated
with one transformer should be mounted in separate individual metal
enclosures in order that a deenergized feeder may be safely main-
tained while the other feeder is energized.
The primary selective system has a higher first cost than a radial
system arranged to supply the same load. However, its first cost is
usually lower than that of a comparable secondary selective system.
The service reliability of this system lies between that of a radial
system and that of a secondary selective system.
Industrial Power Distribution Systems 43

Medium-Voltage
Incoming Power Source (s)

Service Switching and

A Protective Device

Feeder Switching and

A A
Protective Device

'Interrupter
Switch I

Fuse

Transformer

Low-Voltage Main Switching and

Β Β Β Protective Device

R R R R R R R R B

Low-Voltage Feeder Switching and Protective Device

Figure 4.6 Primary selective system.

4.5 LOOPED PRIMARY SYSTEM

Two arrangements of the looped primary system are shown in Figure

4.7a & b . In Figure 4.7a, the primary loop is fed by a single medium-
voltage circuit b r e a k e r . One loop-sectionalizing i n t e r r u p t e r switch
is located at the primary of each transformer. One section of the
primary loop is connected directly to the primary of each transformer.
In case of a fault in a transformer or on the primary loop, the pri-
mary circuit b r e a k e r will open and clear the fault. After the fault
is located, the two i n t e r r u p t e r switched at the ends of the faulted
section are opened and the remainder of the loop is again energized.
However, one transformer and one section of the primary loop remain
out of service until the faulter equipment is put back into service.
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Industrial Power Distribution Systems 45

Two medium-voltage circuit b r e a k e r s are used (Figure 4.7b), one

on each end of the loop, and two i n t e r r u p t e d switches are used at
each transformer location. With this arrangement, the only time that
any part of the load is without service for an extended period is
when a fault takes place in a transformer or its secondary b u s . Any
fault on a section of the primary loop will not affect the transformers
supplying their respective loads. The disadvantage of this a r r a n g e -
ment lies in a complex and time-consuming operation in locating a
fault on the primary loop or on any transformer, because the entire
system must be deenergized for a time, and the time required to r e -
store service may also be lengthy.
When the load centers are located relatively far a p a r t , the looped
primary system will cost little more than a comparable radial system.
The initial cost can be reduced by using fused i n t e r r u p t e r switched
instead of medium-voltage circuit b r e a k e r s . However, the i n t e r r u p t e r
switches must be capable of switching the entire load, and the limita-
tions of the NEC, Section 450-3, on the ratings of the f u s e s may make
coordination difficult.

4.6 SECONDARY NETWORK SYSTEM

The secondary network system can provide a very high degree of

service reliability to all the loads. The arrangement of equipment Ί'η
this system is similar to that of the secondary selective system. The
difference is in the way the systems are operated. In the secondary
selective system, the tie circuits between secondary buses are normally
open and each transformer supplies its own load. In the secondary
network system, the secondary buses are tied together and the t r a n s -
formers operate in parallel to supply the entire load. Figure 4.8
shows a typical secondary network system with primary selective sys-
tem .
In the secondary network system, the transformer secondary
switching and protective device is a special low-voltage power circuit
breaker known as a netowrk protector. This is an electrically operated
circuit breaker provided with relays arranged to trip the b r e a k e r on
reverse power flow to the transformer and to reclose the b r e a k e r
when normal voltage conditions r e t u r n to the primary of the t r a n s -
former. The relays are normally set so that the circuit b r e a k e r will
open on magnetizing current to a transformer secondary winding from
the low-voltage b u s . Separate low-voltage fuses are usually installed
on the load side of the network protector to mitigate damage to the
protector and to protect the low-voltage system on the occurrence of
high-magnitude fault c u r r e n t .
Under normal conditions, the total load is shared by all of the
transformers operating in parallel. Should a fault occur in a primary
 Medium-Voltage
Incoming Power S o u r c e ( s )

Δ Service Switching and

Protective Device

Feeder Switching and

Δ I Δ ΔJ Protective Device

Interrupter
Switch

Fuse

Transformer

Network
Protector

Β' Β Β Β Β' Β' Β Β Β ΒΊ Β' Β Β Β Β' Β' Β Β Β Β" Β" Β Β Β Β' ΙΒΊ Β Β θΊ ΓβΊ

Figure 4.8 Secondary network system with primary selective system.

Industrial Power Distribution Systems 47

feeder or in a transformer or if voltage should fail on a primary

feeder for any reason, the power flow from the secondary b u s to
the transformer will cause the network protector to open, t h u s dis-
connecting the transformer from the secondary b u s . The remaining
energized transformers will continue to supply power to the b u s , and
there will be no interruption of power to the loads. For an ideal
operating condition, if total number of transformers is n , each t r a n s -
former should normally be loaded only to (n — l ) / n p e r c e n t , so that
in an emergency, if one transformer is taken out of service, the
remaining transformers can still carry full load of the plant. When
normal voltage conditions are restored to a transformer that had been
disconnected, the network protector will close automatically and the
transformer will again c a r r y its share of the load.
Figure 4.9 shows a spot network arrangement. This system may
be used to advantage where there are concentrations of loads. In

Incoming Power
Source(s)

Primary Feeder Switching

and Protective Device

Interrupter Switch

Transformer

Network Protector

Β Β Β Β Β Ε Low-Voltage Feeder or Branch

Circuit Switching and
Protective Device

Figure 4.9 Spot network system.

48 Chapter 6

this system, there are two or more transformers connected to a single

b u s through network protectors. The transformers and primary
feeders must have sufficient capacity to carry all loads connected to
the b u s with one transformer out of service.
For larger installations, a system having a primary selective and
secondary network arrangement can be used to advantage (Figure
4 . 8 ) . Each of the primary feeders must have sufficient capacity to
supply the entire load that is connected to it. If two primary feeders
are used to supply the primary selective network system, half of the
transformers would normally be connected to each feeder with adjacent
transformers on different f e e d e r s . In case of a primary feeder fault,
the fault is isolated from the system by automatic tripping of the
primary feeder circuit breaker and all the network protectors asso-
ciated with the faulted circuit.
The network protector is operated automatically by master and
phasing relays. The network master relay trips the network protector
for power flow from the network into the transformer. The relay is
sensitive to power flow as small as the transformer core losses. On
t h r e e - p h a s e and line-to-line medium-voltage feeder faults, the master
relay operates. On line-to-ground faults, the feeder circuit breaker
t r i p s f i r s t , then the master relay operated on fault current flow from
the network or transformer exciting c u r r e n t . The master relay also
recloses the network protector if the source voltage is higher than
the network bus voltage; the phasing relay i n t e r p r e t s proper voltage
relationships to prevent network protector pumping. Following these
tripping operations, the entire load will be supplied over the remaining
feeder and half of the network transformers. All transformers can
be restored to service by manually switching the deenergized units
over to the remaining energized feeder.
Secondary networks are sometimes arranged in a closed loop.
With this arrangement, if any one secondary tie circuit is out of ser-
vice, the loads will all continue to operate in parallel. The tie circuits
between the secondary buses are sometimes in the form of multiple
parallel cables for each phase because a single conductor usually does
not have sufficient c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity. Each individual cable
is protected by a special type of fuse known as a cable limiter, located
at each end of the cable. Figure 4.10 shows an actual installation of
the limiter box, which is a part of the secondary closed loop. If any
cable is faulted, the cable limiters at each end will clear the faulted
cable before its insulation is damaged. Each group of tie conductors
is connected to the two secondary buses through nonautomatic circuit
b r e a k e r s or disconnecting switches. The tie circuit may also be made
up with busways instead of parallel cables. For some tie circuits, a
plug-in busway is used so that the load may be tapped off between
substations.
Industrial Power Distribution Systems 49

Figure 4.10 Limiter box in a secondary closed loop system.

4.7 SELECTING A POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

FOR AN INDUSTRIAL PLANT
4.7.1 Cost Analysis
The relative costs of the several systems discussed above will vary
considerably between installations, depending on the total load con-
nected, the areas over which the loads are distributed, and the
demand factors of the loads. The first cost of a secondary network
system will be higher than that of any of the other systems. How-
e v e r , the reliability of the service will be greatly increased. This
is due to the increase in transformer capacity and the increase in
the available short-circuit c u r r e n t s on the secondary system, which
will in t u r n require higher-rated protective devices. An analysis
should be made of the relative costs of the several systems for each
proposed installation, and these costs balanced against probably un-
scheduled loss of power. The system providing the lowest overall
annual operating cost consistent with safe operation should be the
choice.
50 Chapter 6

4.7.2 U t i l i z i n g Load Center Arrangements

for System Formation
The most popular scheme is to have a main distribution system at
higher voltages and local distribution centers for low voltages. This
has proven to be economical in cutting line losses and in minimizing
the effects of faults and power interruptions. Many considerations
should go into the planning and specifying of load center substations.
Secondary unit substations are those with a secondary voltage not
greater than 1500 V. An articulated secondary load center substation
should consist of:

1. Incoming section: provides for the connection of one or more

incoming high-voltage circuits. Each of the circuits may or may
not be provided with a power circuit b r e a k e r .
2. Transformer section: includes one or more transformers.
3. Outgoing section: provides for the connection of one or more
outgoing feeders. Each of the feeders may or may not be pro-
vided with a low-voltage power circuit breaker as a component
of the outgoing section.

In planning a load center substation, the primary and secondary

voltages must be selected f i r s t . Standard secondary voltages in the
United States are 575, 480, 240, and 208 V. The transformer secon-
daries may be wye connected. However, the 240Y/139 V system is
rarely u s e d . The 208Y/120 V system is to be used where a large
percentage of the load is 120 V, single phase. If the 120 V load is
less than half of the total power, a 480Y/277 V system with auto-
transformer will usually be more economical for supplying 120 V cir-
cuits. The 480 V system is the one most commonly used for indus-
trial plants. The principal advantage over a lower-voltage system
is the reduced conductor size required in the system.
The radial system is subject to relatively frequent power failures.
One way to shorten an outage is to use a selective primary switch
with a second power source. For still greater reliability, a selective-
type substation may be u s e d . In this s e t u p , two transformers are
employed; each is fed from separate power sources, and each is
feeding an outgoing section. The two outgoing sections are connected
through a tie b r e a k e r , which is normally kept open. If one of the
power sources fails, the main transformer secondary breaker on the
deenergized transformer will be tripped and the tie breaker closed.
All loads will then be connected to one source. Tripping of the main
b r e a k e r and closing of the tie may be accomplished manually or auto-
matically on loss of voltage or when voltage falls below a fixed value.
In sizing transformers for the selective system, overload require-
ments must be considered. This will be needed when the entire sub-
station is being fed from just one source. This may not mean that
Industrial Power Distribution Systems 51

each transformer should be capable of supplying the full substation

load. Some nonessential loads can be removed during the period.
It should be remembered that transformers have an overload rating
of 125% of rated capacity for a 2-hour period.
A variation of the selective-type substation has two main b r e a k e r s
but no tie b r e a k e r s . Normally, the entire load is carried by one
transformer. In case of power failure, the main secondary breaker
is tripped and the main breaker from the standby transformer is
closed. The t r a n s f e r may be either automatic or manual. Usually,
both transformers are of the same size so that load dumping is not
necessary. The choice between these two types of selective sub-
station is an economic one.
If power interruptions cannot be tolerated in some applications
even for a few minutes, spot network substations may be the choice.
Figure 4.9 shows a spot network substation in which two transformers
are connected in parallel to a single outgoing section. Directional
protective devices are employed so that in case of failure in one of
the primary sources, the transformer will be disconnected from the
outgoing section. As with the selective system, transformers may be
sized to carry the complete substation load or provisions be made for
dumping nonessential loads. In the spot network substation, maintain-
ing service to the load depends on maintaining service to at least one
of the two sources. Should both primary sources fail, a 480 V load
will be without power. If this interruption is unacceptable, the dis-
tributed network type of substation may be p r e f e r r e d . The distri-
buted network type of substation must be designed within the short-
circuit capability of the network, which is not greater than 200,000 A.
This becomes necessary because neither breaker nor f u s e s have been
developed to i n t e r r u p t more than 200,000 A.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Everett, Max, Planning Secondary Unit Substations, Plant Engineer-

ing, Apr. 1967.
IEEE-JH 2112-1, Protection Fundamentals for Low-Voltage Electrical
Distribution Systems in Commercial Buildings, 1974.
IEEE Standard 141-1986, Recommended Practice for Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants.
Smith, Robert L. , Selecting a Reliable Power System Configuration,
Plant Engineering, Jan. 7, 1982.
5
Fault Current Calculations

5.1 SOURCES OF FAULT CURRENT

C u r r e n t that flows during a fault usually comes from two basic

sources, synchronous and induction rotating machines. The rotat-
ing machines may be operating as generators, motors, or synchronous
condensers. The c u r r e n t from each rotating machinery source is
limited by the impedance of the machine and the impedance between
the machine and the fault. These sources exhibit a variable reac-
tance to the flow of fault c u r r e n t .

5.1.1 Generators
Fault c u r r e n t from a generator decreases exponentially from a rela-
tively high initial value to a lower steady-state value sometime after
initiation of a fault. Since a generator continues to be driven by
its prime mover and to have its field energized from its separate
exciter, the steady-state value of the fault c u r r e n t will persist unless
i n t e r r u p t e d by switching devices.
For fault c u r r e n t calculations, the variable reactance of a genera-
tor can be represented by three reactance values:

X^ = subtransient reactance, which determines c u r r e n t during

f i r s t cycle a f t e r fault occurs

In about 0.1 s this value increases to

X^j = transient reactance, which determines c u r r e n t a f t e r several

cycles

52
Fault Current Calculations 53

In about 1/2 to 2 s , this reactance increases to

= synchronous reactance, whch determines the c u r r e n t a f t e r

a steady-state condition is reached

Most fault protective devices such as circuit breakers or f u s e s operate

long before steady-state conditions are reached. Generator synchro-
nous reactance is seldom used in calculating fault c u r r e n t s for selec-
tion of these devices.

5.1.2 Synchronous Motors and Condensers

Synchronous motors supply c u r r e n t to a fault in much the same
manner as do synchronous generators. When system voltage drops
due to a fault, the synchronous motor receives less power from the
system for driving its load, and simultaneously the internal voltage
will cause c u r r e n t to flow to the system fault. The inertia of the
motor and its load acts as a prime mover, and with field excitation
maintained, the motor acts as a generator as far as supply of fault
c u r r e n t is concerned. The fault c u r r e n t diminishes as the magnetic
field in the machine decays. The same designation is used to ex-
p r e s s the variable reactance of a synchronous motor as for a synchro-
nous generator. However, numerical values of the three reactances
X(j, X(j, and X^ will be different from that of the generators.

5.1.3 Induction Machines

The fault c u r r e n t contribution of an induction motor results from
generator action produced by inertia driving the motor a f t e r the
fault occurs. In contrast to the synchronous motor, the field flux
of the induction motor is produced by induction from the stator
r a t h e r than from a d i r e c t - c u r r e n t field winding. Since this flux
decays on removal of source voltage resulting from a fault, the con-
tribution of an induction motor drops off, disappearing a f t e r a few
cycles. Since field excitation is not maintained, there is no steady-
state value of fault c u r r e n t as for synchronous machines. Based on
these f a c t s , induction motors are assigned only a subtransient value
of reactance (X^)· This value is about equal to the locked-rotor
reactance, hence the fault c u r r e n t contribution will be about equal
to the full-voltage s t a r t i n g c u r r e n t of the machine. Large wound-
rotor motors are operated with some external resistance maintained
in their rotor circuits. They may then have sufficiently low s h o r t -
circuit time constants that their contribution becomes insignificant.
A specific investigation should be made to determine whether to
neglect the contribution for a wound-rotor motor.
54 Chapter 6

5.1.4 Electric U t i l i t y Systems

The utility generators are usually remote from the industrial plant.
The c u r r e n t distributed to a fault in the remote plant appears to be
merely a small increase in load c u r r e n t to the very large central
station generators, and this c u r r e n t contribution tends to stay con-
s t a n t . Therefore, the utility system is usually represented at the
plant by a single-valued equivalent impedance r e f e r r e d to the point
of connection.

5.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CURRENT

CALCULATIONS

Ohm's law, I = E/Z, provides the relationship used in determining

fault c u r r e n t , where I is the c u r r e n t to be determined, Ε the normal
system voltage at point of fault, and Ζ the impedance from source to
fault, including the impedance of the source. Rigorous calculations
are generally tedious and time consuming. Simplifying assumptions
can be made which detract little from accuracy and much from labor.

5.2.1 T y p e of Faults
In the usual procedures of fault c u r r e n t calculations, it is assumed
that the fault is a zero-impedance, "bolted" fault with no c u r r e n t -
limiting effect due to fault itself. Such calculations are used to
determine the maximum short-circuit c u r r e n t value for the purpose
of selecting devices of adequate i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g , momentary r a t i n g ,
and to determne the maximum value of c u r r e n t at which time-current
coordination need exist in the relay studies. The three-phase fault
is usually the only one considered, since in an industrial system this
type of fault generally results in maximum c u r r e n t .

5.2.2 Voltage and Impedance

The voltage that serves as a basis for fault c u r r e n t calculation is
derived from the rated nameplate voltage of the generator or t r a n s -
former supplying the faulted element of the system:

rated line-to-line voltage

lme-to-neutral voltage = —
•3

In an ac circuit the impedance is the vector sum of resistance

and reactance. The reactance of generators and transformers is
usually at least five times the resistance. The fault c u r r e n t calcu-
lated by neglecting the resistance of such equipment will introduce
only a few percent e r r o r . Because of this, the resistance of gene-
Fault Current Calculations 55

r a t o r s , transformers, motors, reactors, and large bus work is usually

not considered regardless of the system voltage.
In systems below 600 V when calculatng faults on the branch
feeder circuits, resistance should generally be included. The follow-
ing procedure would normally be used for low-voltage feeder circuits.
If the resistance of the feeder circuit is one-fourth or more of the
total reactance from source to fault, resistance should be included
in the calculations. An approximate total resistance may be obtained
b y adding to the resistance of the feeder a resistance equal to one-
f o u r t h of the total reactance of the system from source to the f e e d e r .
Assuming total equivalent resistance R and total equivalent reactance
X, the impedance to the fault is expressed by the formula

It is important to consider the reactance of all circuit elements in

calculating fault c u r r e n t s in a low-voltage system.

5.2.3 Symmetry of Fault C u r r e n t

In determining the maximum value of fault c u r r e n t that can occur at
some point in a system, it must be considered that the fault c u r r e n t
wave is likely not to be symmetrical about the zero c u r r e n t axis for
several cycles a f t e r the fault occurs. System voltage and fault c u r -
rent are substantially sine wave in shape and are related in phase
angle b y the impedance angle of the system to the point of fault.
Since the resistance will usually be negligible, the fault c u r r e n t will
lag the source voltage by nearly 90 degrees. This means that when
a fault occurs at or near the peak of the voltage wave, the fault
c u r r e n t wave s t a r t s at zero and is symmetrical about the zero axis.
When a fault occurs at or near the zero point of the voltage wave,
the fault c u r r e n t again s t a r t s at zero on the original zero axis.
However, most short-circuit c u r r e n t s are not symmetrical. They are
offset from the normal-current axis for a period of several cycles.
Figure 5.1 illustrates the case where a short circuit with low power
produces the highest f i r s t peak of short-circuit c u r r e n t . The magni-
tude of c u r r e n t offset for a typical fault will be between the extremes
of complete symmetry and complete asymmetry because the odds are
against the fault occurring exactly at a voltage peak or a voltage
zero.
An analysis of a typical asymmetrical c u r r e n t wave is made in
Fig. 5.1. The offset of the asymmetrical c u r r e n t wave from a sym-
metrical wave having equal peak-to-peak displacement is a positive
value of c u r r e n t that may be considered as a direct c u r r e n t . The
asymmetrical c u r r e n t may t h e r e f o r e , be thought of as the sum of an
a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t component b and a d i r e c t - c u r r e n t component a.
 cn
Oi

Total
Short-Circuit
Current
0 90 \ 180 270 360 450 540 630

DC
Component

AC
Component
3
0 >/4 V? /4 1 V/λ 1V2 1%
Cycles

Ο
Figure 5. 1 Analysi s of asymmetrica l curren t wave . o
X)
c?
Fault Current Calculations 57

At the instant of fault occurrence, b is negative and a + b = 0. Just

before the q u a r t e r cycle, the symmetrical alternating-current com-
ponent is zero, and the total c u r r e n t is equal to the d i r e c t - c u r r e n t
component. At near half-cycle, the total current is maximum, being
equal to the sum of the maximum positive alternating-current com-
ponent and the d i r e c t - c u r r e n t component. The initial rate of decay
of the d i r e c t - c u r r e n t component is inversely proportional to the X/R
ratio of the system from the source to the fault. The lower the X/R
ratio, the more rapid is the decay, which is called "direct-current
decrement." The total short-circuit current is thus affected by both
an alternating-current decrement and a d i r e c t - c u r r e n t decrement
before reaching its steady-state value.

5.3 PROCEDURES OF CALCULATIONS

5.3.1 Calculations Using Ohms, Percent Reactance,
or Per Unit Reactance
The determination of short-circuit c u r r e n t s has been shown to be
dependent on the reactance X from the source to the fault. The
principal problem of short-circuit c u r r e n t determination is one of
determining the reactance. To obtain it, the reactance of each ele-
ment in the circuit must be determined and the elements combined in
series or parallel. The reactance of the elements can be expressed
either in ohms or in percent or in per unit on a chosen base value.
It is often convenient to use the per unit system in calculations in-
volving a system with several different voltage levels. When reac-
tances are expressed as per unit quantities on a chosen kVA basis,
they can be combined directly without regard for the transformer
t u r n s ratio in a multi-voltage-level system.
Formulas for converting these units from one system to another
are as follows:

percent reactance
per unit reactance = (5.1)
100

ohms χ kVA base

per unit reactance = (5.2)
(on chosen kVA 1000 χ kV 2
base)

ohms χ mVA base

per unit reactance = (5.3)
(on chosen mVA
base)

where ohms are line-to-neutral values (single conductor), kVA base

is the three-phase base kVA, kV is line-to-line voltage, and mVA =
kVA/1000.
58 Chapter 6

5.3.2 Calculation Methods

Essentially, there are two methods of making short-circuit calcula-
tions: the direct method and the per unit method. Although they
represent different calculation concepts, they produce results of the
same degree of accuracy.

Direct Method
The direct method uses the system one-line diagram directly; uses
system and equipment data such as volts, amperes, and ohms directly;
and uses basic electrical equations and relationships directly without
utilizing special diagrams, abstract u n i t s , or mathematical techniques.
For those who do not specialize in short-circuit calculation work, the
direct method is easier to comprehend since it uses the familiar s y s -
tem one-line diagram. It also instills confidence since system and
equipment data are applied directly to familiar electrical equations,
producing recognizable values that can be appraised. This method
is particularly adapted to progressive analysis of an entire system or
of a portion starting at the source, consisting each echelon step by
s t e p , and determining short-circuit values at each location out to the
end of the various circuits. Such an analysis is v e r y useful for
planning the entire power system of a new building or facility where
short-circuit values at all points must be determined before the
appropriate equipment can be selected.

Per Unit Method

The per unit method involves converting the system one-line diagram
into an equivalent impedance diagram and reducing this to a single
impedance diagram. This can best be accomplished when several
voltage levels are involved b y using a special mathematical technique
that establishes base values for volts, amperes, kVA, and ohms and
then r e f e r s the actual parametrs to these bases in special equations
as given in equations (5.2) and (5.3) to derive per unit values.
Applying these values in special equations yields the short-circuit
c u r r e n t values.
In this method of calculation, each point of fault is considered
separately. A system equivalent impedance diagram is developed
using those parameters that will have an effect on short-circuit c u r -
rent at that point. In establishing the impedance diagram, sometimes
delta and wye conversion equations (5.4) and (5.5) will need to be
applied. These are given in Figure 5.2. The conversion formulas
are as follows:
Fault Current Calculations 59

FOR TRANSFORMING WYE TO DELTA

1|
1
Λ

Za
TO
Zb lZC
Zc> Zb

3 2 3 ZA 2

zbzc + 7
_
ζA = — — Zb + z c
^•a
Zazc
ZB =
—— +
Za + Zc (5.4)

Zazb +
Zc = — — Za + z b
c

FOR TRANSFORMING DELTA TO WYE

Za
TO
ZB ,ZC
Zb Zc,
ZA

_ zBzc
a
" ZA + ZB + Z c

z - ZAZC
b
(5.5)
" z A + ZB + z c

_ ZAZB
c
" z A + ZB + z c

Figure 5.2 Transformer impedances connected in Delta or Wye.

60 Chapter 6

Each fault location requires its own separate equivalent impedance

diagram, subsequent reduction, and calculation. Since each point is
considered separately, the per unit method tends to be more expedient
when a single specific remote location is being analyzed. Most of the
major short-circuit studies have pertained to systems involving many
voltage levels. The per unit method is an advantage and therefore
generally considered the official standard method of calculation as
presented in many references, including ANSI standards and other
IEEE publications.

5.3.3 Calculation Times

Some protective devices operate a f t e r a few cycles and others a f t e r a
time delay. Short-circuit c u r r e n t s may need to be checked at the
following suggested times:
1· First cycle. Maximum symmetrical values immediately a f t e r
fault initiation are always required and are often the only values
needed. These values are used in selecting proper short-circuit
ratings for low-voltage equipment and when converted to asymmetrical
values are the basis for selecting circuit medium-voltage switch and
f u s e r a t i n g s , and circuit breaker close and latch r a t i n g s . They often
are used in selecting medium-voltage circuit breaker i n t e r r u p t i n g
r a t i n g s . Even if a device does not i n t e r r u p t until several cycles
a f t e r fault initiation, thus allowing the fault c u r r e n t to decay, the
protective devices and all series devices should withstand the maxi-
mum c u r r e n t as well as the total e n e r g y .
2. After 1.5 to 8 cycles ( i n t e r r u p t i n g considerations). Maximum
values a f t e r a few cycles are required for comparison with the inter-
r u p t i n g ratings of medium-voltage circuit b r e a k e r s .
3. About 30 cycles. These reduced fault c u r r e n t s are sometimes
needed for estimating the performance of time-delay relays and f u s e s .
Minimum values should be calculated to determine whether sufficient
c u r r e n t is available to open the protective devices within a satisfac-
tory time.

5.4 EXAMPLES OF SIMPLIFIED CALCULATIONS

5.4.1 D i r e c t Method
One-Line Diagram
A one-line diagram is a graphical representation of the power system
and should be prepared as the f i r s t step in making a short-circuit
s t u d y . This diagram should show all sources of short-circuit cur-
rent and all significant circuit elements. Reactance and resistance
values of all elements should be included in the diagram. Reactance
and resistance data can be obtained from Tables 5.1 to 5.7 or p r e f e r -
ably from equipment suppliers.
 Fault Current Calculations 61

Detailed Procedures
Most circuit component impedance values are given in ohms, except
for utility and transformer impedances, which are found by the follow-
ing procedure.

1000(secondary kV) 2
1. Utility X (in ohms) = utilitys h o r t - c i r c u i t kVA

10(%X)(secondary kV) 2
2. Transformer X v(in ohms) =—τtransformer
τ ττττ
kVA

χ 10(%R)(secondary kV) 2
Transformer 0R (m ohms)
u
=— τ ττττ
transrormer kVA

Table 5.1 Transformer Impedance Data

High-Voltage Rating
(volts) Kilovolt Rating Percent Impedance Voltage

Secondary Unit Substation Transformers*

2400-13 800 112.5-224 Not less than 2.0
2400-13 800 300-500 Not less than 4.5
2400-13 800 750-2500 6.75*
22 900 All 6.75 Φ
34 400 All 7.25
Liquid-Immersed Transformers, 501 - 3 0 000 kVAt

Low Voltage, Low Voltage,

480 V 2400 V and Above

2400-22 900 6.75 * 6.5**

26 400, 34 400 7.25 7.0
43 800 7.75 7.5
67 000 8.0
115 000 8.5
138 000 9.0

NOTES: (1) Ratings separated by hyphens indicate that all intervening standard ratings are included.
Ratings separated by a comma indicate that only those listed are included.
(2) Percent impedance voltages are at self-cooled rating and as measured on rated voltage connection.
* From NEMA 210-1982
+ From ANSI C57.12.10-1977
* Three-phase transformers 5000 kVA and smaller with high-voltage windings rated 25 kV and below
are commonly used in industrial applications and are normally built with impedance voltages of 5.75%.
** Three-phase transformers 5000 kVA and smaller with high-voltage windings rated 25 kV and below
are commonly used in industrial applications and are normally built with impedance voltages of 5.5%.
 62 Chapter 6

Table 5.2 The reactance of Disconnecting Switches for Low—voltage

Circuits (600 volts and below) is in the Order of Magnitude of
0.00008 Ohms per Pole to 0.00005 Ohms per Pole at 60 Cycles for
Switches Rated 400-4000 Amperes Respectively.*

APPROXIMATE
REACTANCES**
Switch Size X
(Amps) (Ohms)
200 0.0001
400 0.00008
600 0.00008
800 0.00007
1200 0.00007
1600 0.00005
2000 0.00005
3000 0.00004 1 -pole
4000 0.00004

•Reprinted with permission of I.E.E.E., Ibid.

* * F o r actual values, refer to manufacturer's data.

Table 5.3 Circuit Breaker Reactance Data

R E A C T A N C E OF L O W - V O L T A G E T Y P I C A L MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT

POWER CIRCUIT BREAKERS! BREAKER I M P E D A N C E S

Breaker I n t e r r u p t i n g Reactance M o l d e d Case Breaker Resistance Reactance

Ampere Rating A m p e r e Rating in O h m s in O h m s
Rating — A m p e r e s in O h m s

15,000 15 to 35 0.04 20 .00700 Negligible

and 50 to 100 0.004
25,000 125 to 225 0.001 40 .00240 Negligible
250 to 600 0.0002
100 .00200 .00070
50,000 200 to 800 0.0002
1000 to 1600 0.00007 225 .00035 .00020

75,000 2000 to 3000 0.00008 400 .00031 .00039

100,000 4000 0.00008 600 .00007 .00017

N O T E : D u e to the m e t h o d of rating l o w - v o l t a g e
p o w e r c i r c u i t breakers, the reactance of the
breaker w h i c h is to interrupt the fault is not
i n c l u d e d in calculating fault c u r r e n t . !

t R e p r i n t e d with p e r m i s s i o n of I.E.E.E., Ibid.

 Fault Current Calculations 63

Table 5.4 Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance of Copper Cable Cir-

cuits (ohms p e r 1000 f e e t )
Three Single Conductors

In Magnetic Duct In Nonmagnetic D u c t

AWG
600 V and 5 kv 5 kv Shielded and 600 V and 5 kv 5 kv Shielded and
or Nonshielded 15 kv Nonshielded 15 kv
MCM
R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ
8 .811 .0754 .814 .811 .0860 .816 .811 .0603 .813 .811 .0688 .814
8 (solid) .786 .0754 .790 .786 .0860 .791 .786 .0603 .788 .786 .0688 .789
6 .510 .0685 .515 .510 .0796 .516 .510 .0548 .513 .510 .0636 .514
6 (solid) .496 .0685 .501 .496 .0796 .502 .496 .0548 .499 .496 .0636 .500

4 .321 .0632 .327 .321 .0742 .329 .321 .0506 .325 .321 .0594 .326
4 (solid) .312 .0632 .318 .312 .0742 .321 .312 .0506 .316 .312 .0594 .318
2 .202 .0585 .210 .202 .0685 .214 .202 .0467 .207 .202 .0547 .209
1 .160 .0570 .170 .160 .0675 .174 .160 .0456 .166 .160 .0540 .169

1/0 .128 .0540 .139 .128 .0635 .143 .127 .0432 .134 .128 .0507 .138
2/0 .102 .0533 .115 .103 .0630 .121 .101 .0426 .110 .102 .0504 .114
3/0 .0805 .0519 .0958 .0814 .0605 .101 .0766 .0415 .0871 .0805 .0484 .0939
4/0 .0640 .0497 .0810 .0650 .0583 .0929 .0633 .0398 .0748 .0640 .0466 .0792

250 .0552 .0495 .0742 .0557 .0570 .0797 .0541 .0396 .0670 .0547 .0456 .0712
300 .0464 .0493 .0677 .0473 .0564 .0736 .0451 .0394 .0599 .0460 .0451 .0644
350 .0378 .0491 .0617 .0386 .0562 .0681 .0368 .0393 .0536 .0375 .0450 .0586
400 .0356 .0490 .0606 .0362 .0548 .0657 .0342 .0392 .0520 .0348 .0438 .0559

450 .0322 .0480 .0578 .0328 .0538 .0630 .0304 .0384 .0490 .0312 .0430 .0531
500 .0294 .0466 .0551 .0300 .0526 .0505 .0276 .0373 .0464 .0284 .0421 .0508
600 .0257 .0463 .0530 .0264 .0516 .0580 .0237 .0371 .0440 .0246 .0412 .0479
750 .0216 .0445 .0495 .0223 .0497 .0545 .0194 .0356 .0405 .0203 .0396 .0445

Three-Conductor Cable

In Magnetic D u c t and Steel Interlocked A r m o r In Nonmagnetic Duct and A l u m i n u m Interlocked A r m o r

AWG 5 kv Shielded and 600 ν and 5 kv
600 ν and 5 kv 5 kv Shielded and
or
MCM Nonshielded 15 kv Nonshielded 15 kv

R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ
8 .811 .0577 .813 .811 .0658 .814 .811 .0503 .812 .811 .0574 .813
8 (solid) .786 .0577 .788 .786 .0658 .789 .786 .0503 .787 .786 .0574 .788
6 .510 .0525 .513 .510 .0610 .514 .510 .0457 .512 .510 .0531 .513
6 (solid) .496 .0525 .499 .496 .0610 .500 .496 .0457 .498 .496 .0531 .499

4 .321 .0483 .325 .321 .0568 .326 .321 .0422 .324 .321 .0495 .325
4 (solid) .312 .0483 .316 .312 .0508 .317 .312 .0422 .315 .312 .0495 .316
2 .202 .0448 .207 .202 .0524 .209 .202 .0390 .206 .202 .0457 .207
1 .160 .0436 .166 .160 .0516 .168 .160 .0380 .164 .160 .0450 .166

1/0 .128 .0414 .135 .128 .0486 .137 .127 .0360 .132 .128 .0423 .135
2/0 .102 .0407 .110 .103 .0482 .114 .101 .0355 .107 .102 .0420 .110
3/0 .0805 .0397 .0898 .0814 .0463 .0936 .0766 .0346 .0841 .0805 .0403 .090
4/0 .0640 .0381 .0745 .0650 .0446 .0788 .0633 .0332 .0715 .0640 .0389 .0749

250 .0552 .0379 .0670 .0557 .0436 .0707 .0541 .0330 .0634 .0547 .0380 .0666
300 .0464 .0377 .0598 .0473 .0431 .0640 .0451 .0329 .0559 .0460 .0376 .0596
350 .0378 .0373 .0539 .0386 .0427 .0576 .0368 .0328 .0492 .0375 .0375 .0530
400 .0356 .0371 .0514 .0362 .0415 .0551 .0342 .0327 .0475 .0348 .0366 .0505

450 .0322 .0361 .0484 .0328 .0404 .0520 .0304 .0320 .0441 .0312 .0359 .0476
500 .0294 .0349 .0456 .0300 .0394 .0495 .0276 .0311 .0416 .0284 .0351 .0453
600 .0257 .0343 .0429 .0264 .0382 .0464 .0237 .0309 .0389 .0246 .0344 .0422
750 .0216 .0326 .0391 .0223 .0364 .0427 .0197 .0297 .0355 .0203 .0332 .0389

Resistance based on tinned copper at 60 cycles. 600 volt and 5 kv unshielded based on varnished cambric insulation. 5 kv shielded
and 15 kv cable based on Neoprene insulation. Values shown are for 1000 feet of cable at 75*C.
 64 Chapter 6
Table 5.5 Cross-Linked Polyethylene Insulated Cable Resistance, Reac-
tance, and Impedance of Aluminum Conductor Cable (approximate ohms
per 1000 feet)

Three Single Conductors.

In Mag netic Duct In Nonmagnetic D u c t

AWG
600 V and 5kv 5 kv Shielded and 600 V and 5 kv 5 kv Shielded and
MCM Nonshielded 15 kv Nonshielded 15 kv
R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ
6 .847 .053 .849 _ — _ .847 .042 .848 _
4 .532 .050 .534 .532 .068 .536 .532 .040 .534 .532 .054 .535
2 .335 .046 .338 .335 .063 .341 .335 .037 .337 .335 .050 .339
1 .265 .048 .269 .265 .059 .271 .265 .035 .267 .265 .047 .269

1/0 .210 .043 .214 .210 .056 .217 .210 .034 .213 .210 .045 .215
2/0 .167 .041 .172 .167 .055 .176 .167 .033 .170 .167 .044 .173
3/0 .133 .040 .139 .132 .053 .142 .133 .037 .137 .132 .042 .139
4/0 .106 .039 .113 .105 .051 .117 .105 .031 .109 .105 .041 .113

250 .0896 .0384 .0975 .0892 .0495 .102 .0894 .0307 .0945 .0891 .0396 .0975
300 .0750 .0375 .0839 .0746 .0479 .0887 .0746 .0300 .0804 .0744 .0383 .0837
350 .0644 .0369 .0742 .0640 .0468 .0793 .0640 .0245 .0705 .0638 .0374 .0740
400 .0568 .0364 .0675 .0563 .0459 .0726 .0563 .0291 .0634 .0560 .0367 .0700

500 .0459 .0355 .0580 .0453 .0444 .0634 .0453 .0284 .0535 .0450 .0355 .0573
600 .0388 .0359 .0529 .0381 .0431 .0575 .0381 .0287 .0477 .0377 .0345 .0511
700 .0338 .0350 .0487 .0332 .0423 .0538 .0330 .0280 .0433 .0326 .0338 .0470
750 .0318 .0341 .0466 .0310 .0419 .0521 .0309 .0273 .0412 .0304 .0335 .0452
1000 .0252 .0341 .0424 .0243 .0414 .0480 .0239 .0273 .0363 .0234 .0331 .0405

Three-Conductor Cables

In Magnetic Duct In N o n m a g n e t i c D u c t
AWG
600 V and 5kv 5 kv Shielded and 600 V and 5 kv 5 kv Shielded and
MCM Nonshielded 15 kv Nonshielded 15 kv
R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ R X Ζ
6 .847 .053 .849 _ _ _ .847 .042 .848 _ _ _
4 .532 .050 .534 — — — .532 .040 .534 — _
2 .335 .046 .338 .335 .056 .340 .335 .037 .337 .335 045 .338
1 .265 .048 .269 .265 .053 .270 .265 .035 .267 .265 .042 .268

1/0 .210 .043 .214 .210 .050 .216 .210 .034 .213 .210 .040 .214
2/0 .167 .041 .172 .167 .049 .174 .167 .033 .170 .167 .039 .171
3/0 .133 .040 .139 .133 .048 .141 .133 .037 .137 .133 .038 .138
4/0 .106 .039 .113 .105 .045 .114 .105 .031 .109 .105 .036 .111

250 .0896 .0384 .0975 .0895 .0436 .100 .0894 .0307 .0945 .0893 .0349 .0959
300 .0750 .0375 .0839 .0748 .0424 .0860 .0746 .0300 .0804 .0745 .0340 .0819
350 .0644 .0369 .0742 .0643 .0418 .0767 .0640 .0245 .0705 .0640 .0334 .0722
400 .0568 .0364 .0675 .0564 .0411 .0700 .0563 .0291 .0634 .0561 .0329 .0650

500 .0459 .0355 .0580 .0457 .0399 .0607 .0453 .0284 .0535 .0452 .0319 .0553
600 .0388 .0359 .0529 .0386 .0390 .0549 .0381 .0287 .0477 .0380 .0312 .0492
700 .0338 .0350 .0487 .0335 .0381 .0507 .0330 .0280 .0433 .0328 .0305 .0448
750 .0318 .0341 .0466 .0315 .0379 .0493 .0309 .0273 .0412 .0307 .0303 .0431
1000 .0252 .0341 .0424 .0248 .0368 .0444 .0239 .0273 .0363 .0237 .0294 .0378

V a l u e s A r e for 1000 Circuit Feet at 90 C C o n d u c t o r

 Q
C
<-+
Ο
C
Table 5.6 Busway Impedance Data (ohms per 1000 feet)
<>
t
Plug-In Busway
Ο
Ampere Ohms per 1000 feet line to neutral 60 cycles Ampere Ohms per 1000 feet line to neutral 60 cycles FT
Rating Resistance Reactance Impedance Rating Resistance Reactance Impedance C
Copper Bus Bars A l u m i n u m Bus Bars
S"
r-t·

225 0.0836 0.0800 0.1157 225 0.1090 0.0720 0.1313 O'

400 0.0437 0.0232 0.0495 400 0.0550 0.0222 0.0592 CO

600 0.0350 0.0179 0.0393 600 0.0304 0.0121 0.0327

800 0.0218 0.0136 0.0257 800 0.0243 0.0154 0.0288
1000 0.0145 0.0135 0.0198

L o w - I m p e d a n c e Feeder Busway Current Limiting B u s w a y

Ampere Ohms per 1000 feet line to neutral 60 cycles Ampere Ohms per 1000 feet line to neutral 60 cycles X/R
Rating Resistance Reactance Impedance Rating Resistance Reactance Impedance Ratio
800 0.0219 0.0085 0.0235 1000 0.013 0.063 0.064 4.85
1000 0.0190 0.0050 0.0196 1350 0.012 0.061 0.062 5.08
1350 0.0126 0.0044 0.0134 1600 0.009 0.056 0.057 6.22
1600 0.0116 0.0035 0.0121 2000 0.007 0.052 0.052 7.45
2000 0.0075 0.0031 0.0081 2500 0.006 0.049 0.049 8.15
2500 0.0057 0.0025 0.0062 3000 0.005 0.046 0.046 9.20
3000 0.0055 0.0017 0.0058 4000 0.004 0.042 0.042 10.50
4000 0.0037 0.0016 0.0040

cn
Table 5.7 Asymmetrical Factors
Oi
Ratio to symmetrical Rms amperes

Maximum 1-phase
Short-circuit Maximum 1-phase Rms amperes at Average 3-phase
power factor, Short circuit instantaneous 1/2 cycle Mm Rms amperes at
percent X/R ratio peak amperes Mp (asymmetrical factor) 1/2 cycle Ma

0 c X) 2, .828 1 .732 1 .394

1 100. ,00 2, .75 1 .696 1 .374
2 49..993 2 .743 1.665 1 .355
3 33..322 2,.702 1,.630 1,.336
4 24..979 2 .663 1,.598 1 .318
5 19..974 2 , .625 1,.568 1 .301
6 1 6 . .623 2 , .589 1 .540 1 .285
7 14.,251 2 . .554 1,.511 1,.270
8 13..460 2,.520 1,.485 1,.256
9 11.,066 2..487 1..460 1,.241
10 9..9301 2,.455 1,.436 1,.229
11 9. 0354 2 . .424 1..413 1.. 2 1 6
12 8. 2733 2 . .394 1..391 1,.204
13 7. 6271 2. .364 1..372 1..193
14 7. 0721 2. .336 1..350 1,. 1 8 2
15 6. 5912 2 . .309 1..330 1..171
Ο
^
16 6. 1695 2 . .282 1,.312 1..161 ο
17 5. 7947 2 . .256 1..294 1..152 Ό
<?
18 5. 4649 2 . ,231 1. 277 1. 143
19 5. 1672 2 . ,207 1. 262 Οι
1. 135
 F a u lt C u r r e n t C a lc u la tio n s 67

C- 0 3 CO m 03 CO C -T -H LO O 0 (N C- CO 0 3 CD CO 03 COCO H 00 CO ^ CO © 03
(N H τ-Η O 03 03 00 00 C- COCO Lf3 LO ^ CO COCO CO 03 (N (N IN (N H
H H H H o o o o oo oo o o o o oo o o o o oo o o o
τ-H T—I — Η τ— I T— I t — I τ— I t— I r —I r —I τ— Ί τ— I Η Η Η H r —I t —I t— 1 r-l H r l τ-Η τ— I r—I t — 1 τ— I

t> * CO 0 0 LO IN H 0 0 3 0 3 0 3 O τ— 1 CO LO 00 -H 00 CO 00 CO CO 03 lO H 00
^ CO τ-Η O 03 00 t> * LO ^ CO CO CO τ-Η O 03 03 00 t> t- CD CO LO LO ^ ^ ^ CO
(N ( N CN CN τ— I - Η τ-Η τ— I Η Η t - H t -H τ-Η τ— I O O O O O O O O O O O O O
τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η - —I τ— I τ-Η τ— I τ-Η τ-Η τ —I τ-Η τ-Η τ— 1 τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ— Ι τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ— I

C O O 00 ΙΟ ^ ^ LOCO O O O COCO O ^ 00 CO COCO 03 LO H 00 lO CO O

00 CO CO T-H 03 O· LO CO — 103 t>- CO ^ CN τ— I 03 t- CO Tf CO τ-Η O 03 t- CD LO N f
t- H t -H t -H t— I O O O O 0 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 COCO t - C -

CO CO CO CO 03 CO 03 03 03 τ-Η »— I τ-Η τ— I τ-Η τ-Η τ- 1 τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η τ-Η

Ο Ο- ττΗ
- 00 Ο Ο 00 Η CD Η 00 03 00 CD Ο ^ CD 03 τ-Ητ-Η COCO COCO 03 LO CO
03 LO ^ H LOCO COCO C O O 03 CO O O COCO τ-Η O ^ τ-Η τ— l ^ f 0 0 3 0 ^ 0
03 LO C O C O ^ O τ-Η CO C O O t - CO COCO CO t- 03 H COCO 03 CO CO 03 ^ 00 CO
00 CO ^ CN O O O D - LO CO T— I o 03 00 C -C O LO LO ^ CO COCO T-H O 0 0 3 0 3
Tj* CO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO CO T-H T-H

O τ— I C O C O m CD l> 00 03 O —H COCO ^ LO CO £- 00 03 O T-H COCO Tí in CD

COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO ^ rf T^ ^ ^
68 Chapter 6

3. The impedance (in ohms) given for current transformers, large

switches, and large circuit breakers is essentially all X.
4. Determine (a) cable and bus X (in ohms) and (b) cable and bus
R (in ohms).
5. Total all X and all R in the system to the point of fault.
6. Determine the impedance (in ohms) of the system by
ζ
τ -TV-ex,,·
7. Calculate short-circuit symmetrical root-mean-square (rms)
amperes at the point of fault.

j - secondary line voltage

sc sym rms "

8. Determine the motor loads and add up the full-load motor c u r -

rents.
9. The short-circuit c u r r e n t that the motor load can contribute is
an asymmetrical c u r r e n t usually approximated as being equal to
the locked rotor c u r r e n t of the motors. As a close approxima-
tion with a margin of safety, use

asymmetrical motor contribution* = 5 χ (full-load motor c u r r e n t )

10. The symmetrical motor contribution can be approximated by using

the average asymmetry factor associated with the motor in the
system. This asymmetry factor varies according to motor de-
sign and 1.25 is used for approximate calculation p u r p o s e s . To
solve for the symmetrical motor contribution:*

, . , , , * asymmetrical motor contribution

symmetrical motor contribution = — - ——

11. The total symmetrical short-circuit rms c u r r e n t is calculated as

^total I = I + symmetrical motor contribution

sc sym rms sc sym rms

*A more exact determination depends on the subtransient reactances

of the motors in question and associated circuit impedances. A less
conservative method would involve the total motor circuit impedance
to a common bus and proceed therefrom.
tArithmetical addition results in conservative values of fault c u r r e n t
More finite values involve vectoral addition of the c u r r e n t s .
Fault Current Calculations

12. Determine the X/R ratio of the system to the point of the fault,

total X (ohms)
X/R ratio = total R (ohms)

13. The asymmetrical factor corresponding to the X/R ratio in step

12 is found in Table 5.7, column M m . This multiplier will provide
the worst-case asymmetry occurring in the f i r s t half-cycle.
Where the average three-phase multiplier is desired, use column
Ma-
14. Calculate the asymmetrical rms short-circuit c u r r e n t :

I = I χ (asymmetrical factor)
sc asym rms sc sym rms

15. The total asymmetrical short-circuit rms c u r r e n t is calculated as:

t total I = I + asvmmetrical
J motor
sc asym rms sc asym rms Φ #
contribution

Examples for Fault Current Calculations

Figures 5.3 shows a one-line diagram for a simple radial system with
all components information given in details. To s t a r t short-circuit
calculations, we must obtain the available short-circuit kVA from the
local utility company. The utility estimates that their system can
deliver a short-circuit of 100,000 kVA at the transformer. Since
the X/R ratio of the utility system is usually very high, only the
reactance need be considered. With this short-circuit fault informa-
tion available, we can begin to make the necessary calculations to
determine the fault c u r r e n t at X\ and X2 in the system.
Figure 5.4 shows a simplified impedance diagram of the system
for calculating fault c u r r e n t at X^ with X and R values as tabulated
alongside, using the formulas given previously in the detailed pro-
cedures . From Figure 5.4 we have

total R = 0.000674 Ω
total X = 0.003855 Ω

Hence

total Ζ = J ( 0 . 0 0 0 6 7 4 ) 2 + (0.003855) 2 = 0.00392 Ω/phase

τ / χ 240
1sc sym rms (amperes) = /- = ( .00392)
3 0

= 35,300 A
70 Chapter 6

Available
Utility
S.C. KVA
100,000

1000 KVA Transformer

240V, 30, 5.1 %X, .89%R

25' —750 MCM Ip L = 2400 Amps

3 Per Phase
Utility Service
Drop Cable
3000 A. Switch

KRP-C 3000 Amp Fuse

Main Swb'd

^ ^ Fault Xi
400 A . Switch

LPN 350 Amp Fuse

50' 500 MCM

Feeder Cable

LPN 60 Amp Fuse

Figure 5.3 One-line diagram for a radial system.

 71
Fault Current Calculations

asymmetrical motor contribution (100% motor load) = 5 χ 2400

= 12,000 A

12,000
symmetrical motor contribution = ^ ^ — = 9600 A

total 1 (amperes)7 v(fault X,) = 35,300 + 9600

sc sym rms v ^ 1'
= 44,900 A

0.003855 r _
X/R ratl = = 5 72
° O00674 '

IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
R X
2 "τ —
100,000 K V A χ = = 0>000575 0.000575
S o u r c e 1 0 0 , 0 0 0

2
1000 K V A x = ( 1 0 ) ( 5 · 1 ) ( 0 . 2 4 0) = 0>002940 0.002940
T r a n s f o r m e r 1 U U U
5.1% X
ggο/ ρ
R = (10)(0.88)(0.24^_= 0-000512 0 000512

25' — 750 M C M X = I M F X
= 000300 000300

3 Per Phase
Service Drop
C a b l e ^ 25' 0.0194
"TOO7 X
3 =
°· 0 0 0 1 6 2 0.000162

X =
3 0 0 0 Α . 000040 0.000040
Switch

Fault X. | _
Total 0.000674 0.003855
Motor
Contribution

Figure 5.4 Direct method—simplified impedance diagram and s h o r t -

circuit calculation at fault X^.
72 Chapter 5

asymmetrical factor* = 1.290 (Table 5.7)

I (amperes) = 1.290 χ 35,300 = 45,500

sc asym rms ' '

total I v(amperes) v(fault X.) = 45,500 + 12,000

sc asym rms ^ ' '
= 57,500 A

Figure 5.5 shows a simplified impedance diagram of the system

f o r calculating fault c u r r e n t at X2 with X and R values as tabulated
alongside, u s i n g the previous formulas as given in t h e detailed p r o -
c e u d r e s . From Figure 5.5 we have

total R = 0.002144 Ω
total X = 0.006265 Ω

Hence

total Ζ = J (0.002144) 2 + (0.006265) 2 = 0.00662 Ω/phase

Iτ r(amperes)λ = - = 240
sc sym rms ^ /3 (0.00662)

= 20,930 A

asymmetrical motor contribution (100% motor load) = 5 χ 2400

= 12,000 A

12,000
symmetrical motor contribution = ^ ^ — = 9600 A

total I (amperes) v(fault X 0 ) = 20,930 + 9600

sc sym rms V '
= 30,530 A

0.006265
X / R ratl = = 2 92
° 0.002144 '

asymmetry factor = 1.112

I v(amperes) = 1.112 χ 20,930 = 23,310

sc asym rms ^
total I v(amperes) v(fault XQ) = 23,310
9 + 12,000
sc asym rms * V
= 35,310 A

*Multiplier f o r maximum o n e - p h a s e rms amperes at half-cycle.

 Fault Current Calculations 73

IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

Adjusted
Impedance R X
to
Fault X,

X = 0.003855 0.003855

400A
Switch R = 0.000674 0.000674

50' X = 0.00008 0.000080

500 M C M
Feeder
Cable
50'

X = J^R X 0.0466 = 0.00233 0.002330

Motor
Contribution Total 0.002144 0.006265
R = Τ Χ 0.0294 = 0.00147 0.001470
Figure 5.5 Direct method—simplified impedance diagram and short-
circuit calculation at fault X2.

5.4.2 Per U n i t Method

One-Line Diagram
The need for a one-line diagram is the same as that for the direct
method. For simplicity, Figure 5.3 will again be used as the system
for the per unit method of calculation.

Detailed Procedures
After establishing a one-line diagram of the system, we proceed with
the calculations as follows.

1. ·+ vX =
Utility per unit base kVA
utility sc kVA

ο m · V (%X) (base kVA)

2. Transformer per unit+ X = (100) (transformer kVA)
74 Chapter 5

(%R) (base kVA)

Transformer per unit nR = (100) (transformer—kVA)
m

Λ „ . v (ohms X)(base kVA)

3. Component per unit X =
(cable, switches, (1000)(kV)
CT, bus)

4. „ = (ohms R) (base kVA)

Component per unit R
(cable, switches, (1000)(kV)
CT, bus)

5. Total all per unit X and all per unit R in system to point of
fault.
6. Determine the per unit impedance of the system by

V (per unit R^,)

2
+ (per unit X T )
2

7. Calculate the symmetrical rms short-circuit c u r r e n t at the point

of fault.
^ base kVA
sc sym
J rms _ TT , . „ >
/3 kV (per unit Z ^ )

8. Determine the motor load. Add up the full-load motor c u r r e n t s .

9. The short-circuit c u r r e n t that the motor load can contribute is
an asymmetrical c u r r e n t usually approximated as being equal to
the locked-rotor c u r r e n t of the motors. As a close approxima-
tion with a margin of safety, use:

asymmetrical motor contribution* = 5 χ (full-load motor c u r r e n t )

10. The symmetrical motor contribution can be approximated by using

the average asymmetry factor associated with the motor in the
system. This asymmetry factor varies according to motor design
and 1.25 is used for approximate calculation p u r p o s e s . To solve
for the symmetrical motor contribution:

^ . , x A * asymmetric motor contribution

symmetrical motor contribution = —-

11. The total symmetrical short-circuit rms c u r r e n t is calculated as

ttotal I = I + symmetric motor contribution

sc sym rms sc sym rms

* f See Footnotes on p . 68.

Fault Current Calculations 75

12. Determine the X/R ratio of the system to the point of fault,
per unit X T
X/R ratio =
per unit R^,

13. From Table 5.7, column M m , obtain the asymmetrical factor cor-
responding to the X/R ratio determined in step 12. This multi-
plier will provide the worst-case asymmetry occurring in the
f i r s t half-cycle. Where the average three-phase multiplier is
desired, use column M a .
14. The asymmetrical rms short-circuit c u r r e n t can be calculated as

I = I χ (asymmetrical factor)
sc asym rms sc sym rms

15. The total asymmetrical short-circuit rms current is calculated as:

ttotal I = I + asymmetrical motor

sc asym rms sc asym rms , ,.
contribution

Examples for Fault Current Calculations

For easy comparison we use the same one-line diagram (Figure 5.3)
for a simple radial system as for the direct method. Figure 5.6 shows
a simplified impedance diagram of the system for calculating the fault
current at X^ with per unit R and per unit X values as tabulated
alongside, using the formulas as given in the detailed procedures
(Section 5 . 4 . 2 ) . From Figure 5.6 we have

total per unit R = 0.1171

total per unit X = 0.6689

Hence

total per unit Ζ = J (0.1171) 2 + (0.6689) 2 = 0.6800

, 10,000
I (amperes) = - =
sc sym rms / 3 (0.240)(0.6800)
= 35,300 A

asymmetrical motor contribution (100%) = 5 χ 2400

= 12,000 A

symmetrical motor contribution = = 9600 A

* f See Footnotes on p . 68.

 76 Chapter 5

IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM 10,000 k V A base

P.U.R P.U.X
100,000 K V A
Source
0.1000
'•"-•itS·»··»»»

1000 K V A
Transformer 0.5100
5.1% X
.89% R
(0.89)(10,0Q0)
P.U.R = 0.0890 0.0890
(100)(1000)

25'
750 M C M
3/Phase P.U.X = (0.0003)( 10,000) = 0 0520
0.0520
Service
D r o p Cable (1000)(0.240)

3000 A . P.U.R = (O-OOOW(IO.OOO) 0.0281 0.0281

Switch (1000)(0.240)

P.U.X = ( 0 · ° 0 0 0 4 ) ( 1 0 , 0 0 0) = 0 0069
0.0069
( 1 0 0 0 X 0 . 240)

Motor
Contribution Total P . U . 0.1171 0.6689

Figure 5.6 Per unit method—simplified impedance diagram and short-

circuit calculation at fault X^.

total I v(amperes) v(fault X,) = 35,300 + 9600

sc sym rms ^ ' \J '
= 44,900 A

0.6689
X/R ratio = Q i m = 5.72

asymmetrical factor = 1.290 (Table 5.7)

*Multiplier for maximum one-phase rms amperes at half-cycle.

Fault Current Calculations

h e asym rms ( a m P e r e s ) = 1.290 χ 35,300 = 45,500

total T
sc asym rms ( a m P e r e s ) ( f a u l t χ
χ) = 45,500 + 12,000
= 57,500 A

Figure 5.7 shows a simplified impedance diagram of the system

for calculating fault current at X2 with per unit R and per unit X
values as tabulated alongside, using the formulas given in the de-
tailed p r o c e d u r e s . From Figure 5.7 we have

total per unit R = 0.3722

total per unit X = 1.0878

Hence

total per unit Ζ = 0.3722 + 1.0878 = 1.150

l
sc sym rms ( a m P e r e s ) =
VT(0.240)(1.150)
= 20,930 A

asymmetrical motor contribution (100%) = 5 χ 2400

= 12,000 A

12,000
symmetry motor contribution = ^ ^ = 9600 A

total I g c sym rms (amperes) (fault X 2 ) = 20,930 + 9600

= 30,530 A

1 0878

X/R ratio = Q ' 3 7 2 2 = 2.92

asymmetrical factor* = 1.112 (Table 5.7)

isc asym rms (amperes) = 1.112 χ 20,930 = 23,310

t0tal
^sc asym rms ( a m P e r e s ) (fault: X 2 ) = 23,310 + 12,000
= 35,310 A

*Multiplier for maximum one-phase rms amperes at half-cycle.

 78 Chapter 6

IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM 10,000 kVA base

P.U.R P.U.X
Adjusted
Impedance P.U.X = 0.6689 0.6689
to
Fault X,

P.U.R = 0. 1171 0.1171

400A.
Switch

P.U.X = C0-00008)(10.000)= 0 0139

0.0139
(1000X0. 240)
50'
500 M C M
Feeder
Cable P.U.X . β Ο Μ Ο Ο 2) , 0.4050 0.4050
(1000X0. 240)

p.U. R = (0.00147)(10t000) = ^ 0.2551

(1000)(0.240)

Motor Total P . U . 0.3722 1.0878

Contribution

Figure 5.7 Per unit method—simplified impedance diagram and short-

circuit calculation at fault X 2 .

5.5 S H O R T - C I R C U I T RATINGS OF
P R O T E C T I V E EQUIPMENT
5.5.1 Reasons f o r Making a S h o r t - C i r c u i t Study
A power system short-circuit s t u d y as discussed in the preceding
sections is necessarily used to determine:

1. The calculated system fault current duties, which can be com-

pared with the short-circuit current rating of circuit-interrupting
devices, such as circuit breakers and f u s e s
2. The selection and rating or setting of short-circuit protective
devices, sch as direct-acting t r i p s , f u s e s , and relays

In the previous sections, basic formulas are given for calculating

system resistances and reactances in either ohms or per unit values.
For a simple radial system, calculations of short-circuit c u r r e n t s can
Fault Current Calculations 79

easily be made with a simple calculator. However, for a complex

electric power system, calculations can best be carried out with the
aid of a computer. Each of the power system components (utility
sources, generators, motors, transformers, cables, e t c . ) is r e p r e -
sented by a resistance value and a reactance value.
The computer program places an assumed three-phase fault on
each bus location in the system, and a set of short-circuit c u r r e n t s
is calculated which can then be compared with the published short-
circuit ratings of the power system equipments. The computer short-
circuit program used to calculate three-phase short-circuit duties
automatically simulates a fault on each bus and records:

1. The total and symmetrical short-circuit c u r r e n t duty at the

faulted bus
2. The short-circuit contribution from all buses connected to the
faulted bus
3. The system X/R ratio at the fault point for high-voltage circuit
breaker i n t e r r u p t i n g duty with its associated multiplying factor
4. The symmetrical and asymmetrical c u r r e n t for the breaker momen-
t a r y duty

5.5.2 Switchgear Ratings

The short-circuit rating assigned to a high-voltage power circuit
breaker b y the manufacturer is significant in two ways. First, the
rating r e p r e s e n t s a conservative statement of the actual capability
of the b r e a k e r to close against, to withstand, and to i n t e r r u p t s h o r t -
circuit c u r r e n t s . Thus the rating is the maximum condition under
which the breaker may safely be applied. Second, the rating is the
maximum condition of application for which the manufacturer guaran-
tees that the breaker will perform satisfactorily. Therefore, it is
important that a circuit breaker be applied within the rating assigned
to its design if the installation is to be safe. One purpose of a
short-circuit s t u d y is to determine the conditions u n d e r which breaker
will be applied in a specific system. The short-circuit rating of a
circuit breaker is its capability at the maximum voltage at which the
b r e a k e r may be applied. There is a distinction that must be made
between the rating of the breaker and its capability in a specific
application.
Prior to 1964, breakers were assigned a short-circuit i n t e r r u p t i n g
capacity in asymmetrical mVA, and it was stated that the i n t e r r u p t i n g
capacity was a constant over a defined range of voltages. An equiva-
lent i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity in amperes could be calculated at each
voltage level. This is called a total c u r r e n t basis of rating b r e a k e r s .
Since 1964, however, breakers have been assigned an i n t e r r u p t i n g
capacty in symmetrical rms amperes at a specified maximum voltage,
and the capability is said to increase in inverse proportion to voltage
80 Chapter 6

up to a specified maximum c u r r e n t . This is the so-called symmetrical

basis of rating. Under the new rating s t r u c t u r e , a mVA rating is
still assigned to breakers for class distinction, but it is not the
i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity of the device in most cases.
Under the symmetrical c u r r e n t basis of rating switchgear, the
factor Κ defines the permissible range of voltage and fault c u r r e n t .
The i n t e r r u p t i n g capability of the breaker then falls into one of three
bands:

1. Voltage greater than maximum rated voltage. The breaker may

not be applied.
2. Voltage between maximum rated voltage and 1/K times rated
voltage. The i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity is equal to

(interrupting capacity at rated voltage)(rated voltage)

actual voltage

3. Voltage less than 1/K times rated voltage. The i n t e r r u p t i n g

capacity is Κ times the i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity at rated voltage.

The momentary current capacity, defined as the fully offset rms

fault c u r r e n t against which the breaker must be able to close and
latch its contacts, is 1.6K times the symmetrical rms i n t e r r u p t i n g
capacity of the breaker at maximum rated voltage and is not a f u n c -
tion of the actual voltage of application. Low-voltage breakers
usually have direct-acting trips that operate in the f i r s t cycle of
fault c u r r e n t s , and thus ratings are based on the total symmetrical
c u r r e n t a f t e r the f i r s t cycle. Low-voltage breakers are tested and
applied in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C37.13-1981. Older low-voltage
b r e a k e r s (prior to 1957) were rated on a total asymmetrical c u r r e n t
a f t e r the f i r s t half-cycle and had a slightly different test procedure.
Fuses are f a s t - a c t i n g , protective devices that operate in the f i r s t
cycle of fault and are rated on a total asymmetrical fault c u r r e n t .

5.5.3 Momentary Duty Versus I n t e r r u p t i n g Duty

Momentary duty calculated b y following ANSI C37.010-1979 is com-
pared with the closing and latching capability of medium- and high-
voltage circuit b r e a k e r s . Total impedances or reactance portions of
line, transformer, motor, generator, and utility source impedances
are used for the momentary c u r r e n t calculations. The reactance used
for the utility source, generator, and synchronous machines are sub-
transient reactances. The circuit E/X c u r r e n t at the fault point is
the symmetrical momentary duty for the b r e a k e r . The close and
latch d u t y is found by multiplying the symmetrical d u t y by 1.6.
Fault Current Calculations 81

Present-day low-voltage breaker ratings are compared to the

symmetrical c u r r e n t obtained by E/Z at the fault point, while some
older low-voltage ratings are compared to an average asymmetrical
c u r r e n t (1.25 times the symmetrical c u r r e n t ) on symmetrically rated
low-voltage b r e a k e r s . Where the X/R ratio is greater than 6.6, the
calculated duty is multiplied by 1.15 for comparison with the breaker
rating. Fuse ratings are compared to an asymmetrical c u r r e n t equal
to 1.6 times the symmetrical c u r r e n t s in some cases.
The i n t e r r u p t i n g d u t y , calculated b y following ANSI C37.010-1979
for a symmetrical c u r r e n t rated b r e a k e r , is compared with the
medium- and high-voltage breaker i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s . The inter-
rupting c u r r e n t is lower than the momentary c u r r e n t because it takes
into account the short-circuit decrement with respect to time while
the power circuit breaker is opening. Data in Table 5.8 are useful
for these calculations as well as the momentary duty calculations.
The i n t e r r u p t i n g duty is found by calculating the short-circuit c u r -
rent (E/X) from the reactance network only and then finding a
resistance network reduction. The breaker i n t e r r u p t i n g time, elec-
trical distance away from the generators, and X/R ratio at the fault
are used to determine a multiplying factor to be applied to the sym-
metrical c u r r e n t to take into account the appropriate d i r e c t - c u r r e n t
decrements for breakers rated from two to eight cycles i n t e r r u p t i n g
time. The multipliers can be found from curves given in ANSI
C37.010-1979 for symmetrically rated b r e a k e r s .

5.5.4 Equipment Evaluation and Coordination Using

Calculated S h o r t - C i r c u i t C u r r e n t Values
After the calculated values of f i r s t cycle and i n t e r r u p t i n g rms sym-
metrical short-circuit current are determined, each piece of equip-
ment should be evaluated to be sure that its short-circuit rating is
adequate. Active equipment, devices that i n t e r r u p t fault c u r r e n t s ,
should have first-cycle and i n t e r r u p t i n g ratings equal to or higher
than the calculated values. Passive equipment, such as busway and
cable, should have a short-circuit withstand rating equal to or higher
than the calculated values. For devices rated for asymmetrical values
of momentary fault c u r r e n t , such as medium-voltage f u s e s , multiply
the calculated symmetrical values by appropriate factors to determine
the asymmetrical values.
The calculated values of short-circuit c u r r e n t are also needed
for checking time-current coordination between protected devices.
Calculated values are also necessary to determine how some devices
are sized and set to protect other equipment or themselves. Over-
c u r r e n t relays have thermal damage characteristics that may require
them to be set for fast operation at locations where available short
circuits are high. Transformers also have thermal damage character-
istics that require their protective devices to clear secondary faults
 82 Chapter 6

Table 5.8 Multipliers for Source Short-Circuit Current Contributions

Calculation
Medium- voltage
circuit breaker
First cycle Interrupting close and latch
Multiply Multiply Multiply Multiply Multiply Multiply
Source SCA by X^ by SCA by X^ by SCA by X^ by
Utility 1,.0 1,.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Generators a 1..0 1..0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Synchronous 1,.0 1,.0 0.667 1.5 1.0 1.0
motors
Induction motors
Above 1000 hp 1 .0 1,.0 0.667 1.5 1.0 1.0
at 1800 rpm
Above 250 hp 1 .0 1 .0 0.667 1.5 1.0 1.0
at 3600 rpm
All others 1 .0 1 .0 0.333 3.0 0.833 1.2
50 hp and
above
All smaller 1 .0 1 .0 Neglect Neglect Neglect Neglect
than 50 hp
a
Use 0.75 X^ for hydrogenerators without amortisseur windings.

before a specified length of time. These and other aspects of coordi-

nation are covered more fully in Chapter 7.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSI C57.12.10-1977, American National Standard Requirements for

Transformer 230,000 Volts and Below, 833/958 Through 8333/10,417
kVA, Single-Phase, and 750/862 Through 60,000/80,000/100,000
kVA, Three-Phase.
ANSI C57.12.22-1980, American National Standard Requirements for
Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, Three-Phase
Distribution Transformers with High-Voltage Bushings; High-
Voltage, 34500 Grd Y/19920 Volts and Below; 2500 kVA and
Smaller.
Fault Current Calculations 83

ANSI/IEEE C37.010-1979, IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage

Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Basis.
ANSI/IEEE C37.13-1981, IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power
Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures.
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, National Electrical Code.
Engineering Dependable Protection for an Electrical Distribution Sys-
tem, Part I: A Simple Approach to Short-Circuit Calculations,
Bussmann Mfg. Division, McGraw-Edison Co., St. Louis, Mo.
IEEE Standard 141-1986, Recommended Practice for Electrical Power
Distribution f o r Industrial Plants.
IEEE Standard 242-1986, Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
6
Grounding

6.1 SYSTEM GROUNDING

Whether or not to ground a power system is a question that must be

answered sometime by most design engineers charged with planning
power distribution systems. This chapter presents basic reasons for
grounding or not grounding and reviews general practices and methods
of system grounding.
When an industrial power system consists of power generating
equipment and distribution circuits, the reasons for grounding these
components are often the same as those for grounding similar compo-
nents of an utility system and other large power systems, and the
methods of grounding would generally be similar under similar condi-
tions of service. However, in some cases the reasons for grounding
and the methods for grounding certain components of an industrial
power system may differ according to the requirements of manufactur-
ing or process operations.
The National Electrical Code, ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, contains regu-
lations pertaining to system and equipment grounding applicable to
industrial, commercial, and health-care facilities. These rules are
considered minimum requirements for the protection of life and prop-
e r t y , and should be reviewed during the course of system design.

6.1.1 Ungrounded Versus Grounded System

The following discussions are intended to highlight the merits or
disadvantages of both ungrounded and grounded systems.

84
Grounding 85

Service Continuity
For many y e a r s , many industrial plant distribution systems have been
operated ungrounded at one or more voltage levels. In most cases
this has been done with the hope of gaining an additional degree of
service continuity. Any contact between one phase of the system
and ground is unlikely to cause an immediate outage to any load that
may represent an advantage to many industrial processes. On the
other h a n d , grounded systems are designed to isolate the faulted
circuit immediately, thus resulting in an attendant outage of the loads
on that circuit.
Although a ground fault on one phase of an ungrounded system
generally does not cause a service interruption, the occurrence of a
second ground fault on a different phase will result in an outage.
If the second fault is on a different f e e d e r , both feeders may be
deenergized. Therefore, an adequate detection system is considered
important for operation of an ungrounded system. Experience has
indicated that multiple ground faults are rare on a grounded neutral
system.

Arcing Fault Hazards

In recent y e a r s , many cases of arcing fault burndowns have been

r e p o r t e d . In most cases, severe damage or complete destruction of
electrical equipment was caused by the energy of arcing fault c u r r e n t s .
It is generally recognized that prevention of arcing fault burndowns
must rely on fast and sensitive detection of the arcing fault c u r r e n t ,
accompanied by an interruption of the faulty current within 10 to 20
cycles. In a solidly grounded-neutral system, this fast sensitive
detection is possible since an arcing fault will produce a current in
the ground p a t h . Under normal conditions, there is no significant
current in the ground r e t u r n p a t h . Monitoring the solidly grounded-
neutral system for c u r r e n t s in the ground circuit provides an easy
means for detecting and removing destructive arcing faults to ground.
The inherent problem of ground-fault protection device typically
installed in low-voltage main circuit b r e a k e r s , service b r e a k e r s , and
so on, is that a ground fault in a cable or equipment of a small sub-
feeder is likely to trip the large main circuit b r e a k e r , thus shutting
down the whole system. Coordinated ground-fault protective devices
can be installed at each feeder, s u b f e e d e r , and at each local branch
of the system to avoid the tripping of a main circuit b r e a k e r .

Safety

Most of the hazards to personnel and property existing in some in-

dustrial electrical systems are the result of poor or nonexistent
grounding of electrical equipment and metallic s t r u c t u r e s . It is there-
fore important to note here that regardless of whether or not the
86 Chapter 6

system is grounded, safety considerations require thorough grounding

of equipment and s t r u c t u r e s .
It is erroneous to believe that on an ungrounded system a person
may contact an energized phase conductor without personal hazard.
As shown in Figure 6.1, an ungrounded system with balanced phase-
to-ground capacitance has normal line-to-neutral voltage between any
phase conductor and ground. To contact such a conductor acciden-
tally or intentionally may present a serious or even lethal shock
hazard.
Other hazards of shock and fire may result from inadequate
grounding of equipment in either grounded or ungrounded systems.
Accidental ground faults are inevitable. A high-impedance ground
circuit may not permit enough current flow to operate protective de-
vices, with the result that a potential fire or safety hazard may exist.
On the other hand, the relatively high ground-fault c u r r e n t s asso-
ciated with solidly grounded systems may present a hazard to exposed
workers from hot arc products and flying molten metal. However,
this problem has become less serious because of the universal appli-
cation of metal-enclosed equipment in recent y e a r s .

Power System Overvoltage

Some of the more common sources of overvoltage on a power system

are the following:

1. Lightning
2. Switching surges
3. Static
4. Contact with a high-voltage system
5. Line-to-ground fault
6. Resonant conditions
7. Restriking ground faults

Generally speaking, a neutral grounding can effectively help

reduce the hazard that will otherwise develop from system overvoltage.

Cost

The cost differential between a grounded and an ungrounded neutral

system will v a r y , depending on the method of grounding, the degree
of protection desired, and whether a new or an existing system is
to be grounded. Power transformers with wye-connected secondaries
and wye-connected generators are available as standard options, and
there is no cost factor for establishing the system neutral. The
additional cost items are the neutral grounding resistor or reactor
if chosen, and the cost of ground-fault relaying. To ground an
existing ungrounded delta-connected system requires an additional
Grounding 87

Β A Β

GROUND

C
PHASE-TO-GROUND
CAPACITANCE

(a)

- A
A Β
•Β

GROUND

• C
(b) C

• A
A Β
Β

GROUND
C
C

(c)

Figure 6.1 Diagram showing voltages to ground u n d e r steady-state

conditions for (a) ungrounded system, (b) grounded Wye system,
and (c) grounded Delta system.
88 Chapter 6

cost item: the grounding transformers for establishing the system

neutral. Also, the existing relay schemes may have to be modified
to obtain sensitive ground-fault detection.
The purpose of converting an existing ungrounded system to
grounded operation is usually to limit transient overvoltages. Older
systems with degraded insultion levels due to aging are most vulner-
able to failure due to transient overvoltages. Therefore, the cost of
conversion would be small compared with the cost of replacing cables
a n d / o r transformers. Many industrial power system operators believe
that an ungrounded system offers greater service continuity than a
grounded system does provided that good-quality electrical mainten-
ance is available. However, many u s e r s whose maintenance practices
are not quite as extensive feel that a grounded-neutral system gives
them more continuous service than does an ungrounded system.

6.1.2 Methods of System Grounding

Grounding methods are very dependent on system voltages. For
industrial plant power systems, low-voltage distribution systems are
defined as 600 V or less; medium-voltage systems, 2.4 to 69 kV; and
high-voltage systems, 115 kV and above. Most grounded systems
employ some method of grounding the system neutral at one or more
points. Figure 6.2 shows the equivalent diagrams for ungrounded
and various types of grounded-neutral systems.

Ungrounded Systems

An ungrounded system is defined as a system of conductors with no

intentional connection to ground. A simple one is diagrammed in
Figure 6.3. Since all circuit conductors are separated from each other
and ground (earth) by an insulating medium (normally r u b b e r a n d / o r
a i r ) , the conductors are capacitively coupled to each other (phase to
phase) and to ground. The phase-to-phase capacitive coupling has
little influence on the grounding characteristics of the system, so it
is excluded from this discussion.
The voltage from each phase to neutral equals the voltage from
each phase to ground, and the neutral is at ground potential, as
long as none of the conductors is grounded. However, if one con-
ductor develops a bolted fault to ground, the system neutral is in
effect shifted from ground by a voltage value equal to the system
line-to-neutral voltage, thus increasing the voltage s t r e s s on the
insulation of the unfaulted conductors. Moreover, the ungrounded
(or capacitive-coupled) system is very likely to produce transient
overvoltages due to arcing line-to-ground fault and to series reson-
ance. (Arcing ground faults are also called "restriking" or "inter-
mittent" ground f a u l t s . ) Because the overvoltages due to arcing
ground faults and series resonance are caused by excessive neutral
 CIRCUIT ZERO-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
OF N E U T R A L C I R C U I T

UNGROUNDED

X
G0

SOLIDLY GROUNDED

X
G0 3Rn
RESISTANCE G R O U N D E D

Xqo

REACTANCE GROUNDED

X
G0

GROUND-FAULT
NEUTRALIZER

Xqq = Zero-sequence reactance of generator or transformer

X^ = Reactance of grounding reactor
R Ν ~ Resistance of grounding resistor

Figure 6.2 System neutral circuit and equivalent diagrams.

89
90 Chapter 6

Ground

Α ·Β Β

Figure 6.3 Simplified diagram for an ungrounded system.

Grounding 91

displacement with reference to ground, the amount of overvoltage

can be held to tolerable limits if the neutral voltages can be stabilized.
Stabilization is accomplished by grounding the system.

Grounded Systems
A grounded system is defined as a system of conductors in which at
least one conductor, usually the system neutral, is intentionally
grounded, either solidly or through a resistor or other current-limit-
ing device. Both solid and resistance grounding can limit transient
overvoltage to a safe level (250% of normal voltage); t h e r e f o r e , other
system parameters determine the choice. In general, there are sev-
eral methods of grounding, discussed below.

Solid Grounding. This r e f e r s to the connection of the neutral

of a generator, power transformer, or grounding transformer directly
to the station ground or to the e a r t h . If the reactance of the gene-
rator or transformer is too great with respect to the total system
reactance, the objective sought in grounding, principally freedom
from transient overvoltages, may not be achieved. In terms of re-
sistance and reactance, effective grounding of a system is accomplished
only when RQ < Χ Χ and XQ < 3Χχ, and such relationships exist at
any point in the system. Χ ι is the positive-sequence reactance of
the complete system, including the subtransient reactance of all rotat-
ing machines.
In most generators solid grounding without external impedance
may permit the maximum ground-fault current from the generator to
exceed the maximum three-phase fault current that the generator can
deliver and for which its windings are braced. Neutral-grounded
generators should be grounded through an impedance that will limit
the ground-fault current to a value no greater than the generator
t h r e e - p h a s e fault c u r r e n t .

Resistance Grounding. In resistance grounding the neutral is

connected to ground through one or more resistors. With the excep-
tion of transient overvoltages, the line-to-ground voltages that exist
during a line-to-ground fault are nearly the same as those for an
ungrounded system. A system properly grounded by resistance will
not be subject to destructive transient overvoltages. For resistance
grounded systems at 15 kV and below, such overvoltages will not be
of a serious nature if the resistance value lies within the following
boundary limits: RQ < ( 1 / 3 ) X C Q , r 0 ^ 2X0> where RQ is zero-sequence
resistance, Xqq is system phase capacitance reactance to ground, and
Xo is the zero-sequence reactance of the system.
Resistance grounding may be either of two classes, high resistance
or low resistance, distinguished by the magnitude of ground-fault
c u r r e n t permitted to flow. Both types are designed to limit transient
92 Chapter 6

overvoltage to a safe level (within 250% of neutral). The low-resist-

ance method has the advantage of immediate and selective clearing of
the grounded circuit but requires that the minimum ground-fault
c u r r e n t be large enough to actuate the ground-fault relay positively.
High-resistance grounding is a method that can be applied to an exist-
ing medium-voltage ungrounded system to obtain transient overvoltage
protection without the modification expense of adding ground relays
to each circuit.

Reactance Grounding. A reactor is connected between the system

neutral and ground. Since the ground-fault current that flows in a
reactance-grounded system is a function of the neutral reactance, the
magnitude of the ground-fault current is often used as a criterion
for describing the degree of grounding. In a reactance-grounded
system, the available ground-fault current should be at least 25%,
and preferably 60% of the three-phase fault, to prevent serious tran-
sient overvoltage. In reactance-grounded systems the ratio of Xq/Xi
should be 10 or less, where Xq is the zero-sequence inductive react-
ance of the system, including the neutral reactance, and X^ is the
positive-sequence inductive reactance of the system, including the
subtransient reactance of all rotating machines. This is significantly
higher than the level desirable in a resistance-grounded system.
Therefore, reactance grounding is usually not considered an alterna-
tive to resistance grounding.

Ground-Fault Neutralizer (Resonant Grounding). A ground-fault

neutralizer is a reactor connected between the neutral of a system
and ground and having a specially selected relatively high value of
reactance. A line-to-ground fault causes line-to-neutral voltage to
be impressed across the neutralizer, which passes an inductive c u r r e n t .
This current is approximately equal in magnitude to the resultant of
the system charging current of the two unfaulted phases. When these
c u r r e n t s neutralize each other, the only remaining current in the
fault is due to resistance, insulator leakage, and corona. The current
is relatively small and in phase with the line-to-neutral voltage. The
arc is extinguished without restriking, and the flashovers are quench-
ed without removing the faulted line section from service. This
method of grounding has been used primarily on systems above 15 kV,
consisting largely of overhead distribution lines.

6.1.3 Selection of System G r o u n d i n g Arrangements

For Systems 600 V and Below

Low-voltage systems are frequently operated solidly grounded. The
principal reason for this is the extensive use of 480/277-V systems
with line-to-neutral connected loads, and the requirements in the
Grounding 93

National Electrical Code, ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, for solidly grounding

the neutral of such systems. For the low-voltage system without
line-to-neutral loading, solid grounding or high-resistance grounding
are the practical devices. Low-resistance grounding is usually not
considered. For reasons of economy, the solidly grounded system
depends on adequate ground-fault c u r r e n t at locations remote from
the source to operate phase fault devices. It is important that the
equipment grounding network provide a very low impedance r e t u r n
path for the ground-fault c u r r e n t .

For Systems 2Λ to 75 kV

Modern power systems in this range are usually low-resistance ground-

ed to limit the damage due to ground faults in the windings of rotat-
ing machines and yet permit sufficient fault c u r r e n t for the detec-
tion and selective isolation of individual faulted circuits. Ground
faults are detected by an overcurrent relay connected in the residual
circuit of the three-phase current transformers (Fig. 7.12) or by a
relay connected to a window or doughnut-type current transformer
which encloses all the phase conductors (Fig. 7.13). Using either
method, positive tripping can be accomplished with low magnitude of
ground-fault c u r r e n t . However, greater sensitivity is available with
the zero-sequence current transformer method. For this reason low-
resistance grounding is commonly u s e d . Alternatively, high-resistance
grounding can also be used. This method contributes to better ser-
vice continuity by permitting continued operation with one ground
fault, and is the good choice provided that a good maintenance crew
is available.

For Systems Above 15 kV

Systems above 15 kV are almost always effectively grounded, because
these are usually circuits with open lines in which surge a r r e s t e r s
rated for grounded neutral service are desirable for overvoltage pro-
tection and lower cost. The cost of resistors for resistor grounding
at these voltages is prohibitive.

6.1.4 Calculation of G r o u n d - F a u l t Current

The magnitude of the c u r r e n t that will flow in the event of a line-to-

ground fault on a grounded system is determined by the impedance
of the ground r e t u r n p a t h .

Resistance Grounding
When a simple line-to-ground fault occurs on a resistance-grounded
system, a voltage appears across the resistor nearly equal to normal
line-to-neutral voltage of the system. In low-resistance grounded
systems the resistor current is approximately equal to the fault c u r r e n t .
94 Chapter 6

Standard grounding resistors have a voltage rating equal to the line-

to-neutral voltage, and a current rating equal to the current that
flows when this voltage is applied to the resistor.
The method just mentioned applies to faults on lines or buses or
at the terminals of machines or transformers. If the fault is internal
to a rotating machine or transformer, the ground-fault current will
be less. In the case of wye-connected equipment at intermediate
points in the winding between the neutral and a terminal, the fault
c u r r e n t will be intermediate between zero and the current due to a
terminal fault. In the case of the delta-connected machines, the
internal voltage to neutral may be considered to be 100% at the termi-
nal and 50% at the midpoint of the windings. The midpoints have
the lowest potential with respect to the electric neutral of any part
of the winding.

Reactance Grounding

In this system with a single line-to-ground fault, the ground-fault

c u r r e n t may be calculated from the following formula by neglecting
resistance:

= X + x + Χ
1 2 Γ+ 3(X
N + X
G p>
(6 1}
'

where

Ig ~ ground-fault c u r r e n t , amperes
X^ = system positive-sequence reactance, ohms per phase,
including the subtransient reactance of rotating machines
X^ = system negative-sequence reactance, ohms per phase,
including the subtransient reactance of rotating machines
Xq = system zero-sequence reactance, ohms per phase
X^ = reactance of g r o u n d - r e t u r n circuits, ohms
Gp
X^ = reactance of neutral grounding reactor, ohms
Ε = line-to-neutral voltage, volts
In most industrial distribution systems without in-plant generation,
X 2 can be considered equal to X-^.

Solid Grounding

In this system the ground-fault current for a single line-to-ground

fault may be calculated from the equation

** = X
1 + Χ
Γ + x
o + 3X
GP ( 6 , 2 )
Grounding 95

6.1.5 S p e c i f y i n g G r o u n d i n g Equipment Ratings

Resistor Ratings
For low-resistance grounded-neutral systems the determination of the
resistor value, in ohms, and thus the magnitude of the ground-fault
c u r r e n t is based on the following conditions:

1. Providing sufficient current for satisfactory performance of the

system relaying requirements
2. Limiting ground-fault current to a value which will minimize damage
at the point of fault without resulting in system overvoltages

Reactor Ratings

To minimize transient overvoltages, the ground-fault current must

not be less than 25% of the three-phase fault c u r r e n t . This corres-
ponds to a ratio of X()/Xl = 10» where Xq and X^ represent the total
electrical system values for any possible ground-fault condition on
the system. If the neutral reactance is selected in accordance with
the following relationship, the c u r r e n t in the winding of the faulted
phase will not exceed the three-phase fault current of the machine,
ragardless of system reactance:

where

XXT = reactance of neutral reactor

Ν
X^ = generator positive-sequence subtransient reactance
^G0 ~ generator zero-sequence reactance
The current rating can be calculated from equation ( 6 . 1 ) . The neu-
tral-grounding reactor should be selected to c a r r y the available cur-
rent u n d e r all practical operating conditions.

Grounding-Transformer Rating
The electrical specifications of a grounding transformer are typically
as follows:

1. Voltage: line-to-line voltage of the system.

2. Current: maximum neutral c u r r e n t .
3. Time: amount of time for which the transformer is designed to
c a r r y rated c u r r e n t ; usually for a short time, such as 10 or 60
s; for high-resistance grounding, the rating should be continuous
96 Chapter 6

4. Reactance: a function of the positive-sequence s h o r t - c i r c u i t

reactance of the system, or Χχ.

The grounding t r a n s f o r m e r r e a c t a n c e , when used to effect r e a c t -

a n c e - t y p e g r o u n d i n g , is based on the following criterion: The X q / X i
ratio must not exceed 10, and p r e f e r a b l y , not exceed 3, in o r d e r to
eliminate the possibility of t r a n s i e n t overvoltage from a forced c u r r e n t
zero i n t e r r u p t i o n . The maximum limitation of 3 for t h e Xo/Xl ratio
t o g e t h e r with a maximum limitation of 1 f o r the Rq/Xi ratio will also
s a t i s f y the criteria for an effectively grounded system and will permit
t h e use of l i n e - t o - g r o u n d voltage rated s u r g e a r r e s t e r s for g r e a t e r
economy and protection.

6.2 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

6.2.1 Basic Objectives
The main objective of equipment g r o u n d i n g is to provide safety for
o p e r a t o r s , electricians, r e p a i r p e r s o n s , and the general public. This
can be accomplished by e n s u r i n g that all p a r t s of steel s t r u c t u r e s ,
motor and generator f r a m e s , control equipment e n c l o s u r e s , switchgear,
conduit, portable electric equipment, and any metallic body enclosing
or n e a r an electric cirucit that is accessible to a person must be at
ground potential. This is clearly stated in the National Electrical
Code. The actual g r o u n d i n g of t h e conducting body allows sufficient
c u r r e n t flow in the event of an accident to insulation to e n s u r e posi-
tive operation of g r o u n d - d e t e c t i n g devices and the operation of f u s e s
and circuit b r e a k e r s . It also t e n d s to p r e v e n t the potential between
a conducting body and ground from rising to a d a n g e r o u s value.
Failure to provide a continuous path in the enclosure will result in
a r c i n g and heating at b r e a k s and joints.

6.2.2 T y p e s of Equipment to Be Grounded

Structures

The steel framework of buildings should be grounded at t h e base of

e v e r y c o r n e r column and intermediate columns at a distance not g r e a t e r
than 60 f t . The connection from the ground or grid to t h e s t r u c t u r e
should not be less than 2/0 c o p p e r , and should be made by b r a z i n g ,
thermit welding, equivalent p r o c e s s , or a suitable solderless terminal.
The metal s t r u c t u r e s for switchgear, lightning a r r e s t e r s , disconnect
switches, t r a n s f o r m e r s , and so on, should be individually connected
to t h e ground b u s , similar to the building framework.
Grounding 97

Outdoor Stations

The ideal size for the ground bus will depend on the magnitude of
the available ground-fault c u r r e n t s and operating time of protective
equipment, but for practical purposes it should have an equivalent
conductivity of not less than 4/0 AWG copper for small substations or
500,000-circular mil (cmil) copper for medium-sized and large instal-
lations. The grid type of ground is often used. The ground bus
should be connected to any metallic water pipe, metallic drain, or
sewer pipe located in the station area or within reasonable distance.
Connection should consist of a conductor of not less than the size
of the ground b u s . A metal fence surrounding a outdoor station
should be grounded. A ground conductor of not less than 1/0 AWG
copper should be installed around the fence, approximately 12 to 24
in. away from it and about 12 in. deep. This should be brazed or
welded to ground rods installed at 10- to 40-ft intervals.

Large Generator and Motor Rooms

In large station rooms, a ground bus of adequate size should be r u n

around the periphery of the building. Conductor material should be
soft-drawn or medium-hard-drawn copper wire, copper b a r , or equi-
valent. The ground bus should be connected at two or more points
to grounding electrode, the building s t r u c t u r e , and to water mains,
metallic drain, and sewer pipe in order to keep the resistance of the
ground bus to earth as low as possible. A typical grounding system
for a large generator and motor room is shown in Figure 6.4.

Conductor Enclosures
Conductor enclosures include cabinets, junction boxes, outlet boxes,
controllers , service raceway, conduit, couplings, fittings, cable
armor, lead sheath, and grillwork. Metal boxes, cabinets and fittings,
or n o n - c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g metal p a r t s of other fixed equipment, if
metallically connected to grounded cable armor or metal raceway, are
considered to be grounded by such connection. The lead sheath,
shield, and armor of large single-conductor cables (500,000 cmils and
above) should be grounded at one end only to prevent circulating
c u r r e n t s . The sheath, shield, and armor of such a cable should be
insulated from ground throughout the remainder of its length unless
the cable is too long, in which case insulating joints must be pro-
vided to permit grounding at a number of points to keep sheath
voltage down to desirable limits.

Portable Electric Equipment

1. Portable equipment operating at line voltages above 600 V

should be supplied through a suitable portable cable permanently
98 Chapter 6

connected at both ends. The complete equipment, including any-

associated housing or s t r u c t u r e , should be grounded through a
grounding wire or wires in this cable equal in c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capa-
city to the largest line conductor. It is desirable that such equip-
ment be operated from a wye-connected system with its neutral
grounded through a resistor that limits ground-fault c u r r e n t to 50
A or less. Suitable ground-fault relaying should be provided.
2. Protable equipment operating at line voltages of 600 V or less
should be grounded through a separate grounding wire or wires in
the connecting cable equal in c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity to the largest
line conductor.
3. Portable equipment operating from a single-phase circuit at
150 V and below and not rated over 15 A should be grounded through
a separate grounding wire in the connecting cable equal in c u r r e n t -
c a r r y i n g capacity to the line conductors. Grounding should be
through separate grounding contacts in the plug and receptacle.
Figure 6.5 shows the desired grounding-conductor connection a r r a n g e -

GROUNDING
CONDUCTOR

GROUND BUS

GROUNDING E L E C T R O D E
TRIANGULAR CONFIGURATION-
SPACING NOT LESS THAN 10 FT

Figure 6.4 Typical grounding system for a large motor room.

 GROUND TO STEEL BUILDING COLUMNS,
G I R D E R , TRUSS, ETC. ^ ^
115/230 V FEEDERS
115 V
GREEN
RED
WHITE
otn \/
BLACK

- S A F E T Y S W I T C H OR O T H E R - S A F E T Y S W I T C H OR O T H E R
CIRCUIT BREAKING DEVICE CIRCUIT BREAKING DEVICE _

" N E U T R A L OR C O M M O N C I R C U I T
S A F E T Y G R O U N D W I R E T O BE G R O U N D WIRE (WHITE) W I L L NOT
SOLID; NEVER BROKEN BY SWITCH BE B R O K E N B Y A S W I T C H O R C I R C U I T
OR C I R C U I T B R E A K I N G D E V I C E B R E A K I N G DEVICE UNLESS
AUTHORIZED
BLACK-
GREEN
BLACK •WHITE
RED WHITE -
GREEN RED
GREE
^ S A F E T Y G R O U N D W I R E T O BE
^ GROUND TERMINAL S O L I D ; N E V E R B R O K E N BY SWITCH
OR C I R C U I T B R E A K I N G DEVICE

— - 3 POLE RECEPTACLE - GROUND TERMINAL —

250 V

^ 3 POLE RECEPTACLE
125 V ^ ^
POLE PLUG
BLACK GREEN
250 V BLACK - ^ 3 POLE PLUG - 125 V
GREEN -RED
GREEN - -WHITE WHITE -
RED
- G R O U N D TO CASE OF D E V I C E
G R O U N D T O CASE OF D E V I C E

230 V DEVICE 115 V D E V I C E 115 V D E V I C E

WITH PLUG WITH PLUG WITH PLUG

NOTES: (1) When looking at front face of switch, circuit breaking device, trans-
former, etc. the left-side hot wire will be black, the right-side hot wire will be red.
(2) The circuit neutral or common circuit wire (grounded) will be white.
(3) The safety ground wire will be green. (This wire ties on to the case or shell of
the device.)
CO (4) The standard two-pole plug will fit the receptacle.
CO

Figure 6. 5 Typica l powe r circui t an d equipmen t groundin g wit h receptacles .

100 Chapter 6

merit for a variety of power circuit p a t t e r n s , and clearly shows the

distinction between the grounding· and the grounded conductors.

6.3 STATIC AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION GROUNDING

6.3.1 Basic Objectives of Static Grounding
Industrial plants handling solvent, dusty materials, or other flammable
products often have a potential hazardous-operation condition because
of static accumulating on equipment, on materials being handled or
even on operating personnel. The discharge of a static charge to
ground or to other equipment in the presence of flammable or explo-
sive materials is often the cause of fires and explosions which may
result in the loss of lives and huge financial losses. Protection of
human life is the first objective in attempting to control static charges.
The other objectives are to prevent the loss of (1) capital investment
in buildings and equipment, (2) operating f u n d s in stored materials,
and (3) profits because of the loss of production.

6.3.2 Fundamental Causes of Static

A difference in potential will exist between two substances when one
holds a positive charge and the other holds a negative charge. These
charges accumulate when dissimilar substances are brought into con-
tact with each other. Under this condition the negative electrons
will migrate from the surface of one substance to that of the second
substance, leaving the positive ions on the first substance. This
means that one substance has a positive charge and the second has
a negative charge. Upon separation of two such oppositely charged
materials, a static discharge may take place. Voltages that have
been observed in a few industries are shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6. 1 Observed Static Voltage Ranges of Selected

Industrial Equipment

Equipment Voltage range observed

Belted drives 60,000- 100,000

Fabric handling 15,000--80,000
Paper machines 5,000--100,000
Tank t r u c k s Up to 25,000
Grain belt conveyors Up to 45,000
Grounding 101

For a static spark to produce ignition in a combustible vapor and

air mixture, sufficient energy must be sotred in the charge body.
The amount of energy that is stored and available from a capacitive-
type discharge can be calculated from the following formula:

Ε = 1/2 χ CV 2 χ 10~9

where

C = capacitance, picofarads
V = potential, volts
Ε = e n e r g y , millijoules

Approximate values of capacitance in picofarads of some objects are

shown in Table 6.2. For the static electricity to be able to cause
ignition, in addition to the requirement of sufficient energy in the
spark discharge, it must take place in an ignitable mixture. If the
mixture is too t h i n , ignition may not occur.

6.3.3 Methods of Static Control

Grounding and Bonding

Many static problems can be solved by bonding the various p a r t s of

the equipment together and grounding the entire system. Reference
should be made to the National Fire Protection Association's and other
bulletins on static electricity for some detailed methods. Therefore,
no attempt will be made here to describe in detail how and where
such bonding and grounding should be made.

Table 6.2 Capacitance Values of Selected Objects

Objects Capacitance value (pF)

Human being 100-400

Automobile 500
Tank truck (2000 gal) 1000
12-ft-diameter tank with 100,000
insulated lining
102 Chapter 6

Humidity Control

Many insulating materials contain a certain amount of moisture in

equilibrium with the surrounding air. This moisture or relative
humidity controls the surface conductivity of these insulating materials.
At normal humidity (30% or more) an invisible film of water provides
an electrical leakage path over most solid insulating bodies that drains
away static charges. When relative humidity is 30% or less, the same
materials d r y out and become good insulators. Static manifestations
become noticeable. Humidifying the entire atmosphere near the point
of static electricity has proved to be a solution to the static problem.

Ionization

When a charged object is brought in contact with ionized air, the

static charge is dissipated. The charge is either conducted to the
ground through the ionized air, or the charged object a t t r a c t s a
sufficient number of positively or negatively charged ions from the
air to neutralize it. Ionization of air can be obtained by flame, alter-
nating electric fields generated by high-voltage ultraviolet light, or
radioactivity.

Conductive Floors

The use of conductive floors or floor coverings may be required to

prevent the accumulation of static charge by grounding personnel
and conductive objects together, since the human body in dry loca-
tions can also accumulate a dangerous static charge. Such flooring
must be of nonsparking materials, such as conductive r u b b e r , lead,
or other conductive compounds.

Conductive Footwear and Casters

When conductive flooring is u s e d , operators must wear conductive
nonsparking footwear. The resistance between the wearer and ground
must not exceed 1 megohm, which is the total resistance of the con-
ductive footwear plus the resistance of the floor.

Special Precautions

In addition to the use of conductive floors and shoes, other controls

may be considered:

1. Providing wearing apparel with low static-producing qualities

2. Establishing rigid operating procedures
3. Using conductive r u b b e r mats where conductive flooring is not
used throughout an area

The subject of dissipation of static electricity is well covered in

ANSI /NFPA 77-1977, "Static Electricity." In industrial areas with
Grounding 103

extremely h a z a r d o u s conditions, it may be well to consider these

recommendations.

6.3.4 L i g h t n i n g — N a t u r e and Its Hazard

Lightning is an electric discharge between clouds or between clouds

and e a r t h . C h a r g e s of one polarity are accumulated in the clouds
and of the opposite polarity in the e a r t h . When the c h a r g e increases
to t h e point that t h e insulation between can no longer contain i t , a
d i s c h a r g e takes place. The discharge is evidenced b y a flow of
c u r r e n t , usually great in magnitude, b u t extremely short in time.
Damage to buildings and s t r u c t u r e s is the result of heat and mechani-
cal forces produced by t h e p a s s a g e of c u r r e n t t h r o u g h resistance in
t h e path of d i s c h a r g e . Although t h e discharge t a k e s place at t h e
low-resistance p a t h , it is not uncommon for the c u r r e n t to follow a
path of high r e s i s t a n c e . This may be a t r e e , a masonary s t r u c t u r e ,
or a porcelain i n s u l a t o r . Lightning can cause damage to s t r u c t u r e s
b y direct s t r o k e and to equipment b y s u r g e s coming in over exposed
power lines.

6. 3. 5 Need f o r P r o t e c t i o n A g a i n s t Lightning

Damage to s t r u c t u r e s and equipment due to s u r g e effect is a subject

in i t s e l f , and protection against this type of damage is not within
t h e scope except as g r o u n d i n g is involved. A lightning protection
system consists of terminals projecting into the air above t h e u p p e r -
most p a r t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e with interconnecting and g r o u n d i n g con-
d u c t o r s . Terminals should be placed so as to project above all points
that are likely to be s t r u c k . Conductors should p r e s e n t t h e least
possible impedance to e a r t h . Each projecting terminal above t h e
s t r u c t u r e should have at least two connecting p a t h s to e a r t h and
more if practicable. Each conductor r u n n i n g down from the terminals
on top of the s t r u c t u r e should have an e a r t h connection. Properly
made connections to e a r t h are an essential f e a t u r e of a lightning rod
system for protection of buildings. Electrodes should be at least 2
ft away from and should extend below building foundations. Experi-
ments have indicated that a vertical conductor will divert to itself
direct hits that might otherwise fall within a cone-shaped space, of
which t h e apex is the point and t h e base is a circle whose r a d i u s
is approximately equal to the height of the point.

6.3.6 P r o t e c t i o n o f Power S t a t i o n s a n d S u b s t a t i o n s

Station protection against direct s t r o k e should include effective shield-

ing of the station s t r u c t u r e itself and at least the f i r s t 2000 to 2500
f t of exposed lines adjacent to t h e s t a t i o n s . This shielding may take
t h e form of masts or extensions of t h e steel s t r u c t u r e to provide a
104 Chapter 6

p r o p e r cone of protection to a p p a r a t u s and circuits within the station

a r e a . The height of a single mast or single ground wire shielding
is usually based on a shielding angle of 30 d e g r e e s . When two or
more masts or ground wires are u s e d , that p a r t of the shielding angle
that lies between masts or ground wires is increased to 60 d e g r e e s .
Lightning protection of power stations and substations includes
the protection of station equipment by means of lightning a r r e s t e r s .
For lightning a r r e s t e r s a local g r o u n d i n g connection should be made
b y driving electrodes into the earth near t h e a r r e s t e r s as shown in
Figure 6.6. In addition, the lightning a r r e s t e r g r o u n d i n g conductor
should be connected into the common station ground b u s . For the
a v e r a g e case an a r b i t r a r y u p p e r limit of 5 Ω resistance to ground
h a s been established. For connection from a r r e s t e r to ground should
b e as short and as straight as possible. The National Electrical Code,
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, states that a lightning a r r e s t e r ground connec-
tion should not be smaller than No. 6 AWG, b u t l a r g e r sizes may be
desirable with large systems.

6.4 C O N N E C T I O N TO E A R T H

6.4.1 Resistance to E a r t h

The g r o u n d i n g resistance of an electrode is made up of:

1. Resistance of the electrode

2. Contact resistance between the electrode and the soil
3. Resistance of the soil from the electrode s u r f a c e outward

The f i r s t two r e s i s t a n c e s are v e r y small fractions of an ohm and

for all practical p u r p o s e s can be neglected. The t h i r d element is
the one discussed h e r e . Around a rod this resistance is the sum of
t h e series r e s i s t a n c e of virtual shells of e a r t h , located progressively
outward from the r o d . The shell nearest t h e rod has the smallest
circumferential cross section, so it h a s the highest r e s i s t a n c e . Suc-
cessive shells outside this one have p r o g r e s s i v e l y lower r e s i s t a n c e .
As t h e r a d i u s outward from t h e rod increases to about 20 f t , the
incremental resistance p e r unit of r a d i u s decreases to nearly zero.
The f i r s t few inches away from the rod are the most important one
as f a r as r e d u c i n g t h e resistance is c o n c e r n e d . In h i g h - s o i l - r e s i s -
tivity locations, chemical treatment or t h e use of concrete will be
most u s e f u l in improving the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of g r o u n d i n g electrode
system. Adding more electrodes to t h e f i r s t one does not affect t h e
r e s i s t a n c e close to the electrode. So the resistance will be h i g h e r
t h a n the value obtained b y dividing t h e resistance of a single rod b y
t h e number of rods in the g r o u n d i n g system unless the rods are
s e p a r a t e d by impractically great distance.
Grounding 105

Figure 6.6 Typical method of g r o u n d i n g a lightning a r r e s t e r .

106 Chapter 6

The connection to e a r t h or the electrode system needs to have a

sufficiently low resistance to permit prompt operation of circuit p r o -
tective devices in the event of a ground f a u l t . System ground
r e s i s t a n c e s of less than 1 Ω may be obtained b y use of a number of
individual electrodes connected t o g e t h e r . Such a low r e s i s t a n c e may
only be r e q u i r e d for large s u b s t a t i o n s . Resistances in the r a n g e 2
to 5 Ω a r e generally suitable for i n d u s t r i a l plant substations and
b u i l d i n g s . The 25-Ω value noted in the National Electrical Code,
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, applies to the maximum resistance for a single
electrode. There is no implication that 25 Ω p e r se is a satisfactory
level for a grounding system.

6.4.2 Grounding Electrodes

Basically all ground electrodes may be divided into two g r o u p s . The

f i r s t group comprises u n d e r g r o u n d metallic piping systems, metal
building frameworks, well c a s i n g s , steel piling, and other u n d e r -
g r o u n d metal s t r u c t u r e s installed for o t h e r p u r p o s e s . The second
g r o u p comprises made electrodes specifically designed for g r o u n d i n g
purposes.

Existing Electrodes

The metal building frames are normally attached to their concrete

foundation footings by long anchor bolts. The anchor bolts in con-
c r e t e s e r v e as electrodes, while the metal building frame is simply a
g r o u n d i n g conductor. The National Electrical Code states that con-
tinuous u n d e r g r o u n d water or gas piping systems in general have a
r e s i s t a n c e to e a r t h of less than 3 Ω and that metal building f r a m e s ,
local metallic u n d e r g r o u n d piping systems, metal well c a s i n g s , and
t h e like have a r e s i s t a n c e to e a r t h of substantially less than 25 Ω.
For s a f e t y g r o u n d i n g and for small distribution systems where the
g r o u n d c u r r e n t s are of low magnitude, such electrode are usually
s a t i s f a c t o r y . However, care should be exercised to e n s u r e that all
p a r t s are effectively bonded t o g e t h e r .

Made Electrodes

Made electrodes may be subdivided into driven electrodes, steel re-

inforcing b a r s in below-ground c o n c r e t e , b u r i e d s t r i p s or cables,
g r i d s , b u r i e d p l a t e s , and counterpoises. The t y p e selected will de-
pend on t h e t y p e of soil encountered and t h e available d e p t h . Driven
electrodes are generally more satisfactory and economical where b e d -
rock is 10 ft or more below the s u r f a c e , while g r i d s , b u r i e d s t r i p s ,
or cables are p r e f e r r e d for lesser d e p t h . Grids are f r e q u e n t l y u s e d
for substations or g e n e r a t i n g stations to provide equipotential a r e a s
t h r o u g h o u t the entire station for g r e a t e r s a f e t y to p e r s o n n e l . Buried
Grounding 107

plates have not been used extensively in recent y e a r s because of t h e

high cost. Also when used in small numbers they are the least e f f e c -
tive type of made electrodes. The counterpoise is a form of b u r i e d
cable electrode u s e d to ground transmission-line towers and s t r u c t u r e s .
In selecting the number and size of g r o u n d i n g terminals, t h e i r c u r r e n t
discharge limitations must be recognized. If these are exceeded, t h e
e a r t h around the electrode may be exploded by steam generation or
may be dried out to the extent of becoming nonconductive.

6.4.3 Choices o f Rods

Grounding rods a r e manufactured in diameters of 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, 3/4,

and 1 i n . (9.53, 12.7, 15.88, 19.05, and 25.4 mm) and in l e n g t h s of
5 to 40 ft ( 1 . 5 to 12.2 m). For most applications, t h e diameters of
1/2, 5/8, and 3/4 i n . , in lengths of 8, 10, 12, and 16 f t , are satis-
f a c t o r y . The NEC, ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, specifies that rods of steel
or iron shall be at least 5/8 i n . in diameter, and that r o d s of non-
f e r r o u s materials shall not be less than 1/2 i n . in diameter. Copper-
clad steel, one of t h e most common t y p e of r o d s , permits d r i v i n g to
considerable depth without destruction of the rod i t s e l f , while t h e
copper coat permits direct c o p p e r - t o - c o p p e r connection between t h e
ground wire and t h e r o d . For o r d i n a r y soil conditions, the 10-ft
(3-m) length of rod has become fairly well established as a minimum
s t a n d a r d length to meet the code requirement of a minimum of 8 b u ^ e d
feet (2.44 b u r i e d m e t e r s ) .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSI/NFPA 77-1977, Static Electricity.

ANSI/NFPA 78-1980, Lightning Protection Code.
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, National Electrical Code.
Hedlund, C. F. , Lightning Protection for Buildings, IEEE Transactions
on Industry and General Applications, vol. IGA-3, J a n . / F e b .
1967, p p . 2 6 - 3 0 .
IEEE Standard 32-1972, Terminology and Test Procedure for Neutral
Grounding Devices.
IEEE S t a n d a r d 80-1976, Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding.
IEEE Standard 142-1982, Recommended Practice for Grounding of
I n d u s t r i a l and Commercial Power Systems.
Kaufmann, R. H . , Some Fundamentals of Equipment-Grounding Cir-
cuit Design, AIEE Transactions (Applications and Industry), vol.
73, Nov. 1954, p p . 227-232.
108 Chapter 6

Regotti, Α. Α . , and Wargo, H. W., Grounding for Industrial and

Commercial Distribution Systems, Westinghouse Engineer, A p r .
1974, p p . 4 1 - 4 5 .
Static Electricity, Circular C-438, National Bureau of S t a n d a r d s ,
Boulder, Colo., U . S . Government P r i n t i n g Office, Washington,
D.C.
7
System Protection

7.1 SYSTEM B E H A V I O R A N D P R O T E C T I O N NEEDS

7.1.1 System Behavior

The principal abnormalities in a power d i s t r i b u t i o n system a r e s h o r t

c i r c u i t s and o v e r l o a d s . Short c i r c u i t s may be caused in many ways,
including failure of insulation d u e to excessive moisture, mechanical
damage to electrical d i s t r i b u t i o n e q u i p m e n t , and failure of utilization
equipment as a r e s u l t of overloading or o t h e r a b u s e s . Circuit may
become overloaded simply by c o n n e c t i n g additional utilization e q u i p -
ment to t h e c i r c u i t , or b y improper installation and maintenance, or
improper o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s , such as too f r e q u e n t s t a r t i n g or
o b s t r u c t e d ventilation.
Short c i r c u i t s may o c c u r between two p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s , between
all p h a s e s of a polyphase s y s t e m , or between one or more p h a s e s
and g r o u n d . It may b e TTsolid" or welded, in which case t h e s h o r t
circuit is p e r m a n e n t and h a s a relatively low impedance. The s h o r t
circuit may include an a r c h a v i n g relatively high impedance. It may
or may not e x t i n g u i s h i t s e l f . The f l a s h o v e r may lead to ionization
and more e x t e n s i v e s h o r t c i r c u i t . O t h e r s o u r c e s of abnormality,
such as l i g h t n i n g , load s u r g e s , and loss of s y n c h r o n i s m , usually
h a v e little or no e f f e c t on system o v e r c u r r e n t s e l e c t i v i t y , b u t should
not b e i g n o r e d . Protection can b e s t b e h a n d l e d on an individual
b a s i s f o r t h e specific equipment involved such as t r a n s f o r m e r s , motors,
and g e n e r a t o r s .
Design e n g i n e e r s of i n d u s t r i a l power systems h a v e available t e c h -
n i q u e s to minimize t h e e f f e c t s of abnormalities o c c u r r i n g on t h e system

109
110 Chapter 6

or on the utilization equipment that it supplies. They must design

into t h e system f e a t u r e s that will and can:

1. Quickly isolate t h e affected portion of the system

2. Minimize the magnitude of the available s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t
3. Provide alternate circuits and automatic throwovers to minimize
t h e durection or t h e extend of outages

7.1.2 P r o t e c t i o n Needs

System protection is one of the most essential f e a t u r e s of an electri-

cal system and must be considered c o n c u r r e n t l y with all o t h e r fea-
t u r e s . It is important to the safety of personnel and the reliability
of electrical s u p p l y . The need for h i g h e r production from i n d u s t r i a l
p l a n t s has created demands for g r e a t e r reliability of the system.
T r e n d s to network systems and parallel operation with the utilities
have r e s u l t e d in sources having v e r y high o v e r c u r r e n t d u r i n g fault
conditions. The high costs of power distribution equipment and t h e
time r e q u i r e d to r e p a i r or replace damaged equipment such as t r a n s -
f o r m e r s , cable, high-voltage circuit b r e a k e r s , and so on, make it
imperative that a system be given the b e s t protection within economic
constraints.
A service i n t e r r u p t i o n in a chemical plant can cause loss of p r o d -
uct and create major cleanup and r e s t a r t problems. It may be d e s i r -
able to tolerate a short-time overload condition and associated r e d u c -
tion in life expectancy of the electric a p p a r a t u s a f f e c t e d . Other
i n d u s t r i e s , such as r e f i n e r i e s , p a p e r mills, automotive p l a n t s , steel
mills, and food-processing p l a n t s , are similarly a f f e c t e d .

7.1.3 P r o t e c t i o n Needs f o r G r o u n d e d V e r s u s
U n g r o u n d e d System

Grounding of i n d u s t r i a l power systems is t r e a t e d in Chapter 6. It

is n e c e s s a r y h e r e only to o b s e r v e the effect on basic relaying methods
of t h e choice between a grounded and an u n g r o u n d e d system. In a
grounded system, p h a s e - t o - g r o u n d faults produce c u r r e n t of suffi-
cient magnitude to operate g r o u n d - f a u l t responsive o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y s ,
which automatically detect the f a u l t , determine which f e e d e r has
failed, and initiate t h e t r i p p i n g of the correct circuit b r e a k e r to
deenergize the faulted portion of t h e system without i n t e r r u p t i n g
service to healthy c i r c u i t s .
In an u n g r o u n d e d system as shown in Figure 6.3, p h a s e - t o -
ground faults produce a relatively insignificant value of fault c u r r e n t .
In a small isolated n e u t r a l i n d u s t r i a l installation, the g r o u n d - f a u l t
c u r r e n t f o r a single l i n e - t o - g r o u n d fault may be u n d e r 1 A, while
t h e large plant containing miles of cable to provide electrostatic capa-
System Protection 111

citance to ground may produce not more than 20 A of g r o u n d - f a u l t

c u r r e n t . These c u r r e n t s usually are not of significant magnitude
for the operation of o v e r c u r r e n t relaying to locate and remove such
f a u l t s . It is possible to provide p h a s e - t o - n e u t r a l relays that will
operate an alarm on the occurrence of a ground f a u l t .

7.2 P R I N C I P L E S OF R E L A Y I N G FOR
INDUSTRIAL PLANTS

Fault protection relaying can be classified into two g r o u p s , primary

r e l a y i n g , which should operate f i r s t to remove faulted equipment from
t h e system, and b a c k u p r e l a y i n g , which operates only when primary
relaying fails. Figure 7.1 shows a one-line diagram illustrating zones
of protection. It illustrates the basic principles of primary r e l a y i n g ,
with s e p a r a t e a r e a s of protection established around each system
element which can be isolated by a s e p a r a t e i n t e r r u p t i n g device. Any

UTILITY

Figure 7.1 One-line diagram showing zones of protection.

112 Chapter 6

equipment failure o c c u r r i n g with a given area will cause t r i p p i n g of

all circuit b r e a k e r s applying power to that a r e a .
To a s s u r e that all faults within a given zone will operate the r e -
lays of that zone, the c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s associated with that zone
should be placed on the line side of each circuit b r e a k e r so that t h e
circuit b r e a k e r itself is a p a r t of two adjacent zones. This is known
as " o v e r l a p p i n g . " In radial circuits the consequences of this lack of
overlap are not usually v e r y serious. When the c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s
are located immediately at t h e load b u s h i n g s of t h e circuit b r e a k e r ,
t h e amount of circuit exposed to this problem is minimized. The con-
sequences of lack of overlap become more serious in the case of tie
circuit b r e a k e r s between differentially p r o t e c t e d b u s e s and b u s feeds
p r o t e c t e d by differential or pilot-wire r e l a y i n g . In applying protec-
tive relays to industrial power systems, s a f e t y , simplicity, reliability,
maintenance, and the degree of selectivity r e q u i r e d must be consider-
e d . Before attempting to design a protective relaying plan, the ele-
ments that make up the distribution system together with the operating
r e q u i r e m e n t s must be examined.

7.2.1 T y p i c a l S m a l l - P l a n t Relay System

One of t h e simplest i n d u s t r i a l power systems consists of a single s e r -

vice e n t r a n c e circuit b r e a k e r and one distribution t r a n s f o r m e r which
s t e p s t h e utility primary distribution voltage down to utilization voltage,
as illustrated in Figure 4.1. T h e r e would be several circuits on the
secondary side of the t r a n s f o r m e r protected by either f u s e s or circuit
b r e a k e r s . Protection for the circuit between the incoming line and
t h e circuit b r e a k e r on the t r a n s f o r m e r secondary would normally con-
sist of conventional o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y s . P r e f e r a b l y the relays should
h a v e t h e same t i m e - c u r r e n t characteristics as the relays on the utility
system, so that the service e n t r a n c e b r e a k e r can be set to t r i p be-
fore the utility supply-line circuit b r e a k e r . The phase relays should
have i n s t a n t a n e o u s elements to be able to clear h i g h e r c u r r e n t faults
promptly.
This simple system provides both primary and b a c k u p relay p r o -
tection. It can be expanded b y t a p p i n g t h e primary f e e d e r and
providing f u s e protection on t h e primary of each distribution t r a n s -
former as shown in Figure 4.3. An additional step or area of p r o -
tection is included over the simple system. All secondary circuit
b r e a k e r s as b e f o r e , while faults within the t r a n s f o r m e r should now
be cleared b y the t r a n s f o r m e r primary f u s e s . The t r a n s f o r m e r secon-
d a r y b r e a k e r s or primary f u s e s may act as backup protection for t h e
f a u l t s that are not cleared b y t h e secondary f e e d e r protective devices.
The primary feeder faults will be cleared b y circuit b r e a k e r (A).
This will, in t u r n , act as backup protection for the t r a n s f o r m e r
primary f u s e s .
System Protection 113

7.2.2 Protective Relaying for a Large

I n d u s t r i a l Power System

For a large i n d u s t r i a l plant power system, which may incorporate an

intricate network of medium- and low-voltage distribution s u b s t a t i o n s ,
u n i n t e r r u p t i b l e power s o u r c e s , and in-plant generation r e q u i r e d to
operate in parallel with or isolated from local utility n e t w o r k s , the
number of sequential s t e p s of relaying will increase to provide an
i n h e r e n t l y selective scheme within each zone of protection.
Depending on the degree of complexity of the system, various
t y p e s of relays may be r e q u i r e d for protective schemes for the s y s -
tem and equipment in t h e system, such as t r a n s f o r m e r s , motors,
a n d / o r g e n e r a t o r s . Generally s p e a k i n g , the following relays are
probably employed to v a r y i n g d e g r e e s :

1. Directionally controlled o v e r c u r r e n t relays (67) a r e provided to

t r i p on c u r r e n t flow toward the high side of the t r a n s f o r m e r .
Their sensitivity is not limited b y the flow of load c u r r e n t in
the normal or nontrip direction. They have inverse-time charac-
teristics.
2. Differential protective relays (87B) are instantaneous in operation
and i n h e r e n t l y selective within themselves. Without such r e l a y s ,
high c u r r e n t b u s faults must be cleared by p r o p e r operation of
o v e r c u r r e n t devices on the several s o u r c e s , r e s u l t i n g in long-time
clearing.
3. Time-delay g r o u n d relays (5IN) are used to realize maximum
sensitivity. They are connected to the output of c u r r e n t t r a n s -
formers measuring the c u r r e n t in the neutral connection to
ground.
4. Pilot-wire differential relays (87L) are used to provide s u p e r i o r
protection f o r the cable tie between b u s e s . In addition to being
i n s t a n t a n e o u s in operation, pilot-wire Schemes are i n h e r e n t l y
selective within themselves and r e q u i r e only two pilot wires. For
b a c k u p protection provided by o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y s , s e p a r a t e c u r -
rent t r a n s f o r m e r s are r e q u i r e d to provide reliability and flexibility
in the application of o t h e r protective devices.
5. C u r r e n t balance relays (46) protect motors against damage from
excessive rotor heating caused by single p h a s i n g or unbalanced
voltage conditions.
6. Surge protection is provided b y the s u r g e a r r e s t e r and s u r g e
capacitor combination, which should be located as close as pos-
sible to t h e motor terminals.
7. Many other protective relays may be used for protection of gene-
r a t o r s connected to t h e incoming b u s of the system, such as p e r -
centage differential relays (87G); loss of excitation protection is
provided by device (40), external unbalanced fault c u r r e n t (nega-
t i v e - s e q u e n c e ) protection by device (46), antimotoring protection
114 Chapter 6

b y device (32), and b a c k u p o v e r c u r r e n t protection by device

(51V/50).

All device numbers cited above are listed and defined in ANSI
C37.2-1979, Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers.

7.3 P R O T E C T I V E RELAYS A N D T H E I R APPLICATIONS

7.3.1 O v e r c u r r e n t Relays ( 5 0 , 51, 50/51)

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays (50)

T h e r e a r e two t y p e s of instantaneous relays u s i n g the principle of

electromagnetic a t t r a c t i o n : the solenoid or p l u n g e r t y p e , and the
clapper or hinged armature t y p e . The basic elements of the solenoid
t y p e are a solenoid and a movable p l u n g e r of soft i r o n . The pickup
c u r r e n t is determined by the position of t h e p l u n g e r in t h e solenoid.
A calibration screw may be provided to a d j u s t the position of the
p l u n g e r . In the clapper t y p e , a hinged armature that is held open
b y a r e s t r a i n i n g s p r i n g is a t t r a c t e d to t h e pole face of an electro-
magnet. The magnetic pull of t h e electromagnet is proportional to
t h e coil c u r r e n t . The pickup c u r r e n t may be calibrated over a speci-
fied r a n g e . This t y p e of relay is nromally found in an induction
relay case when a "50/51" ( t i m e - o v e r c u r r e n t with i n s t a n t a n e o u s ) f u n c -
tion is specified.

Induction-Type Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays (51)

The most commonly used time-delay relays for system protection are
the induction disk t y p e . The principal components of an induction-
t y p e o v e r c u r r e n t relay are an o v e r c u r r e n t u n i t , an indicator contactor
switch, and an indicating i n s t a n t a n e o u s - t r i p u n i t . The principal com-
p o n e n t s and their location are shown in Figure 7.2.

Solid-State Overcurrent Relay

Some new o v e r c u r r e n t relay design utilizes solid-state technology.

Time-current c u r v e s are obtained t h r o u g h t h e use of RC digital tim-
ing c i r c u i t s . The i n s t a n t a n e o u s circuit can be set to t h e desired
s e t t i n g on t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s tap multiplier potentiometer on t h e f r o n t
panel. The s e t t i n g is in multiples of the tap s e t t i n g . The relay will
respond to c u r r e n t above the setting p e r typical time c u r v e (Figure
7 . 3 ) . This unit is responsive to total c u r r e n t , including the dc com-
p o n e n t , and an allowance must be made in t h e s e t t i n g to avoid o v e r -
t r i p p i n g . In g e n e r a l , t h e time-current c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e s and tap
r a n g e s are similar to those provided in induction r e l a y s . However,
solid-state o v e r c u r r e n t relays can provide f a s t e r reset times and have
no significant overt ravel.
System Protection 115

Characteristic Curves of Overcurrent Relays

Time-overcurrent relays are available with many d i f f e r e n t c u r r e n t

r a n g e s and tap s e t t i n g s . Typical available r a n g e of tap s e t t i n g s a r e
as follows:

P e r - u n i t amperes

Time Instantaneous Taps Time dial

0.5-2.5 20-80 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 1/2-11

(or 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 ) 1.5, 2.0, 2.5
1.5-6 20-80 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 1/2-11
( or 2 - 6 ) 3.5, 4, 5, 6
4-16 20-80 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 1/2-11
(or 4 - 1 2 ) 12, 16

Figure 7.2 Induction-disc o v e r c u r r e n t relay (relay removed from

draw out c a s e ) .
 116 Chapter 6

Μ
t y p i c a l time curves

overcurrent relay
50-60 hertz

12

IC

V)
Ω
2
Ο
Ο
UJ
to

illllliHlliHttftl h~
time d i a l s e t t i n g
6

1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ΙΟ 12 14 16 18 2 0

multiples of tap value current

0
Figure 7 . 3 Time-current c u r v e s of a solid-state i n v e r s e time over-
current relay.
System Protection 117

Solid-state o v e r c u r r e n t relays have the following· c u r r e n t r a t i n g s :

P e r - u n i t amperes

Time Instantaneous Taps Time dial

0.5-12 10-40 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 1/2-11

2.5, 3, 3.5, 4,
4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8,
10, 12

Most o v e r c u r r e n t relays are equipped with a time delay that permits

a c u r r e n t several times in excess of the relay s e t t i n g to p e r s i s t for
a limited period of time without closing the contacts. If a relay
o p e r a t e s f a s t e r as c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s , it is said to have inverse-time
characteristics.
O v e r c u r r e n t relays are available with many d i f f e r e n t time-current
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Induction disk o v e r c u r r e n t relays have a provision
for variation of t h e time adjustment and permit change of operating
time for a given c u r r e n t . This adjustment is called t h e time lever
or time dial s e t t i n g . Figure 7.4 shows a family of t i m e - c u r r e n t oper-
ating c u r v e s available with a typical inverse-time o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y .
Similar c u r v e s are available for o t h e r o v e r c u r r e n t relays having
d i f f e r e n t time-delay characteristics with increasing c u r r e n t values.
The relay o p e r a t i n g time will decrease in an i n v e r s e manner down to
a certain minimum value. Figure 7.5 shows the characteristic c u r v e s
of i n v e r s e ( A ) , v e r y inverse ( B ) , and extremely i n v e r s e (C) time
relays when set on their minimum and maximum time dial posotions.
It also shows t h e characteristics of t h e instantaneous element (D)
that is normally supplied in these r e l a y s . Table 7.1 shows the dif-
f e r e n t t y p e s of o v e r c u r r e n t relays and their common field of appli-
cation.
Figure 7.5 illustrates the comparative slopes of t h r e e induction-
t y p e relay c u r v e s at 10 TD and again at 1/2 TD. Solid-state over-
c u r r e n t relays have v e r y similar t i m e - c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . For
same tap and time dial s e t t i n g s , t h e time r e q u i r e d for r e s p o n d i n g to
an o v e r c u r r e n t condition is usually s h o r t e r for a solid-state relay.

Special Types of Overcurrent Relays

Voltage-Controlled and Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent Relays.

In a voltage-controlled o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y , an auxiliary u n d e r v o l t a g e
element controls operation of t h e induction disk element. When the
applied voltage d r o p s below a predetermined level, an u n d e r v o l t a g e
contact is closed in a shaded-pole circuit, permitting t h e relay to
develop t o r q u e and operate as a conventional o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y . The
 118 Chapter 6

4
I
Ο TIME DIAL SETTING
ο
LU
CO

LU
3
I
I-

0
I 2 3 5 10 2C
MULTIPLES OF TAP VALUE CURRENT

Figure 7.4 Time-current c u r v e s of a typical i n v e r s e time o v e r c u r r e n t

relay.
 200

100

50

30

20

10

ίΛ ,
Ω 3
ζ
Ο ρ
Ο 2
LLJ
CO
Ζ
1
Ui

h-
05

0 3

02

01

0.05

0.03

002

0.01
I 2 3 5^-^JO 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000
0.006 s MINIMUM
CURRENT IN MULTIPLES OF MINIMUM CLOSING CURRENT

A Inverse
Β Very Inverse
C Extremely Inverse
D Instantaneous
TD Relay Time Dial Setting

Figure 7. 5 C o m p a r a t i v e t i m e - c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h r e e i n d u c -
tion t y p e o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y s .

119
120 Chapter 6

v o l t a g e - r e s t r a i n e d relay has a voltage element that provides r e s t r a i n -

ing t o r q u e proportional to voltage and t h u s actually s h i f t s t h e relay
pickup c u r r e n t . Hence the relay becomes more sensitive the l a r g e r
t h e voltage d r o p , b u t is relatively insensitive at normal voltage. The
relay is set to ride t h r o u g h permissible power swings at nominal volt-
a g e . Since the voltage and o v e r c u r r e n t u n i t s of t h e voltage-controlled
relay are independently a d j u s t a b l e , it is p r e f e r r a b l e to a voltage-
r e s t r a i n e d t y p e . The timing of a v o l t a g e - r e s t r a i n e d relay is affected
b y t h e b u s voltage variation, making it difficult to coordinate with
primary r e l a y s . Voltage-controlled o v e r c u r r e n t relay is often recom-
mended f o r generator b a c k u p protection.

Harmonic Restraint Overcurrent Relays. T h e s e r e l a y s c o n s i s t of

a c l a p p e r - t y p e instantaneous unit operated by second harmonics fil-
t e r e d t h r o u g h an a i r - g a p t r a n s f o r m e r , a block f i l t e r , two full-wave
r e c t i f i e r s , a v a r i s t o r , and a polar u n i t . The harmonic r e s t r a i n t unit
provides h i g h - s p e e d supervision of o v e r c u r r e n t relay, which p r o t e c t s

Table 7. 1 Common Fields of Application for O v e r c u r r e n t Relays

Operating time a
Time I n v e r s e (s) Protection

Instantaneous 0.016 O v e r c u r r e n t instantaneous

trip
Short-time 0.47 Bus or generator d i f f e r e n -
tial
Long-time 25.00 Motor o v e r c u r r e n t
Definite-time 2.00 O v e r c u r r e n t on high-low
short circuit
Moderate-inverse 2.48 O v e r c u r r e n t on high-low
short circuit
Inverse 2.52 O v e r c u r r e n t on lines/
feeders
Very i n v e r s e 1.53 O v e r c u r r e n t on lines/
feeders
Extremely i n v e r s e 0.80 O v e r c u r r e n t relay and
f u s e coordination
a
At 10 times dial and 10 times o v e r c u r r e n t .
System Protection 121

transformers. The t a p s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of these relays are as

follows:

Tap Continuous One-second

amperes amperes amperes

0.87 10 300
2.00 18 300
4.00 12 300

High-Low Current Relays. These relays have the same basic

construction as that of o v e r c u r r e n t r e l a y , except that high-low con-
t a c t s are p r o v i d e d . They are generally available in the following
current ranges:

Range Taps

0.5-2.5 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5

1-12 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5,
4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 10.0, 12.0

These relays may have either single- or double-circuit closing con-

t a c t s for t r i p p i n g either one or two circuit b r e a k e r s . Their time-
c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c u r v e s are identical to those of o v e r c u r r e n t
relays.

7.3.2 O v e r v o l t a g e (59) and U n d e r v o l t a g e Relay (27)

Time Inverse Over- and/or Undervoltage Relays

These relays consist of a voltage unit employing the electromagnetic

induction disk construction and an indicating contact switch u n i t .
The voltage unit consists of an Ε - s h a p e d laminated core that has a
main tapped coil and a shading on one of t h e outer legs to shift the
flux out of p h a s e . The o u t - o f - p h a s e flux i n t e r a c t s with the main coil
flux to create a t o r q u e on the d i s k . Rotation of the disk is opposed
b y a spiral s p r i n g which r e s e t s the contacts and disk to their normal
position when the applied voltage falls below the tap s e t t i n g value.
On u n d e r v o l t a g e r e l a y s , the contacts open at tap value or above.
On overvoltage relays the contacts close at tap value or above. On
both t y p e s , the tap value is the voltage at which t h e relay's f r o n t
contact closes. The back contact will close within 5% of this value.
122 Chapter 6

Induction disk voltage relays are generally available in the following

ratings:

Taps ICS-A Time dial

120 (55-140) 0.2/2.0 1/2-11

240 (110-280) 0.2/2.0 1/2-11

480 (220-560) 0.2/2.0 1/2-11

The time-current characteristics for u n d e r - and overvoltage relays

a r e shown in Figures 7.6 and 7.7. The following table shows the
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of voltage relays and their field of application:

Operating time
Voltage relay (s) Protection

Undervoltage 0-140 Induction motor

0-28 t r a n s i t o r y faults
Overvoltage 0-140 Generator ground
0-14 protection

Special Voltage Relays

Frequency-Compensated Over- or Undervoltage Relays. These

r e l a y s employ the same basic induction disk voltage unit and indicating
contactor switch and operate similarly to u n d e r - or overvoltage relays
except that they include a f r e q u e n c y - c o m p e n s a t i n g r e s i s t o r connected
in t h e o u t e r leg coil circuit of the Ε - t y p e electromagnet. The com-
p e n s a t i n g r e s i s t o r enables them to maintain their 60-Hz pickup voltage
a n d / o r drop out values within 5% over a variable input f r e q u e n c y
from 30 to 90 Hz.

Third-Harmonic Filtered Overvoltage Relays. These relays consist

of t h e same basic induction disk voltage unit and indicating contactor
switch as other t y p e s of u n d e r - or overvoltage r e l a y s , b u t in addi-
tion include a built-in capacitor connected in series with t h e electro-
magnet coil to filter out third-harmonic voltage. They are designed
f o r low pickup values (8% continuous voltage r a t i n g ) in generator
g r o u n d - f a u l t detection schemes. The t a p s and time dials for these
relays are as follows:
 Τ160 Τ
TYPICAL TIME CURVES
Co
-•150 --
: OVER AMD UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY
CO
I 60 CYCLES
e s -:
— c?
3

-130·- 2
δ"
ο
--120
δ'
3
- l i o ·-

-•100 ••

η
a |

λ I I III
:: 7 0 ϊ:

li
-~2Q y

--10 --

Ο 10 20 30 U0 30 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 1U0 150 100 1?0 180 100 200 210 220 230 2U0 2SO
PER CENT TAP VALUE VOLTAGE
l—i
CO
Figure 7.6 Typica l time-curren t characteristi c c u r v e s of lon g tim e u n d e r - an d overvoltag e relay .
 h-l
Co

TYPICAL TIME CURVES

OVER AND UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY

60 CYCLES

0 10 20 30 U0 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 10 120 130 1U0 150 160 170 180 1Θ0 200 210 220 230 2U0 250 260 270 280 280 300 f }
PER CENT OF TAP VALUE VOLTAGE
Ω
Ό
Figure 7 . 7 Typica l t i m e - c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e s of s h o r t tim e u n d e r - a n d o v e r v o l t a g e r e l a y . ξ
•SI
System Protection 125

Tap V Time dial

67 1/2-11

199 1/2-11

290 1/2-11

Νegative-Sequence Under- and Overvoltage Relays. These relays

are basically t h e same as time i n v e r s e u n d e r - and overvoltage relays
except that a n e g a t i v e - s e q u e n c e filter is added to provide negative-
sequence voltage to the voltage unit of the relay. They provide
instantaneous and time-delay detection of negative-sequence over-
voltage as well as r e s p o n d i n g with time delay to p h a s e - t o - p h a s e u n d e r -
voltage. When used in motor protection, the relay p r o t e c t s against
system u n d e r v o l t a g e , single p h a s i n g of the s u p p l y , and r e v e r s a l of
phase rotation of the s u p p l y .
When t h e relay is used for overvoltage protection, the back con-
t a c t s are made at normal voltage and the n e g a t i v e - s e q u e n c e element
is committed to an instantaneous f u n c t i o n . The n e g a t i v e - s e q u e n c e
overvoltage pickup is adjustable from 5 to 10% of rated l i n e - t o - n e u t r a l
voltage. The s e t t i n g of the u n d e r - and overvoltage unit can be de-
fined either by tap setting and time dial position or by tap value
voltage.

Solid-State Under- and Overvoltage Relays

The single-phase solid-state u n d e r - and overvoltage relay consists of

a solid-state voltage u n i t , a r e a c t o r , a series r e s i s t o r , and a full-
wave r e c t i f i e r . The r e s i s t o r and reactor are proportioned to maintain
a constant effective ampere t u r n to t h e voltage unit for 20 to 60 Hz.

7.3.3 Directional Relays

Directional Overcurrent Relays (67)

Directional o v e r c u r r e n t relays are used to provide sensitive t r i p p i n g

for fault c u r r e n t s in one direction and n o n t r i p p i n g for load or fault
c u r r e n t s in t h e o t h e r direction. These relays consist of two u n i t s ,
an o v e r c u r r e n t element and a directional element, as shown in Figure
7.8. Operation of this element is controlled by t h e directional element.
When c u r r e n t is flowing in t h e t r i p p i n g direction, the directional con-
t a c t s that are in t h e lag coil circuit close, t h u s enabling the over-
c u r r e n t element to operate when t h e c u r r e n t exceeds its tap s e t t i n g .
The directional element has an operating coil. The latter is energized
b y either voltage or c u r r e n t in o r d e r to determine the direction of
c u r r e n t flow. The maximum t o r q u e may be produced when t h e o p e r a t -
ing c u r r e n t leads the voltage b y 45 d e g r e e s .
126 Chapter 6

COIL TERMINAL

Β A
BUTT JOINT -

MAIN C O I L -
-LAG COIL

LAMINATIONS •
•«2

03" Φ2 TORQUE
CONTROL
CIRCUIT
DISK
DISK AIR GAP
<EEPER

LAMINATIONS

CYLINDER

INNER CORE

DIRECTIONAL
UNIT

Figure 7.8 Directionally controlled o v e r c u r r e n t relay.

System Protection 127

Instantaneous Directional Overcurrent Relays

An electromagnetic relay has an instantaneous induction cup element

that is controlled b y an instantaneous power directional element. The
o p e r a t i n g c u r r e n t is adjustable over a selected r a n g e , and the direc-
tional c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must be identified and applied in the same
manner as described in the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h .

High-Speed Directional Overcurrent Relays

A h i g h - s p e e d directional element and an o v e r c u r r e n t element are

coordinated to operate on t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a short circuit that r e -
v e r s e s t h e normal flow of c u r r e n t . Proper coordination of elements
r e q u i r e s that a contact on one h i g h - s p e e d element opens b e f o r e t h e
contact on a n o t h e r can close when t h e relay is suddenly deenergized
or a quick r e v e r s a l in power flow o c c u r s . This t y p e of relay can be
u s e d to protect in-plant generation o p e r a t i n g in parallel with a utility
system from a fault on the utility system.

Directional Ground Relays

These relays operate on the product of the c u r r e n t in the o p e r a t i n g

coil and t h e v o l t a g e / c u r r e n t in the polarizing coil. It provides v e r y
sensitive protection in t h e desired direction of c u r r e n t flow. The
o p e r a t i n g element of an electromagnetic relay may be either an induc-
tion disk having an adjustable time delay f o r selectivity, or an induc-
tion cup element f o r h i g h - s p e e d operation. The directional charac-
t e r i s t i c s of t h e relay should be determined, to a s s u r e correct appli-
cation. This t y p e of relay is normally r e s e r v e d f o r use in g r o u n d -
fault protection of g e n e r a t o r s and t r a n s f o r m e r s .

7.3.4 D i f f e r e n t i a l Relays (8T)

Application of Differential Relays

Differential relays operate on summing t h e c u r r e n t flowing into and

out of a p r o t e c t e d circuit zone. Normally, the c u r r e n t flowing into
a circuit zone equals the c u r r e n t flowing out in which no differential
c u r r e n t flows in t h e relay. If a fault occurs in t h e circuit zone, p a r t
of the c u r r e n t flowing in will be deflected into t h e f a u l t , and t h e
c u r r e n t flowing out will be less than t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n . If t h e
differential c u r r e n t is above t h e p r e s e t value, t h e relay will t r i p .
Differential relays provide h i g h - s p e e d , sensitive, and i n h e r e n t l y
selective protection. The t y p e s of relays often used a r e :

1. O v e r c u r r e n t differential
2. Percentage differential
a. Fixed p e r c e n t a g e differential
128 Chapter 6

b . Variable p e r c e n t a g e differential
c. Harmonic r e s t r a i n t p e r c e n t a g e differential
3. High-impedance differential
4. Pilot wire differential

For differential protection, p r o p e r matching of relay and c u r r e n t

t r a n s f o r m e r characteristics is a prime design requirement.

Overcurrent Differential Relays

O v e r c u r r e n t differential protection is used extensively to protect

motors, g e n e r a t o r s , and t r a n s f o r m e r s against internal f a u l t s . Figure
7.9 shows differential protection applied to a g e n e r a t o r . Both ends
of the windings must be available for installation of t h e c u r r e n t t r a n s -
f o r m e r s , which have t h e i r secondary windings connected in s e r i e s .
Under normal conditions the c u r r e n t flowing in each c u r r e n t t r a n s -
former secondary winding will be the same and the differential c u r r e n t
flowing t h r o u g h the relay operating winding will be zero. In case of
an internal fault in the g e n e r a t o r , the secondary c u r r e n t s will no
longer be the same and the differential c u r r e n t will flow t h r o u g h t h e
relay operating coil and cause the t r i p circuit to be e n e r g i z e d . In
this application, the o v e r c u r r e n t relays have to be set so that they

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

TO TRIP
CIRCUIT OVERCURRENT
RELAY

OPERATING
WINDING

THREE-PHASE AC MACHINE

Figure 7.9 O v e r c u r r e n t relay used for differential protection of an

AC g e n e r a t o r .
System Protection 129

do not operate on the maximum e r r o r c u r r e n t that can flow in the

relay d u r i n g an e x t e r n a l fault. To solve this problem without sacri-
ficing sensitivity, t h e p e r c e n t a g e differential relay is usually t h e a n s -
wer.

Percentage Differential Relays (87T, 87B, 87M, and 87G)

As discussed in t h e preceding section, p e r c e n t a g e differential relays

are generally used in t r a n s f o r m e r , b u s , motor, or g e n e r a t o r applica-
tions. T h e r e a r e t h r e e t y p e s : fixed p e r c e n t a g e , variable p e r c e n t a g e ,
and harmonic r e s t r a i n t p e r c e n t a g e . The harmonic r e s t r a i n t p e r c e n t -
age differential relay is used only for t r a n s f o r m e r applications. Fig-
u r e 7.10 shows a basic relay connection (one phase) for a fixed p e r -
centage r e s t r a i n t differential relay. Under normal conditions, c u r r e n t
circulates t h r o u g h the c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r and relay r e s t r a i n i n g coils
R-L and R2; no c u r r e n t in coil O. The amount of differential or
o p e r a t i n g c u r r e n t r e q u i r e d to overcome the r e s t r a i n i n g t o r q u e and
close the relay is a fixed p e r c e n t a g e of the r e s t r a i n i n g c u r r e n t .
The solid-state p e r c e n t a g e differential relay consists of various
solid-state functional circuit elements, connected t o g e t h e r to provide
a t h r e e - p h a s e r e l a y . The elements consist of a r e s t r a i n t circuit,
operating c i r c u i t , sensing circuit, amplifier circuit, t r i p c i r c u i t , and

Rx = RESTRAINT COIL
Ο - OPERATE COIL

L.
* J ^ - 8 7 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

Figure 7. 10 Basic relay connections (one phase only) for fixed p e r -

centage r e s t r a i n t differential r e l a y .
130 Chapter 6

indicating circuit. The r e s t r a i n t circuit senses each phase c u r r e n t

and p r o d u c e s an output voltage proportional to the phase c u r r e n t
with t h e largest magnitude. The operating circuit senses t h e d i f f e r -
ential c u r r e n t for each phase and p r o d u c e s an output voltage p r o -
portional to the differential c u r r e n t with the largest magnitude. The
relay receives o u t p u t s of the r e s t r a i n t circuit and t h e operating cir-
c u i t , and combines them into an output that reflects the d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e two. The output is fed into the amplifier circuit. If
t h e magnitude is sufficient to t r i g g e r the amplifier, its signal causes
t h e t r i p circuit to o p e r a t e , t h u s t r i p p i n g the circuit b r e a k e r .

7.3.5 C u r r e n t Balance Relays (60)

Electromagnetic Type

An electromagnetic consists of two or t h r e e induction disk elements,

each h a v i n g two c u r r e n t coils as shown in Figure 7.11. These coils
are connected to d i f f e r e n t phases so that a closing t o r q u e is produced
on the disk that is proportional to the d i f f e r e n c e or unbalance b e -
tween the c u r r e n t s in the two p h a s e s . The amount of unbalance c u r -
r e n t r e q u i r e d to close the contacts may be a fixed p e r c e n t a g e , t y p i -
cally 25%.

• oc

• RC COILS

COILS
1 2 3 1 2
DISK ELEMENTS DISK ELEMENTS
f MOTOR >
I OR
IGENERATOR (b) TWO-ELEMENT RELAY (c) SOLID-STATE RELAY

(a) THREE-ELEMENT RELAY

OC = OVERCURRENT COIL
RC = RESTRAINT COIL

Figure 7.11 C u r r e n t balance relay connection diagram.

System Protection 131

Solid-State Type
The relay determines t h e difference between the line c u r r e n t s and
t r i p s when t h e difference exceeds a p r e s e t ampere value. Trip time
is either inversely proportional to t h e phase unbalance c u r r e n t or a
definite time.

7.3.6 Ground-Fault Relaying

Common methods employed to provide g r o u n d - f a u l t protection are
discussed below.

Residual Connection

A residually connected ground relay is widely used to protect medium-

voltage systems. The scheme, which u s e s individual relays and c u r -
r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s , is not often applied to low-voltage circuit b r e a k e r s .
However, t h e r e are available low-voltage circuit b r e a k e r s with t h r e e
c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s built into them and connected residually with
t h e solid-state trip devices of the circuit b r e a k e r s to provide g r o u n d -
fault protection. The basic residual scheme is shown in Figure 7.12.
Each phase relay is connected to t h e output circuit of its respective
c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r while a ground relay connected in t h e common or

Ν A Β C

- PHASE R E L A Y

-GROUND RELAY

Figure 7.12 Standard connections for residually connected ground

relay.
132 Chapter 6

residual circuit will measure the ground fault c u r r e n t . In Figure

7.12, no c u r r e n t flows in the residual leg u n d e r normal conditions,
since the net effect of t h e t h r e e c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s is zero. When
a ground fault o c c u r s , c u r r e n t b y p a s s e s the phase conductors and
the c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s , the net flux is no longer zero, and c u r r e n t
flows in the residual leg, r e s u l t i n g in operation of the relay. Re-
sidually connected relays cannot have sensitive s e t t i n g s because of
unequal saturation of t h e c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s . If sensitive g r o u n d -
fault protection is r e q u i r e d , use the core balance method.

Core-Balance Method

The core-balance c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r is the basis of several low-voltage

g r o u n d - f a u l t protective systems introduced in recent y e a r s . Figure
7.13 shows a core-balance c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r circuit. Under normal
conditions, all c u r r e n t flows out and r e t u r n s t h r o u g h t h e c u r r e n t
t r a n s f o r m e r . The net flux produced in the c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r core
will be zero and no c u r r e n t will flow in t h e ground relay. When a
g r o u n d fault o c c u r s , the g r o u n d - f a u l t c u r r e n t r e t u r n s t h r o u g h the
equipment grounding circuit conductor, b y p a s s i n g the c u r r e n t t r a n s -
former. The flux produced in the c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r core is p r o -
portional to the g r o u n d - f a u l t c u r r e n t , and a proportional c u r r e n t flows
in t h e relay circuit. Relays connected to the core-balance c u r r e n t
t r a n s f o r m e r s can be made v e r y sensitive, detecting even c u r r e n t in
milliamperes. Many ground protective systems now have solid-state
relays specially designed to operate with core-balance c u r r e n t t r a n s -
f o r m e r s . The r e l a y s , in t u r n , trip the circuit protective device.

ABCN
I

ZERO-SEQUENCE
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
RELAY

Figure 7.13 Core-balance c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r application diagram.

System Protection 133

Neutral Relaying

Another method that provides a convenient, low-cost scheme of detect-

ing ground faults is to employ a time o v e r c u r r e n t relay connected to
a c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r located in t h e grounded n e u t r a l of a t r a n s f o r -
mer or g e n e r a t o r . The relay (51G) can be set to operate on v e r y
low c u r r e n t . This scheme is commonly u s e d on 5- and 15-kV systems.
It can be set to minimum values of c u r r e n t pickup and time delay
which will be selective with the f e e d e r g r o u n d - f a u l t r e l a y s . This
scheme is also used on solidly grounded 480-V t h r e e - p h a s e t h r e e - or
f o u r - w i r e systems. Another form of n e u t r a l relaying is used when
t h e neutral r e s i s t o r is sized to limit t h e g r o u n d - f a u l t c u r r e n t to a few
amperes ( i . e . , 1 to 10 A ) . This method, known as h i g h - r e s i s t a n c e
g r o u n d i n g , limits t h e damage at the fault site such that t h e fault will
be detected and an alarm initiated.

7.3.3 O t h e r T y p e s o f Relays

Pilot-Wire Relays (87L)

The relaying of tie lines between an industrial system and a utility

system or between major load c e n t e r s within a i n d u s t r i a l system often
p r e s e n t s a special problem. Such lines should be capable of c a r r y i n g
maximum emergency load c u r r e n t s for any length of time, and they
should be removable from service quickly if a fault should o c c u r .
Pilot-wire relaying can respond v e r y quickly to faults in t h e protected
line. Faults are promptly cleared, r e s u l t i n g in minimum damage a n d /
or d i s t u r b a n c e . Various t y p e s of pilot-wire relaying schemes all
operate on the principle of comparing the conditions at t h e terminals
of t h e protected line. The information for indicating a fault in the
line is transmitted between terminals over a pilot-wire circuit. How-
e v e r , this scheme does not provide protection for faults of t h e adjacent
station b u s or beyond i t .

Distance Relays (21)

These relays comprise a family of relays that measure voltage and

c u r r e n t , and the ratio is e x p r e s s e d in terms of impedance. In gen-
e r a l , impedance is an electric measure of t h e distance along a t r a n s -
mission line from the relay location to a f a u l t . These relays a r e
considered more expensive than o v e r c u r r e n t relays and can be obtained
with one to t h r e e zones of operation. The f i r s t zone provides i n s t a n -
taneous protection for up to about 90% of protected line. The second
and t h i r d zones, if u s e d , are time delayed and extend protection into
the area protected b y the service e n t r a n c e r e l a y s . Distance relays
are needed to get selective t r i p p i n g over a wide variation of fault
c u r r e n t magnitudes. They may also be u s e f u l for low fault c u r r e n t s ,
which are difficult to distinguish from load c u r r e n t s .
134 Chapter 6

Distance-controlled o v e r c u r r e n t relays (51 and 21) can be used

in combination to provide fast tripping· for faults on the primary of
supply t r a n s f o r m e r s , plus backup time delay for low-side f a u l t s , with
some limitations. This combination is u s e f u l where o v e r c u r r e n t alone
cannot be set to respond to t r a n s f o r m e r low-side f a u l t s . The t h r e e
principal t y p e s of distance relay and t h e i r applications are as follows:

1. Impedance type: p h a s e - f a u l t relaying for moderate-length lines

2. Mho type: p h a s e - f a u l t relaying for long lines or where severe
synchronizing power s u r g e s may take place; used f o r large s y n -
chronous machine loss-of-field protection
3. Reactance type: g r o u n d - f a u l t relaying and p h a s e - f a u l t relaying
f o r v e r y short lines

Frequency Relays (81)

F r e q u e n c y relays sense u n d e r - or o v e r f r e q u e n c y conditions d u r i n g
system d i s t u r b a n c e s . The speed of operation depends on the devia-
tion of t h e actual f r e q u e n c y from t h e relay s e t t i n g . The usual appli-
cation of this type of relay is to drop system load selectively, based
on t h e f r e q u e n c y decrement, in o r d e r to r e s t o r e normal system s t a -
bility.

Temperature-Sensitive Relays
T e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i t i v e relays usually operate in conjunction with tem-
p e r a t u r e - d e t e c t i n g devices such as thermocouples and are used for
protection against o v e r h e a t i n g of large motors (above 1500 h p ) , gene-
r a t o r stator windings, and large t r a n s f o r m e r windings. For genera-
t o r s and large motors, several temperature detectors are embedded
in t h e s t a t o r windings, and the hottest reading detector is connected
into t h e t e m p e r a t u r e relay b r i d g e circuit. The b r i d g e circuit is
balanced at this t e m p e r a t u r e , and an increase in winding t e m p e r a t u r e
will increase the r e s i s t a n c e of the d e t e c t o r , unbalance the b r i d g e cir-
cuit, and cause the relay to o p e r a t e .

Pressure-Sensitive Relays (63)

P r e s s u r e - s e n s i t i v e relays are used in power systems to respond either

to t h e r a t e of rise of gas p r e s s u r e ( s u d d e n p r e s s u r e relay) or to a
slow accumulation of gas (gas detector r e l a y ) , or a combination of
b o t h . A s u d d e n rise in the gas p r e s s u r e above t h e liquid insulating
medium in a liquid-filled t r a n s f o r m e r indicates that a major internal
fault has o c c u r r e d . The s u d d e n p r e s s u r e relay will respond quickly
to this condition and isolate the faulted t r a n s f o r m e r . Slow accumula-
tion of gas indicates the p r e s e n c e of a minor f a u l t , such as loose con-
t a c t s , grounded p a r t s , s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d t u r n s , and so on. The gas
System Protection 135

detector relay will respond to this condition and either sound an

alarm or isolate the faulted t r a n s f o r m e r .

Auxiliary Relays

Auxiliary relays a r e used in protection schemes whenever a protective

device cannot itself provide all t h e functions n e c e s s a r y for s a t i s f a c t o r y
fault isolation. Some of the most common applications of auxiliary
relays are circuit b r e a k e r lockout (86), t a r g e t i n g , multiplication of
contacts, timing, and alarming.

7.4 PROTECTIVE DEVICES

This section is intended to cover some of the most commonly used

protective devices in an industrial power system. Some of t h e devices,
such as circuit b r e a k e r s , are used in conjunction with protective r e -
l a y s . O t h e r s , such as f u s e s , are used to protect the power system
a n d / o r equipment i n d e p e n d e n t l y , or in combination with circuit b r e a -
k e r s . A more detailed discussion of these devices a p p e a r s in C h a p t e r
8. Protective relays cannot work alone. They must work in conjunc-
tion with a circuit b r e a k e r or o t h e r switching device. Protective
devices are r e q u i r e d for opening and closing or for changing the
circuit connections. In general, they consist of switches, f u s e s , con-
t a c t o r s , or circuit b r e a k e r s .

7.4.1 Circuit Breakers

Protective relays are applied in conjunction with circuit b r e a k e r s to

form a complete protection system in most circuits above 600 V. Cir-
cuit b r e a k e r s r a t e d 600 V and below have traditionally been divided
into two t y p e s : power circuit b r e a k e r s , sometimes known as metal
frame b r e a k e r s , and molded-case circuit b r e a k e r s . In these b r e a k e r s ,
t r i p p i n g u n i t s are field adjustable over a wide r a n g e and a r e i n t e r -
changeable within t h e i r frame sizes. The t r i p p i n g u n i t s a r e mostly
of t h e electromagnetic o v e r c u r r e n t d i r e c t - a c t i n g t y p e ; however, solid-
state t r i p p i n g u n i t s are now available from most m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
Power circuit b r e a k e r s 600 V and below can be used with integral
current-limiting f u s e s in drawout construction to meet i n t e r r u p t i n g
c u r r e n t requirements up to 200,000 A rms symmetrical. A molded-
case circuit b r e a k e r is a switching device and an automatic protective
device assembled in an integral housing of insulating material. Th^se
b r e a k e r s a r e generally capable of clearing a fault more rapidly than
are power circuit b r e a k e r s .
136 Chapter 6

7.4.2 Switches

A disconnecting switch is used to isolate a circuit or equipment from

t h e source of power. It is intended to be operated only a f t e r the
circuit has been opened by other means. With a f u s e d l o a d / b r e a k
switch combination, fast fault clearing and circuit isolating can be
achieved. This application, if p r o p e r l y coordinated to i n t e r r u p t load
c u r r e n t s within the switching r a t i n g , may be more economical than a
circuit b r e a k e r .

7.4.3 Fuses

A f u s e is an o v e r c u r r e n t protective device with a circuit-opening

fusible p a r t that is heated and severed by t h e passage of o v e r c u r r e n t
t h r o u g h i t . Fuses are available in a wide r a n g e of voltage, c u r r e n t ,
and i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s , current-limiting t y p e s , and for indoor and
outdoor applications. Current-limiting f u s e s 600 V and below are
extremely fast in operation at v e r y high values of fault c u r r e n t . Al-
though their published r a t i n g s are e x p r e s s e d in symmetrical amperes,
current-limiting f u s e s i n t e r r u p t a short circuit within the f i r s t half-
cycle, and their equivalent asymmetrical r a t i n g includes a 1.6 multi-
plier to provide for the maximum expected c u r r e n t asymmetry. Non-
current-limiting f u s e s are widely applied above 600 V. They are
available in h i g h e r c u r r e n t r a t i n g s , b u t lower i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s ,
t h a n those of current-limiting f u s e s .

7.4.4 Contactors

Motor s t a r t e r s are equipped with overload r e l a y s . These relays may

be of t h e magnetic or thermal t y p e . In the magnetic t y p e , a dashpot
provides t h e n e c e s s a r y delay time for t h e flow of s t a r t i n g c u r r e n t ,
whereas in t h e thermal t y p e , the time delay is derived from the be-
havior of certain subcomponents of t h e overload in r e s p o n s e to i n t e r -
nally g e n e r a t e d h e a t . Both the magnetic and thermal t y p e s are sized
according to t h e motor r a t i n g s .

7.5 SURGE PROTECTION

7.5.1 Nature of the Surge Voltage

Surge voltages can be generated in many d i f f e r e n t ways on an i n d u s -

trial power system. S u r g e s can originate from lightning s t r o k e s on
or n e a r overhead power lines s e r v i n g t h e p l a n t , and internally from
f o r c e d - c u r r e n t zero switching, the blowing of current-limiting f u s e s ,
or r e s t r i k i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n of circuit switching devices. A lightning-
induced s u r g e will have the form of a s t e e p - f r o n t wave that will
t r a v e l away from the stricken point in both directions along the power
System Protection 137

lines. As the s u r g e t r a v e l s along the power c o n d u c t o r s , it will

gradually decay. Properly rated a r r e s t e r s at the plant terminal of
t h e incoming line can generally r e d u c e t h e overvoltage to a level
within t h e withstand r a t i n g of most station a p p a r a t u s . S u r g e s due
to switching are generally less s e v e r e . However, certain t y p e s of
a p p a r a t u s are more susceptible to voltage s u r g e s t h a n a r e other t y p e s .
Hence it is advisable to investigate t h e damaging voltage s u r g e s of
such a p p a r a t u s .
The a p p e a r a n c e of abnormal applied voltage s t r e s s e s , either t r a n s -
ient , short time, or sustained steady s t a t e , c o n t r i b u t e s to p e r m a t u r e
insulation failure. The insulation failure r e s u l t s not only from im-
p r e s s e d o v e r v o l t a g e s , but also from t h e sum of total duration of such
overvoltages. Lightning is a major source of t r a n s i e n t o v e r v o l t a g e s ,
which may be introduced into the i n d u s t r i a l distribution system via
open wire overhead lines. S t e e p - w a v e - f r o n t t r a n s i e n t overvoltages
a r e also g e n e r a t e d in plant wiring b y switching actions that change
the circuit operation from one s t e a d y - s t a t e condition to a n o t h e r .
Switches that tend to chop the normal ac wave, such as t h y r i s t o r s ,
vacuum switches, current-limiting f u s e s , and h i g h - s p e e d circuit
b r e a k e r s , force the c u r r e n t to zero, which accelerates collapse of t h e
magnetic field a r o u n d the c o n d u c t o r , g e n e r a t i n g a t r a n s i e n t overvolt-
a g e . Figure 7.14 shows the initial overvoltage spike r e s u l t i n g from
t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n action of a current-limiting f u s e . T h e r e a r e other
means of switching which will also g e n e r a t e t r a n s i e n t overvoltages.
The t r a n s i e n t overvoltages are p r o p a g a t e d along the electric power
conductors to c r e a t e insulation d i s t r e s s f a r away from t h e origin of
t h e voltage s u r g e .

7.5.2 Concepts of Protection Against Surge Voltage

An acceptable system of insulation protection will be influenced b y a

number of f a c t o r s . The most important factor is knowledge of the
insulation system withstand capability and e n d u r a n c e qualities. These
p r o p e r t i e s are indicated by insulation designations and specified high-
potential and s u r g e - v o l t a g e test withstand capabilities. Another facet
of the problem relates to t h e identification of probable sources of
overvoltage e x p o s u r e and the c h a r a c t e r , magnitude, d u r a t i o n , and
repetition r a t e s that are likely to be impressed upon t h e a p p a r a t u s
and c i r c u i t s . The a p p r o p r i a t e application of s u r g e protective devices
will lessen t h e magnitude and duration and is considered to be the
most effective tool to achieve the desired insulation s e c u r i t y . One
of the c o n f u s i n g a s p e c t s of an insulation system capability and its
protection is t h e p r o g r e s s i v e accumulation of deterioration within t h e
dielectric that r e s u l t s from t h e complete h i s t o r y of voltage s t r e s s
exposure.
Design of the electric distribution system, including the use of
s u r g e s u p p r e s s i o n devices (to assume adequate insulation s e c u r i t y ) ,
138 Chapter 6

should correctly i n t e r p r e t t h e effect of t h e i n v e r s e relationship be-

tween t h e imposed voltage magnitude and t h e allowable d u r a t i o n . A
30% increase in the applied ac voltage for most equipment will result
in a tenfold reduction in insulation life. System design e n g i n e e r s
must set t h e margin of safety based on t h e i r knowledge of the p r o b -
able c h a r a c t e r and repetition r a t e of troublesome s u r g e voltage t r a n s -
ients.

7.5.3 A r r e s t e r Characteristics and Classes

Historically, various t y p e s of s u r g e a r r e s t e r s have been used for
power system protection. The use of pellet and expulsion-type

\
TRANSIENT S . SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY
VOLTAGE OF SYSTEM (AVAILABLE FAULT CURRENT)
SPIKE
\

PEAK INSTANTANEOUS
\
LET-THROUGH CURRENT

. CURRENT AS LIMITED BY
CURRENT-LIMITING FUSE

VOLTAGE WAVE

Figure 7.14 Typical t r a n s i e n t overvoltage produced by s h o r t - c i r c u i t

current-limiting action of f u s e .
System Protection 139

a r r e s t e r s diminished when v a l v e - t y p e a r r e s t e r s were i n t r o d u c e d . In

v a l v e - t y p e a r r e s t e r s , the basic elements are the gap unit (used in
some design) and the so-called valve element. The valve element
consists of a nonlinear resistance that exhibits a relatively high r e -
sistance at low voltage and c u r r e n t , and a much lower resistance at
high ( s u r g e ) voltage and c u r r e n t . This nonlinear p r o p e r t y greatly
enhances overall a r r e s t e r performance and a s s i s t s t h e gap unit in
resealing a f t e r s u r g e discharge to p r e v e n t continued flow of power
follow c u r r e n t .
Use of a conventional v a l v e - t y p e a r r e s t e r , which permits the most
significant savings in t h e insulation levels of transmission and s u b -
transmission equipment, has not made it possible to achieve desired
s u r g e protective margins in some v e r y important i n d u s t r i a l and com-
mercial applications, specifically certain motors and certain d r y - t y p e
t r a n s f o r m e r s . The valve element material u s e d , silicon c a r b i d e , does
not possess sufficient nonlinearity to be s e l f - p r o t e c t i n g in t h e p r e s -
ence of continuous l i n e - t o - g r o u n d voltage, and series gaps are r e -
quired to provide isolation. The newly developed metal oxide valve
element material (specifically, a zinc oxide base) is now available in
an a r r e s t e r design that has sufficient nonlinearity that a series gap
will not be r e q u i r e d . An a r r e s t e r employing a gap in series with a
valve element is r e f e r r e d to as a v a l v e - t y p e a r r e s t e r or a silicon
carbide a r r e s t e r . The newer a r r e s t e r may be r e f e r r e d to as a metal
oxide, zinc oxide, or gapless a r r e s t e r . The characteristics and
classes of a r r e s t e r s are discussed in more detail in the following
sections.

Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Arresters

The nonlinear volt-ampere characteristic of silicon carbide is primarily
a t e m p e r a t u r e - a c t i v a t e d phenomenon t h r o u g h o u t much of its o p e r a t i n g
r a n g e . A c u r r e n t increase of five o r d e r s of magnitude (from 10" 1 to
10 2 A/cm 2) has an associated voltage increase of only slightly g r e a t e r
than o n e - h a l f . By comparison, for t h e silicon carbide material an
increase of only one o r d e r of magnitude in c u r r e n t is associated with
a voltage increase b y a factor r a n g i n g from approximately 1-3/4 to
3. At moderately high c u r r e n t densities ( g r e a t e r t h a n 10 A / c m 2 ) ,
t h e volt-ampere characteristic develops a significant t u r n - u p that is
a t t r i b u t a b l e to t h e resistivity of t h e zinc oxide gains. A similar t u r n -
u p occurs in silicon carbide valve elements, which is somewhat g r e a t e r
in degree at t h e highest c u r r e n t densities encountered in a r r e s t e r s .
As a consequence of the d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e volt-ampere c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of the two materials, metal oxide a r r e s t e r s will exhibit h i g h e r dis-
c h a r g e voltages at low discharge c u r r e n t s and lower d i s c h a r g e voltages
at high d i s c h a r g e c u r r e n t s t h a n will silicon carbide a r r e s t e r s .
140 Chapter 6

Arrester Classes

T h r e e classes of v a l v e - t y p e a r r e s t e r s a r e recognized by i n d u s t r y
s t a n d a r d s (ANSI/IEEE C62.1-1984). In o r d e r of decreasing cost and
overall protective quality and d u r a b i l i t y , they a r e : (1) station class,
(2) intermediate class, and (3) distribution class. As a general guide
to a r r e s t e r class usage v e r s u s equipment size, the following a p p e a r s
to prevail as typical practice:

1. Station class: component protection of 7.5 MVA and above, large

or essential rotating machines
2. Intermediate class: component protection of 1 to 20 MVA s u b -
station and rotating machines
3. Distribution class: distribution class a p p a r a t u s , small rotating
machines, and d r y - t y p e t r a n s f o r m e r s

T h e r e is considerable overlap of these categories, t e n d i n g toward

t h e use of h i g h e r - c l a s s a r r e s t e r s at h i g h e r voltages. Switching s u r g e s
are of particular concern in systems experiencing f r e q u e n t switching.
Particularly when capacitors are connected, switching t r a n s i e n t s may
impose a more severe time-current d u t y on a r r e s t e r s . Such applica-
tions should utilize station class a r r e s t e r s . Metal oxide a r r e s t e r s ,
which can provide s u p e r i o r protective levels with f a r less e n e r g y
a b s o r p t i o n , are ideal for f r e q u e n t l y switched applications such as
switched capacitor b a n k s and arc f u r n a c e t r a n s f o r m e r s .

7.5.4 Surge Protection Applications

Protection of Distribution Transformers

Dry t r a n s f o r m e r s p r e s e n t relatively difficult lightning protective p r o b -

lems due to their usual low basic impulse level (BIL) values compared
to those of liquid-filled t r a n s f o r m e r s . When s u r g e e x p o s u r e is by
directly connected overhead lines, a r r e s t e r s a r e r e q u i r e d in direct
s h u n t with t h e d r y - t y p e t r a n s f o r m e r . When an a r r e s t e r is r e q u i r e d
at the t r a n s f o r m e r , a special low s p a r k o v e r distribution class valve-
t y p e a r r e s t e r will s u f f i c e . For the most used wye-delta and delta-
wye-connected supply t r a n s f o r m e r s , a r r e s t e r s are generally not r e -
quired at t h e d r y - t y p e t r a n s f o r m e r . However, for those d r y - t y p e
t r a n s f o r m e r applications where t h e t r a n s f o r m e r can be subjected to
internally generated s u r g e s due to current-limiting f u s e operation or
chopping or switching e f f e c t s of circuit b r e a k e r s , s u r g e protection
should consist of a r r e s t e r s and possibly s u r g e capacitors that r e d u c e
t h e effective load s u r g e impedance and t r a n s i e n t voltage r a t e of rise
in those applications where an inadequate length of cable is p r e s e n t
to achieve t h i s .
System Protection 141

Rotating Machine Protection

The basic winding design p a t t e r n s of motors and g e n e r a t o r s involve

large capacitance coupling between t h e conductor of the winding of
each coil and t h e grounded core iron that s u r r o u n d s i t . A f a s t - r i s i n g
s u r g e voltage at t h e motor terminal raises the potential of the terminal
t u r n s , but with no immediate r e s p o n s e for the deeper t u r n s . This
t e n d s to result in severe voltage s t r e s s on the t u r n - t o - t u r n insulation
of t h e terminal coil. The t u r n insulation is fairly t h i n . It is the
protection of t h e t u r n insulation that becomes critical in avoiding
winding failure. Much documentation exists on t h e subject of s u r g e
protection of r o t a t i n g machines. An ideally protected installation
requires:

1. An effectively shielded environment

2. A r r e s t e r s at terminals of machine
3. S u r g e capacitors at terminals of machine
4. Strict a d h e r e n c e of good g r o u n d i n g practices

Overhead-Line Protection (4 to 69 kV)

Historically, relatively little consideration has been given to the pro-
tection of open wire overhead-line insulation. This leads to line
insulator f l a s h o v e r , which in t u r n r e s u l t s in a momentary or extended
circuit i n t e r r u p t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , insulator flashover should be mini-
mized with a p p r o p r i a t e protections. A recent comprehensive s t u d y
indicates that a r r e s t e r s p r o t e c t i n g each phase at economically spaced
i n t e r v a l s along t h e line will often provide improved protection and
reliability of service over that of the overhead-wire-shield method.
T h e r e is a growing practice among electric utility companies to use
t h e new approach in p r o t e c t i n g overhead circuits in the r a n g e 4 to
69 kV. This is an important step toward improving protection on
overhead circuits that s e r v e sensitive industrial complexes.

7.6 COORDINATION

The coordination s t u d y provides data u s e f u l for t h e selection of in-

strument t r a n s f o r m e r r a t i o s , protective relay c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
s e t t i n g s , f u s e r a t i n g s , low-voltage circuit b r e a k e r r a t i n g s , charac-
t e r i s t i c s , and s e t t i n g s . It also provides other information p e r t i n e n t
to t h e provision of optimum protection and selectivity or coordination
of these devices.
142 Chapter 6

7.6.1 Primary Consideration

Short-Circuit Currents

To obtain complete coordination of t h e protective equipment applied,

it may be necessary to obtain some or all of the following information:

1. Maximum and minimum zero- to t h r e e - c y c l e (momentary) total rms

short-circuit current
2. Maximum and minimum t h r e e - c y c l e to 1 s ( i n t e r r u p t i n g d u t y )
total rms s h o r t - c i r c u i t current
3. Maximum and minimum ground-fault currents

The maximum and minimum zero- to t h r e e - c y c l e (momentary) c u r -

r e n t s are u s e d to determine the maximum and minimum c u r r e n t s to
which instantaneous and d i r e c t - a c t i n g t r i p devices r e s p o n d , and to
v e r i f y the capability of the a p p a r a t u s applied, such as circuit b r e a k e r s ,
f u s e s , switches, and reactor and b u s b r a c i n g s . The maximum t h r e e -
cycle to 1 s ( i n t e r r u p t i n g ) c u r r e n t at minimum generation is needed
to determine whether t h e circuit-protection sensitivity of the circuits
is a d e q u a t e .

Coordination Time Intervals

When plotting coordination c u r v e s , certain time intervals must be

maintained between the c u r v e s of various protective devices to e n s u r e
corrective sequential operation of the devices. These i n t e r v a l s are
r e q u i r e d because relays have o v e r t r a v e l , f u s e s have damage charac-
t e r i s t i c s , and circuit b r e a k e r s have certain speeds of operation.
These intervals are sometimes called margins. Some i n t e r v a l s are as
follows:

Circuit breaker opening time (five cycles): 0.08 s

Overtravel: 0.10 s
Safety factor: 0.12-0.22 s

This margin may be decreased if field t e s t s of relays and circuit

b r e a k e r s indicate that the system still coordinates with the decreased
margins. When solid-state relays are u s e d , o v e r t r a v e l is eliminated
and t h e time may be r e d u c e d by t h e amount included f o r o v e r t r a v e l .

7.6.2 Data R e q u i r e d f o r a C o o r d i n a t i o n Study

1. One-line diagram
a. Apparent power and voltage r a t i n g s as well as the impedance
and connections of all t r a n s f o r m e r s
b. Normal and emergency switching conditions
System Protection 143

c. Nameplate r a t i n g s and s u b t r a n s i e n t reactance of all major

motors and g e n e r a t o r s as well as transient reactances of
s y n c h r o n o u s motors and g e n e r a t o r s , plus synchronous r e -
actances of g e n e r a t o r s
d . Conductor sizes, t y p e , and configurations
e. C u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r ratios
f . Relay, d i r e c t - a c t i n g t r i p , and f u s e r a t i n g s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
and r a n g e s of adjustment
2. Short-circuit study. Short-circuit calculations are discussed in
Chapter 5. This s t u d y should include s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t values
for both f i r s t cycle and i n t e r r u p t i n g duties of the circuit switch-
ing devices.
3. Time-current characteristics. These must be designated for all
protective devices u n d e r consideration.
4. Maximum loading. Maximum loading on any circuit should be con-
sidered carefully with respect to t h e utility s e t t i n g s on r e l a y s ,
so that coordination for t h e e n t i r e distribution system can be
achieved.

7.7 EXAMPLES OF C O O R D I N A T I O N STUDY

OF P R O T E C T I V E DEVICES

Refer to Figure 7.15 for a typical medium-voltage i n d u s t r i a l d i s t r i b u -

tion system. In considering a relatively large system with more than
one voltage t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the characteristic c u r v e of the smallest
device is plotted as f a r to the left of the p a p e r as possible. The
maximum s h o r t - c i r c u i t level on t h e system is the limit of t h e c u r v e s
to t h e r i g h t . A minimum number of t r i p characteristics should be
plotted on one sheet of p a p e r (log-log p a p e r ) . Indexing t h e various
c u r v e s to a common scale needs some explanation.
Let u s consider a system in which a 750 kVA t r a n s f o r m e r with
4160 V delta primary and a 480 V wye secondary is the l a r g e s t de-
vice. Assume that the t r a n s f o r m e r is equipped with a primary cir-
cuit b r e a k e r and a main secondary circuit b r e a k e r s u p p l y i n g some
f e e d e r circuit b r e a k e r s . In the system, the full-load c u r r e n t of t h e
t r a n s f o r m e r at 480 V is 902 A. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g primary c u r r e n t
is 104 A. Plotting c u r r e n t on the time-current plot, 902 A at 480 V
is t h e same as plotting 104 A at 4160 V. This t y p e of manipulation
permits the s t u d y of devices on several d i f f e r e n t system voltage
levels on one coordination c u r v e if t h e p r o p e r c u r r e n t scales are
chosen. In p l o t t i n g , t h e following points are usually considered:
1. Scale selection. Select a scale that will minimize multiplica-
tions and manipulations on devices where a r a n g e of s e t t i n g s is avail-
able. Since t h e load-end device is f i x e d , s e t t i n g s will be selected
f o r two devices at 480 V and two at 4160 V in addition to determining
 100 Ε 3 4 . 5 kV
SLOW SPEED

34.4 KV ,
3 7 5 0 kVA Ζ = 6 %
4160 V

800/5

300/5
7 5 0 kVA
7 5 0 kcmil —
SINGLE
CONDUCTOR
PER PHASE

4160V 480V

1200 A

600 A

7 5 0 kcmil
SINGLE CONDUCTOR -
PER PHASE

100 A

F i g u r e 7.15 One line diagram for a typical medium-voltage industrial

distribution system.
144
System Protection 145

cable sizes. Use a multiple of 10 for 4160 V c u r r e n t s , a multiple of

87 for 480 V c u r r e n t s , and a multiple of 1.21 for 34,400 V c u r r e n t .
2. Fixed points. Plot the following on log-log p a p e r ( r e f e r to
Figure 7.15):

a. ANSI i n r u s h and six times full-load points for t r a n s f o r m e r s

b. Short-circuit c u r r e n t s
c. 100 A low-voltage circuit b r e a k e r (load device)

3. High-voltage fuse. According to published t a b l e s , a standard-

speed 100E f u s e will protect the 3750-kVA t r a n s f o r m e r . However, an
examination of t h e c u r v e s plotted show that t h e coordination will be
close for f i t t i n g all the devices n e c e s s a r y between this r a t i n g f u s e
and the largest load device. T h e r e f o r e , a slow-speed characteristic
is selected.
4. Low-voltage circuit breakers. B y e x a m i n i n g t h e ANSI and
i n r u s h p o i n t s , the limits of the c u r v e for relay protection of the 750
kVA t r a n s f o r m e r can be determined. A low pickup for this relay is
b e t t e r for cable p r o t e c t i o n . A 750 MCM cable has an ampacity of
about 500 A; hance a t r i p device set at 500 A adequately p r o t e c t s
the cable. A short-time-delay t r i p device is selected to be selective
with the downstream molded-case circuit b r e a k e r . Select a 600 A
medium-time t r i p element set at 80% (480 A) and a short-time t r i p
element set at f o u r times (2400 A) with a minimum time c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .
The next circuit b r e a k e r to be selected is the 750-kVA t r a n s f o r m e r
secondary circuit b r e a k e r . For 902-A full load, a 1200-A t r i p is
selected with the maximum time characteristic on both long- and s h o r t -
time-delay elements. Set the short-time setting at t h r e e times (3600
A).
5. Medium-voltage feeder relays. Allowing a 16% c u r r e n t margin
between t h e short-time setting of the main circuit b r e a k e r (3600 A at
480 V ) , select a pickup for the medium-voltage f e e d e r o v e r c u r r e n t
r e l a y . This should be less than 624 A at 4160 V and more than
3600(480/4160)(1.16) = 480 A. With a 300/5 c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r ,
480 A is 480(5/300) = 8 A, a s t a n d a r d tap on induction relay. The
8-A tap allows f o r t h e addition of f u t u r e load. Selecting a c h a r a c t e r -
istic of this relay must be v e r y carefully done since t h e r e may be
conflict with the main 4160-V circuit b r e a k e r r e l a y s . Picking a v e r y
i n v e r s e characteristic instead of an i n v e r s e characteristic is sometimes
recommended. The instantaneous element is set above the available
asymmetrical s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t on t h e 480 V b u s so that it does
not t r i p for 480 V f a u l t s . This value is 12, 800(480/4160)(5/300)(1.6) =
39.4 A.
6. Medium-voltage main relays, select a pickup for the 3750 kVA
t r a n s f o r m e r secondary circuit b r e a k e r relays no lower than 125% of
full load (520 χ 1.25 = 650 A) and no h i g h e r than 300% of full load
(520 χ 3 = 1560 A ) . A good choice is 800 A with an 800/5 c u r r e n t
 146 Chapter 6

100 200 400 1000 2000 4000 10 0\Λ/

00
1000 1000
1
I '
6 X FULL LOAD 6 X FULL LOAD
750 kVA 3 7 5 0 kVA
400 " 1200 A TRIP - 400

<
100% SETTING
200 MAXIMUM
TIME 200

-100 Ε 34 5 kV
100 SLOW-SPEED FUSE 100

40 40
N
Ε FRAME
20 .100 A VERY INVERSE 20
MOLDED- OVERCURRENT RELAY
CASE 5 A TAP, NO 15 T I M E D I A L
10 .CIRCUIT 8 0 0 / 5 CURRENT 10
co BREAKER TRANSFORMER
ω c/>
Ζ aNSI POINT ω
Ο Ζ
6 0 0 A TRIP ^ 750 kVA ο
Ο
lu
c/>
„
4 8 0 % SETTING -
MEDIUM TIME
' ANSI POINT
ι\ ν **
° 3 7 5 0 kVA -a
Ζ ^ VERY INVERSE (Λ

uj 2
OVERCURRENT . 2
Ζ
SHORT- RELAY, 8 A TAP ω
μ-
TIME NO I TIME DIAL
ι MAXIMUM . 3 0 0 / 5 CURRENT
3 X (3600 A)' TRANSFORMER

I
04 SHORT-TIME^. _ 40 A 04
MINIMUM .INSTANTANEOUS
4 X ( 2 4 0 0 A)
0.2 0.2
INRUSH POIN
INRUSH-. U-3750 kVA
POINT
0.1 750 kVA - - 5 0 0 MVA 01
*v34.5 kV

0.04 0.04
12 8 0 0 A (480 V)
II 0 0 0 A (480 V)- 55.5 MVA
0.02 (4160 V) 0.02
ι 16 4 0 0
4 ( 4 8 0 . V)
0.0!
20 40 100 200 400 1000 2000 4000 10 0 0 0
CURRENT IN AMPERES
AT 4160 V MULTIPLY BY 10
AT 4 8 0 V MULTIPLY BY 87
AT 34.5 kV MULTIPLY BY 1.21

F i g u r e 7.16 ( a ) C o o r d i n a t e d p r o t e c t i o n c u r v e s f o r a t y p i c a l medium-
voltage distribution system including fixed points.
 System Protection 147

1000 2000 4000 10000

1000 1000
6 Χ FULL LOAD 6 Χ FULL LOAD
750 kVA 3750 KVA
400 400

100 A
200 CURREN1 200
LIMITING
FUSE .100 Ε 34.5 kV
100 SLOW-SPEED FUSE 100

6 0 0 A STATIC' >
TRIP
4 8 0 A SETTING
40 40
MEDIUM TIME "

1200 A STATIC/ VERY INVERSE 20

20 " TRIP OVERCURRENT RELAY
100% SETTING 5 A TAP, NO 1.5 TIME
I MAXIMUM DIAL, 8 0 0 / 5 CURRENT
ω "Ο γ TIME 10
/TRANSFORMER CO
α α
Ζ ζ
Ο ANSI POINT ο
Ο 7 5 0 KVA ANSI POINT ο
o\ 4 ιϋ
LU
C/>
4 3750 kVA CO
2 2
/ERY INVERSE
2
LlJ 2 DVERCURRENT ω
Έ RELAY, 8 A TAP Έ
SlO I TIME DIAL Η
I 300/5 CURREN I
fRANSFORMER
SHORT- V
TIME ) 40 A
04 MEDIUM ^INSTANTANEOUS - 0 4
3 X ( 3 6 0 0 A)

0.2 0.2
SHORT-TIME -
0.1
MINIMUM L O —1 Λ 5 0 0 MVA 0.1
4 X ( 2 4 0 0 A) Ν RUSH POINT 34 5 kV
/ 3750 KVA
INRUSH POINT
0.04
• 750 KVA 0.04
. 16 4 0 0 A V
12 8 0 0 A (480 V) x (480 V) \
0 02 0.02
II 0 0 0 A (480 ν ) χ ^ 55.5 MVA-
ι (4160 V)
0.01 η ηι
1 2 4 ο 20 40 100 200 400 1000 2000 4000 10 0 0 0

C U R R E N T IN A M P E R E S
AT 4160 V MULTIPLY BY 10
AT 4 8 0 V MULTIPLY BY 87
AT 34.5 kV MULTIPLY BY 1.21

Figure 7.16 (b) Replotted u s i n g solid-state t r i p devices.

148 Chapter 6

t r a n s f o r m e r . Do not use an instantaneous attachment on this relay

since it cannot be made selective with t h e feeder i n s t a n t a n e o u s ele-
ment. A time dial setting such as 0.3 to 0.4 s is obtained between
this relay and the f e e d e r relay at the instantaneous s e t t i n g of the
f e e d e r relay (40 χ 300/5 = 2400 A ) . Th e setting shown in Figure
7.16 allows only 0.2 s at the theoretical 100% fault c u r r e n t point be-
tween the main secondary b r e a k e r and t h e f e e d e r circuit b r e a k e r .
This compromise is usually satisfactory in o r d e r to maintain the margin
between t h e t r a n s f o r m e r primary f u s e and main secondary circuit
b r e a k e r s e t t i n g . A margin of 0.2 to 0.4 s should be allowed between
the primary f u s e minimum melting time c u r v e and t r a n s f o r m e r main
secondary b r e a k e r relay characteristic at the maximum 4160-V value
of s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t . This value is 55.5 mVA or 7600 A.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AC Motor Protection Guide, Industrial and Commercial Power System

Application Series, PRSC-2A, Westinghouse Relay-Instrument
Division, Coral S p r i n g s , Florida, J a n . 1981.
ANSI C2-1987, American National S t a n d a r d National Safety Code.
ANSI/IEEE C37.2-1979, IEEE Standard Electrical Power System Device
Function Numbers.
ANSI/IEEE C37.91-1985, IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications
to Power T r a n s f o r m e r s .
ANSI/IEEE C37.96-1988, IEEE Guide for AC Motor Protection.
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.01-1986, IEEE Standard General Requirements for
Dry Type Distribution and Power T r a n s f o r m e r s .
ANSI/IEEE C62.1-1984, IEEE Standard for Surge A r r e s t e r s for AC
Power Circuits.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 141-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for Elec-
tric Power Distribution for I n d u s t r i a l Plants.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 242-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for Pro-
tection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems.
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, National Electrical Code.
Brightman, F. P . , More About Setting I n d u s t r i a l Relays, AIEE Trans-
actions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-73, p t . III-A,
1954, p p . 397-406.
Brightman, F. P . , Selecting AC O v e r c u r r e n t Protective Device Settings
f o r I n d u s t r i a l P l a n t s , AIEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
vol. IA-71, p t . II, Sept. 1952, p p . 203-211.
Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book, Vol. 3: Distribution
Systems, Westinghouse Electric C o r p . , T r a f f o r d , P a . , 1965.
L a t h r o p , C. M., and Schleckser, C. E . , Protective Relaying on In-
dustrial Power Systems, AIEE Transactions, vol. 70, p t . II, 1951,
p p . 1341-1345.
System Protection 149

T r a n s f o r m e r Protection Guide, Industrial and Commercial Power System

Application Series, PRSC-3B, Westinghouse Relay-Instrument
Division, Coral S p r i n g s , Florida, J a n . 1980.
Smith, R. L. , S h o r t c u t s to Selecting and Coordinating Electrical Trip
Devices, Plant Engineering, July 27, 1972.
Waldron, J . E . , Innovations in Solid-State Protective Relays, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. IA-14, no. 1, Jan./
Feb. 1978, p p . 39-47.
8
Power and Switching Equipment

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In this c h a p t e r we p r e s e n t information on t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r and

application of major a p p a r a t u s used in an i n d u s t r i a l power d i s t r i b u -
tion s y s t e m . Design e n g i n e e r s should make basic decisions in t h e i r
choice of equipment for a specific electric system. T h e y should con-
s i d e r all f a c e t s of t h e p r o j e c t , such as continuity of s e r v i c e , reli-
ability, s a f e t y , p r o t e c t i o n , coordination, installation c o s t s , costs f o r
o p e r a t i n g and maintenance, s e c u r i t y , and delivery time to meet
s c h e d u l e s . E n e r g y cost and c o n s e r v a t i o n should also b e c o n s i d e r e d
in t h e initial p l a n n i n g .

8.2 SWITCHING EQUIPMENT FOR POWER C I R C U I T S

Switching a p p a r a t u s is defined as devices used to open and close or

to c h a n g e t h e connections of a c i r c u i t . The general classification of
switching equipment u s e d h e r e i n c l u d e s s w i t c h e s , f u s e s , circuit
breakers, and c o n t a c t o r s .

8.2.1 Switches

T h e t y p e s of switches normally u s e d in i n d u s t r i a l power d i s t r i b u t i o n

s y s t e m s a r e the following: (1) d i s c o n n e c t i n g switches, (2) s a f e t y
switches f o r 600 V and below, including bolted p r e s s u r e s w i t c h e s ,
(3) load i n t e r r u p t e r s , and (4) t r a n s f e r s w i t c h e s . Detailed informa-
tion f o r each of t h e foregoing categories follows.

150
Power and Switching Equipment 151

Disconnecting Switches

Disconnecting switches are used to isolate a circuit or equipment from

t h e source of power. Because it has no i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g , it is
intended to be operated only a f t e r t h e circuit has been opened by
o t h e r means. Interlocking is generally r e q u i r e d to p r e v e n t acciden-
tal opening of t h e switch u n d e r the load.

Safety Switches

Safety switches a r e used for services of 600 V and below. They a r e

generally enclosed with or without f u s e s , and operated by means of
a handle from outside the enclosure. Interlock is usually provided
so that t h e enclosure cannot be opened unless the switch is open or
t h e interlock d e f e a t e r is o p e r a t e d . Safety switches for motors a r e
r a t e d in horsepower and voltage. The stalled-rotor c u r r e n t of t h e
same horsepower is used as the switch r a t i n g at the rated voltage.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) recognizes six times full-load
motor c u r r e n t as t h e stalled-rotor c u r r e n t . The NEC limits the
application of f u s e d switches to a c o n s t a n t - c u r r e n t r a t i n g of at least
115% of the full-load c u r r e n t r a t i n g of the motor.
Safety switches with current-limiting f u s e s can be applied to
circuits with u p to 200,000 A symmetrical rms fault c u r r e n t if the
s w i t c h - f u s e combination has been tested p r o p e r l y . A bolted p r e s s u r e
switch consists of movable blades and stationary contacts with a r c i n g
contacts and a simple toggle mechanism for applying bolted p r e s s u r e
to both the hinge and jaw contacts in a manner similar to a bolted
b u s joint. The o p e r a t i n g mechanism consists of a s p r i n g that is
compressed b y the operating handle and released at the end of the
o p e r a t i n g stroke to provide quick-make and q u i c k - b r e a k switching
action.
The electrical-trip b o l t e d - p r e s s u r e switch has a s t o r e d - e n e r g y
latch mechanism and a solenoid t r i p release; otherwise, it is basically
the same as t h e manually operated switch. These switches are avail-
able in r a t i n g s of 800, 1200, 1600, 2000, 2500, 3000, 4000, 5000, and
6000 A, 480 V a c , and are suitable for use on circuits having avail-
able fault c u r r e n t s of 200,000 A symmetrical rms when used in com-
bination with current-limiting f u s e s .

Load Interrupter Switches

For service above 600 V, an i n t e r r u p t e r or load-break switch, gene-

rally associated with a unit s u b s t a t i o n , is a switch combining the
f u n c t i o n s of a disconnecting switch and a load i n t e r r u p t e r for i n t e r -
r u p t i n g c u r r e n t s at rated voltage not exceeding the continuous-
c u r r e n t r a t i n g of the switch. Load-break switches are of the air
or fluid-immersed t y p e . The i n t e r r u p t e r is usually operated manually,
h a s a quick-make, q u i c k - b r e a k mechanism, and usually has a close
152 Chapter 6

and latch r a t i n g to provide maximum safety in the event of closing

in an a faulted circuit.
The load i n t e r r u p t e r if combined with a f u s e can provide fast
fault clearing and circuit isolation. The combination may be more
economical than a circuit b r e a k e r . However, it will be desirable from
a safety standpoint to interlock the operation of an i n t e r r u p t e r with
the secondary circuit b r e a k e r to minimize t h e chance of operating t h e
switch over its i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g . Many i n t e r r u p t e r switches have
i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s g r e a t e r than the t r a n s f o r m e r full-load c u r r e n t ;
in such c a s e s , interlocking is not r e q u i r e d .

Transfer Switches

The automatic t r a n s f e r switch is actually a t r a n s f e r system comprising

two major elements, an electrically operated double-throw t r a n s f e r
switch and a control panel (Figure 8 , 1 ) , The control panel performs
t h e r e q u i r e d voltage sensing and time-delay functions and provides
the signals needed for operation of the t r a n s f e r switch. These switches
do not normally incorporate o v e r c u r r e n t protection. They a r e designed
and applied in accordance with the NEC articles, and they a r e com-
monly available in r a t i n g s from 30 to 4000 A. For maximum relia-
bility most t r a n s f e r switches r a t e d above 100 A a r e mechanically held
and electrically operated from t h e power source to which the load is
to be t r a n s f e r r e d .
Because of its n a t u r e of application, the t r a n s f e r switch must be
designed with unique and more rigorous p r o p e r t i e s than are r e q u i r e d
for some other t y p e s of switching devices. These special c h a r a c t e r -
istics a r e :

1. Ability to close against high i n r u s h c u r r e n t s

2. Ability to c a r r y f u l l - r a t e d c u r r e n t continuously from either of
two sources
3. Ability to withstand fault c u r r e n t s and to i n t e r r u p t at least six
times t h e full-load c u r r e n t
4. Capability for withstanding the possible s t r e s s produced by two
o u t - o f - p h a s e power sources connected to it

In planning a t r a n s f e r scheme to protect against failure of t h e

utility s o u r c e , consideration must be given to t h e following:

1. Open circuit on the inplant system on the load side of the in-
coming utility service
2. Overload or fault condition
3. Electrical or mechanical failure on t h e inplant power distribution
system
Power and Switching Equipment 153

It is t h e r e f o r e recommended to locate t r a n s f e r switches close to

t h e load and to have operation of t h e t r a n s f e r switches independent
of o v e r c u r r e n t protection. It is also often desirable to use multiple,
smaller t r a n s f e r switches near individual loads r a t h e r than one large
t r a n s f e r switch at t h e point of incoming service.
Both s t a n d b y and emergency power systems r e q u i r e a means of
t r a n s f e r between t h e normal and alternate source of power. Standby
power systems a r e increasingly being installed in i n d u s t r i a l plants to
s a f e g u a r d human life; p r e v e n t panic, accidents, and t h e f t ; and p r e -
s e r v e goodwill and r e v e n u e . On medium-voltage systems, the i n t e r -
face between t h e normal and s t a n d b y source is usually accomplished
with power switchgear. The t r a n s f e r scheme can call for nonauto-
matic switching of tie b r e a k e r s , or it can be accomplished automati-

Figure 8.1 An automatic t r a n s f e r switch (courtesy of Automatic

Switch Company).
154 Chapter 6

cally with a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r l o c k s a f e g u a r d s . On s y s t e m s r a t e d 600

V a n d b e l o w , t r a n s f e r is normally accomplished with an automatic
t r a n s f e r switch.

8.2.2 Fuses

A f u s e is d e f i n e d a s an o v e r c u r r e n t p r o t e c t i v e d e v i c e with a c i r c u i t -
o p e n i n g f u s i b l e p a r t t h a t is h e a t e d a n d s e v e r e d b y t h e p a s s a g e of
o v e r c u r r e n t t h r o u g h i t . T h e t i m e - c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e p e n d s on
t h e r a t i n g a n d t y p e of f u s e . N o n - t i m e - d e l a y f u s e s h a v e no i n t e n -
tional b u i l t - i n time d e l a y . T h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y employed in o t h e r t h a n
motor c i r c u i t s o r in combination with c i r c u i t b r e a k e r s . A c i r c u i t
b r e a k e r p r o v i d e s p r o t e c t i o n in t h e o v e r l o a d c u r r e n t r a n g e , a n d a
f u s e p r o v i d e s p r o t e c t i o n in t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t r a n g e .
T i m e - d e l a y f u s e s h a v e i n t e n t i o n a l b u i l t - i n time d e l a y in t h e o v e r -
load r a n g e . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t e n p e r m i t s t h e selection of f u s e
r a t i n g s c l o s e r to f u l l - l o a d c u r r e n t s . The dual-element time-delay
f u s e is widely u s e d , a s it h a s a d e q u a t e time delay to p e r m i t i t s u s e
a s a motor o v e r c u r r e n t r u n n i n g p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s e f u s e s c a n p r o v i d e
p r o t e c t i o n f o r b o t h motors a n d c i r c u i t s . D i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f u s e s
a r e d i s c u s s e d below. T h e s e f u s e s a r e c o v e r e d b y t h e s t a n d a r d s s u c h
a s ANSI C97.1-1972 a n d ANSI/UL 198.

Low-Voltage Fuses
Fuse Ratings. Low-voltage f u s e s have c u r r e n t , voltage, and
i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s t h a t s h o u l d not b e e x c e e d e d in p r a c t i c a l a p p l i -
c a t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n , some f u s e s a r e also r a t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r
c u r r e n t - l i m i t i n g c a p a b i l i t y a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y NEMA o r UL s t a n d a r d s
a n d d e s i g n a t e d b y c l a s s m a r k i n g on t h e f u s e label ( c l a s s L, K, J ,
etc.). C u r r e n t - l i m i t i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e
maximum p e a k c u r r e c t l e t - t h r o u g h a n d t h e maximum I 2 t l e t - t h r o u g h
of t h e f u s e u p o n c l e a r i n g a f a u l t .
1. Current rating: maximum d i r e c t c u r r e n t o r a l t e r n a t i n g c u r -
r e n t , in a m p e r e s , at r a t e d f r e q u e n c y which it will c a r r y without
e x c e e d i n g s p e c i f i e d limits of t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e . R a n g e s from milli-
a m p e r e s u p to 6000 A.
2. Voltage rating: the alternating- or d i r e c t - c u r r e n t voltage
at which t h e f u s e is d e s i g n a t e d to o p e r a t e . L o w - v o l t a g e f u s e s a r e
g i v e n a v o l t a g e r a t i n g of 600, 300, 250, o r 125 V ac o r dc o r b o t h .
3. Interrupting rating: t h e a s s i g n e d maximum s h o r t - c i r c u i t
c u r r e n t at r a t e d v o l t a g e t h a t t h e f u s e will s a f e l y i n t e r r u p t . Low-
v o l t a g e f u s e s may h a v e an i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g of 10,000, 50,000,
100,000, o r 200,000 A symmetrical r m s . T h e f u s e is g i v e n a sym-
metrical i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g b a s e d on t h e maximum asymmetrical v a l u e
of t h e c u r r e n t f o r t h e f i r s t h a l f - c y c l e a f t e r f a u l t o c c u r r e n c e . For
l o w - v o l t a g e s y s t e m s , t h i s is c o m p u t e d a s 1.4 times t h e symmetrical
fault c u r r e n t .
Power and Switching Equipment 155

4. Current limiting: allows less than available c u r r e n t to flow

into a fault for a relatively low ratio of available to r a t e d c u r r e n t of
t h e f u s e . The design of the f u s e is such that in the current-limiting
r a n g e , a high a r c voltage is developed as a fusible element melts and
t h e c u r r e n t is p r e v e n t e d from reaching the magnitude it otherwise
would. The current-limiting action limits the total e n e r g y flowing
into a fault and t h u s minimizes mechanical and electrical s t r e s s e s in
t h e element of the faulted circuit.

Fuse Classes:

1. NEC categories. The NEC recognizes two principal categories

of f u s e s , p l u g f u s e s and c a r t r i d g e f u s e s . In addition, NEC mentions
the following f u s e s : time-delay, time-lag, c u r r e n t - l i m i t i n g , non-
c u r r e n t - l i m i t i n g , f u s e s over 600 V, and primary f u s e s . Plug f u s e s
a r e rated 125 V and a r e available with c u r r e n t r a t i n g s up to 30 A.
The NEC r e q u i r e s t y p e S f u s e s in all new installations of plug f u s e s
because they are tamper r e s i s t a n t . C a r t r i d g e f u s e s a r e classified b y
NEC in r a t i n g s 0 to 600 A and 601 to 6000 A. All f u s e s recognized
b y the NEC that have an i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g exceeding 10,000 A must
be marked on the f u s e label with t h e designated i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g .
2. UL listings. In conjunction with NEMA, UL has established
s t a n d a r d s for the classification of f u s e s by letter r a t h e r than b y
t y p e . The class letter may designate i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g , physical
dimensions, d e g r e e of c u r r e n t limitation (maximum peak l e t - t h r o u g h
c u r r e n t ) , and maximum clearing e n e r g y ( I 2 t ) u n d e r specific test con-
ditions or a combination of these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Descriptions of
these classes follow.
a. Class G fuses (0 to 60 A). These are miniature f u s e s
rated at 300 V, developed primarily for use on 480/277-V systems
for connection phase to g r o u n d . These f u s e s a r e available in
r a t i n g s u p to 60 A, and c a r r y an i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g of 100,000
A symmetrical rms. Case sizes for 15, 20, 30, and 60 A are each
of a d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h . Class G f u s e s a r e time-delay f u s e s , having
a minimum time delay of 12 s at 200% of their c u r r e n t r a t i n g .
b . Class Η fuses (0 to 600 A). These a r e rated at 250
or 600 V. Class Η f u s e s still have thei r place in residential and
small commercial u s e , b u t for the most p a r t they are inadequate
for the i n d u s t r i a l u s e . Their i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g is only 10,000
A. Class Η f u s e s are either nonrenewable or renewable. Re-
newable f u s e s can be taken apart a f t e r i n t e r r u p t i n g a circuit
and t h e fusible zinc link replaced.
c . Class J fuses (0 to 600 A). The main advantage of
the class J f u s e is that it provides c u r r e n t limitation and high
i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity in a much smaller physical package than
class Η and class K. This p r e v e n t s class Η f u s e s to be installed
156 Chapter 6

in f u s e h o l d e r s designed for class J f u s e s . Class J f u s e s have

an i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g of 200,000 A. They are available only in
600-V r a t i n g s , but can be applied on 208/120-V and 480/277-V
systems.
d. Class Κ fuses (0 to 600 A). Class Κ f u s e s were de-
veloped to permit class Η f u s e installation to be u p g r a d e d by
replacing the existing f u s e s with current-limiting f u s e s . Class
Κ f u s e s are avilable in voltage r a t i n g s of 250 and 600 V and in
single- and dual-element v e r s i o n s . I n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g choices
are 50,000, 100,000, and 200,000 A symmetrical rms. Class Κ
f u s e s are o f f e r e d in t h r e e d e g r e e s of c u r r e n t limitation, K l ,
K5, and K9, with Kl having the greatest current-limiting ability
and Κ9 the least. Class Κ f u s e s are r e q u i r e d b y UL to have a
minimum time delay of 10 s at 500% of rated c u r r e n t .
e. Class L fuses (601 to 6000 A). Class L f u s e s have
specific physical dimensions and b o l t - t y p e terminals. They are
rated 600 V and c a r r y an i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g of 200,000 A sym-
metrical rms. Class L f u s e s are current-limiting and UL has
specified maximum values of peak l e t - t h r o u g h c u r r e n t and I 2 t
f o r each r a t i n g . S t a n d a r d s for time-delay characteristics have
not been established for class L f u s e s . Most available f u s e s have
a minimum time delay of 4.5 s at 500% of rated c u r r e n t .
3. Cable limiters. Cable limiters a r e used in multiple-cable cir-
cuits to provide s h o r t - c i r c u i t protection for cables. They are r a t e d
up to 600 V, with i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s as high as 200,000 A summetri-
cal rms. They are rated in accordance with cable sizes ( i . e . , 4/0,
500MCM, e t c . ) and have numerous t y p e s of terminations. These
limiters are designed to provide s h o r t - c i r c u i t protection for cables.
They are used primarily in low-voltage networks or in service e n t r a n c e
circuits where more than two cables p e r phase are b r o u g h t into a
switchboard. The limiter does not have the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s associated
with f u s e s , b u t will limit the extent of fault while p r e s e r v i n g service
to t h e balance of the system.

Medium- and High-Voltage Fuses

Medium- and high-voltage f u s e s are used in the industrial and com-

mercial power distribution systems. Applicable s t a n d a r d s are ANSI
C37.46-1981 and NEMA SG2-1981. Power f u s e s are identified by the
following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

1. Dielectric withstand (BIL) s t r e n g t h s at power levels

2. Application primarily in stations and s u b s t a t i o n s .
3. Mechanical construction basically adapted to station and s u b -
station mountings
Power and Switching Equipment 157

A power f u s e consists of a f u s e support plus a f u s e u n i t , or

alternately a f u s e holder that accepts a refill unit or f u s e link. The
two basic t y p e s of power f u s e s are expulsion type and current-limit-
ing t y p e .

Expulsion Power Fuses. This t y p e of power f u s e i n t e r r u p t s

o v e r c u r r e n t s t h r o u g h the deionizing action of the gases liberated
from the lining of the i n t e r r u p t i n g chamber of t h e f u s e b y the heat
of the arc established when the fusible element melts. It p o s s e s s e s
o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s similar to those of a distribution c u t o u t .
This t y p e of f u s e h a s been r e s t r i c t e d to outdoor u s a g e , and generally
to substations remotely located from human habitation.
The limited i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity of the early expulsion power
f u s e s and their inability to be used within buildings led to the de-
velopment in the United States of a new boric-acid or solid-material
f u s e . This new t y p e of f u s e permitted a great expansion in the use
of power f u s e s in utility, i n d u s t r i a l , and commercial power d i s t r i b u -
tion systems. They a r e available in two styles: the f u s e unit style
and the f u s e h o l d e r and refill unit style. The former is used p r i -
marily outdoors at subtransmission voltages: 100, 200, and 300 A
maximum at 34.5, 46, and 69 kV, and 100, 250 A at 115 and 138 kV.
The latter is used either indoors or outdoors in c o n t i n u o u s - c u r r e n t
r a t i n g s of 200, 400, and 720 A maximum for voltages up to 14.4 kV,
and of 200 and 300 A maximum for voltages at 23 and 34.5 kV.

Current-Limiting Power Fuses. These f u s e s have t h r e e f e a t u r e s

that have led to t h e i r extensive usage on high-capacity medium- and
high-voltage power distribution c i r c u i t s :

1. I n t e r r u p t i o n of o v e r c u r r e n t is accomplished quickly without the

expulsion of a r c p r o d u c t s . This enables this t y p e of f u s e to be
used indoors or in enclosures of small size.
2. Current-limiting action may r e d u c e t h e s t r e s s e s and possible
damage to the circuit up to the fault or to the faulted equipment
itself. In the case of current-limiting f u s e s used with a h i g h -
voltage motor s t a r t e r , the contactor is only r e q u i r e d to have
momentary-current and m a k i n g - c u r r e n t capabilities equal to the
maximum l e t - t h r o u g h c u r r e n t of t h e largest c u r r e n t r a t i n g of
f u s e that is to be used in the s t a r t e r .
3. Very high i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s are achieved by v i r t u e of its
current-limiting action so that they can be applied on medium-
or high-voltage distribution circuits of v e r y high s h o r t - c i r c u i t
capacity.

Current-limiting power f u s e s are suitable for the protection of

potential t r a n s f o r m e r s , auxiliary power t r a n s f o r m e r s , small power
Table 8.1 P r e f e r r e d R a t i n g s f o r Indoor Oil-less Circuit B r e a k e r s
μ—ι
Related Required Capabilities Οΐ
00
Current Values
Gosing
Rated Values Max 3-Second and
Symmet- Short- Latching
rical Time Capa-
Rated Transient Inter- Current bility
Rated Short- Recovery rupting Carrying 1.6 Κ
Voltage Insulation Level Capability Capability Times
Contin- Circuit Voltage Rated
Rated Per- Rated (8) (9) Rated
Rated Rated Withstand uous Current
Rated Voltage Test Voltage Current (at Rated Inter- missible Max Κ Times Rated Short-
Max Range at Rated Time to rupting Tripping Voltage Circuit
Short-Circuit
Voltage Factor, Low Impulse 60 Hz Max kV) Point Ρ Time Delay Divided Current
Current
Line (1) Κ Frequency (3) (4) (5) (6) 72(11) (7) Y by Κ (9)(10)
No. kV, rms (2) kV, rms kV, Crest Amperes, rms kA, rms MS Cycles Seconds kV, rms kA, rms kA, rms kA, rms

Col Col Col Col Col Col Col Col Col Col Col Col Col
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

! 4.76 1.36 19 60 1200 8.8 5 2 3.5 12 12 19

2 4.76 1.24 19 60 1200 29 5 2 3.85 36 36 58
3 4.76 1.24 19 60 2000 29 5 2 3.85 36 36 58
4 4.76 1.19 19 60 1200 41 5 2 4.0 49 49 78
5 4.76 1.19 19 60 2000 41 5 2 4.0 49 49 78
6 4.76 1.19 19 60 3000 41 5 2 4.0 49 49 78
7 8.25 1.25 36 95 1200 33 5 2 6.6 41 41 66
8 8.25 1.25 36 95 2000 33 5 2 6.6 41 41 66
9 15.0 1.30 36 95 1200 18 5 2 11.5 23 23 37
10 15.0 1.30 36 95 2000 18 5 2 11.5 23 23 37
11 15.0 1.30 36 95 1200 28 5 2 11.5 36 36 58
12 15.0 1.30 36 95 2000 28 5 2 11.5 36 36 58
13 15.0 1.30 36 95 1200 37 5 2 11.5 48 48 77
14 15.0 1.30 36 95 2000 37 5 2 11.5 48 48 77
15 15.0 1.30 36 95 3000 37 5 2 11.5 48 48 77
16 38.0 1.65 80 150 1200 21 5 2 23.0 35 35 56
17 38.0 1.65 80 150 2000 21 5 2 23.0 35 35 56
18 38.0 1.65 80 150 3000 21 5 2 23.0 35 35 56 Ο
19 38.0 1.0 80 150 1200 40 5 2 38.0 40 40 64 ^
20 38.0 1.0 80 150 3000 40 5 2 38.0 40 40 64 Ω
Ό
Notes to Table 8.1: T h e s e r a t i n g s were p r e p a r e d b y EEI-AEIC-NEMA Join t Committe e o n Powe r Circui t
B r e a k e r s . T h e i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s a r e f o r 60-Hz s y s t e m s . C u r r e n t value s h a v e bee n r o u n d e d of f t o Ο ο
t h e n e a r e s t kiloamper e (kA) excep t belo w 10 kA , wher e tw o s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s a r e u s e d .
 1. The voltage rating is based on American National Standard Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Sys-
tems and Equipment (60 Hz), ANSI C84.1-1982, where applicable, and is the maximum voltage for ^
which the b r e a k e r is designed and the u p p e r limit for operation. ^
2. The rated voltage range factor, K, is the ratio of rated maximum voltage to the lower limit of the λ
range of operating voltage in which the r e q u i r e d symmetrical and asymmetrical c u r r e n t i n t e r r u p t i n g
capabilities v a r y in inverse proportion to the operating voltage.
3. 1.2 χ 50 μ s positive and negative wave. All impulse values are p h a s e - t o - p h a s e and phase-to-
ground and across the open contacts. i
4. The 25-Hz continuous-current ratings in amperes are given herewith following the respective 60-Hz £
r a t i n g : 600-700; 1200-1400; 2000-2250; 3000-3500. £
5. To obtain the required symmetrical c u r r e n t i n t e r r u p t i n g capability of a circuit b r e a k e r at an operat- cq
ing voltage between 1/K times rated maximum voltage and rated maximum voltage, the following for- ^
mula is u s e d : . , , . , ^
required symmetrical rated maximum voltage
c u r r e n t i n t e r r u p t i n g capability = rated short-circuit c u r r e n t χ operatin g voltage 3
§
For operating voltages below 1/K times rated maximum voltage, the r e q u i r e d symmetrical c u r r e n t ^
i n t e r r u p t i n g capability of the circuit b r e a k e r is equal to Κ times rate d short-circuit c u r r e n t .
6. With the limitation stated in Section 5.10 of ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979, all values apply for polyphase
and line-to-line faults. For single p h a s e - t o - g r o u n d f a u l t s , the specific conditions stated in Section
5.10.2.3 of ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979 apply.
7. The r a t i n g s in this column are on a 60-Hz basis and are the maximum time interval to be expected
d u r i n g a b r e a k e r opening operation between the instant of energizing the trip circuit and i n t e r r u p -
tion of the main circuit on the primary arcing contacts u n d e r certain specified conditions. The
values may be exceeded under certain conditions as specified in Section 5.7 of ANSI/IEEE C37.04-
1979.
8. C u r r e n t values in this column are not to be exceeded even for operating below 1/K times
rated maximum voltage. For voltages between rated maximum voltage and 1/K times rated maxi-
mum voltage, follow item 5.
9. C u r r e n t values in this column are independent of operating voltage up to and including rated maxi-
mum voltage.
10. If c u r r e n t s are to be expressed in peak amperes, multiply values in this column by a factor of 1.69,
which is a ratio of 2 . 7 / 1 . 6 . κα
11. The rated values for Τ 2 are not standardized for indoor oil-less circuit b r e a k e r s ; however, Ε2 =
1.88 times rated maximum voltage.
160 Chapter 6

t r a n s f o r m e r s , and capacitor b a n k s for systems up to 34.5 kV. C u r -

rent-limiting power f u s e s are available in various f r e q u e n c y , voltage,
and c o n t i n u o u s - c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacities, and with i n t e r r u p t s r a t -
ings that conform to t h e s t a n d a r d s , ANSI/IEEE C37.40-1981, ANSI/
IEEE C37.41-1981, ANSI/IEEE C37.46-1981, and ANSI/IEEE C37.47-1981.

8.2.3 Circuit Breakers

A circuit b r e a k e r is a device designed to open and close a circuit by

nonautomatic means, and to open the circuit automatically on a p r e -
determined overload of c u r r e n t when p r o p e r l y applied within its r a t i n g
without damage to itself. The i n t e r r u p t i n g waves and momentary r a t i n g s
of a circuit b r e a k e r must be equal to or g r e a t e r than t h e available system
s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s . Power circuit b r a k e r s are used extensively on
utility and on industrial power distribution systems (over 600 V) and on
i n d u s t r i a l and commercial systems predominantly 600 V and below to p r o -
vide essential switching flexibility and circuit protection. Circuit b r e a k -
e r s are available for the entire voltage r a n g e and may be provided single- ,
d o u b l e - , or triple-pole, and a r r a n g e d for indoor or outdoor u s e . Circuit
b r e a k e r s above 34.5 kV services are generally available only for outdoor
application. Various t y p e s of circuit b r e a k e r s are discussed in detail
below.

Circuit Breakers over 600 V

In applying circuit b r e a k e r s over 600 V, the rated close and latch
and i n t e r r u p t i n g c u r r e n t capabilities are v e r y important factors and
should be considered c a r e f u l l y . The close and latch capability is a
measure of t h e e q u i p m e n t s ability to withstand the mechanical s t r e s s e s
p r o d u c e d by the asymmetrical s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t
cycle without mechanical damage, and is normally e x p r e s s e d as total
rms c u r r e n t . An asymmetrical c u r r e n t is a dc component superim-
posed on an ac component. The dc component decays with time de-
p e n d i n g on the X/R ratio of the circuit. The initial value of the dc
component of the s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t d e p e n d s on the point of the
normal voltage wave at which the fault o c c u r s . Application data are
given in ANSI/IEEE C37. 010-1979.
For the r a t i n g of power circuit b r e a k e r s in the over-600 V class,
r e f e r to ANSI C37.06-1979. Circuit b r e a k e r s c u r r e n t l y being manu-
f a c t u r e d are r a t e d on the symmetrical b a s i s . In specifying these
circuit b r e a k e r s , considerations should be given to the related values
and r e q u i r e d capabilities listed as headings in Table 8.1. This table
lists p r e f e r r e d r a t i n g s for indoor oil-less circuit b r e a k e r s . These
r a t i n g s are applicable for services at altitudes up to 3300 f t . For
services above that altitude, d e r a t i n g f a c t o r s must be applied in
accordance with ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979. Table 8.2 lists several
altitude correction factors (ACFs). Table 8.3 lists p r e f e r r e d r a t i n g s
Power and Switching Equipment 161

for outdoor oil-less circuit b r e a k e r s . Different t y p e s of power circuit

b r e a k e r s are discussed in f u r t h e r detail below.

Air-Magnetic Circuit Breakers. Power circuit b r e a k e r s used for

applications t h r o u g h 15 kV are predominantly of t h e air-magnetic
t y p e , with increasing use of vacuum i n t e r r u p t e r s and some SF t y p e s .
For voltages above 15 kV, the available t y p e s of circuit b r e a k e r s
include oil, compressed air or g a s , and vacuum i n t e r r u p t e r s .

Vacuum-Interrupter Circuit Breakers. In general, vacuum power

circuit b r e a k e r s are applied in accordance with the specific continuous
and s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t requirements in the same manner as air-
magnetic circuit b r e a k e r s . However, vacuum i n t e r r u p t e r s do have
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that are d i f f e r e n t from air-magnetic circuit b r e a k e r s .
Vacuum i n t e r r u p t e r s will force a p r e m a t u r e c u r r e n t zero b y opening
the circuit in an unusually short time. When this o c c u r s , a h i g h e r -
then-normal t r a n s i e n t recovery voltage can impose excessive dielec-
tric s t r e s s on t h e equipment connected, which could fail as a r e s u l t .
Experimental vacuum i n t e r r u p t e r s were pioneered in the 1920s.
Modern vacuum i n t e r r u p t e r s were placed in service in the early 1960s.
Since t h e n , t h o u s a n d s have been o p e r a t i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y . These u n i t s
a r e r a t e d from 4.16 kV/250 mVA t h r o u g h 13.8 kV/1000 mVA nominal
at 1200, 2000, and 3000 A. These vacuum i n t e r r u p t e r s are compact,
r e d u c i n g the size and weight of the circuit b r e a k e r and t h e switch-
g e a r . I n t e r r u p t i o n is fast and silent, and no a r c p r o d u c t s are r e -
leased. The high-vacuum seal p r o t e c t s the contacts from e x p o s u r e
to the pollutants to p r e v e n t i n t e r r u p t i o n s from being affected by the
environment. Figure 8.2 shows a typical v a c u u m - i n t e r r u p t e d circuit
b r e a k e r with explicit view of its inside c o n s t r u c t i o n . A vacuum
i n t e r r u p t e r r e q u i r e s less maintenance because it is sealed in a h i g h -
vacuum environment f r e e from contamination. Use of a vacuum i n t e r -
r u p t e r avoids the special equipment needed to p u r i f y the i n t e r r u p t i n g
medium used in SFg and oil switchgear d e s i g n .

SFq Interrupter Circuit Breakers. T h e f i r s t 550 k V breakers

installed in the United States in 1964 used t y p e SF i n t e r r u p t e r mod-
ules filled with s u l f u r hexafluoride (SFg) gas as a dielectric and
i n t e r r u p t i n g medium. The i n t e r r u p t i n g module, the basic b r e a k e r
component has two sets of serially connected c o n t a c t s , as shown in
Figure 8.3. The moving c o n t a c t s , mounted on opposite e n d s of a
r o c k e r arm, engage and disengage stationary contacts as the r o c k e r
arm is rotated about its axis. The rocker arm assembly is linked to
t h e b r e a k e r mechanism by an operating r o d . When the b r e a k e r is
in the closed position, the operating rod is held in tension b y a
c h a r g e d torsion b a r in the module and a latch in t h e mechanism.
The force of a permanent magnet k e e p s the mechanism latched. When
162 Chapter 6

Table 8.2 Altitude Correction F a c t o r s 8

ACF f o r
Altitude ACF f o r continuous
[ft (m)] voltages^ current

3300 (1000) 1.00 1.00

5000 (1500) 0.95 0.99

10000 (3000) 0.80 0.96

i n t e r p o l a t e d values a r e used in determining correction factors for

intermediate altitudes.
^ F o r some t y p e s of circuit b r e a k e r s ( e . g . , those with sealed i n t e r -
r u p t e r s ) , it may not be n e c e s s a r y to apply t h e ACF for voltage to
r a t e d maximum voltage. The m a n u f a c t u r e r should be consulted.

t h e h i g h - s p e e d t r i p coil is e n e r g i z e d , the r e s u l t i n g flux d e c r e a s e s

t h e holding force of the permanent magnet, t h e r e b y unlatching t h e
mechanism and allowing t h e c h a r g e d torsion b a r to rotate the r o c k e r
arm assembly. This action simultaneously opens a gas blast valve
mounted in t h e h u b of the r o c k e r arm. H i g h - p r e s s u r e SFg gas is
released from the auxiliary r e s e r v o i r , t h r o u g h the hollow rocker arm,
t h r o u g h t h e t u b u l a r moving and stationary c o n t a c t s , and into t h e
module t a n k . As an arc is produced when t h e contacts of each b r e a k
s e p a r a t e , t h e gas flow t r a n s f e r s the arc from t h e f i n g e r s to an arc-
ing h o r n to minimize a r c erosion of t h e members that c a r r y continuous
c u r r e n t . The electronegative SF6 gas a b s o r b s electron from the arc
d i s c h a r g e and extinguished the a r c . The blast valve is reset f o r t h e
next opening operation. The entire sequence is carried out in less
than 2 cycles.
The development of a removable b r e a k e r element for 23 to 34.5
kV service makes it possible to use metal-clad switchgear. The
b r e a k e r element is a s i n g l e - p r e s s u r e d e a d - t a n k SFg circuit b r e a k e r
that u s e s the fault c u r r e n t to drive a p u f f e r element magnetically,
forcing SFg gas t h r o u g h the a r c . The b r e a k e r h a s an i n t e r r u p t i n g
capacity of 1500 mVA and an i n t e r r u p t i n g time of t h r e e cycles. Con-
tinuous c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacities a r e 1200 and 3000 A. A p u f f e r
i n t e r r u p t e r consists essentially of a pair of c o n t a c t s , a p i s t o n , and
a c y l i n d e r , all mounted in a r e s e r v o i r containing a suitable i n t e r r u p t -
i n g g a s . When the contacts a r e s e p a r a t e d , the piston moves in t h e
cylinder to drive gas t h r o u g h t h e arc and i n t e r r u p t i t .
Use of SFg gas as both t h e insulating and i n t e r r u p t i n g medium
in t h e circuit b r e a k e r s a f f o r d s several side a d v a n t a g e s .
 ο
Ξ
TO
β

α
Co
g

Table 8 . 3 P r e f e r r e d Ratings f o r Outdoor Oil-less Circuit B r e a k e r s ^ο

5'
Related Required Capabilities CQ

Current Values Cq
£
Gosing
Rated Values Max 3-Second and Ό
Symmet- Short- Latching 3
Current rical Time TO
Transient Capa-
Rated
Rated Inter* Current bility Γ-+
Recovery rupting Carrying
Voltage Insulation Level Rated
Rated Short-
Short- Voltage 1.6 JC
Contin-
Contin- Circui
Circuitt Rated
Rated Capability Capability Times
Rated Rated Withstand uous Current Rated Rated Per- Rated (8) (9) Rated
Rated Voltage Test Voltage Current (at lime to Inter- missible Max Κ Times Rated Short-
Max Range at Rated Point/» rupting Tripping Voltage Short-Circuit Circuit
Voltage Factor, Low Impulse 60 Hz Max kV) T2 Time Delay Divided Current Current
Line (1)* Κ Frequency (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Y by Κ (9) (10)
Να kV, rms (2) kV, rms kV, Crest Amperes, rms kA, rms MS Cycles Seconds kV, rms kA, rms kA, rms kA, rms
CoL CoL CoL CoL CoL Col. CoL Col. Col. CoL Col. CoL CoL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1 38 1.65 1200 22 63 5 2 23 36 36 58
2 72.5 1.10 See Table 6 2000 37 97 3 2 66 41 41 65

*See n o t e s p . 159.

1
Co
164 Chapter 6

Figure 8.2 A v a c u u m - i n t e r r u p t e r circuit b r e a k e r ( c o u r t e s y of

Westinghouse Electric C o r p o r a t i o n ) .
 ο
£
α>
ο
a
Capacitor. CO
I
Resistor C o n t a t : οJ
5'

Moving
Λ
Stationary Contact
c
Contact—• \
-5'
3
Bias!
Valve
Rocker Arm

#///// ///////
Resistor ' Resistor,
/ / / / / /
Gas
- flow
• Arc H o r n Torsi o n - B a r
Arc Chamber Accelerating Spring
Fingers

Operating Rod

μ-*

Diagra m of th e SFg i n t e r r u p t e r module. Oi

Figure 8. 3 tn
166 Chapter 10

The entire gas system is closed to the atmosphere, eliminating

continual maintenance of costly h i g h - p r e s s u r e air supply and d r y e r
systems that air-blast b r e a k e r s require to remove condensate. Air-
blast b r e a k e r s also require special sumps in the earth and external
piping to handle moisture and oil residue from the compressor blow-
down.

Oil Circuit Breakers. The ?Tde-ionTT grid i n t e r r u p t e r s used on

these b r e a k e r s consist of a stack of h o r n - f i b e r plates arranged to
provide orifice plates, oil pockets, and exhaust vents in such a man-
ner that efficient high-speed arc interruption is effected. When the
contacts part on a faulted operation, the heat of the arc causes the
oil in the pockets to disintegrate and form nonionized gas particles.
The p r e s s u r e built up inside the grid provides a turbulent action
that causes these nonionized particles to mix with the ionized particles
in the arc stream and at the same time forces this mixture through
the orifice plates and out the exhaust vents to cause rapid deioniza-
tion of the arc stream. When sufficient dielectric strength is estab-
lished between the separating contacts to withstand the system re-
covery voltage, the arc will be extinguished at the next current zero.
Figure 8.4 shows a 14.4 kV 600 A continuous-current 250 mVA
i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity de-ion grid oil circuit breaker installed in the
switchyard of an industrial plant. A control cabinet is mounted on
the front of the frame, which supports the oil circuit b r e a k e r . The
cabinet houses all control components for the circuit b r e a k e r . The
shunt trip magnet is used to trip the breaker electrically. It may
be equipped with a coil for dc, ac, or capacitor tripping. When the
shunt trip magnet is energized, the core is drawn up into the magnet
yoke. A plunger attached to the core strikes the trip level directly
above i t , which disengages the primary latch to trip the b r e a k e r .
Figure 8.5 shows a typical ac trip control diagram for this type of
oil circuit b r e a k e r . Table 8.4 lists p r e f e r r e d ratings for outdoor oil
circuit b r e a k e r s .

Circuit Breakers 600 V and Below

Circuit b r e a k e r s rated 600 V and below have traditionally been divided
into two types: power circuit b r e a k e r s , sometimes known as metal
frame b r e a k e r s , and molded-case circuit b r e a k e r s .

Power Circuit Breakers. Power circuit breakers 600 V and below

are open-construction assemblies on metal frames with all p a r t s de-
signed for accessible maintenance, repair, and ease of replacement.
Tripping units are field adjustable over a wide range and interchange-
able within their frame sizes. The tripping units used have been the
electromegnetic overcurrent direct-acting type; however, solid-state
tripping units are also available from most manufacturers and are
Power and Switching Equipment 167

widely used today. With both electromagnetic and solid-state t r i p s ,

they can provide the following types of protection: long-time over-
c u r r e n t , short-time o v e r c u r r e n t , and short circuit. Trip units can
be specified to include any combination of these three forms of pro-
tection. With solid-state u n i t s , ground-fault protection can also be
provided without recourse to external relays.
Power circuit b r e a k e r s 600 V and below can be used with integral
current-limiting f u s e s in drawout construction to meet i n t e r r u p t i n g
c u r r e n t requirements up to 200,000 A symmetrical rms. In c u r r e n t
design, 600 V and below air circuit breaker contacts often begin to
part during the first cycle of short-circuit c u r r e n t , but have a

TT
Figure 8.4 14.4 kV, 600 A, de~ionTt grid oil circuit b r e a k e r .
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Figure 8.5 A typical AC trip control diagram for the de-ionTT grid
0 . C. B.

168
 ο
S
0^3
G
α
Table 8. 4 P r e f e r r e d Rating s for Outdoo r Oil Circui t Breaker s COo
!
C-f
Related Required Capabilities οjy
Current Values 5'
Closing
Rated Values Max 3-Second and tq
Symmet- Short- Latching
rO
Current rical Tune C
Transient Capa- Ό
Rated Inter- Current bility 3
Recovery rupting Carrying
Voltage Insulation Level Rated Short- Voltage 1.6* TO
Contin- Circuit Rated Capability Capability Times 3
Rated Rated Withstand uous Current Rated Rated Per- Rated (8) (9) Rated
Rated Voltage Test Voltage Current (at Time to Inter- missible Max Κ Times Rated Short-
Max Range at Rated Point Ρ rupting Tripping Voltage Short-Circuit Circuit
Voltage Factor, Low Impulse 60 Hz Max kV) T2 Time Delay Divided Current Current
Line (1)* Κ Frequency (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Y by Κ (9) (10)
No. kV, rms (2) kV, rms kV, Crest Amperes, rms kA, rms MS Cycles Seconds kV, rms kA, rms kA, rms kA, rms
CoL Col. CoL CoL CoL Col. CoL Col. CoL CoL Col. CoL Col.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1 15.5 167 600 8.9 36 5 2 5.8 24 24 38
2 15.5 1.29 1200 18 33 5 2 12 23 23 37
3 25.8 115 1200 11 52 5 2 12 24 24 38
4 38 1.65 1200 22 63 5 2 23 36 36 58
5 48.3 1.21 1200 17 80 5 2 40 21 21 33
6 72.5 1.21 1200 19 106 5 2 60 23 23 37

*See note s ρ . 159.

CO
170 Chapter 10

multicycle total clearing time. Therefore, these b r e a k e r s should be

designed to interrupt the maximum available quarter-cycle asymmetri-
cal c u r r e n t . However, since these b r e a k e r s are rated on a symmetri-
cal c u r r e n t basis, the need for applying dc offset multipliers to
determine their i n t e r r u p t i n g rating is eliminated. Caution should be
taken when the air circuit b r e a k e r s are supplied with short-time de-
lay t r i p s because an increase in short-circuit stress on the breaker
could result in extensive damage if withstand ratings were exceeded.
The manufacturer's literature should be consulted.
Power circuit b r e a k e r s 600 V and below can be applied on a sym-
metrical basis if the system X/R ratio does not exceed 6.6. If the
system X/R is higher, the asymmetrical capability in the pole of the
circuit b r e a k e r having maximum offset s u r r e n t should be checked
against the maximum phase asymmetrical c u r r e n t available at the cir-
cuit b r e a k e r location.
All circuit b r e a k e r s must be capable of closing, c a r r y i n g , and
i n t e r r u p t i n g the highest fault current within its rating at that loca-
tion. It is important for the system design engineers to select a cir-
cuit b r e a k e r whose i n t e r r u p t i n g rating at the circuit voltage is equal
to or greater than the available short-circuit current at the point of
installation. The significance of short-circuit selection of circuit
b r e a k e r s rated 600 V and below is covered in great detail in Chapter
5.
Manufacturers' publications give specific information on mechani-
cal and electrical features of cirucit b r e a k e r s rated 600 V and below.
Tables 8.5 and 8.6 show standard ratings for power circuit b r e a k e r s
rated 600 V and below and molded-case circuit b r e a k e r s . For ser-
vice at altitudes above 6600 ft above sea level, derating factors must
be applied in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C37.13-1981.

Molded-Case Circuit Breakers. A molded-case circuit breaker

based on NEMA AB1-1975 is a switching device and an automatic
protective device assembled in an integral housing of insulating mate-
rial. These b r e a k e r s are generally capable of clearing a fault more
rapidly than do power circuit b r e a k e r s and are available in the follow-
ing general types:

1. Thermal-magnetic. This type uses thermal tripping for overloads

and instantaneous magnetic tripping for short circuits. They are
the most widely applicable molded-case circuit b r e a k e r s .
2. Magnetic. This type uses only instantaneous magnetic tripping
where only short-circuit interruption is r e q u i r e d .
3. Integrally fused. This type combines regular thermal-magnetic
protection against overloads and lower value short-circuit faults
with current-limiting f u s e s responding to higher short-circuit
c u r r e n t s . Interlocks are usually provided to ensure safe and
proper operation.
Table 8. 5 P r e f e r r e d Rating s for Low-Voltag e AC Power Circuit Breakers with Instantaneous Direct-Act -
in g Phase Trip Element s (See ANSI/IEEE C37.13-1981 ) -α
ο
Ξ
Range of Trip-Device Current Ratings TO
(amperes) -s
Three-Phase Ω
Short-Circuit Current Setting of Short-Time-Delay Trip Element Λ
Rated Insulation Rating or Short-Time
System Nominal Maximum (Dielectric) Current Rating Minimum Intermediate Maximum 00
Line Voltage Voltage Withstand (symmetrical Frame Size Time Time Time I
No (volts) (volts) (volts) amperes) *+ (amperes) Band Band Band ο
jy
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Col 6 Col 7 Col 8 5'
1 600 635 2200 14 000 225 100-225 125-225 150-225
2 600 635 2200 22 000 600 175-600 200-600 250-600
tq
-ο
£
3 600 635 2200 22 000 800 175-800 200-800 250-800
4 600 635 2200 42 000 1600 350-1600 400-1600 500-1600 -α
5 600 635 2200 42 000 2000 350-2000 400-2000 500-2000
6 600 635 2200 65 000 3000 2000-3000 2000-3000 2000-3000
TO
7 600 635 2200 85 000 4000 4000 4000 4000 2.
8 480 508 2200 14 000 225 100-225 125-225 150-225
9 480 508 2200 22 000 600 175-600 200-600 250-600
10 480 508 2200 22 000 800 175-800 200-800 250-800
11 480 508 2200 42 000 1600 350-1600 400-1600 500-1600
12 480 508 2200 50 000 2000 350-2000 400-2000 500-2000
13 480 508 2200 65 000 3000 2000-3000 2000-3000 2000-3000
14 480 508 2200 85 000 4000 4000 4000 4000
15 240 254 2200 14 000 225 100-225 125-225 150-225
16 240 254 2200 22 000 600 175-600 200-600 250-600
17 240 254 2200 22 000 800 175-800 200-800 250-800
18 240 254 2200 42 000 1600 350-1600 400-1600 500-1600
19 240 254 2200 50 000 2000 350-2000 400-2000 500-2000
20 240 254 2200 65 000 3000 2000-3000 2000-3000 2000-3000
21 240 254 2200 85 000 4000 4000 4000 4000

• S h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t r a t i n g s f o r circuit breakers w i t h o u t d i r e c t - a c t i n g trip d e v i c e s , o p e n e d b y a r e m o t e relay, are t h e s a m e as t h o s e

listed here.
t S i n g l e - p h a s e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t r a t i n g s ar e 8 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e v a l u e s .

Thi s materia l is reproduced wit h permission fro m America n National Standar d Preferre d Ratings, Relate d Requirements , an d Applicatio n
Recommendation s fo r Low-Voltag e Powe r Circui t Breakers an d A C Powe r Circui t Protectors, ANSI C37.16-1980 , copyrigh t 198 0 b y th e America n ^
National Standard s Institute . Copies o f thi s standar d ma y be purchase d fro m ANSI, 143 0 Broadway , Ne w York, NY 10018 .
Table 8. 6 P r e f e r r e d Rating s fo r Low-Voltage AC Power Circui t Breaker s Without Instantaneous -SI
Direct-Acting Phas e Trip Element s (Short - Time-Dela y Elemen t o r Remot e Relay) (See ANSI/IEE E to
C37.13-1981)
Three-Phase Short-Circuit Range of
System Nominal Rated Maximum Insulation Current Rating, Trip-Device
Line Voltage Voltage (Dielectric) Withstand Symmetrical Frame Size Current Ratings
No. (volts) (volts) (volts) (amperes)* (amperes) (amperes)

Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Col 6

1 600 635 2200 14 000 225 40-225

2 600 635 2200 22 000 600 40-600
3 600 635 2200 42 000 1600 200-1600
4 600 635 2200 42 000 2000 200-2000
5 600 635 2200 65 000 3000 2000-3000
6 600 635 2200 85 000 4000 4000
7 480 508 2200 22 000 225 40-2 25
8 480 508 2200 30 000 600 100-600
9 480 508 2200 50 000 1600 400-1600
10 480 508 2200 50 000 2000 400-2000
11 480 508 2200 65 000 3000 2000-3000
12 480 508 2200 85 000 4000 4000
13 240 254 2200 25 000 225 40-225
14 240 254 2200 42 000 600 150-600
15 240 254 2200 65 000 1600 600-1600
16 240 254 2200 65 000 2000 600-2000
17 240 254 2200 85 000 3000 2000-3000
18 240 254 2200 130 000 4000 4000

•Single-phase short-circuit current ratings are 87% of these values. Ο

This material is reproduced with permission from American National Standard Preferred Ratings, Related Requirements, and Ο
Application Recommendations for Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breakers and AC Power Circuit Protectors, ANSI C37.16 1980, Ό
Γ-+.

copyright 1980 by the American National Standards Institute. Copies of this standard may be purchased from ANSI 1430 Broad- TO
way, New York, NY 10018. 00
Power and Switching Equipment 173

4. High interrupting capacity. This fuseless type provides inter-

rupting· capacities for higher short-circuit c u r r e n t s than does
standard construction of contacts and mechanism, plus a special
high-impact molded casing.
5. Current-limiting. This type provides high i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity
protection, and it limits let-through current and energy to a
value significantly lower than the corresponding value for a con-
ventional molded-case circuit b r e a k e r . Restoration of services
is possible by resetting without replacement of any fusible ele-
ments or other p a r t s .

Molded-case circuit breakers are not designed to be maintained

in the field as are power circuit b r e a k e r s . They are mostly sealed
to prevent tampering. Manufacturers recommend total replacement if
a defect a p p e a r s . The larger sizes are not suitable for repetitive
switching. The newer-style molded-case circuit breaker incorporates
a new type of solid-state trip circuitry mounted with the associated
c u r r e n t monitors inside the breaker case. They are physically and
electrically interchangeable with conventional molded-case circuit
b r e a k e r s of the same frame sizes. Different continuous-current r a t -
ings are easily obtained for those b r e a k e r s merely by changing the
rating plug.
Figure 8.6 shows such a breaker with replaceable plugs within a
certain frame size. Conventional thermal-magnetic b r e a k e r s have two
ranges of operation. The thermal trip range provides a nonadjustable
inverse time-current trip characteristic with delays of seconds to
minutes, depending on the magnitude of the overload. The magnetic
trip range provides instantaneous trip at a preset current level,
typically 5 to 10 times the trip units continuous-current rating.
The new-style circuit breakers have three ranges of operation:
the long-delay, magnetic (or s h o r t - d e l a y ) , and instantaneous trip
r a n g e s . The magnetic trip range provides a short delay, on the
order of a few cycles. This short delay ensures service continuity
for an electrical system by permitting coordination with downstream
devices for selective tripping; that is, the b r e a k e r s can be set so
that the protective device nearest the fault clears the circuit, thus
maximizing the uptime for the system as a whole.

Service Protectors. A service protector consists of a c u r r e n t -

limiting fuse and nonautomatic circuit breaker switching device in a
single enclosure. It utilizes basic circuit breaker principles and
permits frequent repetitive operation under normal and abnormal
c u r r e n t conditions up to 12 times the device T s continuous-current
r a t i n g . In combination with current-limiting f u s e s , it is capable of
closing and latching against fault c u r r e n t s up to 200,000 A symmetri-
cal rms. During fault interruption, the service protector will with-
stand the stresses created by the let-through current of the f u s e s .
174 Chapter 10

Figure 8.6 Molded-case circuit b r e a k e r s with replaceable plugs

(courtesy of Westinghouse Electric C o r p . ) .
Power and Switching Equipment 175

Figure 8.6 (Continued).

They are available at continuous-current ratings of 800, 1200, 1600,

2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, and 6000 A for use on 240 and 480 V ac
systems, in two-pole or three-pole construction. An open-fuse trip
device to prevent the occurrence of single phasing is included in
the design of this type of service protector.

8.3 SWITCHGEAR

Switchgear is a general term covering switching and i n t e r r u p t i n g

devices alone, or their combination with associated control, metering,
protective, and regulating equipment. A power switchgear assembly
consists of a complete assembly of one or more of the above-mentioned
devices and main bus b a r s , interconnecting wiring, accessories,
supporting s t r u c t u r e s , and enclosure. Power switchgear is usually
176 Chapter 10

installed throughout an industrial plant, but is used principally for

incoming line service and to control and protect load c e n t e r s , panel-
b o a r d s , and other secondary distribution equipment. Outdoor switch-
gear can be of the non-walk-in (without enclosed maintenance aisle)
or walk-in (with an enclosed maintenance aisle) type.

8.3.1 Types of Metal-Enclosed Power Switchgear

Specific types of metal-enclosed power switchgear used in the indus-
trial plants are classified as (1) metal-clad switchgear, (2) i n t e r r u p t e r
switchgear, (3) low-voltage power circuit breaker switchgear, and
(4) low-voltage metal-enclosed distribution switchboards. Detailed
discussions of each type are given below.

Metal-Clad Switchgear (5 to 34.5 kV)

Metal-clad switchgear is available with voltage ratings of 4.16 to 34.5
kV and with circuit breakers having i n t e r r u p t i n g ratings from 8.8
kA at 4.16 kV to 40 kA at 34.5 kV. Continuous ratings are 1200,
2000, and 3000 A. Industrial standards for power switchgear are
ANSI C37.20-1969, Section 6.2, and NEMA SG5-1981, Part 9.03.
Metal-clad switchgear can be characterized by the following essential
features:

1. The main circuit switching and i n t e r r u p t i n g device is of the

removable type arranged with a mechanism for moving it physically
between connected and disconnected positions and equipped with
self-aligning and self-coupling primary and secondary disconnect-
ing devices.
2. Major p a r t s of the primary circuit, such as the circuit switching
or i n t e r r u p t i n g devices, b u s e s , and potential transformers, are
enclosed by grounded metal b a r r i e r s .
3. All live p a r t s are enclosed within grounded metal compartments.
Automatic s h u t t e r s prevent exposure of primary circuit elements
when the removable element is in the t e s t , disconnected, or fully
withdrawn position.
4. Primary b u s conductors and connections are covered with insulat-
ing material throughout.
5. Mechanical interlocks are provided to ensure a proper and safe
operating sequence.
6. Instrument, meters, relays, secondary control devices, and their
wiring are isolated by grounded metal b a r r i e r from all primary
circuit elements.
7. The door through which the circuit i n t e r r u p t i n g device is inserted
into the housing may serve as an instrument or relay panel and
provide access to a secondary or control compartment within the
housing.
Power and Switching Equipment 177

The term "metal-clad switchgear" can be properly used only if

metal-enclosed switchgear conforms to the foregoing characteristics.
All metal-clad switchgear is metal-enclosed, but not all metal-enclosed
switchgear can be designated as metal-clad. Figure 8.7 shows a
15 kV walk-in outdoor power circuit breaker switchgear which was
installed on the secondary side of two 5000/6250 kVA OA/FA sub-
station transformers. It consists of two main circuit b r e a k e r s and
several plant feeder b r e a k e r s , control power, and protective relays
associated with the system. All circuit breakers are of the draw-out
t y p e , which have a continuous-current rating of 1200 A, short-time
momentary rating of 40,000 A, and three-phase i n t e r r u p t i n g capaci-
ties of 500 mVA. These breakers are closed by a 48-V ac stored
energy mechanism and tripped by a 48-V dc battery-activated spring
magnet release.

Interrupter Switchgear (5 to 34.5 kV)

Metal-enclosed i n t e r r u p t e r switchgear is also metal-enclosed power
switchgear, which is widely used to protect both switching and short
circuits through the use of i n t e r r u p t e r switches and power f u s e s .
Standard voltage ratings are 4.16 and 13.8 kV; 23 and 34.5 kV

Figure 8.7 (a) 15 kV walk-in power circuit b r e a k e r switchgear out-

door housing.
178 Chapter 10

switchgear is also available from a few manufacturers. The main bus

is rated 600, 1200, or 2000 A. The power fuses have i n t e r r u p t i n g
ratings up to 270 mVA at 4.16 kV and 1000 mVA at 34.5 kV. Metal-
enclosed i n t e r r u p t e r switchgear should include the following compo-
nents:

1. I n t e r r u p t e r switches
2. Power f u s e s
3. Bare bus and connections
4. Instrument and control power transformers
5. Control wiring and accessory devices

The i n t e r r u p t e r switches and power f u s e s may be of the stationary

or removable type. For the removable t y p e , mechanical interlocks
are provided to ensure a proper safe operating sequence. The low
cost of metal-enclosed i n t e r r u p t e r switchgear enhances the use of a
larger number of radial circuits to serve individual loads or to pro-
vide extensive sectionalizing of a single radial circuit serving multiple
loads, t h u s elevating radial circuits to a level of circuit continuity, which
may help to eliminate the need of secondary selective or secondary-
network systems. (See Chapter 4 for definitions of various types of

Figure 8.7 (b) 15 kV walk-in power circuit b r e a k e r switchgear

(inside the housing).
Power and Switching Equipment 179

power distribution systems for industrial p l a n t s . ) Available standards

are ANSI/IEEE C37.20-1969, Section 6.4, and NEMA SG5-1981, Part
9.07.
Figure 8.8 shows 5-kV outdoor power i n t e r r u p t e r switchgear which
consists of three fused load-interrupter switches and associated con-
trol and protective equipment. The main switch cubicles receive a
4.16-kV t h r e e - p h a s e aerial power cable from the utility pole. The
other two switches are used to protect the plant primary f e e d e r s .

Figure 8.8 5 kV outdoor power i n t e r r u p t e r siwtchgear.

180 Chapter 10

Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear

The low-voltage power circuit breakers are covered in Section 8.2.3.
Power circuit breakers 600 V and below are intended for service in
switchgear compartments or other enclosures of dead front construc-
tion. These power cirucit breakers are either drawout type or molded-
case type. The power circuit b r e a k e r s can be operated electrically
or manually and equipped with added devices, such as shunt t r i p ,
undervoltage, and auxiliary switches. They are available either with
conventional electromagnetic overcurrent direct-acting tripping devices
or static tripping devices.
Drawout circuit b r e a k e r s and compartments have separate main
and secondary disconnect contacts to achieve connected, t e s t , dis-
connect, and fully withdrawn positions. Separate compartments are
provided for required meters, relays, instruments, and so on.
Potential and control power transformers are normally mounted in
these compartments to be front accessible. Current transformers may
be mounted around the stationary power primary leads within the
circuit breaker compartment or in the rear bus area. The rear sec-
tion is isolated from the front section and accommodates the main b u s ,
feeder terminals, small wiring, and terminal blocks. Bus is fabricated
from high-grade aluminum, designed for an allowable temperature rise
of 65°C above an average 40°C ambient. Copper bus is usually
obtainable at a higher cost. Control wiring is extended to terminal
blocks mounted in the rear section.
The assembled switchgear can be used alone, but is most widely
used as an integral part of a unit substation, which usually consists
of a primary disconnect switch, a distribution transformer, and low-
voltage circuit breaker cubicles. Figure 8.9 shows a typical 750-kVA
12.47 kV/480 V unit substation with some of the panels removed d u r -
ing installation. The primary disconnect switch is housed in the
left-side cubicle, the transformer in the middle cubicle, and three
drawout circuit b r e a k e r s , meters, and control switches in the right-
side cubicle.

Low-Voltage Metal-Enclosed Distribution Switchboards

Low-voltage metal-enclosed distribution switchboards are frequently
used in commercial buildings at 600 V and below for service entrance,
industrial plants power and lighting distribution, and as the secon-
dary section of unit substations. A wide range of protective devices
and single- or multisection assemblies are available for large service
from 400 to 4000 A. Equipment ground-fault protection is recommended
where the switchboard is applied on grounded wye systems. These
switchboards can be built with either front accessible or rear acces-
sible, and for wall mounting or for floor standing construction, which
is usually applied as the secondary section in a unit substation.
Figure 8.9 750 kVA and 12.47 kV/480 V unit substation.

Figure 8.10 Secondary section of a unit substation.

 182 Chapter 10

Figure 8.10 shows the secondary section of a unit substation in the

form of a switchboard with molded-case b r e a k e r s clearly visible.

8.3.2 Switchgear Ratings

The ratings of switchgear assemblies and metal-enclosed buses are
designations of the operational limits of the particular equipment under
specific conditions of ambient temperature, altitude, f r e q u e n c y , duty
cycle, and so on. Table 8.7 lists the rated voltages and insulation
levels for ac switchgear assemblies discussed in this section. Table
8.8 lists similar ratings for metal-enclosed b u s e s . The definitions of
the ratings listed in Tables 8.7 and 8.8 and others discussed sub-
sequently can be found in ANSI/IEEE C37.100-1981. Standard self-
cooled continuous-current ratings of the main bus in metal-clad power
switchgear are listed in Table 8.9. Metal-enclosed but standard self-
cooled continuous-current ratings are shown in Table 8.10. The

Table 8.7 Rated Voltage and Insulation Levels for AC Switchgear

Assemblies

Rated Voltage (rms) Insulation Levels (kV)

Rated Hated Power Frequency
Nominal Maximum Withstand DC Impulse
Voltage Voltage (rms) Withstand* Withstand
Metal-Knclosed Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear
Volts Volts
240 250 2.2 3.1 —
480 500 2.2 3.1 —
600 630 2.2 3.1 —
Metal-Clad Switchgear
kV kV
4. 16 4.76 19 27 60
7.2 8.25 36 50 95
13.8 15.0 36 50 95
34.5 38.0 80 + 150
Metal-Knclosed Interrupter Switchgear
kV kV
4.16 4.76 19 27 60
7.2 8.25 26 37 75
13.8 15.0 36 50 95
14.4 15.5 50 70 110
23.0 25.8 60 + 125
34.5 38.0 80 + 150
Station-Type Cubicle Switchgear
kV kV
14.4 15.5 50 + 110
34.5 38.0 80 + 150
69.0 72.5 160 + 350

*The column headed "DC Withstand" is given as a reference only for those using direct-current tests and repre-
sents values believed to be appropriate and approximately equivalent to the corresponding power frequency with-
stand test values specified for each voltage class of switchgear. The presence of this column in no way implies any
requirement for a direct-current withstand test on alternating-current equipment. When making direct-current tests,
the voltage should be rasied to the test value in discrete steps and held for a period of 1 min.
tBecause of the variable voltage distribution encountered when making direct-current withstand tests, the manu-
facturer should be contacted for recommendations before applying direct-current withstand tests to the switchgear.
Potential transformers above 34.5 kV should be disconnected when testing with direct current.
Table 8.8 Voltage Ratings for Metal-Enclosed Bus ο
S
CO
"S
Insulation Level (kV) Ω
Rated AC Voltage Power Frequency Withstand (rms) α
(kV rms) (Dry 1 (Dew 10 DC Withstand Impulse CO
Nominal Rated Maximum Minute) Seconds)* (Dry)+ Withstand £
o
0.6 0.63 2.2 3.1 jy
4,16 4.76
5'
19.0 15 27.0 60
13.8 15.00 36.0 24 ( 3 6 ) 50.0 95
14.4 15.50 50.0 30(50) 70.0 110 Cq
23.0 25.80 60.0 40(60)
£
85.0 150
34.5 38.00 80.0 70(80) Φ 200 Ό
69.0 72.50 160.0 140(160) Φ 350 3
CO
For applications of isolated phase bus to generators, the following voltage ratings apply:§ 3
Power Frequency Withstand ( r m s )
Rated kV of (Dry 1 (Dew 10 DC Withstand Impulse
Generator (rms) Minute) Seconds) (Dry) Withstand

14.4 to 24 50 50 70 110

•Applied to porcelain insulation only. Values in parentheses apply to ''high creepage" designs.
f T h e column headed "DC Withstand" is given as a reference only for those using direct-current tests and repre-
sents equivalent to the corresponding power frequency withstand test values specified for each voltage class of bus.
The presence of this column in no way implies any requirement for a direct-current withstand test on alternating-
current equipment. When making direct-current tests the voltage should be raised to the test value in discrete steps
and held for a period of 1 min.
χ Because of the variable voltage and distribution encountered when making direct-current withstand tests, the
manufacturer should be contacted for recommendations before applying direct-current withstand tests to these volt-
age ratings. Potential transformers above 34 5 kV should be disconnected when testing with direct current.
§ These ratings are applicable to generators rated 14.4 to 24 kV which are directly connected to transformers witn-
out intermediate circuit breakers and where adequate surge protection is provided. These bus withstand ratings are
I—k
compatible with or in excess of required withstand values of the generators. 00
Co
 184 Chapter 10

Table 8.9 Continuous-Current Ratings

of Buses for Metal-Enclosed Power
Switchgear

Rated Continuous
Current of Buses
Type of Assembly (amperes)

Metal-clad switchgear
Metal-enclosed 1200,2000,3000
interrupter
switchgear
Metal-enclosed bus 600, 1200, 2 0 0 0
Station-type
cubicle switchgear
2000, 3000, 4000, 5000
NOTE: The numerous combinations of circuit breaker
sizes and ratings in similar housings make it impracti-
cal to provide current ratings of buses for metal-
enclosed low-voltage power circuit breaker switchgear.

Table 8.10 Current Ratings for Metal-Enclosed Bus (Amperes)

0.6 AC and Voltage Ratings (kV)

All DC 2.4, 4.16 13.8 14.4 23.0 34.5 69.0

600 — — — — — —

1200 1200 1200 1 200 1200 1200 1200

1600 — — — — — —

2000 2000 2000 2 000 2000 2000 2000

— — — 2 500 2500 2500 2500
3000 3000 3000 3 000 3000 3000 3000
— — — 3 500 3500 — —

4000 — — 4 000 4000 — —

— — — 4 500 4500 — —

5000 — — 5 000 5000 — —

— — — 5 500 5500 — —

6000 — — 6 000 6000 — —

— — — 6 500 — — —
— — — 7 000 — — —
— — — 7 500 — — —
— — — 8 000 — — —
— — — 9 000 — — —
— — — 10 000 — — —
— — — 11 000 — — —

— — — 12 000 — — —
 Power and Switching Equipment 185

momentary and short-circuit ratings of power switchgear assemblies

must correspond to the equivalent ratings of the switching or inter-
rupting devices used.

8.3.3 Control Power

Successful operation of switchgear depends much on a reliable source
of control power that will maintain voltage at the terminals of such
devices within their rated operating voltage range. Table 8.11 lists
the p r e f e r r e d control voltages in both dc and ac. Two primary uses
of the control power in switchgear are tripping power and closing
power. The source of tripping power must always be available. For
circuit breakers rated 1000 V and below, manual closing up to 1600 A
frame is also practical. In general, four practical sources of tripping
power are:

1. Direct current from a storage battery

2. Direct current from a charged capacitor

Table 8.11 P r e f e r r e d Control Voltage and Their Ranges for Power

Circuit Breakers Rated 600 V and Below
Power Supply (volts) Tripping
Rated Control Solenoid Stored Voltage
Voltage Voltage or Motor Energy Range
(volts) (volts) Operator Operator t (volts)

Direct Current* 28
24 Φ ___ — — 14-30*
48 38-56 — — 28- 56
125 i00-140 90-130§ 100-140 70-140
2,50 200-280 180-260§ 200-280 140-280
Alternating Current
120 104-127** — 104-127 104-127
240 208-254** 190-250§ 208-254 208-254
480 416-508** 380-500§ 416-508 416-508

NOTE: It is recommended t h a t trip, closing, relay coils, etc, normally connected continuously to one
direct-current potential should be connected to the negative wire of the control circuit to minimize
electrolytic deterioration.
* Control from exciter circuits is not recommended.
+For driving motor for air compressors and compressed spring mechanisms.
* Unless the circuit breaker is located close to the battery and relay and adequate electric conduc-
tors are provided between the battery and trip coil, 24 V tripping is not recomended.
** Includes heater circuits.
§Some operating mechanisms will not meet all the closing requirements over the full control
voltage range. In such cases it will be necessary to provide for two ranges of closing voltage. Where
applicable, the preferred method of obtaining the double range of closing voltage is by the use of
tapped coils.
186 Chapter 10

3. Alternating current from the secondaries of current transformers

in the protected power circuit
4. Direct or alternating current in the primary circuit passing through
direct-acting trip devices

Where a storage battery has been chosen as a source of tripping

power, it can also supply closing power. Batteries offer an extremely
reliable source of energy but require regular attention and care.
Also, their capacity in ampere-hours is limited. Inspection and test-
ing of individual cells must be made at regular intervals to assure
that electrolyte level and correct charge are maintained. Batteries
of the nickel-lead-alkaline type or the nickel-cadmium type are more
suitable for standby service. Battery charging equipment will be
determined by the battery characteristics and the type of load being
served.

8.3.4 How to Select Proper Switchgear

Since there is a great variety of switchgear to select from, design
engineers must gather all necessary data before they can make an
intelligent selection of proper switchgear for their needs. For the
primary system, the choice is between circuit breaker and switch-
fuse combinations. For the secondary system, the choice is between
fused and unfused power circuit b r e a k e r s . The following steps are
normally helpful in selecting switchgear equipment:

1. Prepare a one-line diagram.

2. Determine rating of power switching a p p a r a t u s .
3. Select main bus rating.
4. Select current and potential transformers.
5. Select metering, relaying, and control power.
6. Determine closing, tripping, and other control power requirements.
7. Consider special applications.

Metal-enclosed switchgear is available for application at voltages

up through 34.5 kV. Metal-clad switchgear is available for applica-
tion at voltages from 2.4 through 34.5 kV; however, for economic
reasons, it is seldom used above 15 kV.
Essentially, all recognized basic bus arrangements—transfer b u s ,
sectionalized b u s , synchronizing b u s , and ring bus—are available
in metal-enclosed switchgear to ensure the desired system reliability
and flexibility. A choice is made based on an evaluation of initial
cost, installation cost, required operating procedures, and total sys-
tem requirements. Because power system facilities are always in-
creased to serve larger loads, it is advisable to consider f u t u r e ex-
pansion when selecting the bus continuous-current rating and the
momentary and i n t e r r u p t i n g ratings of the power switching a p p a r a t u s .
Power and Switching Equipment 187

8.4 PANELBOARDS

Electrical systems in the industrial buildings usually utilize panelboards

(either fuse or circuit breaker) as a convenient means of power dis-
tribution.

8.4.1 Types of Panelboards

Panelboards are generally classified into several categories:
1. Power distribution panelboards. This category includes all
other panelboards not defined as lighting and appliance panelboards.
The 42 overcurrent protective device limitation does not apply. How-
e v e r , care should be exercised not to exceed practical physical limi-
tations, such as standard box heights and widths. Ratings are
single-phase two- or three-wire; three-phase three- or four-wire;
120/240 through 600 V ac, 250 V dc; 50 to 1200 A, 1200 A maximum
branch.
2. Lighting and applicance panelboards. This type is defined
as one having more than 10% of its overcurrent devices rated 30 A
or less, for which neutral connections are provided. The number of
overcurrent devices (branch circuit poles) is limited to a maximum of
42 in any one box. Ratings of these panels are single-phase two-
or three-wire; three-phase three- or four-wire; 120/240 V ac, 50 to
60 A, 125 A maximum b r a n c h .
3. Multisection panelboards. Both lighting and appliance panel-
boards and power distribution panelboards requiring more than one
box are called multisection panelboards. Unless a main overcurrent
device is provided in each section, each section must be furnished
with main b u s and terminals of the same rating for connecting to the
single feeder. Three methods commonly used for interconnecting
multisection panelboards are as follows:

a. Gutter tapping. Increased gutter width may be required.

Tap devices are not furnished with the panelboards.
b. Subfeeding. A second set of main lugs (subfeed) are pro-
vided directly beside the main lugs of each panelboard sec-
tion, except the last in the lineup.
c. Through feeding. A second set of main lugs is provided on
the main bus at the opposite end from the main lugs of each
section, except the last in the lineup.

8.4.2 Panelboard Data

To assist design engineers in planning an installation, manufacturers'
catalogs usually provide a wide choice of panelboards for specific
applications. Several important rules governing the application of
panelboards are outlined in the National Electrical Code:
188 Chapter 10

1. 42-circuit rule. The NEC section 384-14 defines a lighting

and appliance branch-circuit panelboard as one having more than 10%
of its overcurrent devices rated 30 A or less, for which neutral con-
nectors are provided. Section 384-15 states that not more than 42
overcurrent devices of a lighting and appliance branch-circuit panel-
board may be installed in any one cabinet.
2. 6-cireuit rule. The NEC section 230-71 provides that a de-
vice may be suitable for service equipment when not more than six
main disconnecting means are provided. In addition, a disconnecting
means must be provided for the ground conductor.
3. Gutter tap rule. The NEC section 240-21 states that over-
c u r r e n t devices must be located at the point where the conductor to
be protected receives its supply. Exception 5 to this paragraph per-
mits omission of the main overcurrent device if (a) the smaller con-
ductor has a c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity of not less than the sum of the
allowable c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacities of the one or more circuits or
loads supplied, and (b) the tap is not over 10 ft long and does not
extend beyond the panelboard it supplies. Gutter taps are permitted
u n d e r this ruling.

8.5 TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are employed to change a voltage level from utility

transmission or distribution voltage to a voltage that is usable within
the industrial buildings. They are also used to reduce the building
distribution voltage to a level that can be utilized by specific equip-
ment, such as lighting services.

8.5.1 Transformer Types

The following types of transformers are normally used in the indus-
trial buildings: (1) substation, (2) primary unit substation, (3)
secondary unit substation (power c e n t e r ) , (4) network, (5) pad
mounted, and (6) indoor distribution. Other types of transformers
are also manufactured for special applications, but discussions of
these special transformers are beyond the scope of this chapter.
Detailed discussions of each of the foregoing types are presented
below.

Substation Transformers
Substation transformers are used in outdoor switchyards and are
rated 750 to 5000 kVA for single-phase units and 750 to 10,000 kVA
for three-phase units. The primary voltage range is 2400 V and u p .
Taps are usually manually operated, but automatic load tap changing
may also be obtained. The secondary voltage range is 480 to 34,500
Power and Switching Equipment 189

Figure 8.11 69/6.9 kV, 5000/6250 kVA, 3 phase substation

transformer.

V. Primaries are usually delta-connected and secondaries wye-con-

nected. The cooling medium is usually oil. The voltage connections
are on cover-mounted b u s h i n g s . Low-voltage connections may be on
cover bushings or an air terminal chamber. Figure 8.11 shows a
69/6.9 kV 5000/6250 kVA three-phase substation transformer with
three surge a r r e s t e r s on its low side.

Primary Unit Substation Transformers

Primary unit substation transformers are three-phase u n i t s , rated
750 to 10,000 kVA. The primary voltage range is 8320 V and u p .
Taps are usually manually operated, but automatic load tap changing
is also available. The secondary voltage range is 2400 to 34,500 V.
Primaries are usually delta-connected, and secondaries, wye-connected.
The cooling medium may be oil, a s k a r e l , * air, or gas. The high-volt-
age connections may be cover b u s h i n g s , an air terminal chamber,
t h r o a t , or flange. The low-voltage connection is a throat or flange.

*Askarel, which is a generic name for a fluid consisting of about 70%

poly chlorinated biphenyl (PCB), has been marketed under several
trade names. During the past decade it was determined that askarel
was harmful to the environment and human beings. Therefore, the
EPA (Environmental Protective Agency) banned its use in the new
transformers and capacitors and set very strict rules on the use of
existing equipment containing askarel.
190 Chapter 10

Secondary Unit Substation Transformers

Secondary unit substation transformers are three-phase u n i t s , rated
112.5 to 2500 kVA. The primary voltage range is 2400 to 15,000 V.
The taps are manually operated. The secondary voltage range is
208 to 600 V. Primaries are usually delta-connected, and secondaries,
wye-connected. The cooling medium may be oil, askarel, air, or gas.
The high-voltage connections may be cover b u s h i n g s , an air terminal
chamber, a t h r o a t , or a flange. The low-voltage connection is a
throat or flange.

Network Transformers
Network transformers are used in secondary network systems. They
are rated 300 to 2500 kVA. The primary voltage range is 4160 to
34,500 V. Taps are manually operated. The secondary voltages are
208Y/120 and 480Y/277 V. The cooling medium may be oil, askarel,
or air. The primary is delta-connected, the secondary, wye-connected.
The high-voltage connection is generally a network switch (on-off-
g r o u n d ) . The secondary connection is generally a network protector.

Pad-Mounted Transformers
Pad-mounted transformers are usually three-phase units to be used
outside buildings. These units are rated 75 to 2500 kVA. The pri-
mary voltage range is 2400 to 34,500 V, and the secondary voltage
range is 208 to 600 V. Primaries may be delta-connected, and secon-
daries are usually wye-connected. The cooling medium may be oil,
askarel, or air. The high-voltage connection is in an air terminal
chamber, which may contain just p r e s s u r e - t y p e connectors or may
have a disconnecting device either fused or u n f u s e d . The low-voltage
connection is usually by cable at the bottom.

Indoor Distribution Transformers

Indoor distribution transformers are rated 1 to 333 kVA for single-
phase u n i t s , and 3 to 500 kVA for three-phase units. Both primaries
and secondaries are 600 V and below (the most common ratio is 480
to 208Y/120 V). The cooling medium is air. High- and low-voltage
connections are p r e s s u r e - t y p e connections for cables. Impedances
of these types of transformers are usually lower than those of sub-
station or secondary unit substation transformers.

8.5.2 Transformer Specifications

In specifying a transformer for a particular application, the follow-
ing items should be considered and included:
Power and Switching Equipment 191

1. Rating in kVA or mVA

2. Single-phase or three-phase
3. Frequency
4. Voltage ratings and taps
5. Winding connections, delta or wye
6. Impedance (base rating)
7. Basic impulse level (BIL)
8. Temperature rise

In addition, the following details pertaining to construction should

be specified:

1. Insulation medium, d r y or liquid type

2. Indoor or outdoor
3. Type and location of terminal facilities
4. Permissible sound level
5. Manual or automatic load tap changing
6. Grounding requirement
7. Provisions for f u t u r e cooling if required

Consideration should also be given to energy conservation fea-

tures in the transformer specification. After an overall life-cycle
cost analysis is made, the following information about the transformer
should be given to the prospective supplier:

1. Cost in dollars/kW at which load and no-load loses are valued

2. The percentage of the transformer rating at which losses will be
evaluated during the bid comparison process

Some of the more important items in the list above will be dis-
cussed more fully as follows:

Power and Voltage Ratings

Ratings in kVA or mVA will include the self-cooled rating at a speci-
fied temperature rise, as well as the forced-cooling rating if r e q u i r e d .
See Tables 8.12 and 8.13 for data. The standard average winding
temperature rise (by resistance test) for the modern liquid-filled
power transformer is 65°C, based on average ambient of 30°C for any
24-hour period. Liquid-filled transformers may be specified with a
55°C /65°C rise to permit 100% loading with a 55°C rise, and 112%
loading at a 65°C rise. Even for a 115°C rise high-fire-point liquid-
insulated transformers are available from some manufacturers.
In NEMA TR1-1980 and ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1980 and ANSI/IEEE
C57.12. 01-1979, the average winding temperature rise (by resistance)
for the modern dry transformer is 150°C, based on an average ambient
of 30°C (40°C maximum) for any 24-h period. Low-loss high-efficiency
 192 Chapter 10

Table 8.12 Transformer Standard Base kVA Ratings

Single-Phase Three-Phase

3 75 1250 10 000 15 300 3750 25 000

5 100 1667 12 500 30 500 5000 30 000
10 167 2500 16 667 45 750 7500 37 500
15 250 3333 20 000 75 1000 10 000 50 000
25 333 5000 25 000 11 2 »/2 1500 12 000 60 000
37 Vi 500 6667 33 333 150 2000 15 000 75 000
50 833 8333 225 2500 20 000 100 000

d r y - t y p e transformers can be specified with a 115°C or an 80°C rise.

The lower-temperature-rise units have a longer life expectancy and
greater overload capacities than do the regular 150°C rise design.
A 115°C rise d r y - t y p e transformer has approximately 10 times the
life expectancy of a 150°C rise unit and has a 15% overload capability.
A 80°C rise unit has a 30% overload capability.
Both liquid-insulated and d r y - t y p e transformers are available
with low core and coil watt loss designs at higher initial prices, but
with significantly lower overall operating costs due to the higher
energy efficiency. Many transformer specifiers believe that a lowered
operating temperature is synonymous with improved efficiency, or
conversely, a piece of equipment that r u n s hot is inefficient. Based
on a recent study r e p o r t , this is not necessarily correct, especially
if the transformer design is optimized. If the efficiencies of the 115
and 150°C nominal rise units are held to that of the 80°C rise u n i t ,
and the units are redesigned to minimum cost, both units at equal
total efficiency have a lower material cost than that of the lower-
temperature-rise unit. Thus a high-temperature-rise, lower-cost unit
is not synonymous with inefficiency.

Table 8.13 Classes of Transformer Cooling Systems

Type Letters Method of Cooling

OA Oil-immersed, self-cooled
OW Oil-immersed, water-cooled
OW/A Oil-immersed, water-cooled/self-cooled
OA/FA Oil-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
OA/FA/FA Oil-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled/forced-air-cooled
OA/FA/FOA Oil-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled/forced air—forced-oil-cooled
OA/FOA/FOA Oil-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled/forced air— forced-oil-cooled

FOA Oil-immersed, forced-oil-cooled with forced-air cooler

FOW Oil-immersed, forced-oil-cooled with forced-water cooler
AA Dry-type, self-cooled
AFA Dry-type, forced-air-cooled
AA/FA Dry-type, self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
Power and Switching Equipment 193

Table 8.14 Temperature Versus Cost for Transformers

Temperature rise 80°C 115°C 150°C

Efficiency (%) 98.49 98.52 98.49

Total losses (watts) 7666 7505 7642
Iron losses (watts) 1571 1565 1454
Material cost $1273 $1265 $1228
Cost savings vs 80°C — $8 $45

In Table 8.14 note that the material savings are less when the
efficiencies are equalized, but the higher-rise units still have a lower
material cost than does the minimum-cost 80°C-rise unit. A 150°C
rise transformer (220°C hottest spot) can be designed at equal effi-
ciency to, and manufactured at lower cost than, a minimum-cost 80°C
rise unit. Higher-rise transformers have lower-iron, core-excitation
losses, and during periods of low loading, are less expensive to
operate than low-rise units, even though both types have equal total
efficiency at their rated loads. The transformer voltage ratings
include the primary and secondary continuous duty levels at the
specified f r e q u e n c y , as well as the basic impulse level for each wind-
ing. Standard values of basic impulse level established for each
nominal voltage class are listed in Table 8.15.

Voltage Taps and Connections

Voltage taps are usually necessary to compensate for small changes
in the primary supply to the transformer, or to vary the secondary
voltage level with changes in the load requirements. The most com-
monly used tap arrangement is the manually adjustable no-load type,
consisting of four 21% steps or variations from the nominal primary
voltage rating. The taps are usually numbered 1 through 5, with
number 1 position providing the lowest output voltage on a specific
incoming voltage. In addition to the no-load taps, automatic tap
changing u n d e r load is also available. This provides an additional
±10% voltage adjustment automatically in incremental s t e p s , with
continuous monitoring of the secondary terminal voltage.
Connections for standard two-winding power transformers are
preferably delta-primary and wye-secondary. The wye-secondary,
specified with external neutral b u s h i n g , provides a convenient neu-
tral point for establishing a system ground. The delta-connected
primary isolates the two systems with respect to the flow of zero-
sequence c u r r e n t s resulting from third-harmonic exciting c u r r e n t .
 194 Chapter 10

Table 8.15 Transformer Standard Basic Impulse Insulation Levels

Basic Impulse Insulation Level (kilovolts)

Pry Type
Nominal System
Line-to-Line Insulation TENV
Voltage Class Liquid Insulated Cast Coil
(volts) (kilovolts) Power Distribution Ventilated Gas-Filled Sealed

120-1 200 1.2 45 30 + 10 10

2 400 2.5 60 45 + 20 20
4 160 5.0 75 60 + 30 30
4 800 5.0 75 60 + 30 30
6 900 8.7 95 75 + 45 45
7 200 8.7 95 75 + 45 45
12 470 15.0 110 95 + 60 60
13 200 15.0 110 95 + 60 60
13 800 15.0 110 95 + 60 60
14 400 15.0 110 951 60 60
22 900 25.0 150 150 110 110
23 000 25.0 150 150 110 110
26 400 34.5 200 200 125 125
34 500 34.5 200 200 150 150
43 800 46.0 250 250 — —

46 000 46.0 250 250 — —

67 000 69.0 350 350 — —

69 000 69.0 350 350 — —

92 000 92.0 450 — — —

115 000 115.0 550 — — —

350* — — —

450* — — —

138 000 138.0 650 — — —

550 * — — —

450 * — —

161 000 161.0 750 — — —

650* — — —
550* — — —

+ Ratings are also applicable to primary and secondary unit substation transformers.
Φ Optional reduced levels applicable if equivalent reduced rating arresters are properly applied on the
system.
Ventilated dry-type transformers, totally-enclosed nonventilated dry-type transformers, cast coil dry-
type transformers, gas-filled sealed dry-type transformers, and liquid-insulated-type transformers are
available with basic impulse levels higher than indicated at increased prices. For dry-type transformers
15 kV units can be specified to have 95 kV BIL, 25 kV units can be specified to have 150 kV BIL, and 34.5
kV units can be specified to have 200 kV BIL.

In some cases a ground primary wye-wye transformer connection is

used to minimize the problem of ferroresonance.

Impedance
Impedance voltage is normally expressed as a percent value of the
rated voltage of the winding in which the voltage is measured on the
transformer self-cooling rating in kVA. The percent impedance volt-
age levels considered as standard for two-winding transformers rated
 Power and Switching Equipment 195

up through 10,000 kVA are listed in Table 8.16. A value specified

above or below those listed will usually result in higher costs. For
transformer ratings above 10,000 kVA or 67 kV, a percent impedance
voltage may be considered standard if it lies within a published mini-
mum and maximum r a n g e . When design engineers specify a low-
impedance voltage level, they should make references to ANSI/IEEE
C57.12.00-1980 for short-circuit requirements to ensure that the
transformer is capable of withstanding the stresses imposed by the
external faults.

Insulation Medium
For outdoor installations, the mineral oil-insulated transformer is
widely accepted due to its lowest cost and inherent weatherproof
construction. For indoor installations, discontinuance of the use of
an askarel (PCB) liquid-filled transformer has increased the use of
high-fire-point liquids, such as poly(a-olefins), silicones, and high-
molecular-weight hydrocarbons. In general, these liquids increase
the cost of the transformer compared to mineral oil. Transformers
insulated with a nonflammable dielectric fluid must be permitted to be
installed indoors per NEC. When installed in combustible buildings,
high-fire-point liquid-insulated transformers require automatic fire
extinguishing systems or vaults.

Table 8.16 Standard Impedance Values for Three-Phase Transformers

High-Voltage Rating
(volts) kVA Rating Percent Impedance Voltage

Secondary Unit Substation Transformers

2 4 0 0 - 1 3 800 112.5-225 Not less than 2.0
2400—13 800 300-500 Not less than 4.5
2400—13 8 0 0 750-2500 5.75
22 9 0 0 All 5.75
34 400 All 6.25
Liquid-Immersed Transformers, 501 — 30 000 kVA

Low Voltage, Low Voltage,

480 V 2400 V and Above

2 4 0 0 - 2 2 900 5.75 5.5

26 400, 34 4 0 0 6.25 6.0
43 800 6.75 6.5
67 0 0 0 7.0
115 0 0 0 7.5
138 0 0 0 8.0

NOTES: (1) Ratings separated by hyphens indicate that all intervening standard ratings are in-
cluded. Ratings separated by a comma indicate that only those listed are included.
(2) Percent impedance voltages are at self-cooled rating and as measured on rated voltage connec-
tion.
196 Chapter 10

The ventilated d r y - t y p e transformer has application in industrial

plants for indoor installation. Since BIL for the ventilated d r y - t y p e
transformer winding is usually lower than that of the liquid- or gas-
filled d r y - t y p e , surge a r r e s t e r s should be included for the primary
winding.

8.6 UNIT SUBSTATIONS

A unit substation consists of the following sections:

1. Primary section. This provides for the connection of one or more

incoming high-voltage circuits, each of which may or may not be
provided with a switching device or a switching and i n t e r r u p t i n g
device.
2. Transformer section. This includes one or more transformers
with or without automatic load-tap-changing equipment. Auto-
matic load—tap —changing is not commonly used in unit substations.
3. Secondary section. This provides for the connection of one or
more secondary f e e d e r s , each of which is provided with a switch-
ing and i n t e r r u p t i n g device.

8.6.1 Types of Unit Substations

Sections of unit substations are normally subassemblies for connection
in the field. Unit substations are usually designed in the following
t y p e s . (Application of these to industrial distribution systems is
described in Chapter 4.)
1. Radial: one primary feeder to a single step-down t r a n s f o r -
mer with a secondary section for connection of one or more outgoing
radial feeders (see Figure 4.1).
2. Secondary selective: two step-down transformers, each con-
nected to a separate primary source. The secondary of each t r a n s -
former is connected to a separate bus through a suitable switching
and protective device. The two sections of b u s are connected by a
normally open switching and protective device. Each bus has pro-
visions for one or more secondary radial feeders (see Figure 4.5).
3. Primary selective and primary loop: each step-down t r a n s -
former connected to two separate primary sources through switching
equipment to provide a normal and alternate source. Upon failure
of the normal source, the transformer is switched to the alternate
source (see Figures 4.6 to 4.8).
4. Secondary spot network: two step-down transformers, each
connected to a separate primary source. The secondary side of each
Power and Switching Equipment 197

transformer is connected to a common b u s through a network protec-

tor that is equipped with relays to trip the protector on reverse
power flow to the transformer and reclose it upon restoration of the
correct voltage, phase angle, and phase sequence at the transformer
secondary. The b u s has provisions for one or more secondary radial
feeders (see Figure 4.11).
5. Distributed network: a single step-down transformer having
its secondary side connected to a b u s through a network protector,
which is equipped with relays to trip it on reverse power flow and
reclose upon restoration of the correct voltage, phase angle, and
phase sequence at the transformer secondary. The b u s has provi-
sions for one or more secondary radial feeders and one or more tie

NETWORK
PROTECTOR

Figure 8.12 Distributed network diagram.

198 Chapter 10

ι ι
ψ \y

τ τ3
^JUUk^

1» NORMALLY OPEN
NK
V

Figure 8.13 Duplex unit substation diagram.

Figure 8.14 A Duplex unit substation with two 2000 kVA oil
transformers.
Power and Switching Equipment 199

connections to a similar unit substation (see Figure 8.10).

6. Duplex: two step-down transformers, each connected to a
separate primary source. The secondary side of each transformer is
connected to a radial feeder. These feeders are joined on the feeder
side of the power circuit breaker by a normally open tie circuit
b r e a k e r . This type is used primarily on electric utility primary dis-
tribution systems (see Figure 8.11). Figure 8.12 shows a duplex
unit substation with two 2000-kVA oil transformers.

8.6.2 Advantages of Unit Substations

Unit substation has been widely accepted for industrial power distri-
bution mainly because the engineering of the components is coordinated
by the manufacturer, the costs of field labor and installation time
are greatly reduced, and it is safer to operate. The operating costs
are reduced due to the reduced power losses from shorter secondary
f e e d e r s . Besides, a unit substation is very flexible and easy to
expand.
Unit substations are available for either indoor or outdoor loca-
tions. Primary unit substations may be located outdoors, particularly
when the primary supply is above 34.5 kV. There is a t r e n d toward
metal-enclosed equipment above 34.5 kV in a unit substation arrange-
ment. Most secondary unit substations are located indoors to reduce
costs and improve voltage regulation by placing the transformer as
close as possible to the center of load of the area. (See Figure 8.9
which shows a typical 12.47 kV/480 V, 750-kVA unit substation.)
Figure 8.10 shows a similar unit substation except that the secondary
section consists of molded-case circuit b r e a k e r s arranged in the form
of a power distribution panelboard.

8.7 CAPACITORS AND POWER FACTOR

8.7.1 Definition of Power Factor

One definition expresses power factor as the cosine of the phase dis-
placement angle between the circuit voltage and c u r r e n t . The other
definition is that power factor is the ratio of active power to apparent
power in a circuit. It is generally given in p e r c e n t . The following
formula is most familiar to the engineers:

kW = (kVA) (power factor)

= (kVA) (cosine φ )
200 Chapter 10

8.7.2 Power-Factor Fundamentals

Most utilization devices require two components of c u r r e n t , active and
reactive. The power-producing current (active c u r r e n t ) is the cur-
rent that is converted by the equipment into work, usually in the form
of h e a t , light, or mechanical power. The unit of active power is the
watt. The magnetizing c u r r e n t (reactive c u r r e n t ) is the current re-
quired to produce the flux necessary to the operation of electromag-
netic devices. The unit of reactive power is the v a r . The normal
phasor relationship of these two components of current to the total
c u r r e n t is shown in Figure 8.15.

/ 2 2
Total current = ν (active c u r r e n t ) + (reactive c u r r e n t )
/ 2 2
= ν (I cos φ) + (I sin φ)

The equation above is based on fundamental frequency and zero

harmonic c u r r e n t .

8.7.3 Capacitor Standards and Operating Characteristics

1. Capacitor ratings. Early i n d u s t r y standards list ratings for
shunt capacitor units from 240 to 26,600 V. Units rated at
1 to 15 k v a r are common for applications with motors. Large
units are available in ratings up to 600 k v a r , 13,200 V, three
phase.
2. Operating characteristics. The following relationships apply
when capacitors are operated at other than their design-rated
operating conditions:

a. The reactive power varies approximately as the square of

the applied voltage.
b. The reactive power varies approximately as the f r e q u e n c y .

8.7.4 Utilization Equipment Applications

The following items are considered to be the major equipment in an
industrial plant:
1. Motors. The power factor of a lightly loaded induction motor
is poor. By using a capacitor of proper rating, attractive improve-
ment over the entire load range can be achieved. The Τ-frame
motor, available since 1964, generally has a lower power factor than
that of the U-frame motor. Figure 8.16 shows the power factor com-
parison for these two different frame motors. Recently introduced
high-efficiency motors may have much higher power factor character-
istics. Hermetic and wound-rotor motors have a lower operating
P o w e r a n d S w itc h in g E q u ip m e n t 201

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MOTOR HORSEPOWER
N O T E : Based on c o m p i l a t i o n of d a t a f r o m six m a j o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s for
t h r e e - p h a s e N E M A class Β 1 8 0 0 r / m i n totally e n c l o s e d 4 6 0 V m o t o r s at full load.

Figure 8.16 Power factor v e r s u s motor horsepower rating for U-

frame and Τ-fram e designs.

power factor than do other induction motors of the same power and
speed r a t i n g s .
2. Electric furnaces. Arc furnaces have a poor power factor,
typically 75 to 90%. Industion furnaces have a power factor of 30
to 70%; switched capacitors are normally used to maintain near-unity
power factor.
3. Transformers. These are not ordinarily considered as loads,
but they do contribute to lowering the system power factor. The
transformer exciting current is usually 1 to 2% of the transformer
rating in kVA and is independent of load. Reactive power is also
required by the transformer leakage reactance. Such reactive power
varies as the square of load c u r r e n t . At rated current the leakage
reactance requires reactive power equal in magnitude to the t r a n s -
former rating in kVA times the nameplate impedance in per unit.

Selection of Capacitors with Induction Motors

Economics may not always favor the individual motor-capacitor method
because of the higher unit cost of capacitors in small r a t i n g s . How-
e v e r , this method is gaining in popularity because of the operational
advantages. It p u t s the right amount of capacitance at the correct
Power and Switching Equipment 203

location as production equipment is added, taken away, or moved

about the plant. It assures that capacitors are on the line when the
motor is energized.
The power factor of a squirrel-cage motor at full load is usually
80 to 90%, depending on the motor speed and type. At light loads,
the power factor drops rapidly. Even the power factor of an induc-
tion motor varies considerably from no load to full load; the motor
reactive power does not change very much. This characteristic makes
the induction motor an attractive application for capacitors. With a
properly sized capacitor, the operating power factor can be excellent
over the entire load range of the motor.
Capacitors have been applied to induction motors and switched
with the motor as a unit with satisfactory r e s u l t s , except in a few
applications. Sometimes difficulties are encountered because too large
a capacitor rating has been used or the capacitors were misapplied
on reversing applications. A general rule to follow in selecting
capacitor ratings is that the total k v a r rating of capacitors that are
connected on the load side of a motor controller should not exceed
the value required to raise the no-load power factor of the motor to
unity.
Figure 8.17 shows various locations of capacitors when used with
induction motors for power factor improvement. In this figure (a)
and (b) represent the fact that the capacitor and motor are switched
as a unit. The p r e f e r r e d location from an overall standpoint for

POWER SOURCE

L
c

CONTACTOR

OVERLOAD
RELAY

CAPACITOR
Μ Μ Μ

α ; ;b C

Figure 8.17 Electrical location of capacitors.

204 Chapter 10

application not involving repetitive switching is that of (a) and ( b ) .

In either case the capacitor and motor are switched as a unit by the
motor s t a r t e r , so the capacitor is always in service when the motor is
in operation. Connection in (b) may be p r e f e r r e d for existing instal-
lations because no change in the overload relay is required.
Following are the conditions under which motor-capacitor applica-
tions should be dealt with special caution:

1. Motors that are subject to reversing or plugging

2. Motors that are restarted while still running
3. Capacitors that are used with crane or elevator motors where
the load may drive the motor
4. Open-transition reduced-voltage s t a r t e r s that are used with
wye-delta connections and capacitors (capacitors should be con-
nected on the line side of contactors)

In general, for low-voltage systems the induction motor method

is more economical up to about 200 hp with full-voltage s t a r t e r s ,
and to about 350 hp with reduced-voltage s t a r t e r s . For medium-
voltage systems, a synchronous motor is more economical over the
entire hp and speed range if a power circuit breaker or a contactor
is used to switch the excess capacitors.
The National Electrical Code has now properly omitted tables of
capacitor values for motors because of the difference in motor designs
among manufacturers. There will also be large differences in the
recommended capacitor ratings for motors of different design genera-
tions , such as

Pre-U-frame, prior to 1955

U-frame, since 1955
T - f r a m e , since 1964

U- and T-frame (high efficiency), since 1978

8.7.5 Benefits of Power Factor Improvements

Most benefits from power-factor improvements stem from the reduc-
tion of reactive power in the system. This results in: (1) lower
utility costs if an incentive for power-factor clause is provided in
the contract, (2) release of system capacity, (3) voltage improvement,
and (4) lower system losses. The benefits derived by installing
capacitors, synchronous machines, static power-factor controllers,
or any other means for power factor improvement result in the re-
duction of reactive power circulating in the system. Capacitors and
synchronous machines should be installed as close as possible to the
load for which the power factor is being improved. A static power-
factor controller would be located electrically adjacent to the motor
Power and Switching Equipment 205

for which power factor improvement is being made. Large plants

with extensive distribution systems often install capacitors at the
primary voltage b u s when utility billing encourages the user to im-
prove power factor. The benefits of power factor improvement are
discussed in more detail below.

Release of System Capacity

Release of capacity means that as the power factor is improved, the
current in the system will be reduced, thus permitting additional
load to be served by the same system. Improvement in the power
factor can release both active power and apparent power capacity.
This method of releasing system capacity can sometimes be used as
an expedient way of obtaining additional power for expansion of
product lines. For example, an industrial plant with only 600 kVA
spare capacity in its power supply transformer suddenly required
850 kVA of capacity for starting up a crash program in 8 months.
The utility company would take a minimum of 15 months to install
another substation transformer. A study of power factor at the in-
coming substation indicated that the plant power factor had been only
92%, and that by improving its power factor to 98%, 400 kVA of addi-
tional capacity would be released for service. F u r t h e r study pointed
out that the power factor improvement can be achieved by installing
1350 kvar of capacitors anywhere downstream of the unility sub-
station transformer. All equipment needed for the capacitor installa-
tion were delivered from the manufacturer within 5 months. The
capacitor bank consists of nine single-phase 7.2 kV 150 kvar units,
connected three per phase in a wye configuration. This installation
was completed in time for the project to use the released capacity
and to start on schedule. In addition, payback for the installation
was less than 1 y e a r . Thus a problem was converted to a cost-
savings opportunity. Figure 8.18 shows the 1350 kvar capacitor
bank installed on a concrete pad in the outdoor switchyard. All
protective and control equipment were housed neatly in an outdoor
metal enclosure with the capacitors.

Voltage Improvement
It is well known that capacitors raise a c i r c u i t s voltage. However,
it is rarely economical to apply them in industrial plants for that
reason alone. The voltage improvement is usually regarded as a side
benefit. The following approximate equation shows the importance of
reducing the reactive power component of c u r r e n t in order to reduce
the voltage drop:

ΔV s RI cos φ ± XI sin φ (8.1)

206 Chapter 10

Figure 8. 18 1350 kvar capacitor bank in outdoor metal-enclosure.

where AV may be a drop or rise in voltage and φ is the power-factor

angle. The plus sign is used when the power factor is lagging and
minus when it is leading. AV is positive (voltage drop) for a circuit
having a lagging power factor and usually negative (voltage rise)
for the typical industrial circuit having a leading power factor.
R cos φ reflects the active power contribution to voltage drop per
total c u r r e n t , and X sin φ reflects the reactive power contributio n
to voltage drop. Since the power factor acts directly to reduce re-
active power flow, it becomes most effective in reducing voltage drop.
From equation (8.1) it may be rewritten in a simple form to
determine the voltage change due to capacitors at a transformer
secondary b u s :
ca
ο ^v - P a c i t Q r k v a r χ % transformer impedance
0
transformer kVA

The voltage increases when a capacitor is switched on and de-

creases when it is switched off. A capacitor permanently connected
to the b u s will provide a constant rise in voltage. If excessive volt-
age becomes a problem, the transformer tap should be changed.
However, the voltage rise due to capacitors in most industrial plants
Power and Switching Equipment 207

with modern power distribution systems and a single transformation

is rarely more than a few p e r c e n t .

Power System Losses

System conductor losses are proportional to current s q u a r e d , and
since current is reduced in direct proportion to power factor improve-
ment, the losses are inversely proportional to the square of the
power factor:

ν 2
(8.2)
% power loss « 100 ( ^ ^ ^ )
(8.3)
% loss reduction = 100 [ l - ( ^ o v t / v F ) ]

8.7.6 Resonances, Harmonics, and Preventive Remedies

Resonance is a special circuit condition in which the inductive re-

actance is equal to the capacitive reactance. The frequency at which
the circuit is in resonance is called the natural frequency of the
circuit. When there is no intentional capacitance added to the circuit,
the natural frequency of most power circuits is in the kilohertz r a n g e .
The addition of capacitors to the power system can either reduce
or increase the harmonic and transient voltage. The nonsinusoidal
voltages and c u r r e n t s associated with transformers operating in satu-
ration are a familiar example of the generation of harmonics by a
nonlinear impedance. A rectifier is another example of nonlinear im-
pedance. Many other circuit components have varying degrees of
nonlinearity inherent in their impedance. Arc f u r n a c e s impose a
high harmonic duty on the system. Although capacitors in themselves
do not generate harmonics, the effects of a capacitor on the circuit
impedance may cause the harmonic voltages to either decrease or
increase.
If excessive harmonic c u r r e n t s or voltages are suspected, reme-
dies may be used as suggested in the following:

1. Detuning involves changing the capacitance or inductance of the

circuit so that the circuit natural frequency will not fall near an
expected or integral multiple of the fundamental f r e q u e n c y . This
takes the form of removing or adding capacitor u n i t s , or addi-
tion of tuning reactors in series with the capacitor bank.
2. Wye-connected capacitor banks should be u n g r o u n d e d , eliminating
a path for the zero-sequence harmonics that should flow through
a grounded neutral. Furthermore, a grounded bank could inter-
fere with the performance of the plant ground-relaying system.
208 Chapter 10

3. Harmonic input to the system can be reduced by operating at a

lower level on the saturation curve of transformers and motors.
4. Increasing the number of phases of a rectifier or converter can
reduce the harmonic i n p u t .

8.8 MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROLLERS

8.8.1 Industrial Electric Motors

There are possibly h u n d r e d s of types of electric motors in existence

today. Dozens of types will be found in a typical industrial plant in
various applications. However, only a few types of motors are of
direct and significant interest to the industrial plant engineers.
These basic motors can be classified in three major classes: (1)
three-phase induction, (2) direct c u r r e n t , and (3) three-phase syn-
chronous.

Three-Phase Induction Motors

Induction motors make up the overwhelming bulk of motors in indus-
trial plants. All operate on the principle of the transformer. All
of them have a star winding (the primary) connected to the power
source. The magnetic field produced by the primary rotates about
the stator by virtue of the progression of the ac c u r r e n t through
the winding. The voltage induced in the secondary (rotor) is, in
t u r n , accompanied by a magnetic field. Motion is produced by the
interaction of the magnetic fluxes. Various types of induction motors
are discussed below.

Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors. Unquestionably, these are the

workhorses of i n d u s t r y . Simple, r u g g e d , and reliable, they offer
the most horsepower per dollar of any type of motor. A fundamental
characteristic of all induction motors is that speed remains almost
constant from no load to full load. Development of the adjustable-
frequency drive several years ago has permitted the squirrel-cage
motor to invade a region that was once almost exclusively the domain
of dc motors—adjustable-speed applications. In general, any squirrel-
cage motor can be converted to an adjustable-speed motor with an
adjustable-frequency drive.

Wound-Rotor Induction Motors. The rotor circuit is different

from that of a squirrel-cage motor. Instead of solid-bar conductors,
the rotor circuit uses wound coils, which are connected to slip rings
on the rotor s h a f t . The rotor circuit is completed through carbon
b r u s h e s riding on the slip r i n g s , and a variable-resistance bank
external to the machine. Slip and torque can be varied by varying
the resistance in the control resistance bank. Wound-rotor motors
Power and Switching Equipment 209

are used primarily on crane and hoist drives; conveyor drives call
for limited speed control. The controllable-torque advantage of this
type of motor is being challenged by solid-state electronic variable-
voltage controllers.

Multispeed Motors. These are squirrel-cage induction motors

wound in such a manner and with appropriate winding leads brought
out into the motor conduit box that the motor pole configuration can
be changed by changing the winding connections at the motor con-
troller. Two-speed motors are most common. Other multispeeds are
also available.

DC Motors
The primary advantage of the dc motor is its excellent speed control
and performance over the entire range from zero to full speed to
top speed. Dc machines are less tolerant than ac machines of severe
operating environments. However, they are more tolerant of operat-
ing abuse. There are four basic types of industrial dc motors: shunt
wound, series wound, compound wound, and permanent magnet. Dc
motor speed is controlled by varying the strength of the field or by
varying the armature voltage; either method is easily applied by
separately exciting the shunt field through a packaged static drive.
As the field s t r e n g t h decreases with respect to armature c u r r e n t ,
the speed increases, and vice v e r s a .

Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors require both ac and dc power input. They run
at exactly synchronous speed over the full range from no load to
full load, without any need for speed adjustment. The machine's
operating power factor can be varied. It can therefore be used to
improve the power factor while driving its assigned load. They are
usually practical only in multi-hundred-horsepower sizes, but they
are an excellent choice, especially in slow-speed continuous operation.
The efficiency of synchronous motors is also higher than that of in-
duction motors. Usually, a point or two gain in efficiency can mean
tremendous savings in the power bill.

High-Efficiency Motors
Since the energy c r u n c h , high-efficiency motors are made available
by various manufacturers. However, there is price premium for
these motors. To justify their selection, a cost-effectiveness study
must be made. The amount of money that can be saved annually
using more energy-efficient electric motors can be determined by the
following formula:
210 Chapter 10

/ 100 __ 100 \
S = 0.746 x Η χ C x t x
\E1 "=2 )

where
Η = motor o u t p u t , hp
C = energy cost, $/kWh
t = annual operating time, hours
Ε ι = efficiency of less-efficient motor, %
Ε 2 = efficiency of high-efficiency motor, %

In general, premium - efficiency, premium-priced motors can r e t u r n

the price premium in a very short time, especially if the motor is
heavily loaded and energy rate is high. On the other hand, motors
for frequent operations would not justify their premium cost.

8.8.2 Selection of Motor Control Equipment

The majority of motors used in industrial plants are integral horse-

power of induction squirrel-cage design, powered from three-phase
ac distribution systems rated at 600 V and below. To make a proper
choice of motor controllers depends on a number of factors:

1. Power system. Dc or ac, single-phase or three-phase? What

voltage and frequency? Will the system permit large inrush cur-
r e n t s during full-voltage starting without excessive voltage drop?
2. Motor. Dc, squirrel-cage induction, wound-rotor induction, or
synchronous? What is the horsepower rating? Will the motor be
plugged or reversed frequently? What is the acceleration time
from start to full speed?
3. Load. Is the load geared, belt driven, or direct coupled? Loaded
or unloaded s t a r t ?
4. Operation. Manual or automatic?
5. Protection. Are f u s e s or circuit b r e a k e r s to be used? The full-
load current of the motor and the ambient temperature at the
motor should be known.
6. Environment. Is there excessive vibration, d i r t , oil, or water?
Will the motor be used in a hazardous or corrosive area?
7. Cable connection space. Will there be the required space for
cable entrance, bending r a d i u s , and terminations?

Design engineers should consult with utility, manufacturing, and

process engineers to determine the answers to the foregoing questions
before specifying the correct type for any application.
Power and Switching Equipment 211

8.8.3 Motor S t a r t e r s

The primary function of a motor s t a r t e r is to start and stop the

motor to which it is connected. The following represent the major
types of motor s t a r t e r s available for various applications.

Starters over 600 V

Starters for motors from 2300 to 13,200 V are designed as integrated
complete units based on maximum horsepower ratings for use with
squirrel-cage, wound-rotor, synchronous, and multispeed motors for
full- or reduced-voltage s t a r t i n g . Ac magnetic, f u s e d - t y p e s t a r t e r s ,
NEMA class E2, employ current-limiting power f u s e s and magentic
air-break contactors. Each s t a r t e r will be completely self-contained,
prewired, and with all components in space. Air-break contactors
will be c u r r e n t rated based on motor horsepower. Combination
s t a r t e r s will provide an i n t e r r u p t i n g fault capacity of 260 mVA sym-
metrical on a 2300 V system, and 520 mVA symmetrical on a 4160 or
4800 V system. The s t a r t e r will conform to ANSI/NEMA ICS2-1983,
class E2 controllers, and other applicable IEEE and ANSI s t a n d a r d s .
Figure 8.19 shows a typical t h r e e - p h a s e 2300-V metal-enclosed motor
s t a r t e r cubicle.

Starters 600 V and Below

In ac motor s t a r t e r s for applications rated at 600 V and below, con-
tactors are generally used for controlling the circuit to the motor.
S t a r t e r s should properly be applied on circuits and in combination
with associated short-circuit protective devices (circuit b r e a k e r s ,
fusible disconnects) that are able to limit the available fault c u r r e n t
and the let-through energy to a level the s t a r t e r can withstand.
These withstand ratings should be in accordance with ANSI/UL 508-
1983, ANSI/NEMA ICS1-1983, and ANSI/NEMA ICS2-1983. The follow-
ing are the most commonly used motor s t a r t e r s rated at 600 V and
below in the i n d u s t r y .

Across-the-Line Starters
1. Manual. This type of s t a r t e r provides overload protection,
but no undervoltage protection. One- or two-pole single phase for
motor ratings to 3 h p ; single- or polyphase motor ratings up to 5 hp
at 230 V, single phase; 7i hp at 230 V, three phase; and 10 hp at
460 V, three phase. Operating control is available in toggle, r o c k e r ,
or pushbutton design.
2. Magnetic, nonreversing. This type is for full-voltage f r e -
quent across-the-line starting of ac motors. It can be used for
remote control with pushbutton station, control switch, or automatic
pilot devices. Available in single-phase up to 15 hp at 230 V, and
t h r e e - p h a s e ratings up to 1600 hp at 460 V. The combination across-
212 Chapter 10

Figure 8.19 A typical 3 phase, 2300 V metal-enclosed motor s t a r t e r

cubicles (courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation).

the-line s t a r t e r provides branch-circuit protection in addition to

motor overcurrent protection. System design engineers must check
the fault c u r r e n t available before deciding which f u s e s or circuit
b r e a k e r s should be u s e d . It also provides undervoltage protection
and is suitable for remote control. They are readily available up to
NEMA size 5 from most manufacturers and size 9 from several.
3. Magnetic, reversing. This type is for full-voltage across-
the-line starting of single-phase and polyphase motors where applica-
tion requires frequent starting and reversing or plugging operation.
It contains two contactors wired to provide phase r e v e r s a l , mechani-
cally and electrically interlocked to prevent both contactors from being
closed at the same time. The combination across-the-line reversing
s t a r t e r is the same as the above, except that it is equipped with non-
Power and Switching Equipment 213

fusible disconnect, fusible disconnect, or circuit breaker for b r a n c h -

circuit protection. Figure 8.20 shows a typical combination magnetic
reversing s t a r t e r components arrangement in a metal enclosure.

Reduced-Voltage Starters
1. Autotransformer, manual. For limiting starting current and
torque on polyphase induction motors to comply with power supply
regulations or to avoid shock to the machine being driven. Overload
and undervoltage protection are usually provided. Taps are provided
on the autotransformer for adjusting starting torque and c u r r e n t .
2. Autotransformer, magnetic. Same as manual, but suitable
for remote control. It has a timing relay for adjustment of the time
at which full voltage is applied. To overcome the objection of the
open-circuit transition associated with this type of s t a r t e r , a circuit
known as the Korndorfer connection is in common u s e . This type
of s t a r t e r requires a two-pole and a three-pole start contactor. The
two-pole contactor opens first on the transition from start to r u n ,
opening the connections to the neutral of the autotransformer. The
windings of the transformer are then momentarily used as series
reactors during the t r a n s f e r , allowing a closed-circuit transition.
This is useful on high-inertia centrifugal compressors to obtain the
advantages of low line current surges and closed-cricuit transition.

Figure 8.20 A typical combination magnetic r e v e r s i n g s t a r t e r (cour-

tesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation).
214 Chapter 10

Figure 8.21 shows an magnetic autotransformer reduced-voltage

s t a r t e r . An sutotransformer is mounted at the bottom. Figure 8.22
shows a typical schematic connections for a magnetic autotransformer
starter.
3. Primary resistor or reactor type. This type provides the
smoothest acceleration of all available reduced-voltage starting methods.
During the starting period, resistance or reactance is inserted in
series with motor windings. When maximum current is being drawn
during the starting period, a maximum voltage drop will appear across
the resistance or reactance. As the motor accelerates, less voltage
drop will appear across the starting impedance. When the motor
reaches full speed, the starting impedance is shorted out. They are
inherently of the closed transition type. The primary reactor type
is more suitable for high-voltage a n d / o r h i g h - c u r r e n t applications.
4. Part-winding type. They are to be used only on special
motors with windings divided into two or more equal p a r t s , with
terminals of each winding available for external connection. There
are two megnetic s t a r t e r s , each selected for one of the two motor
windings, and a time-delay relay controlling the time at which the
second winding is energized.
5. Wye-delta type. This type of s t a r t e r is most applicable to
starting motors that drive high-inertia loads with resulting long
acceleration times. When the motor has accelerated on the wye con-
nection, it is automatically reconnected by contactors for normal
delta operation. Wye-delta s t a r t e r s more closely approach high s t a r t -
ing torque per ampere than any other type of reduced-voltage s t a r t e r .
Both open and closed transition versions are available.
6. Solid-state type. Solid-state motor s t a r t e r s can control the
starting cycle and provide reduced voltage starting for standard ac
squirrel-cage motors. They are available in standard models for
motors rated from 10 to 600 h p . One type of reduced-voltage s t a r t e r
uses six silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) in a full-wave configura-
tion to vary the input voltage from zero to full on, so that the motor
accelerates smoothly from zero to full running speed. The SCRs are
activated by an electronic control section that has an initial step
voltage adjustment. This adjustment, when combined with a ramped
voltage and c u r r e n t limit override, provides constant current (torque)
to the motor until it reaches full speed. Figure 8.23(a) shows a
typical schematic diagram of a solid-state motor s t a r t e r , and a reduced-
voltage solid-state motor s t a r t e r components arrangement. Some varia-
tions in the design of the starting circuit are as follows:

a. Three power diodes replace the three r e t u r n conducting

SCRs. Each SCR is protected against reverse voltage by
its associated diode. This half-wave configuration could
produce harmonics that produce added heat in the motor
windings. Thermal protective devices should be properly
Power and Switching Equipment 215

Figure 8.21 A magnetic autotransformer reduced-voltage s t a r t e r

(courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation).
216 Chapter 10

L2 L3

OL-K 5

MOTOR OL-I

OL-2

STOP START OL-3

OTT
S

OL - O V E R L O A D RELAY
OTT - AUTOTRANSFORMER
OVERTEMPERATURE DEVICE
- S T A R T CONTACTOR
S TO R
R - RUN CONTACTOR
AT -AUTOTRANSFORMER
Y - NEUTRAL CONTACTOR #-<5J-
- T I M I N G RELAY TC Y
TR
TO - T I M E OPENING
TC - T I M E CLOSING

Figure 8.22 A typical schematic connections for a magnetic auto-

transformer s t a r t e r .

chosen to prevent this additional heat from damaging· the

motor.
b. SCRs are used only during the starting phase. At full volt-
age, a run contactor closes and the circuit operates as a
conventional electromechanical s t a r t e r .
c. A s t a r t e r with linear times acceleration used a closed-loop
feedback system to maintain the motor acceleration at a con-
stant r a t e . The required feedback signal is provided by a
dc tachometer coupled to the motor.

7. Comparison of various reduced-voltage starters. Which of

the foregoing reduced-voltage s t a r t e r s is best? The answer will
Power and Switching Equipment 217

R-C TRANSIENT
^ ^ ^ SUPPRESSO

L1 ™ T3

CR1

2
L2 Ι ™ T2

L3

CONTACT
STOP

ELECTRONIC
NO CONTACT CONTROLS
1FU I 2FU
START

CR1 I
Η ^ H3 w H2 H4 SCR ACTIVATION
CONTROL
2FU X1 X2

Figure 8.23 (a) A typical schematic diagram of a solid-state motor

s t a r t e r ; (b) A reduced voltage solid-state motor s t a r t e r , showing
components arrangement.

vary with the application. Autotransformer type is more flexible,

but it is also the most expensive. Table 8.17 is prepared to simplify
selection of a most appropriate reduced-voltage s t a r t e r for one T s
specific needs. To use this table, the design engineer must first
p r e p a r e a list of starting requirements: current limitations, torque
requirements, smoothness of acceleration, flexibility, allowable accele-
ration time, manual or magnetic, motor cost, maintainability, and
delivery. Having compiled a listing of pertinent considerations,
arrange them in order of importance. By consulting the table, proper
selection can be quickly narrowed down.

Other Types of Motor Starters

1. Slip-ring motor starter. The wound-rotor or slip-ring motor
functions in the same manner as the squirrel-cage motor, except that
the rotor windings are connected through slip-rings and b r u s h e d to
external circuits with resistance to vary motor speed. Increasing
the resistance in the rotor circuit reduces the motor speed and vice
218 Chapter 10

Figure 8.23 (Continued)

v e r s a . There are also variations that use SCRs instead of contactors

and r e s i s t o r s .
2. Multispeed controllers. These controllers are designed for
the automatic control of two-, t h r e e - , or four-speed squirrel-cage
motors. They are available for constant-horsepower, constant - t o r q u e ,
or variable-torque t h r e e - p h a s e motors used on f a n s , blowers, re-
frigeration compressors, and similar machinery.
 Power and Switching Equipment 219

Table 8.17 Comparison of Various Reduced-Voltage Starting Methods

REDUCED V O L T A G E CONTROLLER CHARACTERISTICS
AUTOTRANSFORMER
CLOSED- PRIMARY PRIMARY PART-
FEATURE TRANSITION RESISTOR REACTOR WINDING W Y E (STAR)—DELTA
Smoothness of
acceleration 1 1 4 3
(1 —smoothest)
(4—least smooth) 2
Application 5
Flexibility (N<Drmally used in
(1—Most flexible) 4 hig h current a n d / o r 3 2
(5—Least flexible) vol t a g e applica-
1 tioiis)
A l l o w a b l e accelera 5 sec. based on 15 sec. based on 2 - 3 sec. 4 5 - 6 0 sec.
tion time - 3 0 sec. based on N E M A Class 1 1 6 NE M A medium limited by limited by
N E M A medium duty resistors dul y reactors motor design motor design
transformers 2 contactors, 2 c ontactors, 2 contactors
Equipment 3 contactors a n d timer
3 contactors, timer timer a n d start- tim er a n d start- a n d timer. on open transition.
a n d starting element. ing element. ing element. Starting 4 contactors, timer a n d
element inherent resistor on closed
in motor design. transition. Starting
element inherent in
motor design
A p p r o x i m a t e cost
comparison of
starter 4 3 3 1 2
(}—Lowest cost)
(4—Highest cost)
A p p r o x i m a t e motor S t a n d a r d squirrel S t a n d a r d squirrel Sta n d a r d squirrel O v e r one-third ιOver one-third
cost comparison cage induction c a g e induction cacje induction more than stan- more than standard
motor. motor. mo tor. d a r d squirrel ιsquirrel c a g e induction
cage induction ιmotor.
motor.

8.8.4 Motor Control Centers

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) defines a

motor control center as "a floor mounted assembly of one or more
enclosed vertical sections having a horizontal common power bus and
principally containing combination motor starting units. These units
are mounted one above the other in the vertical section. The sec-
tions may incorporate vertical buses connected to the common power
b u s , thus extending the common power supply yo the individual u n i t s . "
ANSI/NEMA ICS2-1983 governs the type of enclosure and wiring;
NEMA type 1, 2, 3, and 12 enclosures are generally available. Wiring
of motor control centers conforms to two NEMA classes and three
t y p e s . Class I provides for no wiring by the manufacturer between
compartments of the center. Class II requires prewiring by the
manufacturer, with interlocking and other control wiring completed
between compartments of the center. With type A, no terminal blocks
are provided; with type B, all connections within individual compart-
ments are made to terminal blocks; and with type C, all connections
are made to a master terminal block located in the horizontal wiring
trough at the top or bottom of the center. The wiring specification
220 Chapter 10

for minimum field installation time and labor is NEMA class II, type
C wiring. However, the wiring specification most frequently used
by industrial contractors is NEMA class I, type Β wiring. Figure
8.24 shows a typical motor control center which consists of three
vertical sections, and several different-sized combination s t a r t e r s in
each section.
ANSI/NEMA ICS2-1983 specifies that a control center must carry
a short-circuit rating defined as the maximum available symmetrical
rms c u r r e n t in amperes permissible at the line terminals. The avail-
able short-circuit current at the line terminals of motor control cen-
t e r is computed as the sum of maximum available current of the sys-
tem at the point of connection and short-circuit current contribution
of the motors connected to the control center. Most manufacturers
show only the short-circuit rating of the bus work on the nameplate.
It is therefore very important to establish the actual rating of the
entire unit and, in particular, the plug-in units (circuit b r e a k e r s ,
disconnects, s t a r t e r s , e t c . ) .

8.8.5 Control Circuits for Motor S t a r t e r s

Conventional s t a r t e r s for 600 V and below are factory wired with

coils of the same voltage rating as the phase voltage to the motor.
Where it is desirable or necessary to use control circuits and devices
of lower voltage rating than the motor, control transformers are used
to step the voltage down to permit the use of lower-voltage coil cir-
cuits. The control transformer is normally incorporated in the con-
troller enclosure and wired in with an operating coil of proper volt-
age r a t i n g . Such transformers can be obtained with fused or other-
wise protected secondaries to satisfy code requirements. The line
voltage of the supply to the motor determines the required primary
rating of the transformer. The control transformer should have
sufficient capacity to supply power to control devices, including indi-
cating lamps and solenoids.
Two forms of protection, undervoltage release and undervoltage
protection, can be provided in the motor s t a r t e r . In the former, if
the voltage drops below a set minimum, or if the control voltage fails,
the contactor will drop out but will reclose as soon as the voltage is
r e s t o r e d . In the latter, low voltage will cause the contactor to drop
out, but it will not reclose upon restoration of voltage.

8.8.6 Motor Protection

Many factors combine to determine the best type of motor protection

for a specific application. However, there are two basic categories
of motor protection. In the first category, equipment is intended
to protect the motor from damage by sensing impending conditions
Power and Switching Equipment 221

Figure 8.24 A typical motor control center (courtesy of Westinghouse

Electric Corporation).
222 Chapter 10

that could result in motor damage if no correction action is taken.

Devices in the second category protect by minimizing damage to the
motor and power system equipment, such as cables and motor s t a r t e r s ,
once a fault developes in the motor.
Devices in the first category are undervoltage and overvoltage
relays, temperature detectors, and long-time overcurrent devices.
Principal devices in the second category are instantaneous overcurrent
relays and ground-fault devices. Table 8.18 lists most of the devices
that can be applied for motor protection. Quite often, more than one
type of protection is incorporated in the same relay. For example,
one common type of relay incorporates undervoltage protection, loss-
of-phase protection, and phase-reversal protection in the same relay
enclosure.
One of the most common causes of motor burnout is single phasing,
which will result in extreme voltage unbalance at the motor terminals
and consequent motor failure. Undervoltage relays will prevent motor
starting if one phase of the system has been opened, but they cannot
detect loss of phase if the motor is already r u n n i n g . It is a common
practice to depend on motor controller thermal protective devices to
guard against single phasing when a motor is operating near full
load. At reduced loads, a 120-Hz harmonic current can develop,
causing rotor damage. This can be protected against only by apply-
ing a negative-sequence voltage relay. Another means of detecting
single phasing is to use a current balance relay; this permits detec-
tion of a single-phasing condition at values of motor loading down to
12% of full-load c u r r e n t . Good single-phasing protection can be
obtained by installing a negative-sequence voltage relay on the in-
coming power line, and providing a c u r r e n t balance relay on each
important motor circuit.

8.9 INSTRUMENTS AND METERS

8.9.1 Definitions and Objectives
An instrument is defined as a device for measuring the value of a
quantity u n d e r observation. Instruments may be either indicating or
recording type. A meter is defined as a device that measures and
r e g i s t e r s the integral of a quantity with respect to time. The term
"meter" is commonly used with other words, such as varmeter, volt-
meter, frequency meter, even though these devices should be classi-
fied as instruments. Instruments and meters are used in industrial
plants for the purpose of operating, monitoring, billing, accounting,
planning, conserving e n e r g y , and maintaining equipment. They pro-
vide information concerning an electrical load, energy consumption,
load factor, power factor, voltage, and so on. Care must be exer-
cised to ensure the compatibility of the instruments and meters to
Table 8.18 A p p l i c a t i o n s of Motor P r o t e c t i v e D e v i c e s

Motor Η Ρ Rating
Additional
600 VOLTS> & BELOW 2300 VOLTS & ABOVE Protection
Type of Protection Fractional Over for
or Relay to 5 HP To 300 HP To 1500 HP 1500 HP Syn. Motors

Inherent Thermal Protection (Linebreak) •

Short Circuit (Circuit Breakers or Fuses) • • • •
Over Current (Time) • • • •
Over Current (Time & Inst.) • • •
Temperature Sensing (Bimetallic and Thermister) • •
Temperature Sensing (RTD or thermocouple) • • •
Ground Fault • • •
Undervoltage • • • •
Overvoltage • •
Loss of Phase • • • •
Phase Reversal • • •
Locked Rotor • • • •
Differential •
Current Unbalance •
Under Frequency •
Power Factor • • •
Negative Sequence Voltage • •
Reverse Power •
Bearing Temperature • • •
Lightning & Voltage Surges • •
Vibration • •
Damper Winding •
Field Current Failure •
Field Voltage Failure •
Pullout •
Incomplete Sequence •
224 Chapter 10

their application so that the u s e r is not injured or the equipment

damaged.

8.9.2 Switchboard and Panel Instruments

Switchboard and panel instruments are permanently mounted and used

in the continuing operation of a plant. In general, switchboard i n s t r u -
ments are physically l a r g e r , more tolerant of transients and vibra-
tions, and more accurate than an equivalent panel instrument. The
c u r r e n t coils of most instruments are rated 5 A; their potential coils
are rated 120 V. Current and potential transformers are often used
to provide the required input of the instruments. Some of the most
common instruments are discussed below.

1. Voltmeters: used to measure the potential difference between

conductors and terminals, and connected directly across the
points where a potential difference reading is desired. In gene-
ral, when the voltage is higher than 120 V, a potential t r a n s f o r -
mer would be required.
2. Ammeters: used to measure the current that flows in a circuit.
If the current is high, a current transformer is often required.
Selector switches are also installed to switch from one phase to
another.
3. Wattmeters: used to measure the magnitude of electric power
being delivered to a load. Proper installation of this instrument
requires that the polarity of voltages, phasing of voltages, and
current applied to it be taken care of correctly.
4. Varmeters: used for measuring reactive power. They have an
advantage over a power-factor meter because their scale is linear.
Small variations can be detected.
5. Power-factor meters: indicate unity power factor at the center
scale, leading PF to the left of center, and lagging PF to the
right of center. It can monitor the PF of only one phase at a
time. The proper choice of a power-factor meter depends on the
system to be monitored: t h r e e - p h a s e , three-wire or t h r e e - p h a s e ,
four-wire wye; t h r e e - p h a s e , four-wire delta; and so on. Figure
8.25 shows a sample metering scheme ( t h r e e - p h a s e , four-wire,
high current and voltage).
6. Frequency meters: measure the frequency of an ac power supply.
Two common types are the pointer-indicating and the vibrating-
reed. They are connected in the same way as the voltmeters.

8.9.3 Portable Instruments

A portable instrument has the same function as a switchboard i n s t r u -

ment, but it can be moved easily. The most commonly used portable
instruments are:
Power and Switching Equipment 225

AMMETER
LINE y i POLARITY MARKS (TYP) SELECTOR
SWITCH

>
KWHM RKVA AMM
1
CURRENT
I TRANSFORMERS
I 800:5 A
(160:1 RATIO)

(JUnKclM I
CIRCUIT GROUND
SECONDARY
PRIMARV
lY FUSE
FUSE Ν

X
PHASE-
Y SHIFTING
TRANSFORMER
(REACTIFORMER)
Ζ

VOLTMETER
POTENTIAL -± SELECTOR
(VOLTAGE) POTENTIAL SWITCH
TRANSFORMERS CIRCUIT GROUND
14 4 0 0 : 1 2 0 V LEGEND:
(120:1 RATIO)
VM K W H M —KILOWATTHOUR METER
RKVA —REACTIVE
LOAD
KILOVOLTAMPERE-HOUR
METER
A M M —AMMETER
NOTE: Use 2Vfe element meter when voltages are balanced. VM —VOLTMETER

Figure 8.25 A sample metering scheme.

1. Volt-ohmmeters: can indicate a wide range of voltage, resistance

(in ohms), and current (in milliamperes). They are very useful
for investigating circuit problems.
2. Clamp-on ammeters: use a split-core current transformer to en-
circle a conductor and determine the amount of ac flowing.
They are usually calibrated with several current r a n g e s .

8.9.4 Miscellaneous Instruments

1. Megohmmeters: test the insulation resistance of cables, b u s e s ,

motors, and other electric equipment. They consist of a hand-
cranked or motor-driven dc generator and a resistance indicator
They are calibrated in megohms and available in 500, 1000, or
226 Chapter 10

2500 V dc. A high r e a d i n g does not always mean that the equip-
ment's insulation can withstand r a t e d potential. A high-potential
test will be r e q u i r e d to ascertain t h e equipment's withstand capa-
bility.
2. Oscilloscopes: electronic i n s t r u m e n t s used to s t u d y v e r y high
f r e q u e n c i e s (up to millions of h e r t z ) or phenomena of short d u r a -
tion. They can be u s e d to s t u d y t r a n s i e n t s that occur in power
c i r c u i t s . A storage scope will display this waveform and a camera
can be used to record the waveform.
3. Recording instruments: mostly d i r e c t - r e a d i n g i n s t r u m e n t s ; avail-
able as recording or c u r v e - d r a w i n g i n s t r u m e n t s for portable or
switchboard u s e . C h a r t s are either s t r i p or c i r c u l a r . The
record may be continuous, or readings can be taken at r e g u l a r
intervals.

8.9.5 Meters
Kilowatthour Meters

Kilowatthour meters measure t h e amount of e n e r g y consumed by a

load. Ac kilowatthour meters u s e an induction-disk t y p e of mechanism;
the disk revolves at a speed proportional to the r a t e at which e n e r g y
p a s s e s t h r o u g h the meter. The metered kilowatthours are indicated
on a set of dials d r i v e n b y the revolving disk t h r o u g h a gear t r a i n .
Recently, solid-state kilowatthour meters have been developed. Kilo-
watthour meters come in several classes. Following is a list of the
common classes t o g e t h e r with the maximum c u r r e n t that each can
safely monitor:

Class 10 10 A
Class 20 20 A
Class 100 100 A
Class 200 200 A
Class 320 320 A

H i g h - c u r r e n t services would r e q u i r e a class 10 or class 20 meter

employed with c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s . Table 8.19 lists application data
as a general guideline for selection of kilowatthour meters for a variety
of system. Other f a c t o r s used in selection include:

Type of mountings: socket, bottom-connected

Voltage: 120, 240, 480, 240/120, etc.
Register: clock, cyclometer
Type of load current bypass: automatic, manual
Power and Switching Equipment 227

Table 8.19 Data for Selecting a Kilowatthour Meter for a System

Service voltage Stators CTs PTs

O n e - p h a s e , two-wire 1 1 1
One-phase, three-wire 1 2 1
O n e - p h a s e , t h r e e - w i r e (wye) 2 2 2
O n e - p h a s e , t h r e e - w i r e (wye) 2 2 2
T h r e e - p h a s e , t h r e e - w i r e (delta) 2 2 2
T h r e e - p h a s e , f o u r - w i r e (wye)
Balanced conditions 2i 3 2
Unbalanced conditions 3 3 3

Kilovarhour Meters

Kilovarhour meters measure the amount of reactive e n e r g y drawn by

a load. Their internal mechanism is similar to that of a kilowatthour
meter, b u t the potential applied is shifted 90 d e g r e e s . Most kilovar-
h o u r meters have a r a t c h e t - t y p e assembly to p r e v e n t them from r u n n -
ing b a c k w a r d . T h e r e f o r e , they can record only lagging or leading
flow, depending on the connection.

Demand Meters

Demans meters r e g i s t e r the a v e r a g e use of power d u r i n g a specified

i n t e r v a l . It also indicates the maximum demand that h a s o c c u r r e d
since t h e meter was last r e s e t . A p r i n t i n g demand meter r e c o r d s t h e
a v e r a g e power d u r i n g a specific i n t e r v a l . It r e c o r d s the total num-
b e r of impulses received d u r i n g a given i n t e r v a l . The record may
be on p r i n t e d p a p e r t a p e , a c h a r t , punched t a p e , magnetic t a p e , or
a computer memory chip. A computer is r e q u i r e d to p r o c e s s the
information from t h e magnetic tape or memory chip.

8.9.6 Auxiliary Devices

Potential Transformers

Potential t r a n s f o r m e r s provide a secondary voltage compatible to t h e

r a t i n g of the i n s t r u m e n t ' s potential coil. Switches should be provided
in t h e secondary circuit of t h e potential t r a n s f o r m e r to disconnect
t h e instrument f o r t e s t i n g . For s a f e t y , the secondary winding of a
potential t r a n s f o r m e r should be g r o u n d e d . In most applications, both
the primary and secondary circuits are f u s e d .
228 Chapter 10

Current Transformers

C u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s insulate the instrument circuit from the primary

voltage. Care should be exercised to e n s u r e that t h e c u r r e n t t r a n s -
former is insulated for the full system voltage. They reduce c u r r e n t
to values within the r a t i n g of the instrument elements—usually 5 A.
A c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r can generate a dangerously high potential
when the secondary circuit is opened. T h e r e f o r e , a s h o r t i n g b a r ,
test switch, or jack is used to s h o r t - c i r c u i t the t r a n s f o r m e r secondary
when the connected instrument is being t e s t e d . C u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s
must have a secondary circuit ground to r e s t r i c t t h e building of
static voltages caused by the high-voltage c o n d u c t o r s . The accuracy
of a c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r or potential t r a n s f o r m e r is usually stated
as a p e r c e n t a g e at a rated b u r d e n .

Shunts

In dc measurements of c u r r e n t or e n e r g y , s h u n t s are used to c a r r y

the main c u r r e n t to be measured. The dc ammeter actually measures
t h e millivolt drop across its s h u n t and is calibrated in terms of c u r -
r e n t r a t i n g of its associated s h u n t .

Transducers

T r a n s d u c e r s are devices used to t r a n s f e r one or more analog i n p u t s

into another analog value that will be more suitable for use in i n s t r u -
mentation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSI C12.1-1982, Code for Electricity Metering.

ANSI C37.46-1981, American National Standard Specifications for
Power Fuses and Fuse Disconnecting Switches.
ANSI C97.1-1972, American National S t a n d a r d Low-Voltage C a r t r i d g e
Fuses 600 V and Less.
ANSI/IEEE C37.010-1979 (include Supplement ANSI/IEEE C37.010d-
1984), Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit B r e a k e r s
Rated on a Symmetrical C u r r e n t Basis.
ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979, IEEE Standard Rating S t r u c t u r e for AC
High-Voltage Circuit B r e a k e r s Rated on a Symmetrical C u r r e n t
Basis.
ANSI/IEEE C37.06-1979, American National Standard P r e f e r r e d Ratings
and Related Required Capabilities for AC High-Voltage Circuit
B r e a k e r s Based on a Symmetrical C u r r e n t Basis.
ANSI/IEEE C37.13-1981, IEEE Standard f o r Low-Voltage AC Power
Circuit B r e a k e r s Used in Enclosures.
Power and Switching Equipment 229

ANSI/IEEE C37. 20-1969 (include Supplements ANSI/IEEE C37. 20a-1970,

C37. 20b-1972, C37. 20c-1974, and C37. 20d-1978), S t a n d a r d f o r
Switchgear Assemblies Including Metal-Enclosed B u s .
ANSI/IEEE C37.40-1981, IEEE S t a n d a r d Service Conditions and Defini-
tions f o r High Voltage F u s e s , Distribution Enclosed Single-Pole
Air Switches, Fuse Disconnecting Switches, and Accessories.
ANSI/IEEE C37.41-1981, IEEE S t a n d a r d Design T e s t s f o r High-Volt-
age F u s e s , Distribution Enclosed Single-Pole Air Switches, Fuse
Disconnecting Switches, and Accessories.
ANSI/IEEE C37.47-1981, American National Standard Specifications
f o r Distribution Fuse Disconnecting Switches, Fuse S u p p o r t s ,
and Current-Limiting F u s e s .
ANSI/IEEE C37.100-1981, IEEE Standard Definition for Power Switch-
gear.
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1980, IEEE Standard General Requirements f o r
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating T r a n s f o r m e r s .
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.01-1981, IEEE S t a n d a r d General Requirements for
D r y - T y p e Distribution and Power T r a n s f o r m e r s .
ANSI/IEEE C57.13-1978 (R 1986), IEEE Standard Requirements for
Instrument T r a n s f o r m e r s .
ANSI/IEEE S t a n d a r d 141-1986, Recommended Practice f o r Electric
Power Distribution for Industrial Plants.
ANSI /NEMA ICS1-1983, General S t a n d a r d s for Industrial Control and
Systems.
ANSI/NEMA ICS2-1983, Industrial Control Deivces, Controllers, and
Assemblies.
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, National Electrical Code.
ANSI /UL 508-1983, Safety S t a n d a r d s for Industrial Control Equipment
Bowers, George H . , and Goethe, Paul K . , Importance of Efficiency
and Temperature Rise on T r a n s f o r m e r Selection, Electrical Con-
struction and Maintenance, Feb. 1981, p p . 77—78.
Castenschold, R . , U n d e r s t a n d i n g Automatic T r a n s f e r Switches, Plant
Engineering, Mar. 3, 1983, p p . 175-179.
Chen, Kao, Capacitor Installation Saves t h e Day; Saves Money Too,
Plant Engineering, Nov. 1977, p p . 188-189.
C h e n , Kao, Selection, Installation, T e s t i n g , and Calibration of Power
D i s t r i b u t i o n E q u i p m e n t , Plant Management and Engineering, Feb.
1961, p p . 3 8 - 4 1 .
Dalasta, F. B . , AC Motor Protection, Plant Engineering, Mar. 7,
1974, p p . 180-186.
NEMA AB1-1975 (R 1981), Molded-Case Circuit B r e a k e r s .
NEMA SG2-1981, High-Voltage F u s e s .
NEMA SG3-1981, Low-Voltage Power Circuit B r e a k e r s .
NEMA SG4-1975, (R 1980), AC High-Voltage Circuit B r e a k e r s .
Prince, Frank J . , and Gariepy, Robert E . , How to Select Reduced-
Voltage S t a r t e r s , Plant Engineering, Aug. 21, 1969, p p . 58—61.
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylora ndfra ncis.com
9
Power-Carrying Devices

9.1 CABLE

The principal r e q u i s i t e of an i n d u s t r i a l power d i s t r i b u t i o n system is

to t r a n s f e r electric power from its s o u r c e to utilization loads. Cable
can s e r v e such a r e q u i s i t e safely and efficiently p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e
selection of c o r r e c t wiring method is c a r r i e d out p r o p e r l y . Cables
may be installed in r a c e w a y , t r a y , u n d e r g r o u n d d u c t , or direct
b u r i e d , p r e a s s e m b l e d on a m e s s e n g e r , in a cable b u s , or as open
runs.
Selection of c o n d u c t o r size r e q u i r e s consideration of load c u r r e n t
to be c a r r i e d and loading cycle, emergency overload r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
fault clearing time, i n t e r r u p t i n g capacity of t h e cable o v e r c u r r e n t
p r o t e c t i o n , and voltage d r o p f o r a p a r t i c u l a r installation. Provisions
should be made f o r p r o p e r t e r m i n a t i n g , splicing, and g r o u n d i n g of
c a b l e s . The application and sizing of cables r a t e d u p to 35 kV is
g o v e r n e d b y ANSI/NFPA 70-1987 (National Electrical C o d e ) . Cable
u s e may also b e c o v e r e d in s t a t e and local r e g u l a t i o n s . The v a r i o u s
t a b l e s p r e s e n t e d in t h i s c h a p t e r a r e i n t e n d e d to help t h e design engi-
n e e r s to determine cable r e q u i r e m e n t s .

9.1.1 Cable Construction

Conductors

The two c o n d u c t o r materials in common u s e a r e c o p p e r and aluminum.

Annealed c o p p e r is t h e metal most generally u s e d b e c a u s e of i t s com-
b i n e d excellent electrical and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s and r e s i s t a n c e to
c o r r o s i o n . A aluminum c o n d u c t o r will h a v e a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a

231
232 Chapter 10

1.59 times that of a tinned copper conductor to have equivalent dc

r e s i s t a n c e . The difference in area is approximately equal to two
American Wire Gauge (AWG) sizes. The c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity of
an insulated cable with an aluminum conductor r a n g e s from approxi-
mately 78 to 84% of the ampacity of a copper conductor of c o r r e s p o n d -
i n g size.
The need for mechanical flexibility usually determines whether a
solid or a s t r a n d e d conductor is u s e d . The NEC r e q u i r e s that con-
d u c t o r s of size 8 and l a r g e r to be s t r a n d e d . Three common classes
of s t r a n d i n g are concentric-lay, b u n c h e d , and r o p e - l a y . Figure 9 . 1 ( a )
shows concentric layer s t r a n d s and p a r t ( b ) shows concentric rope-
lay s t r a n d s .

Insulation

Insulation in common use includes:

1. Thermosetting compounds
2. Thermoplastic compounds
3. Paper-laminated tapes
4. Varnished cloth , laminated tapes
5. Mineral insulation

E x t r u d i n g and taping are two common p r o c e s s e s for applying

insulation on an electric c o n d u c t o r . Two tape insulations with long
s u c c e s s f u l service r e c o r d s for bulk distribution of power in i n d u s -
trial plants are v a r n i s h e d cloth and impregnated p a p e r . However,
both of those tape insulations are vulnerable to moisture and must
be protected with an impervious metallic c o r r u g a t e d s h e a t h , such as
lead or a continuous metallic c o r r u g a t e d s h e a t h . The demand for
these insulations h a s greatly declined since t h e new and s u p e r i o r
insulations become available.
Thermosetting and thermoplastic insulations are applied to t h e
conductor by an extrusion p r o c e s s . Thermoplastic methods soften
to essentially a liquid state with increasing t e m p e r a t u r e , and r e t u r n
to their solid state u n c h a n g e d on cooling. Thermosetting materials
tend to retain their dimensional stability with increasing t e m p e r a t u r e
u p to their actual decomposition t e m p e r a t u r e . Table 9.1 shows vari-
ous insulations which are classified u n d e r the thermosetting or thermo-
plastic categories discussed above, and their electrical and physical
properties.
The performance record of the s y n t h e t i c r u b b e r insulation b u t y l
in industrial plants h a s been o u t s t a n d i n g . This insulation h a s been
used f o r over 40 y e a r s . Excellent stability of physical, thermal,
chemical, and electrical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with age and heat makes b u t y l -
insulated cable a t t r a c t i v e to the plant e n g i n e e r . It is suitable for
90°C copper temperature service and u p to 35 kV u s a g e .
Power-Carrying Devices 256 233

99
3 WIRE 7 WIRE 12 WIRE 19 WIRE

3 7 WIRE 61 WIRE 91 WIRE 127 WIRE

(a) Concentric Layer Strands

(b) Concentric Rope-Lay Strands

Figure 9.1 Conductor s t r a n d i n g .
 234 Chapter 10

Table 9. 1 Commonly Used Insulating Materials

Properties of Insulation
Common Name Chemical Composition Electrical Physical

Thermosetting
Crosslinked polyethylene Polyethylene Excellent Excellent
EPR Ethylene propylene rubber Excellent Excellent
(copolymer and terpolymer)
Butyl Isobutylene isoprene Excellent Good
SBR Styrene butadiene rubber Excellent Good
Oil base Complex rubber-like com- Excellent Good
pound
Silicone Methyl chlorosilane Good Good
TFE* Tetrafluoroethylene Excellent Good
ETFE+ Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene Excellent Excellent
Neoprene Chloroprene Fair Good
Class CP rubber* Chlorosulfonated poly- Good Good
ethylene
lermoplastic
Polyethylene Polyethylene Excellent Good
Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride Good Good
Nylon Polyamide Fair Excellent

*For example, Teflon or Halon.

+For example, Tefzel.
*For example, Hypalon.

Early in the 1960s, the cross-linking p r o c e s s of polyethylene was

i n t r o d u c e d . It c o n v e r t s polyethylene from a thermoplastic to a thermo-
s e t t i n g material and r e s u l t s in a compound with a unique combination
of p r o p e r t i e s . In general, cross-linked polyethylene r e t a i n s many of
t h e fine electrical and physical p r o p e r t i e s of conventional polyethylene.
In addition, its permissible operating t e m p e r a t u r e is increased over
that of conventional polyethylene. It also has g r e a t e r stability than
r u b b e r to oxidative d e g r a d a t i o n . Its recommended maximum operating
t e m p e r a t u r e is 90°C. For applications in the class 600 V and below,
c r o s s - l i n k e d polyethylene insulation r e p r e s e n t s both the insulation
and the jacket.
In the thermoplastic c a t e g o r y , polyethylene insulated cables have
had a long and successful service record at 600, 5000, and 15,000 V.
Specifications for polyethylene power cables at r a t e s up to 15,000 V
are contained in i n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d s such as IPECA S-61-402 and
NEMA WC-5. The f i r s t commercial 69-kV polyethylene cable was in-
stalled in a direct buried installation in 1962. The excellent record
of this cable h a s led to f u r t h e r work on cable development for volt-
ages h i g h e r than 69 kV. I n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d s (IPECA) for polyethy-
lene insulation specify a wall thickness approximately 72% that of
r u b b e r - i n s u l a t e d cables. Because of its improved dielectric s t r e n g t h ,
this t y p e of cable r e q u i r e s an insulation t h i c k n e s s of only about 59%
of that r e q u i r e d for r u b b e r - i n s u l a t e d cable.
Power-Carrying Devices 256 235

Outer Coverings

The function of an outer covering is to protect the conductors and

insulation d u r i n g and a f t e r installation from mechanical damage and
chemical deterioration. Materials adaptable for cable coverings fall
in two g r o u p s , metallic and nonmetallic. In an industrial power dis-
tribution system, t h e metallic coverings most commonly used are lead
s h e a t h , interlocked metallic t a p e , and impervious c o r r u g a t e d metallic
s h e a t h . Different t y p e s of metals a r e available, such as steel, b r o n z e ,
aluminum, and so o n . Supplemental protection with c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s -
tant material on the outside may be r e q u i r e d , such as neoprene tapes
or polyethylene jacket over the lead s h e a t h , and PVC or polyethylene
over interlocked armor.
The impervious, helically c o r r u g a t e d , lightweight metallic sheath
not only p r o t e c t s t h e insulated conductors from gases and fluids b u t
also from mechanical damage, yet does not result in a stiff heavy
cable. Nonmetallic jackets commonly used a r e : n e o p r e n e , polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride, and nylon. When p r o p e r l y compounded and vul-
vanized, neoprene jackets are flexible, r e s i s t a n t to abrasion and t e a r ,
and to o t h e r chemicals. Poylethylene- and polyvinyl chloride—jacketed
cables o f f e r excellent electrical and physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and are
applicable for service in contaminated a r e a s . Nylon s e r v e s v e r y
favroably as a thin jacket over PVC to provide physical protection
to the insulation. Type THWN (600 V) is an example of a small-
diameter nylon-covered wire.

Shielding

Shielding of an electric power cable is the practice of confining its

dielectric field to t h e inside of the cable insulation or insulated con-
d u c t o r assembly by s u r r o u n d i n g t h e insulation or assembly with a
g r o u n d e d conducting medium called a shield. For operating voltages
below 2 kV, nonshield constructions a r e normally u s e d , while above
2 kV, cables a r e r e q u i r e d to be shielded to comply with the NEC and
ICEA. The NEC does provide f o r the use of nonshielded cables u p
to 8 kV, provided t h a t the conductors a r e listed b y a nationally r e c -
ognized t e s t i n g laboratory and a r e a p p r o v e d f o r the p u r p o s e .
Since shielded cable is usually more expensive than nonshielded
cable, and the more complex terminations r e q u i r e a l a r g e r space in
the terminal b o x e s , the nonshielded cable has been used extensively
at 2400 and 4160 V, and occasionally at 7200 V.
The voltage distribution between a nonshielded cable and a
g r o u n d e d plane is shown in Figure 9.2. Here it is assumed that the
air is t h e same, electrically, as the insulation, so that the cable is
in a uniform dielectric above the ground plane to permit a simpler
illustration of the voltage distribution and field associated with the
cable.
236 Chapter 10

INSULATION

CONDUCTOR]

L I N E S OF FORCE

GROUND PLANE

Figure 9.2 Electric field of nonshielded cable on ground plane.

In a shielded cable, the equipotential s u r f a c e s are concentric

cylinders between conductor and shield (Figure 9 . 3 ) . The lines of
force and s t r e s s are uniform and radial, and cross the equipotential
s u r f a c e s at right angles, eliminating any tangential or longitudinal
s t r e s s e s within the insulation or on its s u r f a c e . The equipotential
s u r f a c e s for the nonshielded system are cylindrical but not concentric
with t h e cylinder, and cross the cable s u r f a c e at many d i f f e r e n t
potentials. Surface t r a c k i n g , b u r n i n g , and d e s t r u c t i v e d i s c h a r g e s
to g r o u n d could occur u n d e r these conditions.
T h e r e are two distinct t y p e s of shields in use today:

1. Metallic shields: made of metal t a p e , metal b r a i d , metallized p a p e r ,

or s e r v i n g of wire.
2. Nonmetallic (semiconducting) shields: made of r u b b e r or s y n t h e -
tic polymers. These have an impedance such that without fully
g r o u n d i n g t h e s u r f a c e of the insulation, they provide protection
for cable insulation by r e s t r i c t i n g longitudinal and tangential
voltage s t r e s s on the cable s u r f a c e adjacent to miscellaneous
ground points to a gradient below that n e c e s s a r y to produce
corona.

Shielding is used for the following p u r p o s e s :

1. To obtain symmetrical radial s t r e s s distribution within the insula-

tion
2. To eliminate tangential and longitudinal s t r e s s on t h e s u r f a c e of
the insulation
3. To exclude from the dielectric field materials not intended for
insulation, such as b r a i d s , t a p e s , and fillers
4. To increase safety to human life and to remove the fire and explo-
sion risk a t t e n d i n g electrical d i s c h a r g e in gaseous locations
Power-Carrying Devices 256 237

0
EQUIPOTENTIAL L I N E S
25
~5cT
INSULATION
100"

CONDUCTOR GROUNDED S H I E L D

L I N E S OF FORCE

Figure 9.3 Electric field of shielded cable.

Sound g r o u n d i n g practice (see Chapter 6) must be exercised on

all shielded cables in accordance with p r o p e r system and cable de-
sign. S t r e s s cones should be used at all terminations of shielding,
such as p o t h e a d s , according to i n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d s .

9.1.2 T y p e s of Cables

Low-Voltage Cables

Low-voltage cables are generally rated at 600 V, r e g a r d l e s s of the

u s e voltage, whether 120, 208, 240, 277, 480, or 600 V. The 600-V
compounds of XLPE are usually filled to f u r t h e r enhance the relatively
good t o u g h n e s s of conventional polyethylene. The combination of
c r o s s - l i n k i n g the polyethylene molecules t h r o u g h vulcanization plus
fillers p r o d u c e s superior mechanical p r o p e r t i e s . R u b b e r - l i k e insula-
tion, such as EPR and SBR, h a s been provided with o u t e r jackets
for mechanical protection, usually of polyvinyl chloride, n e o p r e n e ,
or CP r u b b e r , such as Hypalon. The newer EPR insulations have
improved physical p r o p e r t i e s that do not r e q u i r e an outer jacket for
protection. The following is a guide for the most commonly used
600-V cables:

1. EPR with or without jacket: t y p e RHW for 75°C maximum operat-

ing t e m p e r a t u r e in d r y or wet locations; and RHH for 90°C in
d r y locations only
2. XLPE without jacket: type XHHW for 75°C maximum o p e r a t i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e in wet locations and 90°C in d r y locations
238 Chapter 10

3. Polyvinyl chloride-insulated, nylon jacketed: t y p e THWN for 75°C

maximum operating temperature in wet or d r y locations
4. Metal-clad or interlocked armor cable: type MC; individual insu-
lated conductors are usually t y p e XHHW or RHH/RHW for use in
any raceway, in cable t r a y , as open r u n s of cable, for direct
b u r i a l , or as aerial cable on a messenger
5. Tray cable: type TC; multiconductor with an overall flame-
r e t a r d a n t nonmetallic jacket; cable takes the r a t i n g of the insula-
tion selected; for use in cable t r a y s , raceways, or where s u p p o r t e d
by a messenger wire

Cables in categories 2 and 4 are usually r e s t r i c t e d to conduit or

duct applications.

Power-Limited Circuit Cables

When the power in the circuit is limited to levels defined in the NEC,
Article 725, for remote control, signaling, and power-limited c i r c u i t s ,
the wiring method may utilize power-limited circuit cable, or t y p e
PLTC (power-limited t r a y cable). These cables, rated at 300 V,
include copper conductors for electrical circuits and thermocouple
alloys for thermocouple extension wire.

Medium-Voltage Cables

Type MV, medium-voltage power cables, have solid e x t r u d e d dielectric

insulation and are rated from 2000 to 35,000 V. These single- and
multiple-conductor cables are available with nominal voltage r a t i n g s
of 5, 8, 15, 25, and 35 kV. EPR and XLPE are the usual insulating
compound for t y p e MV cables; however, polyethylene and butyl r u b -
b e r are also used as i n s u l a t o r s . Type MV cables may be installed
in raceways in wet or d r y locations. The cable must be specifically
approved for installation in cable t r a y , direct burial, e x p o s u r e to
s u n l i g h t , or for m e s s e n g e r - s u p p o r t e d wiring.

9.1. 3 Cable Ratings

Voltage Rating

The selection of the cable insulation (voltage) r a t i n g is made on the

basis of the p h a s e - t o - p h a s e voltage of the system in which the cable
is to be applied, and the general system category depending on
whether the system is grounded or u n g r o u n d e d , and the time in
which a ground fault on the system is cleared by a protective device.
Consequently, 100% v o l t a g e - r a t e d cables a r e applicable to grounded
systems provided with protection that will clear a ground fault within
1 minute. 133% rated cables are r e q u i r e d on u n g r o u n d e d systems
where the clearing time of the 100% level category cannot be met,
Power-Carrying Devices 256 239

yet t h e r e is adequate a s s u r a n c e that the faulted section will be cleared

within 1 h o u r . Insulation rated at 173% voltage level is needed on
systems where the time r e q u i r e d to deenergize a grounded section is
indefinite.

Conductor Size

The selection of conductor size is based on the following c r i t e r i a :

Load Current. The selection of a cable size based on its thermal

h e a t i n g , both from the load c u r r e n t and from mutual heating from
n e a r b y cables, is usually considered f i r s t . The NEC ampacity tables
for low- and medium-voltage cables must be used where the NEC h a s
been adopted. These a r e derived from IEEE S-135. All ampacity
tables show t h e minimum-size conductor r e q u i r e d , b u t conservative
engineering p r a c t i c e , f u t u r e load growth considerations, voltage d r o p ,
and s h o r t - c i r c u i t heating may make the selection of l a r g e r conductors
n e c e s s a r y . Higher ambient t e m p e r a t u r e s r e q u i r e d e r a t i n g of the
cables in accordance with the formulas or f a c t o r s in the ampacity
tables.
Conductor sizes over 500 to 750 kcmil may necessitate paralleling
two or more smaller cables, because the c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity
p e r circular mil of conductor d e c r e a s e s for ac circuits due to t h e skin
e f f e c t , proximity e f f e c t , and other losses. Where cables are paralleled
to increase ampacity and the line overload device will not protect indi-
vidual cables, consideration should be given to the use of individual
in-line limiters at both ends of each cable.
As a guide for conductor selection, Tables 9.2 and 9.3 show t h e
conductor sizes for 75°C rated insulations, for various loads for cables
in air, t r a y , exposed conduit (Table 9 . 2 ) , and u n d e r g r o u n d d u c t s
(Table 9 . 3 ) . The load factor in u n d e r g r o u n d r u n s t a k e s into account
the heat capacity of the duct bank and s u r r o u n d i n g soil, which re-
sponds to the a v e r a g e heat losses. The definition of load factor is
the ratio of the average load to the peak load. The peak load is
usually the a v e r a g e of a 1/2- to 1-h period of the maximum loading
that occurs d u r i n g the d a y .

Emergency Overload (Medium- and High-Voltage Cable). As a

practical guide, the IPCEA has established maximum emergency-over-
load t e m p e r a t u r e s for various t y p e s of insulation. Operation at these
emergency-overload t e m p e r a t u r e s should not exceed 100 h p e r y e a r
and such 100-h overload periods should not exceed five d u r i n g the
life of the cable. Table 9.4 gives u p r a t i n g f a c t o r s for short-time
overloads for various t y p e s of insulated cables.

Voltage Drop. The NEC recommends that the s t e a d y - s t a t e volt-

age drop in power, h e a t i n g , or lighting f e e d e r s be no more than 3%
 240 Chapter 10

Table 9.2 Conductor Requirements (AWG or kcmil) for Indicated Load-

i n g s : Above Ground Ratings, 1 - 1 5 kV, Conductor Temperature 75°C,
Indoor Air Ambient Temperature 40°C

Load Current 3 Single-Conductor 3 Single-Conductor

50—100% Load Factor Cables in Air* Cables in Steel Conduit
(amperes/conductor) Cu A1 Cu A1 Cables in Open Tray or Ladder

50 8 6 6 6 For ampacities of cables in trays

100 4 2 2 1 with various tray loadings,
150 1 2/0 1/0 3/0 refer t o tables s h o w n in
200 2/0 4/0 3/0 250 IPCEA P - 5 4 - 4 4 0 - 1 9 7 2
250 4/0 250 250 350
300 250 350 350 500
400 350 500 500 750
500 500 7 50 7 50 1000

F r o m IPCEA S - 1 3 5 - 1 - 1 9 6 2 and S - l 3 5 - 2 - 1 9 6 2 .
• C o n d u c t o r sizes are suitable for o u t d o o r installation o n messengers.

and the total d r o p , including f e e d e r s and b r a n c h circuits, be no

more than 5% overall.

Fault Current. Under s h o r t - c i r c u i t conditions the temperature

of the conductor rises r a p i d l y , then cools off slowly a f t e r the s h o r t -
circuit condition is removed. Failure to check the conductor size
for s h o r t - c i r c u i t heating sould result in severe damage to cable insu-
lation. In addition to the thermal s t r e s s e s , t h e r e are mechanical
s t r e s s e s set up in the cable t h r o u g h expansion upon h e a t i n g . The
minimum conductor size requirements for various rms s h o r t - c i r c u i t
c u r r e n t s and clearing times a r e shown in Table 9.5.

9.1.4 Cable Specification

Cable specifications generally s t a r t with the conductor and p r o g r e s s
rapidly t h r o u g h the insulation and c o v e r i n g s . The following items
can s e r v e as a checklist for p r e p a r i n g a cable specification:

1. Number of conductors in cable, and phase identification r e q u i r e d .

2. Conductor size (AWG, kcmil) and material
3. Insulation t y p e ( r u b b e r , PVC, polyethylene, EPR, e t c . )
4. Voltage r a t i n g
5. Shielding system
6. Outer finishes
7. Installation (cable t r a y , direct b u r i a l , wet location, e x p o s u r e to
sunlight or oil, e t c . )
8. Applicable UL listing
9. Test voltage
 ο
Ξ
I
Ο
β

5'

ΰ
Table 9.3 C o n d u c t o r Requirements (AWG or kcmil) f o r Indicated Loadings: Below-Ground R a t i n g s , to
<:
1 - 1 5 kV, C o n d u c t o r T e m p e r a t u r e 75°C, E a r t h Ambient T e m p e r a t u r e 20°C; T h r e e Single Conductor o"
Cables p e r D u c t , R u b b e r or Thermoplastic I n s u l a t e d , U n d e r g r o u n d , E a r t h R e s i s t i v i t y RHO-90 TO
Co

1 Loaded Duct 3 Loaded Ducts 6 Loaded Ducts

Load Current 75% Load Factor 100 % Load Factor 7 5% Load Factor 100% Load Factor 7 5% Load Factor 100% Load Factor
(amperes/conductor) Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1
50 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 6 6 6 4
100 4 2 4 2 2 1 2 1 2 1/0 1 2/0
150 1 2/0 1 2/0 1/0 3/0 2/0 4/0 2/0 4/0 3/0 250
200 2/0 4/0 2/0 4/0 3/0 250 4/0 350 4/0 350 350 500
250 4/0 350 4/0 350 250 350 350 500 350 750 500 1000
300 250 350 350 500 350 500 500 750 500 750 7 50 1000
350 350 500 350 750 500 750 750 1000 750 1000 1000
400 500 750 500 750 7 50 1000 750 1000
450 500 750 750 1000 750 1000 1000
500 750 1000 7 50 1000 1000

F r o m I P C E A S - 1 3 5 - 1 - 1 9 6 2 and S - 1 3 5 - 2 - 1 9 6 2 .

N O T E : All circuits a s s u m e d equally loaded. R e f e r o t h e r cases t o cable m a n u f a c t u r e r .

N>
 to
t\3

Table 9.4 Uprating for Short-Time Overloads

Conductor Conductor
Voltage Operating Overload Uprating Factors for Ambient Temperature
Class Temperature Temperature 20 °C 30° C 40° C 50 °C
Insulation Type (kV) (°C) (°C) Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1

Paper (solid type) 9 95 115 1.09 1.09 1.11 1.11 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17
29 90 110 1.10 1.10 1.12 1.12 1.15 1.15 1.19 1.19
49 80 100 1.12 1.12 1.15 1.15 1.19 1.19 1.25 1.25
69 65 80 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17 1.23 1.23 1.38 1.38
Varnished cambric 5 85 100 1.09 1.08 1.10 1.10 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17
15 77 85 1.05 1.05 1.07 1.07 1.09 1.09 1.13 1.13
28 70 72
Polyethylene (natural)t 35 75 95 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17 1.22 1.22 1.30 1.30
SBR rubber 0.6 75 95 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17 1.22 1.22 1.30 1.30
5 90 105 1*08 1.08 1.09 1.09 1.11 1.11 1.14 1.14
Butyl RHH 15 85 100 1.09 1.08 1.10 1.10 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17
35 80 95 1.09 1.09 1.11 1.11 1.14 1.14 1.20 1.20
Oil-base rubber 35 70 85 1.11 1.11 1.14 1.14 1.20 1.20 1.29 1.29
Polyethylene (cross-linked )f 35 90 130 1.18 1.18 1.22 1.22 1.26 1.26 1.33 1.33
Silicone rubber 5 125 150 1.08 1.08 1.09 1.09 1.10 1.10 1.12 1.11
EPR rubberf 35 90 130 1.18 1.18 1.22 1.22 1.26 1.26 1.33 1.33
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene $ 0 6 75 95 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17 1.22 1.22 1.30 1.30
Polyvinyl chloride 0.6 60 85 1.22 1.22 1.30 1.30 1.44 1.44 1.80 1.79
0.6 75 95 1.13 1.13 1.17 1.17 1.22 1.22 1.30 1.30

• T o be applied to normal rating determined for such installation conditions.

fCables are available in 69 kV and higher ratings. Οd
3
X For example, Hypalon. Ρ
Ό
Γ-t·
CO
"S
CO
 Table 9.5 Minimum Conductor Sizes (AWG or kcmil) f o r I n d i c a t e d Fault C u r r e n t and Clearing Times
Minimum Conductor Sizes, in AWG or kcmil, for Indicated Fault Current and Clearing Times

Total Polyethylene and Polyvinyl Chloride, Oil Base and SBR, Cross-Linked Polyethylene and EPR,
RMS 75--150° C 75 - 2 0 0 ° C 90—250° C
Current 1/2 Cycle ( 0 . 0 0 8 3 s ) 10 Cycles (0.166 s) 1/2 Cycle (0.0083 s) 10 Cycles (0.166 s) 1/2 Cycle ( 0 . 0 0 8 3 s) 10 Cycles (0.166 s)
(amperes) Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1 Cu A1

5000 10 8 4 2 10 8 4 3 12 10 4 3
15 0 0 0 6 4 2/0 4/0 6 4 1/0 3/0 6 4 1 3/0
25 0 0 0 3 2 4/0 350 4 2 3/0 250 4 3 3/0 250
50 0 0 0 1/0 2/0 400 700 1 2/0 350 500 2 1/0 300 500
75 0 0 0 2/0 4/0 600 1000 1/0 3/0 500 750 1/0 3/0 500 700
1 00 000 4/0 300 800 1250 3/0 250 700 1000 2/0 4/0 600 1000

tso
co
244 Chapter 10

In addition, the total nurrber of lineal feet of conductors r e q u i r e d ,

the q u a n t i t y desired shipped in one l e n g t h , the pulling e y e s , and
w h e t h e r it is desired to have several single-conductor cables paralleled
on a reel should also be specified.

9.1. 5 Installation

T h e r e a r e many d i f f e r e n t ways to install power distribution cables in

i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s . Design engineers must select the method most
suitable for each application. Each method will transmit power with
a unique d e g r e e of reliability, s a f e t y , economy, and quality for any
specific conditions. These conditions include the quantity and charac-
t e r i s t i c s of the power being t r a n s m i t t e d , the distance of transmission,
and the d e g r e e of e x p o s u r e to a d v e r s e mechanical and environmental
conditions. The following r e p r e s e n t the most common modes.

Open Wire

The open wire method was used extensively in the p a s t . It has been
replaced in most applications, but it is still used for primary power
distribution over large areas when conditions are suitable. Open wire
construction consists of uninsulated conductors on insulators mounted
on poles or s t r u c t u r e s . The a t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s of this method are
its low initial cost and easy access for r e p a i r work. On the other
h a n d , the uninsulated conductors are a safe hazard and highly s u s -
ceptible to damage and l i g h t n i n g .

Aerial Cable

Aerial cable is usually limited to incoming service or to distribution

between buildings in commercial a r e a s . The g r e a t e s t usage is in
replacing open wiring where it provides g r e a t e r safety and reliability
and r e q u i r e s less space. Aerial cables may be either s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g
or messenger s u p p o r t e d . They may be attached to pole lines or
s t r u c t u r e s . S e l f - s u p p o r t i n g cable is suitable for only relatively short
s p a n s . M e s s e n g e r - s u p p o r t e d cable can span large d i s t a n c e s . The
s u p p o r t i n g messenger provides high s t r e n g t h to withstand climatic
r i g o r s or mechanical shock.

Direct Attachment

Direct attachment is a low-cost method where adequate s u p p o r t s u r -

faces are available between the source and the load. I t s use in
commercial buildings is usually limited to low-energy control and
telephone c i r c u i t s . This method employs multiconductor cable attached
to s u r f a c e s such as s t r u c t u r a l beams and columns. A cable with me-
tallic covering should be used where exposed to a d v e r s e conditions.
Power-Carrying Devices 256 245

For a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e a s o n s , it is usually limited to service a r e a s , h u n g

ceilings, and electric s h a f t s .

Cable Trays

A continuous rigid cable s u p p o r t is a unit or assembly of units or

sections and associated fittings made of metal or other noncombustible
material forming a continuous rigid s t r u c t u r e used to s u p p o r t cables.
These are commonly called cable t r a y s , including l a d d e r s , t r o u g h s ,
and channels. They are becoming increasingly popular in commercial
and industrial electrical systems because of low installed cost, flexi-
bility, accessibility for r e p a i r , or addition of cables, and space s a v i n g .
Continuous rigid cable s u p p o r t s are available in a number of t y p e s
and materials. They are a s u p p o r t and not an enclosure or raceway,
and t h e r e f o r e may only be used with wiring methods that meet the
approval of the NEC and local codes. Covers, either ventilated or
nonventilated, may be used to provide additional mechanical protec-
tion or electrical shielding for communication c i r c u i t s . Initial planning
of this method of wiring should consider occupancy requirements p e r
NEC and additional space for f u t u r e expansion. Figure 9.4 shows
two typical 12-inch-wide cable t r a y s used to c a r r y 208/120-V f e e d e r
cables from a unit substation circuit b r e a k e r cubicle to an overhead
bus duct.

Figure 9.4 Cable t r a y installed in an i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t .

246 Chapter 10

Raceways

Raceway is applied to all t y p e s of enclosures or housing· providing

space, s u p p o r t , and mechanical protection for electric conductors dis-
t r i b u t i n g power or control between various units of electric a p p a r a t u s
and equipment. An equally important function of a raceway is to p r o -
tect life and p r o p e r t y from h a z a r d s d u r i n g normal and abnormal con-
ditions. Raceway systems may consist of conduits, EMT, underfloor
and cellular floor raceways, wireways, s u r f a c e metal raceways, and
b u s w a y s . Design engineers should consider a d v a n t a g e s and s h o r t -
comings of each type and make s u r e that basic requirements of safety
and protection are met. More detailed discussions of some of the
raceway systems follow.

Conduit Systems. These are the most common and t h e most varied
of all raceways. Metal conduits a r e available in galvanized and en-
ameled steel, aluminum, wrought i r o n , and silicone b r o n z e , and in
two wall t h i c k n e s s e s : heavy wall (rigid) and thin wall (EMT). Flexi-
ble and liquid-tight metal conduits are also specified for limited appli-
cations. Nonmetallic c o n d u i t s , which may be of plastic, v i t r e o u s ,
f i b e r , or concrete c o n s t r u c t i o n , are generally used u n d e r g r o u n d
either directly in the soil or encased in a s u r r o u n d i n g envelope of
concrete.
Steel or aluminum rigid conduits that can provide maximum me-
chanical protection for the conductors and also permit wire replace-
ments are commonly installed u n d e r g r o u n d , indoors, or outside in
wet or d r y locations. Plastic or plastic-coated metallic conduit may
be used in extremely corrosive a r e a s . Silicone-bronze conduit, be-
cause of its cost, is used only in the most corrosive environments.
Metal conduit raceway systems supply t h e continuous electrical
conductivity, low impedance, and low r e s i s t a n c e n e c e s s a r y for g r o u n d -
ing of fault c u r r e n t s and to e n s u r e operation of protective relays and
circuit i n t e r r u p t e r s . Rigid conduit sizes r a n g e from 1/2 to 6 i n . ,
with c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i t t i n g s , couplings, elbows, nipples, and box
openings. Tables for selection of conduit sizes and loading are found
in the NEC and many r e f e r e n c e books. The NEC specifies, in terms
of wire size and p e r c e n t area fill, the allowable number of conductors
p e r raceway. Flexibility can be designed into raceway systems by
allowing s p a r e and oversize conduits for f u t u r e u s e . Figure 9.5
shows t h r e e 4-in. u n d e r g r o u n d conduits, each c a r r y i n g 3-1/C 15-kV
f e e d e r cables with f o u r 4-in. s p a r e conduits in a plant cable v a u l t .

Electrical Metallic Tubing. When used within the limitations of

the NEC, it provides a low-cost raceway f o r distribution systems be-
low 600 V. However, it lacks the g r o u n d - r e t u r n path and is less
adequate than rigid conduits where exposed to h a z a r d o u s or corrosive
Power-Carrying Devices 256 247

Figure 9.5 U n d e r g r o u n d conduit systems with cable r i s e r s .

s u r r o u n d i n g s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is adequate for many building applica-

tions involving b r a n c h and f e e d e r c i r c u i t s .

Flexible Metal Conduits. These are generally u s e d for connection

to motors, f a n s , pumps, and similar equipment where vibration may
be p r e s e n t . Flexible conduit may have an inadequate ground r e t u r n
path for power installation. T h e r e f o r e , a s e p a r a t e internal g r o u n d
wire is needed to meet NEC r e q u i r e m e n t s .

Underfloor Raceways. These include a wide v a r i e t y of components

to provide flexibility and to meet most requirements of building occu-
p a n t s . Metal d u c t s , junction boxes, and outlets are electrically con-
tinuous and can readily be bonded to s t r u c t u r a l members.

Wireways. Wireways and auxiliary sheet-metal g u t t e r s d i f f e r from

other raceway systems in that t h e i r application is limited to e x p o s e d ,
d r y , nonhazardous locations. M a n u f a c t u r e r s of wireway systems
o f f e r complete lines of sizes and components n e c e s s a r y for the v a r y -
ing conditions found in new or existing buildings. Surface raceways
are limited to a voltage of 300 V or less between c o n d u c t o r s , unless
made of heavier metal sections to improve safety f e a t u r e s . The added
248 Chapter 10

convenience of multioutlet assemblies in work areas is a major a t t r a c -

tion for this type of raceway.

Cable Bus

Cable b u s is used to transmit large amounts of power over relatively

short d i s t a n c e s . It employs insulated conductors s u p p o r t e d at main-
tained spacings by some form of nonmetallic spacer blocks. Cable
b u s is f u r n i s h e d either as components to field assembly or as com-
pletely assembled sections. Cable bus should be installed only for
exposed work.

Underground Ducts

These are used when overhead conduits are undesirable for physical
or aesthetic r e a s o n s , or where the advantages of an u n d e r g r o u n d
system are obvious. U n d e r g r o u n d d u c t s u s e rigid steel, plastic, or
f i b e r conduits either encased in concrete or directly b u r i e d .

Direct Burial

Cables may be buried directly in the ground where permitted by code

when the need for f u t u r e maintenance along the cable r u n is not
anticipated. The cable used must be suitable for this p u r p o s e . The
c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity may be g r e a t e r than that of cable in d u c t s .
However, its use might be limited to incoming services for commercial
buildings, to circuits between buildings, or to circuits for remote
areas.

Hazardous Locations

Wire and cable installed in locations where fire or explosion h a z a r d s

may exist must comply with Articles 500 to 517 of the NEC. The
authorized wiring methods dependent on the class and division of the
specified area (see Table 9 . 6 ) . The wiring method must be approved
for the class and division, but is not dependent on the g r o u p , which
defines the hazardous s u b s t a n c e .
Equipment and associated wiring approved as intrinsically safe
may be installed in any h a z a r d o u s location for which it is a p p r o v e d ,
and the provisions of Article 500-517 of the NEC need not apply to
such installation. However, the installation must p r e v e n t the passage
of gases or v a p o r s from one area to a n o t h e r . Seals must be provided
in the wiring system to p r e v e n t t h e passage of the h a z a r d o u s atmos-
p h e r e along the wiring system from one division to the other or from
a division to a nonhazardous location. The sealing requirements are
defined in Articles 501 to 503 of the NEC.
 Power~Carrylag Devices 249

T a b l e 9.6 Wiring' Methods f o r H a z a r d o u s Locations

Class I Class il Class III

Division Division Division
Wiring Method 1 2 1 2 1 or 2

Threaded rigid metal conduit X X X X X

Threaded steel intermediate metal conduit X X X X X
Rigid metal conduit X X
Intermediate metal conduit X X
Electrical metallic tubing X X
Rigid nonmetallic conduit X
Type MI mineral insulated cable X X X X X
Type MC metal-clad cable X X X
Type SNM shielded nonmetallic cable X X X
Type MV medium-voltage cable X
V
Type TC power and control tray cable
Type PLTC power-limited tray cable X
Enclosed gasketed busways or wireways X
Dusttight wireways X X

9.1.6 Cable T e s t i n g
Cable Testing—For and Against
T e s t i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y of elastomeric arid plastic i n s u l a t i o n s , is a u s e -
f u l method of c h e c k i n g t h e ability of a r e a s o n a b l e f u t u r e p e r i o d . The
f a i l u r e to p a s s a t e s t will c a u s e i n - t e s t b r e a k d o w n of t h e cable or
i n d i c a t e t h e n e e d f o r i t s immediate r e p l a c e m e n t . Whether or not to
t e s t c a b l e s r o u t i n e l y is a decision f o r each u s e r to m a k e . Following
are the arguments for testing:

1. If t e s t i n g is done p r o p e r l y and good r e c o r d s a r e k e p t , b a d or

marginal cable can b e i d e n t i f i e d a n d r e p l a c e m e n t can b e p l a n n e d .
2. P l a n t s with r a d i a l f e e d e r s can be r e a s o n a b l y c e r t a i n of h a v i n g
reliable f e e d e r c a b l e s , t h u s eliminating t h e s t o c k f o r s p a r e c a b l e s .
3. Cable can b e r e p l a c e d u n d e r most f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s .

A r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t t e s t i n g a r e as follows:

1. Bad or marginal cable might b e u s a b l e f o r sometime. Testing-

might r e s u l t in t h e c a b l e ' s f a i l u r e .
2. When t h e r e a r e d u a l f e e d e r s , downtime is i n c u r r e d b e c a u s e cable
f a i l u r e will be minimal.
3. Much r e c o r d k e e p i n g a n d work s c h e d u l i n g can be e x p e n s i v e ,
4. T e s t i n g may not be u s e f u l in d e t e c t i n g p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e from mois-
t u r e - i n d u c e d t r a c k i n g a c r o s s t e r m i n a t i o n s u r f a c e s since t h i s
d e v e l o p s p r i m a r i l y d u r i n g p e r i o d s of p e r c i p i t a t i o n , c o n d e n s a t i o n ,
or l e a k a g e f a i l u r e of t h e e n c l o s u r e or h o u s i n g .
 250 Chapter 10

Cable Testing—AC or DC

Cable insulation can, without damage, sustain application of dc poten-

tial equal to the system basic impulse insulation level for v e r y long
p e r i o d s . In c o n t r a s t , most cable insulations will sustain degradation
from an overpotential proportional to a high power of overvoltage to
time of application. Hence it is p r e f e r r e d to utilize dc for any t e s t -
ing that will be r e p e t i t i v e . The m a n u f a c t u r e r s use ac for an original
factory t e s t .

Factory Tests and Field Tests

Factory Tests. All cables are tested by the m a n u f a c t u r e r b e f o r e

shipment, normally with ac for a 5-minute p e r i o d . Unshielded cable
is immersed in water ( g r o u n d ) for this t e s t ; shielded cable is tested
u s i n g the shield as the ground r e t u r n . Test voltages are specified
by the m a n u f a c t u r e r , by the applicable specification of the ICEA, or
by o t h e r specifications, such as those of the Association of Edison
Illuminating Companies (AEIC). In addition, a test may be made
u s i n g dc of two to t h r e e times the rms value used in t h e ac t e s t .
On cables r a t e d 3000 V and above, corona t e s t s may also be made.

Field Tests. Test voltages and intervals r e q u i r e coordination to

attain suitable performance. Tables 9.7 and 9.8 show dc test voltages
for pre-1968 and for 1968 and later cables, r e s p e c t i v e l y , as recom-
mended by the ICEA. The AEIC has specified test values for 1968
and later cables that are approximately 20% h i g h e r than t h e ICEA
v a l u e s . The ANSI/IEEE Std 400-1980 specifies much h i g h e r voltages
than either ICEA or AEIC, which is shown in Table 9.9. The inten-
tion h e r e is to reduce cable failures d u r i n g operation by o v e r s t r e s s i n g
the cables d u r i n g shutdown t e s t i n g and causing weak cables to fail
at that time.

table 9.7 ICEA Specified DC Cable Test Voltages (Pre 1968 Cable)

Maintenance Test
Rated Cable Voltage
Insulation T y p e Grounding 5 kV 15kV 25kV 3 5 kV

Elastomeric: Grounded 27 47 — —

butyl, oil base, Ungrounded — 67 — —

EPR

Polyethylene, Grounded 22 40 67 88
including cross- Ungrounded 52
linked p o l y e t h y l e n e
 Power-Carrying Devices 256 251

Table 9.8 ICEA Specified DC Cable Test Voltages (1968 and Later
Cable)*

Insulation Rated Cable Voltage

Level 5 kV 15 kV 25 kV 35 kV
Insulation Type (%) 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

Elastomeric: 100 25 19 55 41 80 60 _ __
butyl and oil 133 25 19 65 49 — — _ -
base

Elastomeric: 100 25 19 55 41 80 60 100 75

EPR 133 25 19 65 49 100 75 — —

Polyethylene, 100 25 19 55 41 80 60 100 75

including cross- 133 25 19 65 49 100 75 — —

linked polyethylene

NOTE: Columns 1 — Installation tests, made after installation, before service; columns 2 — mainte-
nance tests, made after cable has been in service.

* These test values are lower than for pre-1968 cables because the insulation is thinner. Hence the ac
test voltage is lower. The dc test voltage is specified as three times the ac test voltage, so it is also lower
than for older cables.

Table 9.9 IEEE 400-1980 S p e c i f i e d D C Cable Test Voltages

L-L Test Voltage (kV)

System 100% 133%
Voltage BIL Insulation Insulation
(kV) (kV) Level Level

2.5 60 40 50
5 75 50 65
8.7 95 65 85
15 110 75 100
23 150 105 140
28 170 120
34.5 200 140

NOTE: These test voltages should not be used without the cable manufacturers' concurrence as the
cable warranty will be voided.
252 Chapter 10

Testing Procedures

C a b l e s to be t e s t e d should h a v e t h e i r e n d s f r e e of e q u i p m e n t a n d
c l e a r from g r o u n d . All c o n d u c t o r s not u n d e r t e s t s h o u l d b e g r o u n d e d .
Γη fiel d t e s t i n g , t h e l e a k a g e c u r r e n t of t h e cable system s h o u l d be
w a t c h e d closely a n d r e c o r d e d f o r s i g n s of a p p r o a c h i n g f a i l u r e . T h e
t e s t v o l t a g e may b e r a i s e d c o n t i n u o u s l y and slowly from zero to t h e
maximum v a l u e , or it may b e r a i s e d in s t e p s , p a u s i n g f o r 1 minute
or more at each s t e p . Potential d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s t e p s a r e of t h e
o r d e r of t h e ac rms r a t e d v o l t a g e of t h e c a b l e . As t h e v o l t a g e is
r a i s e d , c u r r e n t will flow at a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h r a t e to c h a r g e t h e c a p a c i -
t a n c e , to s u p p l y t h e d i e l e c t r i c a b s o r p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c a b l e ,
a n d to s u p p l y t h e l e a k a g e c u r r e n t . T h e c a p a c i t a n c e c h a r g i n g c u r -
r e n t s u b s i d e s within a s e c o n d o r so, t h e a b s o r p t i o n c u r r e n t s u b s i d e s
slowly a n d would c o n t i n u e to d e c r e a s e f o r 10 m i n u t e s o r s o , finally
l e a v i n g only t h e l e a k a g e c u r r e n t flowing.
At each s t e p w h e r e t h e c a l c u l a t e d l e a k a g e r e s i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e d
m a r k e d l y ( s a y to 50% of t h a t of t h e n e x t - l o w e r v o l t a g e l e v e l ) , t h e
cable could b e n e a r f a i l u r e . T h e t e s t s h o u l d b e d i s c o n t i n u e d s h o u l d
t h e e n g i n e e r d e s i r e to r e t a i n t h e cable in s e r v i c e u n t i l a r e p l a c e m e n t
can b e a r r a n g e d . Normally, t h e r a t i o of c u r r e n t a f t e r 1 minute to
t h e c u r r e n t a f t e r 5 m i n u t e s of maximum v o l t a g e on good cable will b e
b e t w e e n 1.25 and 2, A n y t h i n g less t h a n 1.0 is to b e c o n s i d e r e d a
failure.
A f t e r completion of t h e 5-minute maximum t e s t v o l t a g e s t e p , t h e
s u p p l y v o l t a g e control dial should b e r e t u r n e d to zero a n d t h e c h a r g e
in t h e cable allowed to d r a i n off t h r o u g h l e a k a g e of t h e t e s t set a n d
v o l t m e t e r c i r c u i t s . A f t e r t h e r e m a i n i n g p o t e n t i a l d r o p s below 10% of
t h e o r i g i n a l v a l u e , t h e cable c o n d u c t o r may b e solidly g r o u n d e d . All
c o n d u c t o r s s h o u l d b e l e f t g r o u n d e d when not on t e s t , d u r i n g t h e
t e s t i n g of o t h e r c o n d u c t o r s , and f o r at least 30 m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e
removal of a dc t e s t p o t e n t i a l . B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g with t h e t e s t , t h e
cable s h o u l d be d i s c o n n e c t e d from i t s a t t a c h e d s w i t c h i n g e q u i p m e n t ;
in p a r t i c u l a r , l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r s , p o t e n t i a l t r a n s f o r m e r s , a n d c a p a -
c i t o r s must be d i s c o n n e c t e d . O t h e r w i s e , only lower t e s t p o t e n t i a l s
a r e to b e u s e d .

9.1,7 Locating Cable Faults—Equipment and Methods

In an i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t , a wide v a r i e t y of cable f a u l t s can o c c u r . It
may b e in a communication c i r c u i t o r in a power c i r c u i t , in e i t h e r
t h e l o w - , m e d i u m - , or h i g h - v o l t a g e c l a s s . R e g a r d l e s s of t h e c l a s s of
e q u i p m e n t i n v o l v e d or t h e t y p e of f a u l t , one common problem is to
f i n d t h e location of t h e f a u l t as f a s t as p o s s i b l e so t h a t r e p a i r s can
be made to avoid p r o l o n g e d loss of p r o d u c t i o n . A wide v a r i e t y of
commercially available equipment, and a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s
Power-Carrying Devices 256 253

can be used to locate cable f a u l t s . The approach used d e p e n d s on

many f a c t o r s :

1. Nature of the fault

2. Type and voltage r a t i n g of cable installation
3. Value of rapid location of faults
4. Frequency of faults
5. Experience and capability of available personnel

The following are the most commonly used methods for locating a
cable f a u l t :
1. Physical evidence. Observation of a f l a s h , s o u n d , or smoke
accompanying the discharge of c u r r e n t t h r o u g h the faulted insulation
will help to locate a f a u l t . This is more probable with an overhead
circuit than with u n d e r g r o u n d d u c t s .
2. Conductor resistance measurement. This method consists of
measuring the r e s i s t a n c e of the conductor from the test location to
the point of fault by u s i n g either the Varley loop or the Murray loop
test ( F i g u r e 9 . 6 ) . Once the resistance of the conductor to the point

Bad Conductor- Good Conductor

Bad Conductor ,Good Conductor

Fault
Fault

Looped Conductors - Looped Conductors^

L ( br\
a—6 {
2a
Rj V A R L E Y LOOP T E S T x = 2 ( ^ r r ) L M U R R A Y LOOP T E S T
where a, b and r = resistances of bridge arms where a and b = resistances of bridge arms
L
L = length of cable in feet = length of cable in feet
x
X = distance to fault in feet = distance to fault in feet
Rc =: resistance of good conductor

Figure 9.6 Varley loop and Murray loop test circuit.

254 Chapter 10

of fault h a s been measured, it can be t r a n s l a t e d into distance by

u s i n g handbook values of resistance p e r unit length of the size and
t y p e of conductor involved, with t e m p e r a t u r e correction if r e q u i r e d .
For distribution systems using cables insulated with organic materials,
faults of relatively low resistance are normally e n c o u n t e r e d . The
conductor resistance measurement method is most applicable to such
systems.
3. Megohmmeter test. When the fault resistance is sufficiently
low t h a t it can reliably be detected with a megohmmeter, the cable
can be sectionalized and each section t e s t e d to determine which con-
tains the f a u l t . But this method may involve considerable time and
expense and might result in additional splices.
4. Capacitor discharge. This method consists of applying a
high-voltage h i g h - c u r r e n t impulse to the faulted cable. A high-
voltage capacitor is charged by a source of relatively low c u r r e n t
capacity, such as that used for high-potential t e s t i n g . The capacitor
is then discharged across an air gap into the cable. Repeated dis-
c h a r g i n g of the capacitor provides periodic pulsing of the faulted
cable. Where the cable is accessible, the fault may be located simply
by s o u n d . Where the cable is not accessible, such as in d u c t , the
discharge at the fault may not be audible. In such c a s e s , d e t e c t o r s
will be r e q u i r e d . Detectors may be of the magnetic or the acoustic
t y p e . The impulse method a p p e a r s to be most practical and most
commonly used where faults of relatively high resistance are antici-
pated.
5. Tone signal. A f i x e d - f r e q u e n c y signal, generally in the audio-
f r e q u e n c y r a n g e , is imposed on the faulted cable. The cable route
is then t r a c e d by means of a d e t e c t o r , which consists of a pickup
coil, r e c e i v e r , and head set or visual display, to the point where the
signal leaves the conductor and e n t e r s the g r o u n d - r e t u r n p a t h . This
t y p e of equipment may be used on energized u n g r o u n d e d c i r c u i t s ,
usually in the low-voltage field (below 600 V ) .

Selection Guide
The discussions above cover some of the methods available to the
i n d u s t r i a l plant o p e r a t o r s for locating cable f a u l t s . Some r e q u i r e no
equipment, o t h e r s r e q u i r e special equipment and experienced opera-
t o r s . To determine which approach is most practical for a particular
p l a n t , the size of the plant and the amount of circuit r e d u n d a n c y
should be c o n s i d e r e d . Equipment that r e q u i r e s considerable experi-
ence and operator i n t e r p r e t a t i o n for r e s u l t s may be satisfactory for
a plant with f r e q u e n t cable f a u l t s , b u t ineffective for another p l a n t .
The final decision as to which method to u s e also depend on an
evaluation of t h e particular circumstances of the plant in question.
Power-Carrying Devices 256 255

9.2 CONNECTORS AND T E R M I N A T I O N S

9.2.Ί Connectors

Types of Connectors
Connectors are generally classified in two t y p e s : thermal and p r e s -
s u r e . Thermal connectors include those involving t h e application of
heat to make soldered, s i l v e r - s o l d e r e d , b r a z e d , welded, or cast-on
terminals. Soldered connections have been used with copper conduc-
t o r s for many y e a r s . However, soldered joints are not commonly u s e d
with aluminum. Shielded arc welding of aluminum terminals to alumi-
num cable makes a satisfactory termination. Torch b r a z i n g and silver
soldering of copper cable connections is used for u n d e r g r o u n d con-
nections with b a r e conductors in grounding mats. Thermite welding
is also used to connect b a r e cable for ground mats.
P r e s s u r e connectors are available in two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s . The
mechanical t y p e may be defined as one in which the p r e s s u r e to
attach the connector to the conductor is by integral screw, cone, or
other mechanical p a r t s . The bolt diameter and number of bolts are
selected to p r o d u c e the clamping and contact p r e s s u r e s r e q u i r e d for
the most economical d e s i g n . The compression t y p e is one in which
the p r e s s u r e to attach the connector to the conductor is applied
e x t e r n a l l y , changing the size and shape of the connector. It is basi-
cally a t u b e with wall thickness designed to c a r r y the c u r r e n t and to
withstand insulation s t r e s s e s . A joint is made by compressing the
conductor to the t u b e into another shape by means of a specially de-
signed die and tool. The final shape may be i n d e n t e d , c u p , h e x a g o n ,
circular, or oval.

Connectors for Aluminum

While an aluminum conductor performs the same function as c o p p e r ,

it cannot be handled in the same manner. Failure to u n d e r s t a n d t h e
special p r o p e r t i e s of aluminum conductors can lead to weak connec-
tions, faulty terminations, and even d e s t r u c t i v e f i r e s . Preparation
of the conductor s u r f a c e is a most important step in p r o p e r installa-
tion. When raw aluminum is exposed to air, an oxide film forms on
the c o n d u c t o r . This h i g h - r e s i s t a n c e s u r f a c e film must be removed
to e n s u r e a h i g h - q u a l i t y , low-resistance connection. It can be done
in two ways: t h e best way to remove an aluminum oxide film mechani-
cally is to a b r a d e the outer s t r a n d s of the conductor with a wire
b r u s h . B r u s h i n g should be done t h r o u g h a paste joint compound to
p r e v e n t reoxidation. It is imperative that only connectors compatible
with aluminum conductor be u s e d .
The t e n d e n c y for aluminum to flow or creep u n d e r high unit p r e s -
s u r e , and t h e fact that it e x p a n d s at a g r e a t e r r a t e than copper when
h e a t e d , created some problems in t h e early d a y s . Installation p r o -
c e d u r e s today, with all n e c e s s a r y precautions and t h e special connec-
256 Chapter 10

t o r s and tools u s e d , has proved to be f r e e of early problems. The

most satisfactory connectors are specifically designed for aluminum
conductors to p r e v e n t any possible trouble from c r e e p , the p r e s e n c e
of oxide film, and differences in the coefficients of expansion between
aluminum and other metals. Termination of a cable is not complete
until the connector is bolted to the b u s b a r or the terminal plate of
the equipment. For h e a v y - d u t y service, where the temperature rise
will exceed 30°C, it is good practice to use a Belleville, or compres-
sion s p r i n g washer. A properly designed s p r i n g washer will perform
two f u n c t i o n s . It eliminated the need for u s i n g a t o r q u e wrench, and
will follow creep or flow of dissimilar materials.
Aluminum building wire can be used safely in manufacturing plants
u n d e r heavy loads and f r e q u e n t on-off cycling if p r o p e r installation
p r o c e d u r e s are followed:

1. When aluminum wires of No. 8 AWG or l a r g e r are to be terminated,

spliced, or t a p e d , including connections to panelboards, circuit
b r e a k e r s , and related equipment, the connectors should be of
tool-applied compression t y p e . Connectors should be made of
aluminum with wire b a r r e l s prefilled with oxide-inhibiting com-
pound.
2. Installing tools and dies of the hexagonal or circumferential t y p e ,
made by t h e connector m a n u f a c t u r e r , should be used for t h e
installation.
3. Terminal lugs with bolting p a d s should be tin-plated for low con-
tact r e s i s t a n c e .
4. Connectors must meet the performance requirements of UL Bulle-
tin 486 (ANSI /UL 486B-1982), except heating or c u r r e n t cycling
t e s t s is to be for a minimum of 500 cycles.
5. Compression washers must be used where a temperature rise will
exceed 30°C.

Connectors for Various Voltage Cables

S t a n d a r d mechanical or compression connectors are recommended for

all primary voltages provided that the b u s is u n i n s u l a t e d . Welded
connectors may also be used for conductors sized in circular mils.
Up to 600 V, s t a n d a r d connector designs p r e s e n t no problem for in-
sulated or uninsulated c o n d u c t o r s . Standard compression connectors
are recommended for u s e on insulated conductors up to 5 kV. Above
5 kV, s t r e s s considerations make it desirable to use t a p e r e d - e n d
compression connectors or semiconducting tape construction to give
the same effect .
Power-Carrying Devices 256 257

9.2.2 Terminations

Function of Terminations

A termination for an insulated power cable must provide certain basic

electrical and mechanical f u n c t i o n s , which a r e :

1. To connect the insulated cable conductor to provide a c u r r e n t

path
2. To physically protect and s u p p o r t the end of the cable c o n d u c t o r ,
insulation, shielding system, and overall jacket, s h e a t h , or armor
of the cable
3. To effectively control electrical g r a d i e n t s to provide both internal
and external dielectric s t r e n g t h to meet the desired insulation
level for t h e cable system

The importance of p r o p e r termination is to provide a means of

r e d u c i n g and controlling the s t r e s s e s within the working limits of the
cable insulation and materials u s e d to make up the terminating device
itself.

Types of Terminations

In the broad sense of the word "termination," the following are the
identifiable t y p e s :

1. Taped terminations
2. Armor terminations
3. Potheads
4. Preassembled terminations

This is only a partial list of t h e many t y p e s of terminations in

use today, and it is generally agreed that variations within each group
listed are impractical to d e f i n e . Terminations for cables r a t e d 600 V
and less generally consist of a lug and t a p e . Tape is applied over
the lower portion of the b a r r e l of the lug and down onto t h e cable
insulation. Terminal connections to b u s e s inside metal-enclosed equip-
ment are usually left u n t a p e d . For cables rated over 600 V, the
termination requirements v a r y with the t y p e of cable, its construction,
voltage r a t i n g , and requirements for installation. For outdoor instal-
lation, the termination may be r e q u i r e d to perform its intended f u n c -
tion while partially or fully immersed in a liquid or gaseous dielectric,
such as oil and n i t r o g e n , in o r d e r to withstand e x p o s u r e of t h e
atmospheric contaminants.
The shield system confines the dielectric field to the cable insula-
tion, r e s u l t i n g in a symmetrical radial s t r e s s distribution within the
cable insulation. However, the unit s t r e s s within t h e wall of insula-
tion is nonlinear, being g r e a t e r n e a r t h e conductor and p r o g r e s s i v e l y
258 Chapter 10

decreasing to lower values near the cable shielding system (see Figure
9 . 3 ) . At the point of termination, the cutback of t h e cable shielding
to provide n e c e s s a r y creepage distance between the two electrodes
(conductor and shielding) introduces a longitudinal s t r e s s over the
s u r f a c e of the exposed cable insulation. The r e s u l t a n t combination of
radial and longitudinal s t r e s s at the termination of cable ends r e s u l t s
in the minimum dielectric s t r e n g t h of the cable system. The most
common method of r e d u c i n g these s t r e s s e s is gradually to increase
t h e total t h i c k n e s s of insulation at the termination by adding insulat-
ing t a p e s in the form of a cone. This construction is commonly r e -
f e r r e d to as a stress-relief cone and is illustrated in Figure 9.7.
The following discussion p e r t a i n s to several t y p e s of terminations in
common use today for medium- and high-voltage cables.

Taped Terminations. Taped terminations may be used either in-

doors or out doors and on shielded and nonshielded cables. In
general, it is used at 15 kV and below. Creepage of 1 in. p e r kilo-
volt of nominal system voltage is used for indoor applications and
from 1 to 2 i n . or more p e r kilovolt for outdoor installations. Addi-
tional creepage may be obtained by u s i n g a rain hood of n e o p r e n e ,
r u b b e r , plastic, or porcelain for outdoor installations. On u p r i g h t
terminations, the rain hood is usually placed directly over the s t r e s s -
relief cone, and its primary function is to keep some portion of the
cable insulation along the creepage path d r y at all times. Where
e x t r a rain hoods are n e e d e d , potheads or other t y p e s of terminating
device should be used i n s t e a d . Figure 9.8 shows a 15-kV taped
termination.

Armor Terminations. Cables with a steel, aluminum, or copper

metallic jacket of helical continuous weld or interlocking covering
r e q u i r e in addition to a taped terminations, an arrangement to s e r v e
and ground the armor. Fittings for this p u r p o s e are called armor
t e r m i n a t o r s . They are sized to fit the cable armor and designed for
u s e on t h e cable alone, with b r a c k e t s , or with locking n u t s or
a d a p t e r s for application to o t h e r pieces of equipment.

Potheads. A pothead is a hermetically sealed device used to en-

close and protect a cable e n d . It consists of a metallic body with
one or more procelain i n s u l a t o r s . The body is a r r a n g e d to accept a
variety of optional cable e n t r a n c e sealing f i t t i n g s , while the procelains,
in t u r n , are designed to accommodate a number of optional cable con-
d u c t o r s and aerial connections. The assembled unit is filled with an
insulating compound, such as asphaltic-based materials, r e s i n s , and
oils.
Potheads can be subdivided into a number of g r o u p s or t y p e s ,
related to cable system requirements and construction of the device.
Most i n d u s t r i a l power cable systems are of the n o n p r e s s u r i z e d t y p e ,
Power-Carrying Devices 256 259

i \

A
C
B

Χ, Υ, Ζ Electric stress lines

A, B, C, D Equipotential lines

Figure 9.7 S t r e s s relief c o n e .

260 Chapter 10

TAPED LUG SEAL

TAPED HOOD SEAL

RAIN HOOD

CABLE SHIELDING
TAPED SHIELDING SEAL

CABLE JACKET

GROUNDING LEAD

Figure 9.8 15 kV termination.

Power-Carrying Devices 256 261

using solid dielectric-insulated cables. The two most commonly used

pothead t y p e s are the capnut and the solder-seal. The capnut pot-
head is made up of cast-metal p a r t s with gasketed joints between
metal p a r t s and the procelains. The metal p a r t s for solder-seal pot-
heads are copper spinnings which are solder bonded to t h e ρ roc el ai η
i n s u l a t o r . Figure 9.9 shows a typical t h r e e - c o n d u c t o r capnut p o t h e a d .

Preassembled Terminations. In recent y e a r s , two general t y p e s

of preassembled terminals have become available. One employs the
use of elastomeric materials direct to the cable e n d . The other t y p e
consists of a metal-porcelain housing filled with a gelatin-like s u b -
stance designed to be partially displaced as the terminator is installed
on the cable. They can be installed by a less skilled w o r k e r , yet
o f f e r a high d e g r e e of consistency to the overall quality. They are
available in r a t i n g s of 15 kV and above for most t y p e s of application.
When terminating shielded cables 15~kV u n i t s can be u s e d on a 5-kV
system. Figure 9.10 shows a preassembled terminator, o u t - d o o r t y p e ,
with t r a c k - r e s i s t a n t porcelain petticoats.

Dead-Front Assemblies. These are two-part devices used in con-

junction with high-voltage electrical a p p a r a t u s . A b u s h i n g assembly
is attached to the high-voltage a p p a r a t u s ( t r a n s f o r m e r , switch, or
f u s i n g devices, e t c . ) , and a molded plug-in connector is used to
terminate the insulated cable and connect the cable system to the
b u s h i n g . The d e a d - f r o n t f e a t u r e is obtained by fully shielding the
plug-in connector assembly. Two t y p e s of d e a d - f r o n t connectors for
15 and 25 kV are available: one load b r e a k and the other non-load
break.

9.2.3 Splicing Devices and Techniques

In a splice, t h e h i g h e s t s t r e s s e s are around t h e conductor and con-
nector area. Splicing design must recognize this fundamental concept
and provide means to control these s t r e s s e s to values within the work-
ing limits of the materials used to make up the splice. The connec-
t o r s used to join the cable conductors t o g e t h e r must be capable of
c a r r y i n g full r a t e d load, emergency overload, and fault c u r r e n t s with-
out overheating as well as being mechanically s t r o n g in o r d e r to p r e -
vent accidental conductor pull-out or separation. The splice housing
or p r o t e c t i v e cover should provide adequate protection to the splice.

Types of Splices

600 V and Belowf Insulated connectors are used where several

relatively large cables must be joined t o g e t h e r . These terminators,
called moles or c r a b s , are basically insulated b u s e s with provision
for making a number of tap connections that can easily be taped or
262 Chapter 10

Figure 9.9 Typical 3 conductor capnut t y p e p o t h e a d .

Power-Carrying Devices 256 263

Figure 9.10 Preassembled terminations -outdoor t y p e with t r a c k -

r e s i s t a n t porcelain p e t t i c o a t s .
264 Chapter 10

covered with an insulating sleeve. One widely used t y p e is a p r e -

insulated multiple outlet joint in which t h e cable connections are made
by s t a n d a r d compression tooling, which i n d e n t s the conductor to the
t u b u l a r cable s o c k e t s .

Over 600 V. Splicing of unshielded cable consists of assembling

a connector, usually soldered or p r e s s e d onto the cable c o n d u c t o r s ,
and applying insulating t a p e s to build up an insulation wall to a
t h i c k n e s s of l i to 2 times that of the factory-applied insulation on
t h e cable. Splices or solid dielectric cables are made with u n c u r e d
t a p e s , which will f u s e t o g e t h e r a f t e r application and provide water-
proof assembly.

Taped Splices. For shielded cables, taped splices have been used
successfully for many y e a r s . Basic considerations are the same as
for unshielded cables. For application of t h e splice, consideration
should be given to such details as providing a moisture seal, thermal
stability of t a p e s , and ease of handling on wye- or t e e - t y p e splices.
Cables with solid insulation are t a p e r e d and those with t a p e - t y p e in-
sulation are stepped to provide a general transition between conductor-
connector diameter and cable insulation diameter prior to the appli-
cation of insulating t a p e s . The splice should not be overinsulated
since this could r e s t r i c t heat dissipation at the splice area and risk
splice f a i l u r e . Figure 9.11 shows a typical taped splice in a shielded
cable.

Preassembled Splices. T h e r e are several t y p e s of factory-made

splices. The most elementary is an elastomeric unit consisting of a
molded housing sized to fit the cable involved, a connector for join-
ing t h e c o n d u c t o r s , and tape seals for sealing the ends of t h e molded
housing to t h e cable jacket. They are available in two-way, t h r e e -
way tee t y p e , and multiple configurations for application u p to 35 kV.
The preassembled splice provides a waterproof seal to the cable jacket
and is suitable for submersible, d i r e c t - b u r i a l , and o t h e r applications
where t h e splice housing must provide protection for the splice to
t h e same d e g r e e that the cable jacket provides protection to the cable
insulation and shielding system. The a d v a n t a g e of t h e s e preassembled
splices is t h e reduction in time needed to complete the splice a f t e r
cable end p r e p a r a t i o n .

9.3 BUSWAY

Busway was introduced in t h e late 1920s. It h a s grown to become

an integral p a r t of the low-voltage distribution system for i n d u s t r i a l
p l a n t s at 600 V and below. Busways are particularly convenient to
use when numerous c u r r e n t t a p s are to be made. Plugs with circuit
 INSULATING
, TAPE BUILDUP CABLE
SHIELDING
^SEMICONDUCTING CABLE
TAPE JACKET
'GROUNDING SHIELDING TAPE
LEAD \ OR BRAID
OIJTFR PROTFCTIVF
COVER TAPES

Figure 9.1 1 Typical taped splice on shielded cable .

t\2
05
ΟΛ
266 Chapter 10

b r e a k e r s or fusible switches can be installed and wired without de-

energizing the b u s w a y . Busways may be dismantled and reinstalled
in whole or p a r t to accommodate changes in the distribution system
layout.

9.3.1 Busway Construction and Standards

Originally, a busway consisted of b a r e copper conductors s u p p o r t e d

on i n s u l a t o r s mounted within a nonventilated steel h o u s i n g . This
t y p e of construction was adequate for c u r r e n t r a t i n g s of 225 to 600
A. As the use of busway e x p a n d e d , with increased loads r e q u i r i n g
h i g h e r c u r r e n t r a t i n g s , t h e housing was ventilated to provide b e t t e r
cooling at h i g h e r capacities. The b u s b a r s were covered with i n s u -
lation to permit closer spacing of b a r s of opposite polarity to achieve
lower reactance and voltage d r o p . Busways are available with either
copper or aluminum c o n d u c t o r s . For equal c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g ability,
aluminum is lighter in weight and less costly. Busway is usually
made in 10-ft sections. Feed and tap f i t t i n g s to other electric equip-
ment, such as switchboards, t r a n s f o r m e r s , motor control c e n t e r s , and
so on, are also essential components of the busway system. Busways
are designed to conform to the following s t a n d a r d s :

1. NEC Article 364

2. ANSI /UL 857-1981
3. NEMA BU1-1983

S t a n d a r d s 2 and 3 are primarily manufacturing and t e s t i n g s t a n d -

a r d s . The NEMA s t a n d a r d is generally an extension of the UL s t a n d -
ard to areas that UL does not c o v e r . The NEC is the most important
s t a n d a r d for busway installation. State and local electrical codes may
have specific requirements over and above ANSI/UL 857-1981 and
NEC. Appropriate code authorities and m a n u f a c t u r e r s should be con-
tacted to e n s u r e that requirements are met.

9.3.2 T y p e s of Busway

Busways are available in the following general t y p e s : (1) feeder

busway for low-impedance distribution of power; (2) plug-in busway
for convenient connection or r e a r r a n g e m e n t of loads; (3) lighting
busway to provide power and mechanical s u p p o r t to f l u o r e s c e n t , h i g h -
intensity d i s c h a r g e , and incandescent f i x t u r e s ; a n d , (4) trolley b u s -
way for mobile power t a p - o f f s to electric h o i s t s , c r a n e s , portable
tools, and so on. More detailed discussion of each of these above
t y p e s follows.
Power-Carrying Devices 256 267

Feeder Busway

A feeder busway is used advantageously to d i s t r i b u t e a large amount

of power by v i r t u e of its low impedance. Industrial p l a n t s u s e f e e d e r
busway from the service equipment to supply large loads directly and
to supply smaller c u r r e n t r a t i n g s of f e e d e r and plug-in b u s w a y , which
in t u r n supply loads t h r o u g h plug-in u n i t s .

Current ratings: 600 to 5000 A, 600 V ac; o n e - p h a s e and t h r e e -

phase service with 50 to 100% n e u t r a l conductor
Short-circuit current ratings: 50,000 to 200,000 A, symmetrical rms
Voltage drop: 1 to 3 V p e r 100 f t , line to line
Construction: Indoor or weatherproof

Plug-in Busway

A plug-in busway is used in industrial plants as an overhead system

to supply power to utilization equipment. Plug-in devices can be
placed on the busway near the loads t h a t they s u p p l y . Plug-in
devices include fusible switches, circuit b r e a k e r s , static voltage p r o -
t e c t o r s , ground i n d i c a t o r s , combination s t a r t e r s , lighting c o n t a c t o r s ,
and capacitor p l u g s .

Current ratings: 100 to 4000 A; n e u t r a l b a r 25 to 100% of t h e phase

b a r capacity
Short-circuit current ratings: 15,000 to 150,000 A, symmetrical rms
Voltage drop: 1 to 3 V p e r 100 f t , line to line, for evenly d i s t r i b u t e d
loading

Figure 9.12 shows the installation of a s t r a i g h t - r u n plug-in b u s -

way with individual plug-in circuit b r e a k e r s in position for power
takeoffs.

Lighting Busway

A lighting busway provides power to lighting f i x t u r e s and also s e r v e s

as mechanical s u p p o r t for the f i x t u r e . Auxiliary s u p p o r t i n g means
( s t r e n g t h beams) are available at maximum intervals of 16 f t . Fluo-
r e s c e n t f i x t u r e s may be s u s p e n d e d from the b u s w a y . Lighting b u s -
way may be r e c e s s e d in or s u r f a c e mounted to a d r o p p e d ceiling.

Current rating: Maximum 60 A, 300 V to g r o u n d , two, t h r e e , or

four c o n d u c t o r s , 208/120 V or 480/277 V,

Trolley Busway

A trolley busway is c o n s t r u c t e d to receive stationary or movable t a k e -

off devices. It is used to supply power to a motor or a portable tool
268 Chapter 10

Figure 9.12 Plug-in busway system.

moving with a production line, or where o p e r a t o r s move back and

f o r t h over 10 to 20 ft to perform t h e i r specific operations.

9.3.3 Applications

The following important considerations should be made in o r d e r to

c a r r y out p r o p e r application of b u s w a y s :

Current-Carrying Capacity

Busway should be r a t e d on a t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e basis to provide safe

operation, long life, and reliable s e r v i c e . The UL requirement for
t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e (55°C) should be u s e d to specify the maximum tem-
p e r a t u r e r i s e permitted. L a r g e r cross-sectional areas can be u s e d
to provide lower voltage drop and t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e .

Short-Circuit Current Ratings

The s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t can g e n e r a t e considerable electromagnetic

f o r c e . Short-circuit c u r r e n t r a t i n g s are generally assigned and
t e s t e d in accordance with NEMA BUI-1983. They are dependent on
many f a c t o r s , such as b u s b a r centerline spacing, size, and s t r e n g t h
of b u s b a r s and mechanical s u p p o r t s . Since t h e r a t i n g s are d i f f e r e n t
for each b u s b a r d e s i g n , the m a n u f a c t u r e r should be consulted for
 Power-Carrying Devices 256 269

specific r a t i n g s . These r a t i n g s should include the ability of the

g r o u n d - r e t u r n p a t h (housing and g r o u n d bar if provided) to c a r r y
t h e rated s h o r t - c r i c u i t c u r r e n t .

Voltage Drop

T h r e e - p h a s e voltage d r o p s may be determined with reasonable accu-

racy by the u s e of Tables 9.10 and 9.11. The voltage d r o p s given
in the tables are t h r e e - p h a s e , line to line, p e r 100 f t , at r a t e d load
on a concentrated loading basis for f e e d e r , p l u g - i n , and trolley b u s -
ways. Lighting busway values are s i n g l e - p h a s e , d i s t r i b u t e d loading.
For o t h e r loading and distances, use t h e following formula:

Table 9.10 Voltage-Drop Values for T h r e e - P h a s e Busways with Copper

B u s B a r s in Volts p e r 100 f t , Line to Line, at Rated C u r r e n t with Entire
Load at End

Current Rating Load Power Factor (Percent, lagging)

(amperes) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 100

Totally Enclosed Feeder Busway

600 2.28 2.51 2.73 2.93 3.09 3.23 3.31 3.31 3.23 2.83
800 1.75 1.93 2.08 2.23 2.35 2.44 2.49 2.48 2.42 2.10
1000 1.51 1.81 2.11 2.39 2.66 2.92 3.15 3.33 3.39 3.29
1350 1.60 1.87 2.13 2.37 2.60 2.80 2.98 3.11 3.13 2.96
1600 1.90 2.10 2.27 2.43 2.56 2.67 2.73 2.72 2.66 2.31
2000 1.82 2.00 2.16 2.30 2.43 2.52 2.57 2.55 2.49 2.15
2500 1.75 1.91 2.06 2.18 2.29 2.36 2.40 2.37 2.30 1.96
3000 1.96 2.14 2.30 2.43 2.55 2.63 2.67 2.63 2.55 2.17
4000 1.84 2.01 2.16 2.29 2.40 2.49 2.53 2.49 2.42 2.07
5000 1.67 1.83 1.98 2.11 2.22 2.30 2.35 2.33 2.27 1.96
Totally Enclosed Plug-In Busway
225 1.92 2.08 2.22 2.36 2.46 2.54 2.56 2.52 2.42 2.04
400 2.26 2.40 2.52 2.60 2.66 2.70 2.66 2.54 2.40 1.90
600 4.91 5.03 5.10 5.11 5.04 4.89 4.62 4.11 3.67 2.38
800 5.75 5.91 6.00 6.02 5.96 5.80 5.50 4.92 4.42 2.92
1000 4.77 4.91 4.98 5.02 4.98 4.84 4.60 4.12 3.70 2.46
1350 3.72 3.84 3.92 3.94 3.94 3.84 3.68 3.32 3.01 2.06
1600 3.58 3.70 3.78 3.82 3.80 3.72 3.54 3.22 2.92 2.00
2000 4.67 4.79 4.86 4.86 4.82 4.68 4.42 3.94 3.52 2.30
2500 4.08 4.20 4.26 4.30 4.26 4.14 3.94 3.54 3.18 2.12
3000 3.76 3.87 3.92 3.94 3.90 3.80 3.60 3.24 2.90 1.92
4000 4.64 4.74 4.80 4.79 4.73 4.57 4.30 3.81 3.38 2.15
5000 3.66 3.75 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.62 3.40 3.02 2.70 1.76
Lighting, Single Phase, Distributed Loading
30 0.84 1.11 1.38 1.65 1.89 2.13 2.40 2.51 2.20 2.75
60 1.08 1.38 1.62 1.98 2.22 2.46 2.70 2.88 3.00 3.00
Trolley
100 1.16 1.38 1.56 1.74 1.90 2.06 2.20 2.28 2.30 2.18

NOTE: Voltage-drop values are based on bus bar resistance at 75°C (room ambient temperature
25° C plus average conductor temperature at full load of 50° C rise).
*Divide values by 2 for distributed loading.
 270 Chapter 10

Table 9.11 Voltage-Drop Values for T h r e e - P h a s e Busways with Aluminum

Bus B a r s , in Volts per 100 f t , Line to Line, at Rated C u r r e n t with Entire
Load at End*

Current Rating Load Power Factor (Percent, lagging)

(amperes) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 100
Totally Enclosed Feeder Busway
600 1.64 1.93 2.21 2.48 2.73 2.96 3.16 3.30 3.34 3.17
800 1.69 1.95 2.21 2.44 2.66 2.86 3.03 3.14 3.15 2.94
1000 1.51 1.81 2.11 2.39 2.66 2.92 3.15 3.33 3.39 3.29
1350 1.60 1.87 2.13 2.37 2.60 2.80 2.98 3.11 3.13 2.96
1600 1.70 1.97 2.22 2.45 2.67 2.87 3.04 3.14 3.15 2.94
2000 1.57 1.81 2.03 2.23 2.42 2.59 2.73 2.81 2.81 2.60
2500 1.56 1.78 1.98 2.18 2.35 2.51 2.63 2.70 2.69 2.48
3000 1.64 1.94 2.14 2.37 2.58 2.78 2.94 3.04 3.05 2.85
4000 1.60 1.83 2.04 2.24 2.42 2.59 2.71 2.79 2.78 2.56
Totally Enclosed Plug-In Busway
100 2.05 2.63 3.20 3.76 4.30 4.83 5.33 5.79 5.98 6.01
225 1.94 2.22 2.49 2.73 2.96 3.15 3.31 3.41 3.40 3.13
400 3.47 3.66 3.81 3.92 3.99 3.99 3.92 3.69 3.45 2.64
600 4.62 4.89 5.12 5.30 5.41 5.45 5.37 5.10 4.80 3.76
800 4.09 4.34 4.54 4.70 4.81 4.84 4.78 4.54 4.28 3.36
1000 3.22 3.43 3.61 3.75 3.85 3.89 3.86 3.70 3.50 2.79
1350 2.92 3.10 3.12 3.36 3.44 3.48 3.44 3.28 3.08 2.44
1600 3.98 4.20 4.38 4.51 4.59 4.61 4.52 4.27 3.99 3.07
2000 3.48 3.68 3.85 3.99 4.07 4.09 4.04 3.83 3.60 2.81
2500 2.83 3.00 3.13 3.24 3.30 3.32 3.27 3.10 2.92 2.27
3000 3.68 3.85 3.99 4.09 4.14 4.12 4.01 3.74 3.47 2.60
4000 3.11 3.27 3.40 3.50 3.55 3.55 3.47 3.26 3.04 2.31

NOTE: Voltage-drop values are based on bus bar resistance at 75°C (room ambient temperature
25°C plus average conductor temperature at full load of 50°C rise).
* Divide values by 2 for distributed loading.

actual load actual distance in f t

VD = table VD
r a t e d load 100 ft

The voltage drop for a single-phase load connected to a t h r e e -

phase busway is 15.5% h i g h e r than the value shown in the t a b l e s .
Table 9.12 shows typical values of resistance and reactance for both
copper and aluminum b u s w a y s . Resistance value is shown at normal
room t e m p e r a t u r e (25°C). This is the value to be u s e d in calculating
t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t available in systems since short circuits can
occur when busway is either at light load or initially e n e r g i z e d . To
calculate voltage drop when fully loaded (75°C), the r e s i s t a n c e of
copper or aluminum should be multiplied by 1.19.

Resistance Welding

Electrical resistance welding is a means of joining two or more metals

t o g e t h e r by the use of heat and p r e s s u r e . The heat is g e n e r a t e d
by an electric c u r r e n t flowing across the intended joint location and
 Power-Carrying Devices 256 271

Table 9.12 Typical Values of Resistance and Reactance for Copper and
Aluminum Busways
A L U M I N U M CONDUCTORS
4
10 ohms Per Foot Percent
Leg Leg Leg Line-to-Line ^ Power
Bating Resistance Reactance Impedance Impedance Factor
2 25 A 46.15 18.2 49.6 85.95 93
400A 40.0 15.8 43.0 74.5 93
600A 30.1 12.8 32.7 56.5 92
800A 24,0 8,5 25,4 44.0 91
1000A 18.0 6,5 19.1 33.1 94
1200A 14.75 5.5 . 1 5. 7 27.2 94
13 50A 12.25 4,8 13.2 22.82 94
1600A 10.63 4,41 11.93 20.. 3 5 90
2000A 8.25 3.6 9.00 15.5 92
2500A 6.37 2.8 6.96 12,1 92
3000A 5.43 2.55 6.00 10.4 90
4000A 3.81 2.12 4.36 7.55 87

COPPER C O N D U C T O R S
4
10 ιohms Per Foot Percent
Leg Leg Leg Line to Line Power
Rating Resistance Reactance ! mpedance impedance Factor
225 A 69.8 45.1 83.1 143.9 84
400A 35.2 22.7 41.9 72.6 84
600A 23.6 15.25 28.1 48.6 84
800A 1 7.75 12.03 21.4 37.1 83
1000A 13.65 8.64 16.17 28,0 85
1200A 9.75 7,35 12,21 21.35 80
13 50A 9.25 7.10 11.68 20.25 80
1600A 8.07 6.37 10.28 17.8 79
2000A 7.10 5,50 8,96 15.55 73
2500A 5,14 3,70 6.32 10.95' 81
3000A 4.18 2.87 5.07 8,79 81
4000A 3.00 2.15 3.64 6.32 81
5000A 2.35 1.96 3,06 5.30 77
272 Chapter 10

the p r e s s u r e is applied by t h e two electrodes that c a r r y t h e c u r r e n t ,

u s i n g h y d r a u l i c , mechanical, or other means.
The busway distribution system for a resistance welder installation
must meet two r e q u i r e m e n t s : f i r s t , it must provide sufficient c u r r e n t -
carying capacity to avoid overheating t h e b u s w a y ; and second, it
must not allow the permissible voltage drop to be exceeded. Due to
t h e intermittent c h a r a c t e r of resistance welder loads, t h e voltage drop
requirement is most difficult to meet. Both requirements must be
carefully determined by s e p a r a t e calculations.
The operation of r e s i s t a n c e welders may be considered as either
constant or v a r y i n g . Constant operation means that the actual p r i -
mary c u r r e n t d u r i n g weld and t h e d u t y cycle are known and do not
v a r y . In v a r y i n g operation the d u t y cycle and t y p e and t h i c k n e s s
of material being welded will not be c o n s t a n t ; reasonable assumptions
must be made for these v a r y i n g q u a n t i t i e s .

Current-Carrying Capacity. To determine the c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g

capacity r e q u i r e d , it is n e c e s s a r y to convert the intermittent welder
loads to an equivalent continuous load or effective kVA. If t h e
during-weld kVA demand and t h e d u t y cycle for a welder are known,
t h e effective kVA can be obtained by multiplying the during-weld kVA
demand by the s q u a r e root of the d u t y cycle. The multipliers for
various d u t y cycles are listed in Table 9.13.

Table 9.13 Multipliers for

Various Duty Cycles

Duty cycle
Multiplier (%)

0.71 50
0.63 40
0.55 30
0.50 25
0.45 20
0.39 15
0.32 10
0.27 7. 5
0.22 5.,0
Power-Carrying Devices 256 273

If both the during-weld kVA and the duty cycle are u n k n o w n ,

the effective kVA can be assumed to be 70% of the nameplate kVA
r a t i n g for seam and automatic welders and 50% of the nameplate kVA
r a t i n g for manually operated welders o t h e r than seam. Nameplate kVA
r a t i n g is defined as the maximum load that can be imposed on the
welding machine t r a n s f o r m e r at a 50% d u t y cycle.
The total effective kVA of a group of welders is equal to the
effective kVA of the l a r g e s t welder plus 60% of the sum of the effec-
tive kVA of t h e remaining welders. Once the effective kVA h a s been
determined, the c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity can be calculated by u s i n g
the following formulas:

1. For s i n g l e - p h a s e distribution systems:

... , . . total effective kVA χ 1000

c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g requirement = —
^ system voltage

2. For t h r e e - p h a s e distribution systems:

total effective kVA χ 1000

c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g requirement+ = —
/3 system voltage

Voltage Drop. To a s s u r e consistently good welds, the voltage

drop in a distribution system should be limited to 10%. This limit
includes voltage drop in the primary distribution system, the d i s t r i -
bution t r a n s f o r m e r s , and the secondary distribution system. The
voltage drop in the primary distribution system can be obtained from
the power company provided that the maximum kVA demand and the
power factor of t h e l a r g e s t welder is provided them. The voltage
drop in the distribution t r a n s f o r m e r can be calculated from t h e f o r -
mula
!
, d u r i n g weld kVA χ t r a n s f o r m e r impedance in
voltage drop /ON
(%) = -r- —τ
t r a n s f o r m e r kVA r a t i n g

It is general practice to permit 2% voltage drop in the primary dis-

tribution system, 5% in the distribution t r a n s f o r m e r , and 3% in t h e
secondary distribution system. If the during-weld kVA is unknown,
it can be assumed to be about 4 times the nameplate kVA r a t i n g for
large projection and b u t t welders, and 2 | times for o t h e r t y p e s .

9.3.4 Installation

Layout

Busway must be tailored to the building in which it is installed. The

initial step is to identify and locate t h e building s t r u c t u r e and o t h e r
274 Chapter 10

equipment that is in the busway r o u t e . It is found that to limit the

busway installations to a minimum number of c u r r e n t r a t i n g s and to
maintain as many 10-ft l e n g t h s as possible. This permits the r e u s e
of busway components to maximum advantage when relocation of the
busway may become n e c e s s a r y at a f u t u r e d a t e .

Precautions for Installation

Study m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' drawings carefully if supplied. Check all com-

p o n e n t s and identify them p r o p e r l y , and identify the defective pieces
promptly to save the time and cost of installation. Finally, preposi-
tion h a n g e r s u p p o r t s to get ready for actual installation of the b u s -
way components.

Field Testing

The installed busway should be t e s t e d electrically prior to being

e n e r g i z e d . Phasing and continuity t e s t s are important. Also t e s t s
should be done with a megohmmeter or high-potential t e s t e r to d e t e r -
mine that t h e r e is no excessive leakage path between p h a s e s and
ground.

9.3.5 Busways over 600 V

Busways over 600 V are r e f e r r e d to as metal-enclosed b u s and con-

sist of t h r e e t y p e s : isolated p h a s e , s e g r e g a t e d p h a s e , and n o n s e g r e -
gated p h a s e . Industrial plants outside power generation areas n o r -
mally use n o n s e g r e g a t e d phase for connection of t r a n s f o r m e r s and
switchgear and interconnection of switchgear l i n e u p s . It is r a r e l y
used to feed individual loads. Metal-enclosed b u s was f i r s t covered
in the 1975 NEC. The NEC r e q u i r e s that the nameplate of this t y p e
of busway specify its r a t e d voltage, continuous c u r r e n t , f r e q u e n c y ,
60-Hz withstand voltage, and momentary c u r r e n t as well as that it
be c o n s t r u c t e d and tested in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C37.20-1969
(R1981).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AEIC CS5-1982, Specifications for Thermoplastic and Crosslinked

Polyethylene Insulated Shielded Power Cables Rated 5-46 k V .
AEIC CS6-1982, Specifications for Ethylene Propylene R u b b e r I n s u -
lated Shielded Power Cables Rated 5 - 6 9 kV.
ANSI/IEEE C37.20-1969 (R1981), IEEE Standard for Switchgear
Assemblies Including Metal-Enclosed B u s .
ANSI/IEEE Standard 141-1986, Recommended Practice for Electric
Power Distribution for Industrial P l a n t s .
ANSI/IEEE S t a n d a r d 241-1974, Recommended Practice for Electric
Power Systems in Commercial Buildings.
Power-Carrying Devices 256 275

ANSI/IEEE S t a n d a r d 400-1980, IEEE Guide for Making High-Direct-

Voltage T e s t s on Power Cable Systems in the Field.
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, National Electrical Code.
ANSI/UL 486A-1982, Safety S t a n d a r d for Wire Connectors and Solder-
ing Lugs for Use with Copper C o n d u c t o r s .
ANSI/UL 486B-1982, Safety S t a n d a r d for Wire Connectors for Use
with Aluminum Conductors.
IEEE S-135, IEEE/IPCEA (ICEA) Power Cable Ampacities (SH07096).
IEEE S t a n d a r d 48-1975, IEEE Test P r o c e d u r e s and Requirements for
High-Voltage AC Cable Terminations.
IPECA S-61-402/NEMA WC5-1973, Thermoplastic-Insulated Wire and
Cable for Transmission and Distribution of Electrical E n e r g y ,
Revision 11, Dec. 1984.
Nelson, Roy Α . , Wire and Cable Design and Applications for I n d u s -
trial Plants, IEEE-IAS Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Conference Record, Oct. 8, 1964.
NEMA BUI-1983, B u s w a y s .
NEMA BUI. 1-1986, I n s t r u c t i o n s for Safe Handling, Installation, Opera-
tion, and Maintenance of Busway and Associated Fitting Rated
600 Volts or Less.
Nestor, A. Thomas, High-Potential T e s t i n g of Medium-Voltage Cable,
Plant Engineering, A p r . 16, 1981, p p . 161-165.
Palko, Ed, Splicing and Terminating Medium-Voltage Power Cable,
Plant Engineering, A p r . 12, 1984, p p . 6 2 - 6 9 .
UL 1072-1986, Medium-Voltage Power Cables.
 10
Power Distribution for Computers

10.1 POWER PROBLEMS

Electric Power is t h e e n e r g y source t h a t makes o u r lives more enjoy-

able and o u r daily t a s k s easier to accomplish. If one h a s been c a u g h t
in any of the famous balckouts of r e c e n t times, he or she will realize
j u s t how d e p e n d e n t we are on electricity to heat and cool homes and
o f f i c e s , to telecopy to b u s i n e s s a s s o c i a t e s , or to r u n equipment from
t y p e w r i t e r s to c o m p u t e r s . Ac electric power makes it all w o r k . What
we t a k e f o r g r a n t e d as a readily available, c o n s t a n t s o u r c e of power
is really a highly complex system subject to variations and f l u c t u a t i o n s
d u r i n g t h e transmission p r o c e s s .
Theoretically, all power delivered to the consumer is "clean",
meaning t h a t f l u c t u a t i o n s of no more t h a n ±10% of t h e r a t e d voltage
are allowed. In r e a l i t y , electric power g e t s " d i r t y " , r e s u l t i n g in
typical line problems of s p i k e s , s u r g e s , f a u l t s , b r o w n o u t s , o v e r - and
u n d e r v o l t a g e s , b l a c k o u t s , and noise.

10.1.1 Terminologies of Power Disturbances and

T h e i r Solutions

Voltage Transients (Spikes)

Voltage t r a n s i e n t s a r e b r i e f , h i g h - f r e q u e n c y spikes t h a t a p p e a r on
t h e 60~Hz voltage wave. T h e s e s p i k e s are typically of microseconds 1
d u r a t i o n and can be many times t h e amplitude of the fundamental wave
The typical i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s e x p e r i e n c e h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s of
t h e s e voltage s u r g e s a y e a r . The amplitude, d u r a t i o n , and f r e q u e n c y
of o c c u r r e n c e determine w h e t h e r t h e y do cause a problem. The e f f e c t

276
Power Distribution for Computers 277

of t r a n s i e n t s on sensitive equipment is to cause erratic and erroneous

operations by introducing spurious command signals or negating valid
command signals, permanent memory loss or program damage, and
damage to components.
Common causes of voltage t r a n s i e n t s are lightning s t r i k e s , switch-
ing operations, arcing f a u l t s , static d i s c h a r g e s , and the f i r i n g of
SCRs or TRIACs. Anything that i n t e r r u p t s power or draws an arc
on the power system causes a t r a n s i e n t of some magnitude.
Dedicated lines can alleviate the problems of t r a n s i e n t s originating
in the p l a n t , but they can do nothing about t r a n s i e n t s originating
upstream of t h e dedicated line's point of connection. The most effec-
tive way to deal with voltage t r a n s i e n t s is to use a t r a n s i e n t s u p p r e s -
s o r . How sophisticated a s u p p r e s s o r will be needed d e p e n d s on the
severity of the t r a n s i e n t s and the tolerance of the equipment being
protected.

Voltage Instability

Voltage instability is f a r more common than consistent high or low

voltage. Consistent high or low voltage can be overcome by u s i n g a
buck-boost t r a n s f o r m e r or a t r a n s f o r m e r tap c h a n g e r . Voltage can
fluctuate with t h e day of the week or with the season, sometimes
d r o p p i n g 15% or more d u r i n g summertime air-conditioning b r o w n o u t s .
Voltage can drop to intolerably low levels when large motors are
s t a r t e d up within the p l a n t .
The effect of low voltage on sensitive electronic equipment is
sluggish operation or erroneous operation, and memory lapse. Equip-
ment damage can also o c c u r . High voltage can cause memory loss
and damage to components. The voltage fluctuation problem can be
solved with one of several t y p e s of voltage r e g u l a t o r s .

Electrical Noise

Noise is airborne power-line pollution induced on the line by electro-

magnetic radiation or electrostatic coupling, with the power wiring
acting as an a n t e n n a , secondary of a t r a n s f o r m e r , or plate of a capa-
citor. Noise a p p e a r s in the power system in two forms: common mode
and t r a n s v e r s e mode (sometimes called normal and differential modes).
Common-mode noise a p p e a r s from line to g r o u n d , while t r a n s v e r s e -
mode noise a p p e a r s from line to line. Either mode of noise existing
on the line can g e n e r a t e the o t h e r .
Common causes of electrical noise are broadcast transmission;
microwave radiation; corona d i s c h a r g e ; electrostatic p r o c e s s e s ; arc
produced by equipment, such as welding machines, ignition systems,
and switching devices; arcing faults and s p a r k i n g commutations of
motors and g e n e r a t o r s ; and far-off lightning storms. As opposed to
t r a n s i e n t s , t h e causes of noise need not be physically connected to
the power system; coupling is achieved electromagnetically or electro-
278 Chapter 10

statically. T r a n s i e n t s are random, h i g h - f r e q u e n c y , high-amplitude

spikes of microseconds' d u r a t i o n . Noise, on the other h a n d , is of
lesser amplitude and is characterized by being somewhat repetitive
and of long d u r a t i o n — a p p e a r i n g more as a ripple than as a spike
superimposed on the fundamental voltage wave.
The effect of noise is to cause s p u r i o u s , e r r a c t i c , erroneous
operation. It can also result in slow degradation of components. A
dedicated line can alleviate noise problems that originate within the
p l a n t , as can properly shielded and grounded data-link wiring. Major
common-mode noise problems r e q u i r e the installation of an electrostati-
cally shielded isolation t r a n s f o r m e r ,
Noise can be a vexing problem, because in many c a s e s , the equip-
ment to be protected from noise is itself capable of g e n e r a t i n g noise.
Computers and peripheral equipment such as alphanumeric p r i n t e r s
can p r o d u c e noise and "crosstalk" the noise between devices.

Power Interruptions

The e f f e c t s of power i n t e r r u p t i o n s r a n g e from minor inconvenience to

lost production to chaos. If power to some t y p e s of electronic equip-
ment is severed a b r u p t l y , high-voltage t r a n s i e n t s can develop, caus-
ing major component damage. Computers can s u f f e r from loss of
irreplaceable d a t a .
A r o t a r y filter [rotary u n i n t e r r u p t i b l e power supply (UPS)] can
deal effectively with power i n t e r r u p t i o n s of less than a second, but
beyond t h a t , only a full-scale static UPS s u f f i c e s . A UPS is the most
comprehensive and expensive solution that can be applied to a d i r t y
power problem. Figure 10.1 is the waveform representation for vari-
ous power d i s t u r b a n c e s discussed above.

Frequency Deviations
Frequency deviations seldom occur in most p a r t s of the U . S . Most
utility generating equipment is a p a r t of a national grid that rigidly
locks all g e n e r a t o r s in synchronism. Consequently, power derived
from the grid seldom deviates by more than a few t e n t h s of a cycle
from the nominal 60 Hz.
The m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' tolerance on 60 Hz equipment r a n g e s from
±0.5 Hz to ±1%. Excessive f r e q u e n c y deviation can affect the opera-
tion of computer disk drives and cause improper operation of timing
and logic c i r c u i t s .
Although f r e q u e n c y deviation is a r a r e problem, simple, relatively
inexpensive solutions are not sufficient when it does e x i s t . A full-
scale UPS with its i n h e r e n t f r e q u e n c y i n v e r t e r is the s u r e solution.
 HIGH VOLTAGE
m

LOW V O L T A G E

V O L T A G E DROP

Figure 10.1 Waveform r e p r e s e n t a t i o n for power d i s t u r b a n c e s .

279
280 Chapter 10

u s e d . When many analog circuits are p r e s e n t , the shielded cables

may be contained within a single outer shield, terminated to ground
at both e n d s . Conduits are well suited for this p u r p o s e .
ANSI/IEEE Standard 518-1982 contains v e r y u s e f u l guidelines for
wiring installation in industrial p l a n t s . Programmable controllers
(PCs) have installation requirements specified by the m a n u f a c t u r e r
of the equipment. Such items as cover p l a t e s , ground connections,
and mounting requirements may be v e r y important to PCs' resistance
to electromagnetic i n t e r f e r e n c e (EMI); they can often help contain
noise generated within the system.

10.2 COMPUTER POWER REQUIREMENTS

Today with t h e advent of computers and data p r o c e s s o r s , as well as

many other semiconductor-controlled devices, many previously dis-
r e g a r d e d power d i s t u r b a n c e s pose a direct t h r e a t to the p r o p e r opera-
tion of these equipment. Based on a past s t u d y , Table 10.1 shows
various t y p e s and characteristics of power-line d i s t u r b a n c e s which
have been discussed previously and are now grouped into t h r e e t y p e s .
Each t y p e is given its c a u s e s , threshold level, and d u r a t i o n , r e s p e c -
tively .

10.2.1 Industry Standards

T h e r e are s t a n d a r d s set by the utility that govern the allowable volt-

age tolerances for power as delivered to the u s e r . The utility power
profile is specified in ANSI Standard C84.1. The Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA) has standardized on
voltage limits within which computers and similar equipment should
operate reliably. Voltages outside these limits could cause e r r a t i c ,
unreliable, or incorrect operation. Figure 10.2 shows the ANSI utility
power profile with the CBEMA voltage "envelope" superimposed. It
indicates that ANSI s t a n d a r d s for s t e a d y - s t a t e voltage tolerances
for the utility at the source are ±5% for residential power and ±10%
for i n d u s t r i a l power. After allowances for voltage drop up to and
on the u s e r ' s premises, CBEMA s t e a d y - s t a t e tolerances for industrial
power are +6% and —13%. These superimposed computer tolerances
and utility profile c u r v e s make it clear t h a t t h e r e a r e potential p r o b -
lems in the momentary outage area and in the high-voltage t r a n s i e n t
area in power from the utility, in addition to any u s e r - c a u s e d t r a n -
s i e n t s . Actual site voltage measurements of incoming utility power
u s i n g r a p i d - r e s p o n s e i n s t r u m e n t s (small circles in Figure 10.2) show
that the utilities, despite their best e f f o r t s , often cannot maintain
the specified ANSI voltage tolerances at all times.
Most computer equipment can accept t h e +6%, -13% tolerance, b u t
some computer m a n u f a c t u r e r s call for even more s t r i n g e n t voltage
Power Distribution for Computers 281

Table 10.1 Various Types and Characteristics of Power-Line D i s t u r -

bances
Type 1 Type II
Transient and Momentary Type III
Definition
oscillatory undervoltage Outage
overvoltage or overvoltage

Lightning; power Faults on power Faults on power

network switching system; large load system; unaccept-
(particularly large changes; utility able load changes;
Causes
capacitors or in- equipment mal- utility or on-site
ductors); operation functions; on-site equipment mal-
of on-site loads load changes functions

200 to 400% rated

rms v o l t a g e or Below 80 to 85%
Threshold Below 80 to 85%
higher (peak instan- and above 110% of
lever rated rms voltage
taneous above or rated rms voltage
below rated rms)

Spikes 0.5 to 200

microsecs wide and From 4 to 60 cy-
From 2 to 60 sec if
oscillatory up to cles, depending on
correction is auto-
Duration 16.7 millisecs at type of power sys-
matic; unlimited if
frequencies of 0.2 tem and on-site
manual
to 5 kHz and high- distribution
er

0 0.5 120
Duration (cycles of 60-Hz wave)
* Approximate limits beyond which disturbance is considered harmful to computer.

regulation. Typical t r a n s i e n t tolerances permit no dips or s u r g e s

g r e a t e r than about ±20% for no longer than 30 ms, with b r i e f e r t r a n -
sients capable of creating e r r o r s . Most computers cannot tolerate a
loss of voltage for longer than about 15 ms.
Transient voltages from utility switching at the u s e r ' s site can
exceed the t r a n s i e n t - v o l t a g e tolerances, and momentary outages ex-
ceeding the 15 ms level can occur from utility power network switch-
ing and l i g h t n i n g - s t r i k e circuit b r e a k e r t r i p p i n g and reclosing. About
the only requirement that rarely causes problems is t h e f r e q u e n c y
tolerance, ±0.5 Hz. Input power variations beyond acceptable limits
can cause e r r o r s in calculations, o u t p u t e r r o r s , loss of d a t a , u n -
scheduled s h u t d o w n s , and even equipment damage. Table 10.2 sum-
marizes t h e foregoing discussion in an orderly and concise fashion.
282 Chapter 10

180
160 Shading shows potential problem areas
Circles (o) show actual site history problems.
140
120
Residential power tolerances
100 at source: 1 5 %
80
• Utility power profile Industrial power
ω 60 (ANSI) tolerances at source:
o>
Λ 40 + 10%
ο
> + 20%
20 + 15% Typical industrial
c iom utility power after
ω
ο CBEMA building line losses:
-20
ω
α. criteria -30%
-20% ο + 6%. -13%
-40 Potential brownout region
50 ms to % sec
-60
Utilization voltage
-80 fave for 6 sec or longer)
8 to 50 ms
-100
106 cycle 0.6 cycle 6 cycles 60 cycles 600 cycles 6000 cycles
1 ms 10 ms 100 ms 1 sec 10 sec 100 sec

Duration

Figure 10.2 ANSI utility power profile superimposed with CBEMA

voltage envelopes.

10.2.2 Power Problem S t u d y Data

In early 1974, two engineers of IBM published a p a p e r "Monitoring of

Computer Installations for Power Line D i s t u r b a n c e s . " This s t u d y is
one of the most extensive r e c o r d s of actual d i s t u r b a n c e s to power
systems supplying computers, encompassing both utility source and
o n - s i t e - g e n e r a t e d voltage e x c u r s i o n s , including spikes, oscillatory
t r a n s i e n t s , overvoltages, and u n d e r v o l t a g e s . The data accumulated
r e p r e s e n t e d a climate and geographical cross section of the United
S t a t e s , with r e p r e s e n t a t i v e loads from heavy i n d u s t r y , light i n d u s t r y ,
office buildings, retail s t o r e s , r e s i d e n c e s , and mixed locations.
Utility systems included overhead and u n d e r g r o u n d , single- and dual-
f e e d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n . Table 10.3 summarizes the r e s u l t s of this study.
It is noted that the s t u d y shows that only 37% of the 4507 total t r a n -
sients measured were of the t y p e t h a t an isolation t r a n s f o r m e r can
eliminate, or in o t h e r words, at least 63% of all t r a n s i e n t s p a s s t h r o u g h
the t r a n s f o r m e r and on to the computer. In c o n t r a s t , a motor-genera-
tor eliminates all t y p e s of power t r a n s i e n t s because t h e primary and
secondary circuits of the system are mechanically, electrically, and
magnetically s e p a r a t e d . The correction time of most of t h e many
t y p e s of voltage-regulating t r a n s f o r m e r s is so slow as to be i n e f f e c -
tive in p r o t e c t i n g against common s a g / s u r g e problems that last only
 Power Distribution for Computers 283

Table 10.2 R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Power Quality A t t r i b u t e s

Environmental attribute Typical environment Typical acceptable limits for computers and p o w e r sources

Normal Critical Units affected and c o m m e n t s

Line frequency ±0.1%-±3% ±1% ±0.3% Disk packs, tape, regulators

Rate of frequency change 0.5-20 H z / s 1.5 H z / s 0.3 H z / s Disk packs

O v e r and undervoltage ± 5 % - + 6, - 1 3 . 3 % + 5%, - 1 0 % ±3% Unregulated p o w e r supplies

Phase imbalance 2%-10% 5% max 3% max Polyphase rectifiers, motors

P o w e r Source: Less than

Tolerance to l o w 0 . 8 5 - 0 . 6 lagging 0.8 lagging 0.6 lagging Indirectly limits p o w e r source
p o w e r factor or or requires greater capacity
0.9 leading unit with reduced overall
efficiency

Tolerance to high steady- 1.3-1.6 p e a k / r m s 1.0-2.5 Greater than 1.414 normal; departures
state peak current peak/rms 2.5 peak/rms cause w a v e shape distortion.

Harmonics ( V o l t a g e ) 0 - 2 0 % total rms 10-20% total 5% max total V o l t a g e regulators, signal

5 - 1 0 % largest 3% largest circuits

dc load current capa- Negligible to 5% or Less than 0.1 % A s l o w as 0.5% Half w a v e rectifier load can
bility of p o w e r source more w/exceptions saturate some p o w e r sources,
trip circuits.

V o l t a g e deviation 5-50% 5-10% 3-5% A f f e c t s regulators, signal

from sine w a v e circuits

V o l t a g e modulation Negligible to 10% 3% max 1% max V o l t a g e regulators, servo motors

Transient s u r g e s / s a g s + 10%, - 1 5 % + 20%, - 3 0 % + 5%, - 5 % Regulated power, motor torque

Transient impulses 2 to 3 times nominal Varies; Varies; M e m o r y , disks, tapes having high
peak value 1,000-1,500 V 200-500 V data transfer rates, l o w level
( 0 - 1 3 0 % V-s) typical typical data signals

R F I / E M I and "tone bursts" 10 V up to 20 kHz; Varies w i d e l y Varies w i d e l y Same as above

normal and c o m m o n m o d e s less at higher freq. 3 V typical 0.3 V typical

Ground currents 0 - 1 0 ) A rms 0.001-0.5 A 0.0035 A May trip G F I devices, violate

+ impulse noise current or more or less code, introduce noise in signal
circuits

Table 10.3 Study of Power-Line D i s t u r b a n c e s Summary

^Power Problem Type Total NUMBER OF INCIDENTS CORRECTED Λ

Incidents Regulating Transformer Isolation Motor- UPS UPS with
Measured Ferro SCR Transformer generator Diesel

Undervoltages 1569 605 737 0 1559 1569 1569

Overvoltages 103 33 34 0 103 103 103
Outages 65 0 0 0 14 57 65
Transients-Common 1676 0 0 1676 1676 1676 1676
Transients-Normal 2831 0 0 0 2831 2831 2831

J
Total Incidents 6244 638 771 1676 6183 6236 6244
Power Protection Offered 10% 12% 27% 99% 99.8% 100%
284 Chapter 10

milliseconds. Most computer m a n u f a c t u r e r s specify that any voltage

condition out of tolerance for longer than o n e - f o u r t h of a cycle (4 ms)
could result in h a r d w a r e and software malfunctions.

10.3 POWER C O N D I T I O N E R S FOR COMPUTERS

10.3.1 D i f f e r e n t T y p e s of Power Conditioners

The s u r v e y r e s u l t s as p r e s e n t e d in Table 10.3 also indicate the rela-

tive effectiveness of the d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of power conditioners to
combat a variety of power problems. Selecting the p r o p e r solution
for a " d i r t y " power problem r e q u i r e s knowing which components of
d i r t y power are causing the problem — f r e q u e n c y deviation, voltage
t r a n s i e n t s , o v e r - , u n d e r - , or f l u c t u a t i n g voltage, electrical noise, or
power i n t e r r u p t i o n s . Some t y p e s of power conditioners can cope with
one or more t y p e s of problems, but not o t h e r s . Minor t r a n s i e n t
s u r g e problems can sometimes be handled with simple, limited-capacity
t r a n s i e n t s u p p r e s s o r s costing less than $30; multiple, major problems
on critical equipment might r e q u i r e a full-scale u n i n t e r r u p t i b l e power
supply (UPS), costing t e n s of t h o u s a n d s of dollars. The optimum
solution is a balance between economies and t h e n a t u r e of the problem.
It is t h e r e f o r e important to u n d e r s t a n d clearly the various t y p e s of
power conditioners that are available on the market today, t h e i r
advantages and limitations, and their relative cost.

Dedicated Lines
Dedicated line is a circuit r u n in its own electrically continuous,
b o n d e d , p r o p e r l y r o u t e d , and grounded metallic raceway from a point
well upstream directly to the protected equipment. Dedicated lines
are commonly recommended by mainframe computer m a n u f a c t u r e r s , but
their limited capabilities often r e q u i r e that they be supplemented by
one or more t y p e s of power conditioners.

Advantages. Dedicated lines can shield out noise-producing elec-

tromagnetic and electrostatic coupling along its length and b y p a s s
power i n t e r r u p t i o n s downstream of their point of connection.

Limitations. It cannot solve problems of improper voltage, t r a n -

s i e n t s , noise, and power i n t e r r u p t i o n s originating upstream of its
point of connection.

Transient Suppressors

T r a n s i e n t s u p p r e s s o r s r a n g e from simple, low-cost devices to highly

e n g i n e e r e d , sophisticated devices. Simple ones are little more than
electronic f u s e s intended to s e l f - d e s t r u c t in performing their d u t y .
Power Distribution for Computers 285

They clamp, r e s t r i c t , or divert t r a n s i e n t s u r g e s by operating on

overvoltage, high f r e q u e n c y , or b o t h . There are versions that con-
duct from line to n e u t r a l , line to g r o u n d , or neutral to g r o u n d , or
combinations.

Advantages. Transient s u p p r e s s o r s typically s u p r e s s spikes hav-

ing a f r e q u e n c y g r e a t e r than 10 kHz and peaks g r e a t e r than 250 V.
High-quality u n i t s effectively cope with virtually any t r a n s i e n t volt-
age problems.

Limitations. They do nothing about f r e q u e n c y deviation, voltage

problems, and power i n t e r r u p t i o n s , and even the b e s t - q u a l i t y units
have little effect on electrical noise.

Voltage Regulators

Voltage r e g u l a t o r s maintain voltage output within specified limits upon

fluctuations in input line voltage. Among those o f f e r e d are f e r r o -
r e s o n a n t , saturable r e a c t o r , total solid-state and t a p - c h a n g e r t y p e s
in both electromechanical and electronic v e r s i o n s . All t a p - c h a n g e r
t y p e s regulate in discrete s t e p s r a t h e r than in a smooth sweep.

Advantages. Good-quality voltage r e g u l a t o r s are e n e r g y efficient,

respond rapidly to fluctuations in input voltage, and maintain voltage
output within extremely narrow limits upon wide fluctuations in input
(constant o u t p u t voltage within 1% when input voltage f l u c t u a t e s up
to 15%).

Limitations. They have no effect on other t y p e s of d i r t y power

problems.

Isolation Transformers

Electrostatically shielded isolation t r a n s f o r m e r s are designed to p r e -

vent electrical noise on the power line from being passed t h r o u g h to
the equipment being p r o t e c t e d . These isolation t r a n s f o r m e r s should
not be confused with oridinary isolation t r a n s f o r m e r s . At one time,
noise isolation t r a n s f o r m e r s were o f f e r e d only in one-to-one t r a n s f o r -
mation ratios, b u t they are now available in step-down v e r s i o n s .
Metal-foil shielding is used on the primary to p r e v e n t noise from
being induced in t h e s e c o n d a r y .

Advantages. Good-quality u n i t s are e n e r g y efficient and can

effectively block common-mode noise, but it is generally ineffective
on t r a n s v e r s e - m o d e noise. Hybrid v e r s i o n s , however, have s u p r e s -
sion devices that enhance t r a n s v e r s e - m o d e attenuation.
286 Chapter 10

Limitations. They are generally ineffective in coping with o t h e r

t y p e s of d i r t y power.

Hybrid Power Conditioners

Hybrid power conditioners combine two or t h r e e of the functions of

t r a n s i e n t s u p r e s s i o n , voltage regulation, and noise attenuation in one
device.

Advantages. Best-quality u n i t s deal effectively with problems of

t r a n s i e n t s u r g e s , voltage fluctuation, and noise on t h e input power
s u p p l y , and operate at high e n e r g y efficiency.

Limitations. They do nothing about f r e q u e n c y deviation, cannot

cope with power i n t e r r u p t i o n s , and can do nothing about t r a n s i e n t s
and noise originating on the output side.

Rotary Filters (or Rotary UPS Systems)

Rotary filters typically have a synchronous motor fed from the utility
supply and driving a synchronous g e n e r a t o r . The generator output
is fed to the protected load. The kinetic e n e r g y of the spinning mass
provides r i d e - t h r o u g h of momentary power i n t e r r u p t i o n s . Figure
10.3 shows the arrangement of an u n i n t e r r u p t i b l e synchronous motor-
generator set.

Advantages. They provide r i d e - t h r o u g h of momentary power

i n t e r r u p t i o n s on the o r d e r of 500 ms, with actual capability v a r y i n g
with t h e design of the u n i t . On longer power i n t e r r u p t i o n s , they
also provide b u f f e r i n g to p r e v e n t the development of t r a n s i e n t s on
t h e i r o u t p u t side. They maintain stable voltage at the load, and deal
effectively with noise and t r a n s i e n t s on the incoming power s u p p l y .

Limitations. They cannot cope with power i n t e r r u p t i o n s of more

than momentary d u r a t i o n , and they cannot handle f r e q u e n c y deviation.

Static Uninterruptible Power Supplies

Static u n i n t e r r u p t i b l e power supplies (UPSs) are comprised of a

r e c t i f i e r / c h a r g e r u n i t , solid-state i n v e r t e r , b a t t e r y b a n k , and appro-
priate t r a n s f e r and b y p a s s switching. UPS systems are o f f e r e d in
small u n i t s that can fit u n d e r a desk t h r o u g h large, unitized systems
for floor mounting. Two configurations can be employed for a static
UPS: forward t r a n s f e r or r e v e r s e t r a n s f e r . Figure 10.4 shows
t h e s e two t y p e s of configurations. With a r e v e r s e t r a n s f e r system,
the UPS is continually on line; a solid-state t r a n s f e r switch is typically
u s e d to switch to raw utility power if some elements of the UPS fail.
In t h e forward t r a n s f e r system, the load is continuously served with
 Ο
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M o t o r Drive

Figure 10.3 A r r a n g e m e n t of a n u n i n t e r r u p t i b l e s y n c h r o n o u s m o t o r - g e n e r a t o r s e t .

tS5
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BYPASS LINE

UPS
TRANSFER
U T I L I T Y SUPPLY SWITCH
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BATTERY
(OPTIONAL)

FORWARD TRANSFER UPS

NORMAL ( U T I L I T Y ) SUPPLY TO LOAD

UPS
TRANSFER
U T I L I T Y SUPPLY SWITCH
RECTIFIER/ CRITICAL
INVERTER LOAD
CHARGER
AUTOMATIC
TRANSFER
SWITCH

(OPTIONAL) BATTERY

Figure Ί 0 . 4 T w o t y p e s of c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r a s t a t i c U P S .
Power Distribution for Computers 289

utility power, and transferred to the UPS if utility supply is inter-

rupted.

Advantages. A reverse transfer UPS can cope with any and all
dirty power problems on the incoming supply—frequency deviation,
voltage transients, under-, o v e r - , or fluctuating voltage, electrical
noise, and momentary and sustained power outages. A forward trans-
fer system can be modified with controls to transfer the load to UPS
for other reasons, such as frequency deviation or unacceptable high
or low voltage.

Limitations. Unless supplemented with a standby generator, both

forward and reverse transfer systems are limited in operation on loss
of the utility supply by the size of the battery bank.

Hybrid Rotary/Static UPS Systems

A hybrid rotary/static UPS system combines the feature of a rotary

filter with those of a static UPS and draw on the advantages of both.
In normal operations, the rotary filter is on line serving the pro-
tected load. Immediately upon sensing a power interruption, a high-
speed transfer switch transfers the load to the static system. The
spinning momentum of the rotary unit preserves power to the load
during the transfer interval. Figure 10.5 shows a schematic for a
combined static, battery, and rotary UPS system.

Advantages. This system protects against any and all dirty

power problems; the system can be provided with a frequency relay
to transfer from the rotary to the static mode if the problem of fre-
quency deviation arises. Hybrid systems have an advantage over
static-only systems in that they use fewer elements to provide full
uninterruptible protection. This tends to minimize the possibility of
electronic components failure.

Limitations. Unless supplemented with standby generation, sus-

tained operation during power outages is limited by battery capacity.
Rotating elements require periodic routine maintenance required for
all rotating equipment.

10.3.2 Economics of D i f f e r e n t T y p e s of
Power Conditioners

Figure 10.6 summarizes the efficiency and relative cost of several

different systems:

1. U ΡS / engine generator
2. Redundant UPS
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_RAW U T I L I T Y 3 PHASE 3 PHASE SQUARE WAVE 3 PHASE S I N E WAVE

DIRECT CURRENT-
A L T E R N A T I N G CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT

v
6 0 Hz B Y P A S S

OPTIONAL
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AND (ALTERNATOR
FREQUENCY \ 6 0 Hz
COMPUTER
CONTROL
LOAD

PRIME CONTROLLED
POWER INVERTER SYNCHRONOUS
RECTIFIER
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BATTERIES
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Power Distribution for Computers 291

UPS/ENGINE GENERATOR 100%

$100%

R E D U N D A N T UPS 99.8%

$S?%

MOTOR G Ε Ν Ε R ΑΤΟR 99%

$30%

27% ISOLATION TRANSFORMER

$12%

12% VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Si 2%

5% DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

$13%)

Figure 10.6 Summary of efficiency and relative cost of several dif-

ferent power conditioning s y s t e m s .

3. Motor-generator
4. Isolation transformer
5. Voltage regulator
6. Distribution system

It is noted that the motor-generator system and UPS system p e r -

form the same function by protecting a computer from 99% of all
power problems. However, a motor-generator system is much l e s s
costly to install and operate. If the computer application j u s t i f i e s
100% protection and cost is not an i s s u e , consideration must be g i v e n
to a perperly e n g i n e e r e d redundant UPS system with backup diesel
generators.

10.3.3 Specifications for a UPS System

Developing specifications for an uninterruptible power supply requires
careful analysis of variable factors before a system i s c h o s e n . Elec-
trical power required by a s e n s i t i v e load may v a r y widely, d e p e n d i n g
on the configuration of the load. The power demand of a computer
292 Chapter 10

system, for example, depends on the number of central processing

units and the number and types of peripheral devices, such as disk
and tape drives.
The task of developing specifications becomes complex because
nearly any piece of load equipment can be found in nearly any appli-
cation. There are characteristics of the connected load that dictate
the design, performance limits, and capabilities of the UPS to be
specified. The principal factors determined by hardware, which vary
from load to load, are: power requirements, power factor, load con-
figuration, number of phases, voltage regulation, phase displacement,
frequency stability, slew rate, unbalanced loading, filtering and dis-
tortion, inrush handling capabilities, overload capacity, bypass capa-
city, transfer time, and reverse time. Several of these items which
require further explanation are discussed as follows:

Power Requirements

The UPS can be sized either to accommodate the total anticipated

critical load growth at the outset or to accommodate the initial critical
load, with provisions for expansion. The specific power requirement,
the specified kW and kVA, can be determined in one of two ways.
The preferred method uses actual load measurements to determine the
exact power requirements of each device that will be powered by the
UPS. Sometimes it becomes necessary to use the nameplate ratings
found on various devices or in the computer installation manual.
However, the nameplate ratings taken in conjunction with a diversity
factor of 100% can result in a substantially oversized UPS and in-
creased operating costs. On the other hand, if one conscientiously
sizes the UPS for actual measured load, it is often to discover other
unaccounted-for critical loads after starting up the system. There-
fore a modest "pad" is often applied to the final load power require-
ment calculations as a means of refining process.

Number of Phases

A three-phase load cannot be powered by a single-phase UPS, but

a single-phase load can be powered by a three-phase UPS. For com-
puter systems requiring three-phase input, with some of the periph-
erals wired for 208 V single-phase input, a three-phase UPS is ideal
because it provides 208 V three-phase, 208 V single-phase, and
120 V single-phase inputs. A three-phase system is generally more
efficient than a single-phase system. Therefore, a three-phase s y s -
tem is always preferred in sizes above 10 kVA.

Phase Displacement

The angle between phases of a three-phase voltage supply should be

exactly 120 electrical degrees. The voltage-regulating scheme used
Power Distribution for Computers 293

by the UPS inverter dictates how well each phase remains fixed in
relation to the other phases. The deviation from nominal is often
stated at ±1 or 2 degrees for the nominal 120-degree phase displace-
ment. One method regulates the line-to-line voltages of the inverter
output, rather than the line-to-neutral voltages. This results in the
angle between phases being inherently regulated to 120 degrees.

Slew Rate

Slew rate is defined as the rate of change of frequency, in hertz per

second. It is important for installations employing motors, such as
the disk drives in a computer system. Because motor speed is pro-
portional to the frequency, a sudden change in frequency will result
in a high inrush to the motor. Most critical loads can tolerate a
maximum slew rate of 0.5 Hz/s.

Unbalanced Loading

In most installations requiring three-phase power, at least 75% of the

loads can actually be single-phase devices. Although the 20% un-
balanced capability available with most units may appear adequate,
this capability can easily be exceeded. In a 15-kW unit, a mere
1-kW unbalance in one phase represents a 20% total unbalance. Where
loading exceeds the specified maximum unbalance, UPS reliability suf-
fers as components are stressed, regulation begins to deteriorate
rapidly, and distortion increases.

Filtering Capabilities and Distortion Requirements

Every load has a limited tolerance for noise and harmonic distortion.
Total harmonic distortion (THD), which is the measure of the quality
of the waveform applied to the load, is calculated by geometrically
summing the harmonic voltages present in the waveform and by re-
lating this sum as a percentage of the fundamental voltage of the
waveform. Typically, critical loads can withstand 5% THD, where no
single harmonic exceeds 3%.
One type of noise that is difficult for the UPS to attenuate is
load-produced noise. If the critical load is very noisy or has an ex-
tremely nonsinusoidal waveform, the result will be reflected in the
UPS output. Special filters may be required to prevent a false trig-
ger or misfiring circuit element or to prevent an adverse effect by
reflected noise on other loads connected to the UPS output. UPS
designs that already have inherently large amounts of filtering on
their output are less likely to need addition of an external filter.

Inrush Handling Capabilities

A surge, lasting from a half-cycle to a few cycles, can produce an

effect similar to that of a short circuit. In specifying a UPS for
294 Chapter 10

such applications, the short-circuit capabilities of the unit must be

sufficient to accommodate such an inrush surge, particularly when the
bypass source is unavailable. When the inrush is greater than 125%
of the normal current, the UPS will attempt to transfer to the bypass
source until the current demands return to acceptable limits. With-
out a bypass source, the UPS will be forced to shut down. Normally,
the bypass source is available and is used to start the heavy loads
automatically via the UPS static transfer switch.

Bypass Capability

The bypass source must be sized to power the load, and its output
must be maintained within parameters acceptable to the load. When
a commercial ac line is used, a line-voltage regulator may be required.

Transfer Time

The UPS configuration and transfer mechanism must be adequate in

terms of transfer time. A decision regarding the type of output trans-
fer switch employed—electromechanical, solid-state, or hybrid—depends
on the load device's ride-through capability. Some devices can with-
stand three to six cycles of interruption; others cannot tolerate as
little as a half-cycle. Most computer loads need usable voltage con-
tinuously during a transfer (make-before-break).

Reserve Time

Most often, the standby battery plant employed by the UPS is sized
to provide 15 to 30 min of reserve time, with a standby engine-
generator being considered for longer outages.

10.4 POWER D I S T R I B U T I O N DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

FOR COMPUTERS
10.4.1 Reliable, Continuous, and Clean Power

Power system must be reliable, continuous, and "clean" for the vital
operations of a modern computer processing center. If "clean" power
is the only requirement of the UPS system, a simple ac-to-ae motor-
generator (MG) set can satisfy the need. This type of "buffer" MG
set was, in fact, used almost exclusively with early computer systems.
However, "continuous" power refers to the ability to supply power
even during complete interruptions of power. Recloser operation of
15 to 20 cycles' duration can easily be handled by the "buffer" MG
set, but longer interruptions require additional protection. This is
where more sophisticated UPS systems come in. The static UPS
system is perhaps the simplest such UPS system, and, in general,
also the most economical to install.
Power Distribution for Computers 295

When a power level goes beyond, say, 250 kVA, reliability of

the system should be further emphasized. Redundancy is a means of
providing increased system reliability. With redundancy in its simplest
form, any one inverter or rectifier-charger can be removed from the
system without affecting the ability to continue feeding the critical
load. Figure 10.7 shows one of many different redundant configura-
tions. It should be noted that it is rarely feasible to consider using
operating redundancy with rotating UPS systems.

10.4.2 G r o u n d i n g Requirements for a Computer

System (or Automatic Data Processing Equipment)

Purpose of Grounding

Grounding accomplishes multiple functions, all of which must be con-

sidered in the design and installation of an automatic data-processing
(ADP) system. Grounding is required both for safety reasons and
because of the need for highly sensitive computer circuits to operate
reliably.

Power Input

Manual Bypass
Bypass Static Switch

To ADP Loads
UPS No. 1

UPS No. 2

UPS No. 3

To Additional Units

Figure 10.7 Redundant configurations of UPS system.

296 Chapter 10

Low-resistance ground connections to earth are appropriate for

lightning and transmission-line ground faults. However, this is not
the rationale for applying grounding principles to 120, 240, and
208 V circuits. At these voltages, a system of interconnected or
bonded conductors acting as a voltage reference network can equalize
voltage differences throughout the network much more effectively
than can multiple low-impedance earth contacts. Such an intercon-
nected, bonded network can serve as both a power and a signal refer-
ence, regardless of its voltage with respect to earth ground. To
avoid shock hazard and to minimize voltage differences between indi-
vidual reference networks, it is not only accepted practice but manda-
tory for safety purposes that these networks be connected to earth
ground. Since the connection to earth is never expected to carry
load or fault current, NEC permits this conductor to be smaller than
the equipment ground conductors in the network.
For computer or ADP systems, a copper rod driven into moist
soil is not a magic cure-all for grounding problems, nor is it neces-
sarily a requirement. Various functions of ADP system grounding
may be summarized as follows:

1. Touch voltage differences must be limited by bonding and ground-

ing to avoid shock hazard.
2. Ground fault current path to power source must have low imped-
ance to enable it to actuate overcurrent protection and disconnect
the source.
3. Ground potential differences in the area must be reduced to es-
sentially a constant reference.
4. Grounded conducting enclosures serve as electromagnetic shield-
ing for sensitive circuits.
5. Grounding in compliance with safety code is mandatory.

Techniques of Grounding

When the grounding instructions given by the computer manufacturer

appear to conflict with safety code requirements, the manufacturer
should be consulted and asked to resolve the problem. Any arbitrary
independent departure from these instructions or electrical codes can
result in taking the liability for safety hazard or failure of the com-
puter equipment to perform reliably.
The central grounding point shows a "single point ground" in an
ADP system (Figure 10.8). This point should be readily identifiable.
It should be the point where the interconnected parts of the computer's
grounding system are connected to other ground conductors that
extend beyond and outside the ADP room.
Within very large systems, there may be subsystems, each with
a central grounding point for connection to other central grounding
points. However, separate connections to separate external grounds
would create unwanted external ground loops. Impulse ground cur-
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to
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298 Chapter 10

rents can find paths in the ground shields and grounded conductors,
or signal pairs and coaxial cables. Intercoupling with digital circuits
and signal corruption can be the unwanted results.
Future computers with higher-frequency performance circuits will
probably require careful shielding of all circuits longer than a few
inches. Coaxial conductors and waveguides become appropriate for
higher frequencies. However, these are prime candidates for replace-
ment with fiber optic signal transmission, which is already being put
into communications service to carry digital signals at 90 to 400 mega-
bits per second. Fiber optics will solve some of the common-mode
noise problems that bother today's computer circuits, but other limi-
tations will take their place. The signal energies may continue to
decrease as noise is reduced, but there are theoretical limits that
will ultimately be approached.
In today's techniques with digital data and control signals, any
dc and low-ac frequency (100 kHz or less) signal currents will follow
the lowest-resistance paths. At high radio frequencies (above 100
kHz), stray capacitance and electromagnetic coupling become signifi-
cant circuit paths. At low frequencies where currents follow conduc-
tors, single-point grounding is generally preferred. As signal fre-
quencies exceed approximately 10 mHz and greater, the noise currents
and voltage signals cannot easily be confined to conductors. In this
realm, multipoint grounding becomes necessary if it is to be effective.
If the desired signal must be protected against both high- and
low-frequency interference, a solid metallic galvanic grounding con-
nection is needed for a single-point ground, while at high frequencies
one can use multiple ground paths via deliberate use of stray or
discrete capacitors. A very effective technique is to have multipoint-
ground connections to an outer shield over an inner insulated shield
that has a single-point ground.

Earth Ground Connection and Isolated Ground

Earth ground connection can be important to reliable performance of

electronic circuits in ADP systems, minicomputers, and word proces-
sors, but its role is often misunderstood. As a result, much effort
and sometimes needless expense is incurred in achieving a "quiet,
isolated ground" with a very low ground resistance. The quiet,
low-resistance attributes are always desirable, but a misunderstand-
ing of the term "isolated" can lead to dangerous grounding practices
that violate safety codes and will not solve noise problems.
Stand-alone word processors, minicomputers, their peripherals,
and other electronic office machines are typically powered and
grounded solely by their three-prong grounding-type 120-V plugs
on their power cords. If a minisystem requires more than one sepa-
rately powered unit, it is common practice to use a grounding-type
duplex receptacle cube tap, or portable receptacle strip provided that
the total load does not exceed 80% of the 15- or 20-A circuit protec-
tion rating for the circuit.
Power Distribution for Computers 299

In many instances, such an arrangement has been used success-

fully. Unfortunately, there are often reasons why this may be mar-
ginally successful or not work at all:

1. The ground pin at the receptacle, the neutral grounding point

at the building entrance service equipment, and the transformer
power source's secondary output winding ground point are sepa-
rated and may be grounded at two or three separate locations.
This could permit noise voltages to develop between them and
appear as common-mode noise.
2. Older buildings may have wiring without an equipment ground
conductor and may even lack electrically continuous conduit to
serve in its stead. If the receptacle enclosure is grounded to
a local water pipe, driven earth electrode, or building structural
steel, and there is no provision for an electrical return path such
as an equipment ground conductor or continuous conducting path
provided by conduit back to the power source grounding point,
such an installation could be unsafe.
3. The equipment ground conductor in the receptacle may be con-
nected permanently to the conducting enclosure in which it is
mounted. A connection that is integrally built into the receptacle
normally creates its ground path. Noise currents originating from
a load plugging into an adjacent or nearby receptacle could reach
the sensitive equipment via the path.

One solution is to install an "isolated ground" receptacle (some-

times identified by orange color) in which the ground terminal is
isolated from the mounting strip (Figure 10.9). An insulated equip-
ment ground conductor is then connected from the grounding terminal
of the receptacle in accordance with the NEC Article 250-74, Excep-
tion 4, and is passed through one or more panelboards without con-
necting to their grounding terminals (Article 384-27, Exception 1)
for direct connection to the applicable derived system or service
grounding terminal.
Contrary to illustrations in some catalogs which show examples
of the equipment ground connected to an independent earth electrode
without any other connections to the building ground, the equipment
grounding conductor from the receptacle with the isolated ground
must be connected directly to the neutral grounding point for the
building. This is necessary for safety, compliance with code, and
for low electrical noise at the computer unit.

Single-Point Versus Multipoint Grounding

This has been discussed in theory. However, grounding practice is

seldom like the theory. Many unintentional ground connections not
discussed in theory do appear in practice. It is virtually impossible
to enclose power, communications, and other conductors in a conduit
 Co
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O r a n g e color plastic identifies "isolated'

ground (not c o n n e c t e d to shell)
O r a n g e Color

Equipment G r o u n d
Busbar Isolated circuit is not
f r o m enclosure c o n n e c t e d to
receptacle f r a m e

This Isolated
• Equipment G r o u n d
circuit is not
c o n n e c t e d to the
receptacle f r a m e

T w o Ground
conductor paths 1

Enclosure is c o n n e c t e d to
Isolated grounding conductor may pass through panel boards, a ground conductor
but must terminate directly at applicable derived
system or at service grounding terminal.

Figure 10. 9 Wiring an d grounding fo r an isolated ground receptacle. 5

Ω
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Power Distribution for Computers 301

and have electrical noise, voltages, and currents on that conduit with-
out coupling to the conductors contained within it. For this reason
it is possible to make a great improvement if some control can be
exercised over all conducting members that enter the computer room
or are run nearby. A single-point entry makes it possible to equa-
lize the voltage differences without having the resulting current con-
ducted throughout the computer room. If a single-point strategy is
to be followed, this may be possible within the computer room, but
as soon as circuits leave the room, they must be considered to be
grounded at multiple points and be sources of good loop noise currents.

10.4.3 Standby Power Systems

As discussed in Section 10.3.1, none of the power conditioning sys-

tems can sustain a prolonged power outage unless they are supple-
mented with a standby generator. Standby generators can range from
small units serving a few emergency lights, communications, and
security systems to large, comprehensive installations capable of sus-
taining business as usual. Standby generators are not intended to
provide power at lower cost than that from utility. They are offered
in a wide variety of prime-mover choices, such as gasoline engine,
diesel engine, gas turbine, and dual-fuel diesel/natural gas engine.
In general, the gasoline engine unit will have the lowest initial cost,
but at a higher maintenance expense than with other types. Diesel
engine has lower fuel costs and maintenance expense, and loger life
expectancy, and less failure rates. Gas turbine has also the advant-
age of fuel economy, minimum maintenance, and long life, but higher
initial costs.
Static power supplies provide a reliable, though more expensive
alternative to engine-generator sets. Static standby power systems
provide some advantages not obtainable with engine-generator sets.
Where ultrapure, totally uninterruptible power is required, static
power supplies provide the only answer in light of today's technology.
In addition to providing an uninetrruptible source of power for criti-
cal loads such as computers, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
also acts as a filter, filtering out any undesirable voltage transients
on the power system. A static power supply consists of four major
elements: a stationary battery to provide necessary power reserve,
a charger to maintain the battery at full charge, a solid-state inver-
ter to convert battery dc power to ac, and appropriate switching
equipment.

10.4.4 Equipment Interface

In designing a buffer system for powering computers and other sensi-

tive electronic equipment, a number of important interfaces should be
carefully considered. One of these is the interface between a standby
generator and an UPS.
302 Chapter 10

Because the output impedance of a generator is higher than that

of the utility, the standby generator must be oversized so that the
UPS current draw does not distort the generator output voltage.
Any equipment using SCR ac-to-dc conversion introduces harmonics
into the feeder supply source. The voltage distortion in the conduc-
tors between generator and UPS can be such that the UPS will no
longer recognize the generator as an acceptable power source and
transfer the supply to battery backup. As soon as this happens,
the output voltage waveform of the generator returns to within speci-
fications. The UPS transfers it back to the generator. Distortion
of waveform starts again. The back-and-forth transfers continue
until the batteries are drained.
As a good empirical formula, the generator should be oversized
in such a way that only 60% of its capacity is required for the UPS.
The remaining capacity may be used for lighting, air conditioning,
and life safety.
UPS that uses solid-state rectifiers for battery charging repre-
sents a difficult load for a standby generator to handle because the
current contains substantial harmonic distortion. The THD of an
UPS input current should be no more than 10 to 12% for proper
generator/UPS operation. The addition of harmonic filter in the UPS
can reduce the current distortion to less than 5% THD and also im-
prove the power factor at the generator/UPS interface. Frequency
monitoring can be accomplished by equipping the generator with an
isochronous governor or its equivalent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1980, Guide for Surge Voltage in Low Voltage AC

Power Circuits.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 518-1982, Guide for the Installation of Electrical
Equipment to Minimize Noise Inputs to Controllers from External
Sources.
ANSI/NFPA 70-1987, National Electrical Code.
Guideline on Electrical Power for ADP Installations, Federal Information
Processing Standards Publication 94, U . S . Department of Commerce,
Sept. 21, 1983.
Kesterson, Albert and Maher, Pat, Computer Power: Problems and
Solutions, Electrical Construction and Maintenance, Dec. 1982,
pp. 6 7 - 7 2 .
O'Neill, Thomas S . , Understanding Uninterruptible Power Supplies,
Part 8, Electrical Construction and Maintenance, Apr. 1984,
pp. 7 8 - 8 1 .
Palko, Ed, Monitoring and Analyzing Quality of Electric Power to
Electronic Equipment, Plant Engineering, Apr. 25, 1985, pp.
44-51.
Palko, Ed, Providing Clean, Stable Power to Sensitive Electronic
Equipment, Plant Engineering, Mar. 17, 1983, p p . 3 2 - 3 7 .
Part II
11

Power Distribution and Illumination

11.1 D I S T R I B U T I O N V O L T A G E PROBLEMS

Chapter 10 has covered all types of power disturbances that may

occur on a plant distribution system during its operation. However,
the discussions have thus far centered on the effects of such distur-
bances on a computer's operation and performance. It must be realized
that the same disturbances—voltage transients, voltage instability, and
power interruptions—will affect lamp life and lumen output as much
as they will affect computers.

11.2 EFFECTS OF V O L T A G E V A R I A T I O N ON
LAMP LIFE AND ITS LUMEN O U T P U T

Whenever the voltage at the terminals of a utilization device varies

from the device's nameplate rating, something is sacrificed in either
the life or performance of the equipment. This is certainly true for
all types of lamps. For instance, with incandescent lamps a 1% de-
viation from rated voltage will cause a change of 3 to 3i% in lumen
output. A 10% reduction in lamp voltage will result in a 30% reduc-
tion in lumen output; while with an overvoltage of 10%, the lamp life
is reduced to one-half of normal (Figure 11.1a). With fluorescent
lamps, a 1% variation in the line voltage will change the lumen output
only 1%. Both low and high voltages are undesirable and tend to
reduce lamp life and lower lumen maintenance (Figure 11.1b). Mer-
cury lamps (one of the HID lamps) are less sensitive and generally
give good performence within ±5% variation in line voltage.

303
H
Z
LJ
oc
o: 110
ZD
Ο LAMP WAT 1•s
LAMP VC>LTS \
c/τΓ
b
ο
> I1 0 0 V
cη
H
H
**
LAMP UJMENS
r -
X
I ' ^ ^ " " " L A M Ρ CURRENT
CO 90
Ζ
u
S
-J
I

l·- Θ0
Z
UJ
Ο
α:
ω
Q-
90 95 100 105 HO

P E R C E N T L I N E VOLTS
b

Figure 11.1 Lamp performance curves v e r s u s voltage variation, (a),

incandescent lamps; (b) fluorescent lamps; (c) mercury lamps.

304
 Power Distribution and Illumination 305

1| LUMI LAMP XMPEREI

140 ' L A M P WATTS

120 I /

1
100
»-
Ζ """"LAMP VOLTS
UJ
υ 80
LAKI P VOLT]
^f
/
I
1
·
a. LAMP AMPIE R E S ^ 1
UJ 1 1I |
α
60 LAMP WATTS^ 1
I
1
LUMENS'
40 1 1

10 60 70 60 90 100 110 120 130 140

PRIMARY VOLTAGE - PER CENT OF TRANSFORMER TAP SETTING

Figure 11.1 (Continued).

From the data above, it is evident that good voltage regulation

of the plant distribution system is important for better lamp perfor-
mance. An inherent voltage-regulating device in the form of a load
tap changer in the substation transformer can contribute a great deal
toward this goal. The initial investment of this type of special equip-
ment can be recovered handsomely from the improved performance
of the overall plant power distribution and utilization equipment, in-
cluding illuminating system components.

11.3 O P E R A T I N G V O L T A G E LEVELS FOR

I L L U M I N A T I N G SYSTEMS

The most common operating voltage level for major types of illuminat-
ing systems is 120 V. The 120 V general service filament lamp is
considered to be a "standard voltage" lamp. Filament lamps can also
operate on a 230 or 250 V system. For fluorescent lamps, most bal-
lasts designed for a 120 V supply can operate over a range of 110 to
125 V. A 277 V ballast can operate over a range of 260 to 290 V.
Ballast for mercury lamps are often designed with two primary voltage
taps. A connection should be made to the tap which corresponds
closely to the supply voltage. The lamps can operate on 115, 230,
or 460 V. Fluorescent and mercury lamp ballasts made for high
branch-circuit voltage (265 or 277 V) are now used in some industrial
plants. Sizable savings can be realized as a result of reduced wiring
 306 Chapter 10

Table 11.1 Effect of Varying Voltages on Two Types of Mercury Ballasts

and Lamp Performance
Ballast Type Reactor Ballast Stttbilirer Bnllast

per cent prr c f ' t

Voltctqes Low I'irjh change Low High change

Line voltnrje 210 240 14 210 240 Μ

Lumen output 16,500 22,600 27 21,150 20,600 2
Lamp current (amps) 2.67 3.45 23 3.14 3.24 3.1
Lamp watts 322 437 26 392 403 2.2

and distribution equipment cost. Table 11.1 shows the effect of

varying voltages on two types of mercury ballasts and lamps.

11.4 PLANT POWER D I S T R I B U T I O N CONSIDERATIONS

FOR L I G H T I N G LOADS

11.4.1 Based on Lighting-Load C a r r y i n g Capacity

Illumination levels have risen in the past years. They have approxi-
mately doubled every 10 years. In 1900, illumination levels were
about 2 fc; by 1920 they were up to 10; in 1945, 50 fc. Today, 200
fc is fairly common. As the illumination level increases, the require-
ments for power also increase. As the power requirements go up,
the higher voltage level offers greater circuit capacity. In 1900,
circuit voltages were in the range 110 to 150 V. About 1910, they
were at the level 120/240 V or 120/208 V. About 1946 a new distri-
bution voltage for illumination, 480/277 V, came into being. Foot-
candle levels are now somewhere around 100. A given circuit is
capable of supplying a greater amount of lighting load with higher
voltage levels. In the range 100 to 200 fc, the higher voltage of
480/277 V will be required. Above 250 f c , a 480/277 V three-phase
four-wire system can be applied. Figure 11.2 shows the trend of
illumination levels versus circuit voltages from 1900 to 1960. Fig-
ure 11.3 shows the carrying capacity of a 20-A branch circuit at
unity power factor at various voltage levels and a variety of systems.
It is noted that the 20 A circuit carries up to 12,400 W on a 480/277
V three-phase four-wire system. This represents the high-water
mark for the low-voltage distribution. The next step, 600/346 V,
presents some technical problems.
Power Distribution and Illumination 307

200

*80
160 ω
£
UJ •J
Ο
q 120
>
Ζ
< Ζ
ο ο
VOLTAGE 208
Ο 80 ΓΟ 3
ο >40 2?
u. ίη
Η
CO
40 ο
LIGHT 110

0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 I960
YEARS
Figure 11.2 Illumination levels versus circuit voltages from 1900 to
1960.

600/347 15600 W

347 5200 W

4Θ0/277 12400 W
!

Ul 480
ο 7200 W
JS
.J
ο
> 120/208 5400 W

120/240 3600 W

120 1800 W

I 10 1650 W

10 15
1 0 0 0 WATTS

AT U N I T Y POWER FACTOR

Figure 11.3 Branch circuit carrying capacity on distribution systems.

 308 Chapter 10

11. 4. 2 Based on Service Reliability

Thus far we have realized voltage regulations as one of the most
important considerations for power distribution, which can improve
illuminating system performance. Service reliability is another im-
portant factor in a better illuminating system. Reference should be
made to Chapter 4 for various power distributions systems commonly
used in industrial plants and their advantages and shortcomings.
In general, a network system has higher reliability than a simple
radial system. However, the plant size often determines whether it
would be capable of supporting one of the more reliable distribution
systems.

11.4.3 Based on Economics

A few years ago, extensive studies were made by Westinghouse engi-
neers on the relative merits of several methods of distributing power
to lighting loads. The findings of these studies indicated that a
combined distribution system for supplying both power and lighting
loads in an industrial plant would be more economical. Table 11.2
shows the practical voltage levels for major illuminating systems.

Table 11.2 Practical Utilization Voltage for Interior Illuminating Systems

Approximate Lamp type 9

equipment
rating (V) Distribution system Filament Fluorescent HID

110-125 120/240 V, 3-wire, 1-phase * * *

110-125 120/208 V, 4-wire, 3-phase * * *

199-216 120/208 V, 3-wire, 3-phase * *

220-250 240 V, 2-wire, 1-phase * *

220-250 240 V, 3-wire, 3-phase * *

254-277 265/460 V, 4-wire, 3-phase * *

440-480 460 V, 3-wire, 3-phase *

a
Asterisk denotes where practical.
Power Distribution and Illumination 309

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chen, Kao, Plant Distribution as Viewed by an Illuminating Engineer,

a lecture delivered before the Kansas chapter of IES, May 19,
1966.
Chen, Kao, Industrial and Commercial Distribution Considerations for
Improved Lighting Performances, IEEE Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems Conference Record, May 1967.
Kahler, W. Η. , and Bell, R. Ν. , Electric Distribution and Control
for Lighting Systems, AIEE Fall General Meeting Proceedings,
Oct. 1951.
Lighting Handbook, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Β loom field,
N . J . , Jan. 1976.
12
Illuminating Design Principles

12.1 BASIC C O N S I D E R A T I O N S FOR

I L L U M I N A T I N G DESIGN

12.1.1 Space Function

The function of a space greatly influences the way in which lighting

is applied. The same type of visual task may be encountered, regard-
less of location, in a factory, store, or home. But factors such as
economics, appearance, and quality of lighting results desired can
influence the lighting design developed for the task. Thus applica-
tion techniques generally designated as industrial lighting, store
lighting, and so on, have developed based on lighting solutions for
the types of visual tasks encountered in each type of occupancy.
It is necessary to relate the design of a lighting installation to the
particular occupancy of the space it is to s e r v e .

12.1.2 Provision of Quality and Quantity

of Illumination

Illuminating engineers must know and fully understand the visual

s e n s e , and have basic knowledge with regard to selecting relative
luminance for the task, its immediate surroundings, and anything
else in the peripheral field of view. Research indicates that desirable
seeing conditions exist when the luminances of the surroundings and
the visual task are relatively uniform and veiling reflections are
eliminated or effectively reduced and diminished. Since this condi-
tion is not always practical, luminance limitation recommendations will
provide a generally satisfactory visual environment. Good practice
calls for provision of both quality and quantity of lighting commensu-

310
Illuminating Design Principles 311

rate with the degree of severity of the seeing task. It should be

noted that not all visual tasks are in the horizontal plane. Much
critical seeing in industry is involved with tasks in a vertical or other
nonhorizontal plane. Illuminating engineers must make special provi-
sion for luminance distribution and placements to provide task lumi-
nance in these nonhorizontal planes.

12.1.3 Selection of Lighting Systems, Sources,

Luminaires, and Controls

Illuminating engineers have at their disposal a wide range of types

and sizes of light sources, luminaires, and lighting equipment. They
should exercise their professional judgment to make choices based on
economic analyses and application requirements. General types of
lighting are classified as general, local, localized general, supplemen-
tary and task-ambient. Luminaires are grouped in five classifications,
based on light distribution characteristics, as follows: direct, semi-
direct, general diffuse, semi-indirect, and indirect. These classifica-
tions are intended to simplify professional discussion relating to light-
ing techniques as employed for lighting any specific area. Often the
local conditions of vibration, ambient temperature, dust, dirt, and
color influence light source selection, application, operation, and
indirectly the lighting application technique.
Today's interest in lighting energy management dictates more con-
sideration of lighting control, Lighting control systems range from
simple photoelectric controls to turn light on and off to sophisticated
microprocessor controllers. Lighting control is discussed in more
detail in Chapter 18.

12.1.4 Economics

The design of a lighting system is affected by both initial and operat-

ing costs. In view of today's high energy cost, considerations of
operating cost often outweigh the initial cost. Life-cycle costing is
often the best way to measure lighting costs. There is no easy way
to predict the exact value of industrial lighting in terms of produc-
tion , safety> quality control, employee morale, or employee health.
Nevertheless, illuminating engineers must balance costs against the
attainable results in developing any lighting design, relying to a great
extent on experience gained in the solution of comparable problems.

12.1.5 Interior—Exterior Relationship

With increasing widespread circulation and activity at night, the

problem of building esthetics extends beyond daytime architecture.
The brightness of visible interior surfaces, the pattern of luminaires,
312 Chapter 10

and the color of the light source may exert an important influence on
the exterior appearance of the building. Also at night, good flood-
lighting can enhance the factory environment and harvest the adver-
tizing advantage of one's manufactured products. For the subject of
floodlighting, more detailed presentations are made in Chapter 16.

12.1.6 Definitions Basic to Illuminating Design

Illumination. Illumination is the density of luminous flux on a
surface, expressed in either footcandles ( l u m e n s / f t o r lux (Ix)
(lux = 0.0929 f c ) .

Luminance (or Photometric Brightness). Luminance is the luminous

intensity of a surface in a given direction per unit of projected area
of the surface, expressed in either candelas per unit area or in
lumens per unit area.

Reflectance. Reflectance is the ratio of the light reflected from

a surface to that incident upon it. Reflection may be of several types,
the most common being specular, diffuse, spread, and mixed.

Glare. Glare is any brightness that causes discomfort, inter-

ference with vision, or eye fatigue.

Color Rendering Index (CRI). T h e CRI i s n o t h i n g n e w . In

1964, the CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage) officially
adopted the IES procedure for rating lighting sources and developed
the current standard by which light sources are rated for their color
rendering properties. Simply defined, the CRI is a numerical value
given to the color comparison of one light source to that of a refer-
ence light source. The method by which the color rendering proper-
ties of a light source are determined is not a simple procedure. By
having a better understanding of how the CRI value is obtained,
illuminating engineers will be better able to use the CRI more correctly
in their design process.

Color Preference Index (CPI). T h e CPI i s d e t e r m i n e d b y a simi-

lar procedure to that used for the CRI. The difference is that CPI
recognizes the very real human ingredient of preference. This index
is based on peoples' preference for the coloration of certain identifi-
able objects, such as complexions, meat, vegetables, fruit, and foli-
age, to be slightly different than their colors are in daylight. CPI
indicates how a source will render colors with respect to how we best
appreciate and remember that color.

Coefficient of Utilization (CU). CU is the ratio of the lumens

reaching the working plane (assumed to be a horizontal plane 30 in.
Illuminating Design Principles 313

above the floor) to the total lumens generated by the light source.
This is a factor that takes into account the efficiency and distribution
of the luminaire, its mounting height, the room proportions, and the
reflectances of the walls, ceiling, and floor.

Light Loss Factor (LLF). T h e f i n a l LLF i s t h e p r o d u c t of all t h e

contributing loss factors. It is the ratio of the illumination when it
reaches its lowest level at the task just before corrective action is
taken, to the initial level if none of the contributing loss factors were
considered. There are eight contributing loss factors that require
consideration:

1. Ballast performance
2. Voltage to luminaires
3. Luminaire reflectance and transmittance changes
4. Lamp outages
5. Luminaire ambient temperature
6. Heat-exchange luminaires
7. Lamp lumen depreciation (LLD)
8. Luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD)

Equivalent Sphere Illumination (ESI). ESI i s a m e a n s of d e t e r -

mining how well a lighting system will provide task visibility in a
given situation. ESI may be predicted for many points in a lighting
system through the use of any of several available computer programs;
or measured in an installation with any of several different types of
meters.

Visual Comfort Probability (VCP). Discomfort glare is most often

produced by direct glare from luminances that are excessively bright.
Discomfort glare can also be caused by reflected glare ( i . e . , by
annoying bright reflections in specular surfaces). Reflected glare
should not be confused with veiling reflections, which cause a reduc-
tion in visual performance rather than discomfort. VCP rating is
based in terms of the percentage of people who will be expected to
find the given lighting system acceptable when they are seated in
the most undesirable location.

12.2 NEW CONCEPTS IN L I G H T I N G DESIGN

During the past several decades, most illuminating engineers have

been using the so-called "lumen method" to design lighting systems
for interior space. For a design that yields average illumination,
the coefficient of utilization (CU) is the one single most useful factor.
However, this design method will only provide a mediocre lighting
314 Chapter 10

environment and would probably result in wasted energy. During

the last decade, rapid changes were taking place in lighting design
techniques. As people become more energy conscious and better
understand human visual performance, illuminating engineers find that
the conventional techniques are becoming less and less satisfactory,
essentially because the lumen method procedure lacks two desirable
characteristics:

1. Light should be placed specifically on the task where it is most

needed, while reducing the illumination level in the surrounding
areas. Failure to do so often results in a waste of energy.
2. The lumen method does not allow the engineers to increase the
visual effectiveness of their lighting by optimizing available
candlepower.

12.2.1 New Method of Determining Illuminance Levels

Among the many new concepts for lighting design, the first to be
discussed is the new method of determining illuminance levels intro-
duced in the 1981 IES Lighting Handbook, Application Volume. In
the past, when illuminating engineers wanted to find the recommended
illuminance for a given task, they would look in the Lighting Hand-
book to find a recommended level and then design a lighting system
for the task using the value as a minimum. This procedure provides
very little latitude for fine-tuning a lighting design. The new method
for determining required illuminance provides three categories based
on the room function and visual task available to the design engineers:

1. Rooms involving visual tasks for which there are tables of pre-
scribed illuminance
2. Rooms involving visual tasks for which there are tables of mea-
sured visibility or for which visibility can be measured
3. Rooms not involving visual tasks

In each case, a more comprehensive investigation of required

illuminance is performed according to the following steps:

1. Instead of a single recommended illuminance value, a category

letter is assigned. Table 12.1 shows different category letters
for a selected group of industries.
2. The category letters are used to define a range of illuminance.
Table 12.2 details illuminance categories and illuminance values
for general types of activities in interiors.
3. From within the recommended range of illuminance, a specific
value of illuminance is selected after consideration is given to
the average age of workers, the importance of speed and accuracy,
and the reflectance of task b a c k g r o u n d .
Illuminating Design Principles 315

The importance of acknowledging the speed and accuracy with

which a task must be performed is readily recognized. Less obvious
is the need to consider the age of workers and the reflectance of
task background. To compensate for reduced visual acuity, more
illuminance is needed. Using the average age of workers as the age
criterion is a compromise between the need of the young and the
older workers and, therefore, a valid criterion.
Task background affects the ability to see because it affects con-
trast, an important aspect of visibility. More illuminance is required
to enhance the visibility of tasks with poor contrast. Reflectance is
calculated by dividing the reflected value by the incident value. The
data given in Tables 12.3 and 12.4 are taken from the IES Lighting
Handbook and are applied to provide a single value of illuminance
from within the range recommended.

12.2.3 Examples Using the New Method to

Determine the Required Illuminance

Rooms Involving Visual Tasks (Tabulated Data)

The required illuminance is to be determined for a room for which

these data are given:

Task: Rough grinding

Average age of workers: 42
Speed and accuracy: important
Reflectance of task background: 25%

Design Steps

1. Consult Table 12.1 and find rough grinding to fall into category
E.
2. Consult Table 12.2 and find that category Ε stipulates an illumi-
nance range of 500-750-1000 lux ( 5 0 - 7 5 - 1 0 0 f c ) .
3. Consult Table 12.4 and obtain the following weighting factor:

a. Worker's average age (42) 0

b. Speed/accuracy (important) 0
c. Reflectance of task background (25%) +1

4. Add the three weighting factors: 0 + 0 + 1 = +1

5. Determine the illuminance value within the prescribed range.
The footnote to Table 12.4 states that when the algebraic sum of
the weighting factors is —1 or +1, the midrange value should be
used. Therefore, the recommended illuminance for this task is
750 lux (75 f c ) .
316 Chapter 10

Table 12.1 Illuminance Categories for Selected Group of Indus-

tries
Illuminance
Area/Activity Area/Activity Illuminance
Category Category
a
Aircraft maintenance Sink canning Ε
a
Hand p a c k i n g D
Aircraft manufacturing
Olives Ε
Assembly Examination of c a n n e d samples F
Simple D Container handling
Moderately difficult Ε Inspection F
Difficult F Can unscramblers Ε
Very difficult G Labeling and c a r t o n i n g D
Exacting Η
Casting (see Foundries)
Automobile manufacturing
Central stations (see Electric generating stations)
Bakeries
Mixing room D Chemical plants (see Petroleum and chemical
Face of shelves D plants)
Inside of mixing bowl D Clay and concrete products
Fermentation room D Grinding, filter presses, kiln r o o m s C
M a k e - u p room Molding, pressing, cleaning, trimming D
Bread D Enameling Ε
Sweet yeast-raised p r o d u c t s D Color and g l a z i n g — r o u g h work Ε
Proofing room D Color and g l a z i n g — f i n e work F
Oven room D
Fillings and other ingredients D Cleaning and pressing industry
Decorating and icing Checking and sorting Ε
D Dry and wet cleaning and steaming Ε
Mechanical
Hand Ε Inspection and spotting G
Scales and thermometers D Pressing F
Wrapping D Repair and alteration F

Book binding Cloth products

Folding, assembling, pasting D Cloth inspection I
Cutting, punching, stitching Ε Cutting G
Embossing and inspection F Sewing G
Pressing F
Breweries
Brew house D Clothing manufacture (see Sewn Products)
Boiling and keg washing D Receiving, opening, storing, shipping D
Filling (bottles, cans, kegs) D Examining (perching) I
Candy making Sponging, decating, winding, m e a s u r i n g D
Box department D Piling up and marking Ε
Chocolate department Cutting G
Husking, winnowing, fat extraction, c r u s h i n g Pattern making, preparation of trimming, piping,
and refining, feeding D canvas and shoulder pads Ε
Bean cleaning, sorting, dipping, p a c k i n g , Fitting, bundling, shading, stitching . . . . D
wrapping D Shops F
Milling Ε Inspection G
Cream making Pressing F
Mixing, cooking, molding D Sewing G
Gum drops and jellied forms D
Hand decorating D Control rooms (see Electric generating s t a t i o n s —
Hard candy interior)
Mixing, cooking, molding D
Corridors (see Service spaces)
Die cutting and sorting Ε
Cotton gin industry
Kiss making and w r a p p i n g Ε
Overhead e q u i p m e n t — s e p a r a t o r s , driers, grid
Canning and preserving cleaners, stick machines, c o n v e y e r s , feed-
Initial grading raw material samples D ers and c a t w a l k s D
Tomatoes Ε Gin stand D
Color grading and cutting rooms F Control console D
Preparation Lint cleaner D
Preliminary sorting Bale press D
Apricots and p e a c h e s D
Dairy farms (see Farms)
Tomatoes Ε
Olives F Dairy products
Cutting and pitting Ε Fluid milk industry
Final sorting Ε Boiler room D
Canning Bottle storage D
Continuous-belt c a n n i n g Ε Bottle sorting Ε
Table 12.1 (Continued)
.. .. . Illuminanc e
Area/Ac,IVlty Area/Activity Illuminance
Category Category
b
Bottle washers F e e d i n g a r e a (stall b a r n f e e d a l l e y , p e n s , l o o s e
Can washers D housing feed area) C
Cooling equipment D Feed storage a r e a — f o r a g e
Filling: i n s p e c t i o n Ε Haymow A
Gauges (on face) Ε Hay inspection area C
Laboratories Ε Ladders and stairs C
Meter panels (on face) Ε Silo A
Pasteurizers D Silo r o o m C
Separators D Feed storage a r e a — g r a i n and concentrate
Storage refrigerator D Grain bin A
Tanks, vats Concentrate storage area Β
Light interiors C Feed processing area Β
Dark interiors Ε L i v e s t o c k h o u s i n g a r e a ( c o m m u n i t y , m a t e r n i t y , in-
Thermometer (on face) Ε dividual calf pens, a n d loose h o u s i n g hold-
Weighing room D ing a n d resting areas) Β
Scales Ε Machine storage area (garage and machine
Dispatch boards (see Electric generating shed) Β
Farm shop area
stations—interior)
Active storage area Β
Electrical e q u i p m e n t manufacturing
General shop area (machinery repair, rough
Impregnating D
sawing) D
Insulating: coil winding Ε
R o u g h b e n c h a n d m a c h i n e w o r k ( p a i n t i n g , fine
E l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i n g s t a t i o n s — i n t e r i o r ( s e e a l s o Nu-
storage, ordinary sheet metal work, weld-
clear power plants)
ing, m e d i u m b e n c h w o r k ) D
A i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g e q u i p m e n t , air p r e h e a t e r a n d f a n
M e d i u m b e n c h a n d m a c h i n e w o r k (fine w o o d -
floor, ash sluicing Β working, drill press, metal lathe, grinder) Ε
Auxiliaries, pumps, tanks, compressors, gauge Miscellaneous areas
area C F a r m o f f i c e (see r e f e r e n c e 11 in m a i n text)
Battery rooms D R e s t r o o m s (see Service spaces)
Boiler platforms Β Pumphouse C
Burner platforms C
Cable room Β
F a r m s — p o u l t r y (see Poultry industry)
Coal handling systems Β
Coal pulverizer C
Condensers, deaerator floor, evaporator floor, Flour mills
heater floors Β Rolling, sifting, purifying Ε
Control rooms Packing D
Main control boards Dc Product control F
Auxiliary control panels Dc C l e a n i n g , s c r e e n s , . m a n lifts, a i s l e w a y s a n d w a l k -
Operator's station Ec
w a y s , bin c h e c k i n g D
Maintenance and wiring areas D
Forge shops Ε
Emergency operating lighting C
Foundries
Gauge reading D
H y d r o g e n and c a r b o n dioxide manifold area C Annealing (furnaces) D
Laboratory Ε Cleaning D
Precipitators Β Core making
Screen house C Fine F
S o o t or s l a g b l o w e r p l a t f o r m C Medium Ε
Steam headers and throttles Β Grinding and chipping F
Switchgear and motor control centers D Inspection
Fine G
Telephone and communication eqflipment
Medium F
rooms D
Molding
Tunnels or galleries, piping and electrical Β
Medium F
Turbine building
Large Ε
Operating floor D
Pouring Ε
Below o p e r a t i n g floor C
Sorting Ε
Visitor's gallery C
Cupola C
Water treating area D
Shakeout D

Elevators (see Service spaces) G a r a g e s — p a r k i n g (see r e f e r e n c e 5)

Explosives manufacturing Garages—service

Hand furnaces, boiling tanks, stationary driers, Repairs Ε
stationary and gravity crystallizers D Active traffic areas C
M e c h a n i c a l f u r n a c e , g e n e r a t o r s a n d stills, m e -
Write-up D
c h a n i c a l driers, evaporators, filtration, me-
Glass works
chanical crystallizers D
Mix a n d f u r n a c e r o o m s , p r e s s i n g a n d lehr, glass-
Tanks for cooking, extractors, percolators,
blowing machines C
nitrators D
Grinding, cutting, silvering D
Farms—dairy Fine grinding, beveling, polishing Ε
Milking operation area (milking parlor and stall Inspection, etching and decorating F
barn)
General C Glove manufacturing (see S e w n Products)
Cow's udder D
Hangars (see Aircraft manufacturing)
Milk h a n d l i n g e q u i p m e n t a n d storage area (milk
h o u s e or milk r o o m ) Hat manufacturing
General C Dyeing, stiffening, braiding, cleaning, refining Ε
Washing area Ε Forming, sizing, pouncing, flanging, finishing,
Bulk tank interior Ε ironing F
Loading platform C Sewing G

317
Table 12.1 (Continued)
Illuminance
Area/Activity Illuminance Area/Activity Category
Category

Inspection Paper manufacturing

Simple D Beaters, grinding, calendering D
Moderately difficult Ε Finishing, cutting, trimming, papermaking ma-
Difficult F chines Ε
Very difficult G H a n d c o u n t i n g , w e t e n d of p a p e r m a c h i n e Ε
Exacting Η P a p e r m a c h i n e reel, p a p e r i n s p e c t i o n , and
iron a n d s t e e l m a n u f a c t u r i n g a laboratories F
Rewinder F
Jewelry and watch manufacturing G
a
Laundries Petroleum and chemica! plants
Washing D Plating D
Flat w o r k i r o n i n g , w e i g h i n g , l i s t i n g , m a r k i n g D
Polishing a n d b u r n i s h i n g ( s e e M a c h i n e s h o p s )
Machine and press finishing, sorting Ε
Fine hand ironing Ε P o w e r p l a n t s ( s e e Electric g e n e r a t i n g s t a t i o n s )
Poultry industry (see also F a r m — d a i r y )
Leather manufacturing
Cleaning, tanning and stretching, vats D Brooding, production, and laying houses
Cutting, fleshing and stuffing D Feeding, inspection, cleaning C
Finishing and scarfing Ε Charts and records D
Thermometers, thermostats, time c l o c k s D
Leather working
Hatcheries
Pressing, winding, glazing F
General area and loading platform C
Grading, matching, cutting, scarfing, sewing G
Inside incubators D
Locker rooms C Dubbing station F
Sexing Η
Machine shops
Egg handling, packing, and shipping
R o u g h b e n c h or m a c h i n e w o r k D
General cleanliness Ε
M e d i u m bench or machine work, ordinary auto-
Egg quality inspection Ε
matic machines, rough grinding, medium
Loading platform, egg storage area, etc. C
buffing and polishing Ε
Egg processing
Fine b e n c h or m a c h i n e w o r k , fine automatic ma-
General lighting Ε
c h i n e s , m e d i u m g r i n d i n g , fine b u f f i n g a n d
Fowl p r o c e s s i n g plant
polishing G
General (excluding killing and unloading
Extra-fine b e n c h or m a c h i n e w o r k , grinding, fine
area) Ε
work Η
Government inspection station and grading
Materials handling stations Ε
Wrapping, packing, labeling D U n l o a d i n g and killing area C
Picking stock, classifying D Feed storage
Loading, inside truck bodies and freight cars C Grain, feed rations C
Processing C
Meat packing Charts and records D
Slaughtering D Machine storage area (garage and machine
Cleaning, cutting, cooking, grinding, canning,
shed) Β
packing D
Printing i n d u s t r i e s
Nuclear power plants (see also Electric generating Type foundries
stations) Matrix making, dressing type Ε
Auxiliary building, uncontrolled access areas C Font a s s e m b l y — s o r t i n g D
Controlled access areas Casting · Ε
Count room Ec Printing plants
Laboratory Ε Color inspection and appraisal F
Health physics office F Machine composition Ε
Medical aid r o o m F Composing room Ε
Hot laundry D Presses Ε
Storage room C Imposing stones F
Engineered safety features equipment D Proofreading F
Diesel generator building D Electrotyping
Fuel handling building Molding, routing, finishing, leveling molds,
Operating floor D trimming Ε
Below operating floor C Blocking, tinning D
Off gas building C Electroplating, washing, backing D
Radwaste building D Photoengraving
Reactor building Etching, staging, blocking D
Operating floor D Routing, finishing, proofing Ε
Below operating floor C Tint l a y i n g , m a s k i n g Ε

Quality Control (see Inspection)

O f f i c e s (see r e f e r e n c e 11 in m a i n text)
R e c e i v i n g a n d s h i p p i n g (see M a t e r i a l s h a n d l i n g )
Packing and boxing (see Materials handling)

Paint m a n u f a c t u r i n g Rubber g o o d s — m e c h a n i c a l (see T a b l e B 3 f

Processing D Rubber tire manufacturing (see Table B3) 3

Mix comparison F Safety (see S e c t i o n 6 and Table 8)
Paint s h o p s
Sawmills
Dipping, simple spraying, firing D S e c o n d a r y log d e c k Β
R u b b i n g , o r d i n a r y h a n d p a i n t i n g a n d f i n i s h i n g art, H e a d saw (cutting area viewed by sawyer) Ε
stencil and special spraying D Head saw outfeed Β
Fine hand painting and finishing Ε M a c h i n e i n - f e e d s (bull e d g e r , r e s a w s , e d g e r s ,
Extra-fine hand painting and finishing G trim, hula saws, planers) Β
Paper-box manufacturing Ε M a i n mill floor ( b a s e l i g h t i n g ) A

318
Table 12.1 (Continued)
Illuminance Illuminance
Area/Activity Category Area/Ac,iv,t
y Category

Sorting tables D S t a m p i n g , w r a p p i n g a n d p a c k i n g , filling a n d p a c k -

Rough lumber grading D ing s o a p p o w d e r D
Finished lumber grading F
Stairways (see Service spaces)
Dry lumber w a r e h o u s e (planer) C
D r y kiln c o l l i n g s h e d Β S t e e l (see Iron a n d s t e e l )
Chipper infeed Β
Storage battery manufacturing D
Basement areas
Active A S t o r a g e r o o m s or w a r e h o u s e s
Inactive A Inactive Β
Filing r o o m ( w o r k a r e a s ) Ε Active
Rough, bulky items C
Service spaces (see also Storage rooms) Small items D
Stairways, corridors Β
Β Structural steel fabrication Ε
Elevators, freight and passenger
Toilets and wash rooms C Sugar refining
Grading Ε
S e w n products
Ε Color inspection F
Receiving, p a c k i n g , s h i p p i n g
Opening, r a w g o o d s storage Ε Testing
Designing, pattern-drafting, p a t t e r n grading and General D
markermaking F Exacting tests, extra-fine instruments, scales,
Computerized designing, pattern-making and grading, etc F
digitizing, m a r k e r - m a k i n g , and p l o t t i n g Β
T e x t i l e mills
C l o t h i n s p e c t i o n and p e r c h i n g I
S t a p l e fiber p r e p a r a t i o n
Spreading and cutting (includes c o m p u t e r i z e d cutting)
Stock dyeing, tinting D
F9
Sorting and grading (wool and cotton) . . . Ed
Fitting, sorting and blunding, shading, s t i t c h m a r k i n g
Yarn manufacturing
G
Opening and picking (chute feed) D
G
F Carding (nonwoven web formation) D®
Drawing (gilling, pin drafting) D
In-process and final i n s p e c t i o n G
F* Combing D®
Finished goods storage ana p i c k i n g o r a e r s
F R o v i n g ( s t u b b i n g , fly f r a m e ) Ε
T r i m preparation, piping, c a n v a s and s h o u l d pads . .
G Spinning (cap spinning, twisting, texturing) . Ε
Machine repair s h o p s
F Yarn preparation
Ε Winding, quilling, twisting Ε
Sponging, decating, r e w i n d i n g , m e a s u r i n g
Warping (beaming, sizing) Fd
Hat m a n u f a c t u r e (see Hat Manufacture)
W a r p tie-in o r d r a w i n g - i n ( a u t o m a t i c ) Ε
Leather w o r k i n g (see Leather W o r k i n g )
Shoe m a n u f a c t u r i n g (see Shoe Manufacturing) Fabric production
Weaving, knitting, tufting F
Sheet metal works Inspection Gd
Miscellaneous machines, ordinary bench work Ε Finishing
Presses, shears, stamps, spinning, m e d i u m b e n c h Fabric preparation (desizing, scouring, bleach-
work Ε ing, singeing, a n d m e r c e r i z a t i o n ) D
Punches Ε Fabric dyeing (printing) D
Tin plate inspection, galvanized F Fabric finishing (calendaring, sanforizing, sued-
Scribing F ing, c h e m i c a l treatment) Ed
Inspection Qd.f
Shoe manufacturing—leather
Cutting and stitching Tobacco products
Cutting tables G Drying, stripping D
Marking, buttonholing, skiving, sorting, v a m p - Grading and sorting F
ing, counting G Toilets and wash rooms (see Service spaces)
Stitching, dark materials G
Upholstering F
M a k i n g and finishing, nailers, sole layers, welt
beaters a n d scarfers, trimmere, welters.
Warehouse (see Storage rooms)
lasters, e d g e setters, sluggers, r a n d e r s .
wheelers, treers, cleaning, spraying, buff- Welding
ing, polishing, embossing F Orientation D
Shoe manufacturing—rubber Precision manual arc-welding Η
W a s h i n g , c o a t i n g , mill r u n c o m p o u n d i n g D
Varnishing, vulcanizing, calendering, upper and Woodworking
sole c u t t i n g D Rough sawing and bench work D
Sole rolling, lining, making and finishing Sizing, planing, rough sanding, medium quality
processes Ε machine and bench work, gluing, veneering,
cooperage D
Soap manufacturing F i n e b e n c h a n d m a c h i n e w o r k , fine s a n d i n g a n d
Kettle houses, cutting, s o a p c h i p a n d p o w d e r D finishing Ε

* Industry representatives have established a table of single illuminance values which, in their opinion, can be used in preference to employing
reference 6. Illuminance values for specific operations can also be determined using illuminance categories of similar tasks and activities
found in this table and the application of the appropriate weighting factors in Table 3.
b
Special lighting such that (1) the luminous area is large enough to cover the surface which is being inspected and (2) the luminance is
within the limits necessary to obtain comfortable contrast conditions. This involves the use of sources of large area and relatively low luminance
in which the source luminance is the principal factor rather than the illuminance produced at a given point.
c
Maximum levels—controlled system.
6
Supplementary lighting should be provided in this space to produce the higher levels required for specific seeing tasks involved.
• Additional lighting needs to be provided for maintenance only.
' Color temperature of the light source is important for color matching.
β
Higher levels from local lighting may be required for manually operated cutting machines.
h
If color matching is critical, use illuminance category G.

319
 Co
Co
ο
Table 12.2 Illuminanc e Categorie s an d Illuminanc e Value s fo r Generi c T y p e s of Activitie s
i n Interiors

Ranges of Illuminances
Illuminance
Type of Activity Reference Work-Plane
Category
Lux Footcandles

Public spaces with dark surroundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5

Simple orientation for short temporary Β 50-75-100 5-7.5-10 General lighting
visits throughout spaces
Working spaces where visual tasks are C 100-150-200 10-15-20
only occasionally performed
Performance of visual tasks of high con- D 200-300-500 20-30-50
trast or large size
Performance of visual tasks of medium Ε 500-750-1000 50-75-100 Illuminance on task
contrast of small size
Performance of visual tasks of low con- F 1000-1500-2000 100-150-200
trast or very small size
Performance of visual tasks of low con- G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500
trast and very small size over a pro-
longed period Illuminance on task,
obtained by a com-
Performance of very prolonged and ex- Η 5000-7500-10000 500-7 50-1000 bination of general
acting visual tasks and local (supple-
Performance of very special visual tasks I 10000-15000-20000 1000-1500-2000 mentary lighting)
Ο
of extremely low contrast and small 3*
Ρ
size Ό
TO
-s
Κ-ι
Illuminating Design Principles 321

Table 12.3 Weighting Factors for Selecting Specific Illuminance With-

in Ranges Α, Β, and C

Occupant and room Weighting factor

characteristics - 1 +1
Workers' age
(average) Under 40 40 to 55 Over 55
Average room 30 to "70
reflectance* >70 percent percent <30 percent
S O U R C E : /ES Lighting Handbook, sixth edition.
N O T E : This table is used for assessing weighting factors in rooms
where a task is not involved.
1. Assign the appropriate weighting factor for each characteristic.
2. Add the two weights; refer to Table 12.2 # Categories A through C:
a. If the algebraic sum is —1 or —2, use the lowest range value.
b. If the algebraic sum is 0, use the middle range value.
c. If the algebraic sum is +1 or +2, use the highest range value.
* T o obtain average room reflectance: determine the areas of ceiling,
walls and floor; add the three to establish room surface area; deter-
mine the proportion of each surface area to the total; multiply each
proportion by the pertinent surface reflectance; and add the three
numbers obtained.

Rooms Involving Visual Task (Visibility Measurements)

Over the years, IES has accumulated visibility data for a large num-
ber of disparate tasks. These data were accumulated by field and
laboratory use of a complex instrument known as a visibility meter.
The data obtained by visibility meter form the basis for a factor known
as equivalent contrast, designated by the symbol C, usually referred
to as C-wave or C-wiggle (Table 12.5). Using this table, illuminat-
ing engineers can apply judgement and determine the value of C for
comparable seeing tasks. In this example, the following data are
given for an area whose illuminance requirements are to be deter-
mined :

Task: detecting hairline cracks in gray metal castings

Age of inspector: 57
Speed and accuracy: critical
Reflectance of task background: 25%

Design Steps

1. From Table 12.5, determine the value of C for the task to be

0.79.
322 Chapter 10

Table 12.4 Weighting Factors for Selecting Specific illuminance With-

in Ranges D through I.

Task or worker Weighting factor

characteristics -1 0 +1
Workers' age
(average) Under 40 40 to 55 Over 55
Speed or Not
accuracy* Important Critical
Reflectance of important
task background, 30 to 70 <30 percent
percent >70 percent percent
S O U R C E : IES Lighting Handbook, sixth edition.
N O T E : Weighting factors are based upon worker and task information.
1. Assign the appropriate factor for each characteristic.
2. Add the three weighting factors and refer to Table 12 2 , Categories D
through I:
a. If the algebraic sum is —2 or —3, use the lowest range value.
b. If the algebraic sum is —1, 0, or +1, use the middle range value.
c. If the algebraic sum is +2 or +3, use the highest range value.
"Evaluation of speed and accuracy requires that time limitations, the
effect of error on safety, quality, and cost, etc., be considered. For
example, leisure reading imposes no restrictions on time, and errors
are seldom costly or unsafe. Reading engineering drawings or a
micrometer requires accuracy and, sometimes, speed. Properly posi-
tioning material in a press or mill can impose demands on safety,
accuracy, and time.

2. Refer to Table 12.6. Because the C value of 0.79 lies between

0.75 and 1.0, illuminance category D applies.
3. From Table 12.2, determine that category D stipulates 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 -
500 lux ( 2 0 - 3 0 - 5 0 f c ) .
4. Consult Table 12.4 to determine the weighting factors:

a. Worker;s age (57) +1

b. Speed/accuracy (critical) +1
c. Reflectance of task background (25%) +1

5. Add the three weighting factors: 1 + 1 + 1 = +3

6. Determine the illuminance value within the prescribed range.
The footnote to Table 12.4 states that when the algebraic sum of
the weighting factors is +2 or +3, the highest value in the given
range should be used. Therefore, the recommended value of
maintained illuminance is 500 lux (50 f c ) .
Illuminating Design Principles 323

Table 12.5 Typical Equivalent Contrast (C) Values

Task Description* C
Detecting hairline crack on
polished stainless steel vane 0.22
Reading white line on blueprint 0.28
Reading shelf label (black on pink) 0.44
Reading old micrometer 0.58
Reading metal nameplate 0.62
Reading shorthand notes (No. 3 pencil) 0.66
Detecting hairline crack in
gray metal casting 0.79
Detecting bead defect in new tire 0.90
Seeing broken gray thread in bobbin 1.97
Seeing slot in head of Allen screw 2.63
Detecting defective solder joint 3.39
Detecting crack in rung of ladder 4.68
N O T E : Equivalent contrast (C) is the numerical description of a task's
relative visibility. For an in-depth explanation, refer to the /ES Light-
ing Handbook.
"These task descriptions and values are representative and may or
may not be pertinent to similar tasks.

Table 12.6 Illuminance Categories for Measured Equivalent Contrast

(C) Values

Equivalent Contrast C Illuminance Category

over 1.0
.75-1.0 D
.62-.75 Ε
.50-.62 F
.40-.50 G
.30-.40 Η
under.30
324 Chapter 10

It should be noted that for t a s k s s u c h as that described h e r e i n ,

the quality of light is just as important—possibly more important—
than the quantity of light applied on the work plane.

Rooms Not Involving Visual Tasks

Rooms such as lobbies, entrance f o y e r s , and hallways s e r v e functions
other than s e e i n g t a s k s . The purpose of lighting t h e s e rooms is to
provide comfort, s a f e t y , and w e l l - b e i n g . Here there is no need to
consider speed and a c c u r a c y . Consideration of reflectance applies to
the average of the room s u r f a c e s rather than to a t a s k . In this
example, the illuminance requirements are to be determined for an
industrial plant v i s i t o r s l o b b y . Room s i z e s are 40 χ 25 χ 12. Re-
f l e c t a n c e s for ceiling, wall, and floor are 80, 60, and 20, r e s p e c -
t i v e l y . The average age of occupants is assumed to be 56 y e a r s .

Design Steps

1. From Table 12.1 it is found that entrance lobbies fall into cate-
gory C.
2. From Table 12.2 it is found that category C s u g g e s t s a range of
1 0 0 - 1 5 0 - 2 0 0 lux ( 1 0 - 1 5 - 2 0 f c ) .
3. From Table 12.3 it is determined that the weighting factor for
age 56 is +1. Calculations are then performed to determine the
value of average reflectance to be u s e d to determine the weighting
factor of reflectance; the result of t h e s e calculations are sum-
marized in Table 12.7. For the average reflectance of 54.4
obtained from t h e s e calculations, Table 12.3 indicates a zero
weighting factor. The total weighting factor to be applied, then
is +1.

Table 12.7 Summary of Eaxmple Calculations to Determine Average

Room Reflectance

Proportion Proportion of
Area, of total area. Reflectance total reflectance.
Surface sq f t percent of surface percent
Ceiling 1000 28 0.80 22.4
Walls 1560 44 0.60 26.4
Floor 1000 28 0.20 5.6
Total 3650 100 - -

Average reflectance (sum of

proportions of total reflectance) 54.4
NOTE: Room dimensions are 40 χ 25 χ 12 f t high.
Illuminating Design Principles 325

4. Select the proper value of illuminance from within the prescribed

range. The footnote to Table 12.3 states that when the algebraic
sum of the weighting factor is +1 or +2, the highest value within
the prescribed range should be chosen. Therefore, the recom-
mended maintained illuminance for the lobby area is 200 lux
(20 f c ) .

Lighting system design can begin after the desired value of

illuminance for a given task has been determined. Based on the
IES Handbook, the zonal cavity method of determining the number
of luminaires and lamps to yield a specified maintained luminance re-
mains unchanged.

12.3 ZONAL C A V I T Y METHOD OF

LIGHTING COMPUTATIONS

Introduced in 1964, the zonal cavity method of performing lighting

calculations has gained rapid acceptance as the preferred way to
calculate number and placement of luminaires required to satisfy a
specified light-level requirement. Zonal cavity provides a higher
degree of accuracy than does the old lumen method, because it gives
individual consideration to factors that are glossed over empirically
in the lumen system.

12. 3.1 Definition of Cavities

With zonal cavity method, the room is considered to contain three

vertical zones, or cavities. Figure 12.1 defines the various cavities
used in this method of computation. Height from luminaire to ceiling
is designated as the ceiling cavity ( h c c ) . Distance from luminaire
to the work plane is the room cavity ( h r c ) , and the floor cavity ( h f c )
is measured from the work plane to the floor.
To apply the zonal cavity method, it is necessary to determine a
parameter known as the "cavity ratio" for each of the three cavities.
Following is the formula for determining the cavity ratio:

5h(room length + room width)

cavity ratio = - — -f r—
room length χ room width

where

h = h c c for ceiling cavity ratio (CCR)

= h r c for room cavity ratio (RCR)
= h f c for floor cavity ratio (FCR)
326 Chapter 10

Ceiling
CEILING CAVITY

^Luminoire
plane - Luminaires- •

ROOM CAVITY h
SC

-Work plane

FLOOR CAVITY ^FC

Ficcr-

Figure 12.1 Basic cavity divisions of s p a c e .

12.3.2 Lumen Method Details

Because of the ease of application of the lumen method, which y i e l d s

the average illumination in a room, it is usually employed for larger
areas, where the illumination is substantially uniform. The lumen
method is based on the definition of a footcandle equaling 1 lumen
per square foot:

lumens striking an area

footcandle =
square feet of area

In order to take into consideration such factors as dirt on the

luminaire, general depreciation in lumen output of the lamp, and so
o n , the formula above i s modified as follows:

lamps/luminaire χ lumens/lamp χ CU χ LLF

footcandle =
area/luminaire

In u s i n g the lumen method, the following k e y s t e p s should be

taken:

1. Determine the required level of luminance. Use methods given

in Section 1 2 . 2 . 1 and examples in Section 1 2 . 2 . 2 to determine
the proper level of illuminance.
2. Determine the coefficient of utilization ( C U ) . The coefficient of
utilization is the ratio of the lumens reaching the working plane
Illuminating Design Principles 327

to the total lumens generated by the lamps. It is a factor that

takes into account the efficiency and the distribution of the
luminaire, its mounting height, the room proportions, and the
reflectances of the walls, ceiling, and floor. In general, the
higher and narrower the room, the larger the percentage of light
absorbed by the walls and the lower the coefficient of utilization.
Rooms are classified according to shape by 10 room cavity num-
bers. The cavity ratio can be calculated using the formula given
in Section 12.3.1. The coefficient of utilization should be selected
from tables prepared for various luminaires by manufacturers.
It can be determined for the proper room cavity ratio and the
appropriate wall reflectance and ceiling cavity reflectance. For
ceiling-mounted or recessed luminaires, the ceiling cavity reflect-
ance is the same as the reflectance of the actual ceiling.
3. Determine the light loss factor (LLF). The final light loss factor
is the product of all the contributing loss factors. Lamp manu-
facturers rate filement lamps in accordance with lumen output
when the lamp is new; vapor discharge lamps (fluorescent, mer-
cury, and other types) are rated in accordance with their output
after 100 h of burning. The light loss factor is made up as the
product of eight different contributing factors, as discussed in
Section 12.1.6.
4. Calculate the number of lamps and luminaires required.

«. footcandles χ area
number oi lamps = -
lumens/lamp χ CU x LLF

. number of lamps
number of luminaires = Ί τζ :—~—
lamps /luminaire

5. Determine the location of the luminaires. Luminaire locations

depend on the general architecture, size of bays, type of lumi-
naire, position of previous outlets, and so on.

12.4 POINT-BY-POINT LIGHTING COMPUTATIONS

Although currently, lighting computations emphasize the zonal cavity

method, there is still considerable merit in the point-by-point method.
This method lends itself especially well to calculating the illumination
level at a particular point where total illumination is the sum of
general overhead lighting and supplementary lighting. In this method,
information from luminaire candlepower distribution curves must be
applied to the mathematical relationship. The total contribution from
all luminaires to the illumination level on the task plane must be
summed.
328 Chapter 10

12.4. Ί Computation of Direct Illumination Component

The angular coordinate system is most applicable to continuous rows
of fluorescent luminaries. Two angles are involved; a longitudinal
angle α and a lateral angle 3· Angle α is the angle between a verti-
cal line passing through the seeing task (point P) and a line from
the seeing task to the end of the rows of luminaires. If the seeing
task is not in the vertical plane of a row of luminaires, a parallel
reference plane is created for the specification of angle a.
Angle a is easily determined graphically from a chart showing
angles α and 3 for various combinations of V and H. Usually, all
rows of luminaires have the same coordinates, one coordinate for
each end of the row. Angle 3 is the angle between the vertical plane
of the row of luminaires and a tilted plane containing both the seeing
task and the luminaire or row of luminaires. In determining angle
3, Η is the horizontal distance from the seeing task to the row of
luminaires, measured perpendicular to the luminaire. Each row has
only one 3 coordinate. Figure 12.2 shows how angles α and 3 are
defined. The direct illumination component for each luminaire or row
of luminaires is determined by referring to the table of direct illumi-
nation components for the specific luminaire. The direct illumination
components are based on the assumption that the luminaire is mounted
6 ft above the seeing task. If this mounting height is other than
6 f t , the direct illumination components shown in the Table 12.8 must

ι SOURCE-
REFERENCE
PLANE\

VERTICAL PLANE
OF LUMINAIRE

Ρ P'

Figure 12.2 Definition of angular coordinate system for direct illumi-

nation component.
Illuminating Design Principles 329

Table 12.8 Direct Illumination Components for Category III Luminaire

(Based on F40 Lamps Producing 3100 Lumens)

Direct Illumination Components

β 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75

Vertical Surface Illumination Vertical Surface Illumination

α Footcandies at a Point On a Footcandies at a Point On a
Plane Parallel to Luminaires Plane Perpendicular to Luminaires

0-10 .9 2.6 3.6 3.9 3.3 1.9 .7 .1 .9 .8 .7 .5 .3 .1

0-20 1.8 5.0 7.0 7.7 6.6 3.8 1.5 .2 3.6 3.2 2.7 1.9 1.2 .5 .1
0-30 2.6 7.2 10.1 11.3 9.8 5.7 2.3 .3 7.7 7.0 5.8 4.3 2.7 1.1 .3
0-40 3.2 9.0 12.8 14.5 12.9 7.7 3.2 .5 12.6 1 1 . 6 9.7 7.5 4.9 2.1 .6
0-50 3.7 10.3 14.9 17.1 15.7 9.6 4.3 .7 17.8 16.6 14.2 11.2 7.7 3.4 1.1 .1
0-60 4.0 11.2 16.3 18.8 17.6 11.3 5.5 1.0 22.6 21.2 18.4 14.7 10.4 5.1 1.9 .2
0-70 4.1 11.6 17.0 19.8 18.9 12.7 6.8 1.4 26.2 24.7 21.8 17.8 13.1 7.2 3.2 .3
0-80 4.1 11.7 17.3 20.2 19.4 13.3 7.4 1.9 28.2 26.7 23.8 19.7 14.9 8.7 4.3 .8
0-90 4.1 11.7 17.3 20.2 19.4 13.4 7.5 2.0 28.6 27.1 24.2 20.1 15.3 9.1 4.7 11.1

F.C. at a Point on Workplane

Category III
0-10 10.6 9.5 7.6 5.5 3.3 1.3 .3
0-20 20.6 18.5 14.9 10.9 6.6 2.6 .7
0-30 29.4 26.5 21.6 1 6 . 0 9.8 4.0 1.1
0-40 36.5 33.1 2/4 20.6 12.9 5.4 1.5
0-50 41.8 38.1 31.9 24.3 15.7 6.7 2.0 .1
0-60 45.2 41.3 34.8 26.1 17.6 7.9 2.6 .2
0-70 46.9 43.0 36.4 28.3 18.9 8.9 3.2 .3
0-80 47.4 43.6 36.9 28.8 19.4 9.3 3.5 .4
0-90 47.5 43.7 37.0 28.8 19.4 9.3 3.5 .4 2 T-12 Lamps — Any Loading
For T-1 CI Lamps —C.U. χ 1.02

Luminance Coefficients for 20% Effective Floor Cavity Reflectance

Reflectances
Ceiling Cavity
80 50 10 80 50 10

Walls 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 30

Ceiling Cavity
WDRC RCR Wall Luminance Coefficients
Luminance Coefficients

.281 1 246 .140 .220 .126 .190 .109 .230 209 .135 .124 .025 .023
.266 2 232 .127 .209 .115 .182 .102 .222 .190 .130 .113 .024 .021
.245 3 216 115 .196 .105 .172 .095 .215 .176 .127 .105 .024 .020
.226 4 202 .102 .183 .097 .161 .088 .209 .164 .124 .099 .023 .019
.212 5 191 .097 .173 .090 .154 .082 .204 .156 .121 .094 .023 .018
.196 6 178 .090 .163 .084 .145 .076 200 .149 .118 .090 .022 .017
.182 7 168 .083 .153 .078 .136 .071 .194 .144 .115 .087 .022 .017
.170 8 158 .077 .145 .072 .130 .066 .190 .139 .113 .085 .021 .016
.159 9 150 .072 .138 .068 .123 .062 .185 .135 .110 .082 .021 .016
.149 10 141 .068 .130 .064 .116 .059 .180 .131 .107 .080 .020 .016
330 Chapter 10

be multiplied by 6/V, where V is the mounting height above the task.

Thus the total direct illumination component would be the product of
6/V and the sum of the individual direct illumination component of
each row.

12.4.2 Computations of Reflected Illumination Component

On Horizontal Surfaces

The reflected illumination component on horizontal surfaces is calcu-

lated in exactly the same manner as the average illumination is com-
puted using the lumen method, except that the RRC, the reflected
radiation coefficient, is substituted for the coefficient of utilization.

- lamps/luminaire χ lumens/lamps χ RRC χ LLF

RH area/luminaire (on work plane)

where

reflected radiation coefficient = LC^ + RPM(LC CC - LCW)

where

LC^ - wall luminance coefficient

L C C C = ceiling cavity luminance coefficient
RPM = room position multiplier

The wall luminance coefficient and the ceiling cavity luminance co-
efficient are selected for the appropriate room cavity ratio and proper
wall and ceiling cavity reflectances from the table of luminance co-
efficients in the same manner as the coefficient of utilization is
selected from the coefficient of utilization table in using the lumen
method. The room position multiplier is a function of the room cavity
ratio and of the location in the room of the point where the illumina-
tion is desired. Table 12.9 lists the value of the RPM for each pos-
sible location of the part in the rooms of all room cavity ratios. Fig-
gure 12.3 shows a grid diagram that illustrates the method of designat-
ing the location in the room by a letter and a number.

On Vertical Surfaces

To determine illumination reflected to vertical surfaces, the approxi-

mate average value is determined using the same general formula,
but substituting the wall reflected radiation coefficient (WRRC) for
the coefficient of utilization.
Illuminating Design Principles 331

Table 12.9 Room Position Multipliers

A Β c D Ε F A Β C D Ε F

Room Cavity Ratio = 1 Room Cavity Ratio = 6

0 .24 .42 .47 .48 .44 .48 0 .20 .23 .26 .28 .29 .30
1 .42 .74 .81 .83 .84 .84 1 .23 .26 .29 .31 .33 .36
2 .47 .81 .90 .92 .93 .93 2 .26 .29 .35 .37 .38 .40
3 .48 .83 .92 .94 .95 .95 3 .28 .31 .37 .39 .41 .43
4 .48 .84 .93 .95 .96 .97 4 .29 .33 .38 .41 .43 .45
5 .48 .84 .93 .95 .97 .97 5 .30 .36 .40 .43 .45 .47

Room Cavity Ratio = 2 Room Cavity Ratio = 7

0 .24 .36 .42 .44 .46 .46 0 .18 .21 .23 .25 .26 .27
1 .36 .51 .60 .63 .66 .68 1 .21 .23 .26 .28 .29 .30
2 .42 .60 .68 .72 .78 .83 2 .23 .26 .30 .32 .33 .34
3 .44 .63 .72 .77 .82 .85 3 .25 .28 .32 .34 .35 .36
4 .46 .66 .78 .82 .85 .86 4 .26 .29 .33 .35 .37 .37
5 .46 .68 .83 .85 .86 .87 5 .27 .30 .34 .36 .37 .38

Room Cavity Ratio = 3 Room Cavity Ratio = 8

0 .23 .32 .37 .40 .42 .42 0 .17 .18 .21 .22 .22 .23
1 .32 .40 .48 .51 .53 .57 1 .18 .20 .23 .25 .26 .26
2 .37 .48 .58 .61 .64 .67 2 .21 .23 .26 .27 .28 .29
3 .40 .51 .61 .65 .69 .71 3 .22 .25 .27 .29 .30 .30
4 .42 .53 .64 .69 .73 .75 4 .22 .26 .28 .30 .31 .32
5 .42 .57 .67 .71 .75 .77 5 .23 .26 .29 .30 .31 .32

Room Cavity Ratio = 4 Room Cavity Ratio = 9

0 .22 .28 .32 .35 .37 .37 0 .15 .17 .18 .19 .20 .20
1 .28 .33 .40 .42 .44 .48 1 .17 .18 .20 .21 .22 .23
2 .32 .40 .48 .50 .52 .57 2 .18 .20 .23 .24 .25 .25
3 .35 .42 .50 .54 .58 .61 3 .19 .21 .24 .25 .26 .26
4 .37 .44 .52 .58 .62 .64 4 .20 .22 .25 .26 .26 .27
5 .37 .48 .57 .61 .64 .66 5 .20 .23 .25 .26 .27 .27

Room Cavity Ratio = 5 Room Cavity Ratio = 10

0 .21 .25 .28 .31 .33 .33 0 .14 16 .16 .17 .18 .18
1 .25 .29 .33 .36 .38 .42 1 .16 .17 .18 .19 .19 .20
2 .28 .33 .40 .42 .44 .48 2 .16 .18 .19 .21 .22 .22
3 .31 .36 .42 .46 .49 .52 3 .17 .19 .21 .22 .23 .23
4 .33 .38 .44 .49 .52 .54 4 .18 .19 .22 .23 .23 .24
5 .33 .42 .48 .52 .54 .56 5 .18 .20 .22 .23 .24 .25

FQ - lamps/luminaire χ lumens/lamp χ WRRC χ LLF

RV area/luminaire (on work plane)

where the wall reflected radiation coefficient (WRRC) is found as

follows:

WaU l u m i n a
WRRC = " ° e coefficient^ _ WDRC
average wall reflectance
332 Chapter 10

ο
1 I ΨΑ WA1
'M m
m m
i
ύ
§ C1*
βi
ι
2
3
HI m
m
///// 4
m m m W/ WY/t 5
4
3
2
'ci ci I
Ο

Figure 12.3 Grid diagram for locating points on the work plane.

where WDRC, the wall direct radiation coefficient, is published for

each room cavity ratio together with a table of wall luminance co-
efficients. (See Table 12.8 for a specific type of luminaire.)

Typical Example

As an example of the calculation of the illumination at a point, assume

that four rows of six 4-ft luminaires (for which data are shown in
Table 12.8) are surface mounted on 8-ft centers in a room 28 by 30
f t . Assume that the ceiling reflectance (and also that of the ceiling
cavity since the luminaires are ceiling mounted) is 80% and that of
the walls is 50%. Floor cavity reflectance is 20%. The mounting
height of the luminaire is 8i ft above the work plane. The initial
illumination on the horizontal work plane at point Ρ is desired. (See
Figure 12.4, a typical luminaire layout plan for this example.)

Calculation of Direct Component. First let us determine angle α

for both ends of the rows of luminaires, and angle β. For angle a,
Η is 10 ft for a^ and 14 ft for α 2 · The vertical distance V is Si f t .
For angle β, Η is 12 ft for rows A and D and is 4 ft for rows Β and
C. The vertical distance is still 8i f t . Refer to Table 12.8 for data
on the direct illumination component. Table 12.10 summarizes the
results of various components as found from the data in Table 12.8.
Since the direct illumination component table is all based on a mount-
ing height of 6 ft above the point, and in this case the luminaires
are actually 8i ft above point P, it is necessary to multiply the total
fc by 6 / 8 . 5 . The resultant direct component is 114.8 fc.

Calculation of Reflected Component. T h e RCR f o r t h i s room i s

3.0 and the area per luminaire is 35 ft^. Using the formula for
computing the initial value of the reflected illumination component on
the horizontal, FCp^,
Illuminating Design Principles 333

HA

HB

π
A

12
i 3c
D

Figure 12.4 A typical luminaire layout plan.

Table 12.10 Summar}' of Direct Illumination Components

Direct illumination component

Front Front
Row a
l a2 3 left end right end Total

A 50 60 a 55 6.7 7.9 14.6

Β 50 60 25 31.9 34.8 66.7
C 50 60 25 31.9 34.8 66.7
D 50 60 55 6.7 7.9 14.6
162.6
a
Actually a 2 is 59, but is rounded off to 60.
334 Chapter 10

_ 2 χ 3200 χ reflected radiation coefficient

FC =
RH ~ ~ 35

The reflected radiation coefficient

RRC = LCW + RPM(LC CC - LCW)

= 0.155 + RPM(0.157 - 0.155)

= 0.155 + 0.75 x 0.002
= 0.157

RPM is taken from Table 12.9 at point E5, and FC R H = 28.7. The
total illumination at point Ρ is 114.8 + 28.7 = 143.5 fc.

12.5 COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR L I G H T I N G DESIGN

Several methods of point-by-point computation are available. Such

computations can best be handled by computer. Assuming that the
necessary programing has been worked out, the computer operator
needs only to supply the details of the room, the geometry of the
lighting installation, room surface reflectances, and the candlepower
data for the luminaire in order to provide a printout of footcandles
at the desired points.

12.5.1 Computation of ESI Values

Despite the fact that point-by-point computation allows for a particu-

lar purpose, this lighting design approach still restricts the illumi-
nating engineers to determining "raw" footcandles and does not provide
a measure of whether satisfactory visibility will be produced. With
typical reading and writing tasks, visual performance loss caused by
veiling reflections should be taken into account. This can only be
achieved by equivalent sphere illumination (ESI) computations. The
IES report provided the mathematical details for computing ESI from
candlepower data which are the same as those for the point-by-point
computations. However, the viewing direction of the observer must
be specified, as ESI can change substantially with the viewer's
orientation. ESI computation is similar to point-by-point computation
except that the direction of all light rays is analyzed and associated
with the reflecting characteristics of the task.
The fundamental qualities involved in the computation of ESI due
to a single luminaire are expressed in a form that permits separation
of the two variables that give the luminaire's position with respect to
an observer. The total effect of all the luminaires in the layout is
Illuminating Design Principles 335

expressed in a single easily evaluated equation, which is a function

of the two variables that give the observer's position. Specification
of luminaire placement and orientation is achieved by a simple data
input technique. For each of the four viewing directions, the maxi-
mum, minimum, average, and mean deviation of ESI values are calcu-
lated. These quantities are also calculated for all four directions
taken together. The grid point may be as large as 20 by 20, which
will give 400 points. This will yield a total 1600 values of ESI. All
ESI are printed in an array that corresponds to their positions in
the plan view of the room. The value of background luminance ( L g ) ,
contrast rendition factor (CRF), lighting effectiveness factor (LEF),
and effective visibility level are printed in the same format. Figure
12.5 shows a typical room with six points marked, and Table 12.11
gives the resultant sample computer printout.

30 χ 30 χ 10 ft. classroom Luminaires on 6 ft. centers

ο
00

-* Χ χ χ χ χ-
1 2 3 4 5 6

CNJ

•3— 6 6 >< 6 Μ 6 >*-3-

3 0 ft.
Diagram of computation points

Figure 12.5 Typical 30 χ 30 χ 10 room with six points as marked.

 336 Chapter 10

Table 12.11 Computer Printout on ESI and Related Computations

LOCATION ORIENTATION
Χ Y ANGLE FC* FC LB LT CRF ESI LEF

4.00 12.00 0.0 128.87 116.26 101.28 86.54 .869 40.02 .344
90.0 114.95 96.17 81.35 .920 61.15 .532

2 6.00 12.00 0.0 139.02 135.63 116.16 97.89 .939 82.02 .605
90.0 122.48 105.09 89.56 .882 46.61 .381

3 8.00 12.00 0.0 145.06 J 32.43 114.75 97.63 .890 53.49 .404
90.0 134.84 115.13 97.37 .921 70.83 .525

4 10.00 12.00 0.0 147.29 134.71 116.61 99.17 .893 56.05 .414
90.0 133.86 114.68 97.19 .911 64.88 .485

5 12.00 12.00 0.0 147.44 144.18 123.15 103.61 .947 92.16 .639
90.0 131.47 113.89 96.95 .888 52.03 .396

6 14.00 12.00 0.0 148.68 136.10 117.75 100.09 .895 57.84 .425
90.0 139.29 119.49 100.99 .924 74.99 .538

F C * I S THE FOOTCANDLE LEVEL FOR NO BODY SHADOW. ALL OTHER VALUES INCLUDE BODY
SHADOW. LB AND LT ARE THE LUMINANCES OF THE BACKGROUND AND TASK RESPECTIVELY.

Lighting design procedures that make full use of the computer

programs are still evolving. However, the following effects have
proven useful:

1. In many typical design problems, the locations of the workstations

are not known at design time. The iso-ESI plots can be used to
help with furniture placement recommendations.
2. Knowledge of specific workstation locations eliminates some un-
certainty and allows the design to be based on the performance
calculated at specific points. Calculations at several points in
the neighborhood of each of the design locations will reveal the
magnitude of change in ESI with change in the o b s e r v e r s posi-
tion. Knowledge of these deviations is essential for task-oriented
lighting design.
3. The effect of other design parameter uncertainties can be analyzed
by recomputing with different parameter values. Examples of
this are surface reflectances or lamp lumen output. It allows
the design engineers to appraise the effect of possible variations
in performance introduced after the design is completed.

12.5.2 Limitations of ESI

ESI is a way to combine contrast and background luminance to define

quantity visibility, but is not a perfect way to do so. ESI is a mea-
sure of visibility. Increases or decreases in the visual performance
are important, yet increases or decreases in visibility may or may not
be important. Experimental work done since the ESI system was
Illuminating Design Principles 337

formulated has shown that the relationship between visibility and

visual performance is very nonlinear. The relationship between them
is different for difficult tasks; even a small amount of visibility is
sufficient to provide satisfactory visual performance. Other tasks
require large amounts of visibility for a satisfactory visual perfor-
mance.
Using ESI to rank lighting systems' abilities to produce visibility
can provide important information, which is certainly better than a
raw illumination level. Much more has been known about visual per-
formance and lighting-controlled task characteristics (contrast and
luminance) since the formulation of the ESI system. At present it
appears that the next step will be to move beyond ESI and deal with
relative visual performance. However, in the meantime, ESI remains
the engineering system of choice for investigating lighting system
performance with respect to visibility.

12.5.3 Computer Programs for Lighting Design

in General

Computation of ESI values by computer is only one of many computer

programs available today. Some programs will display results graphi-
cally on a PC screen and one program can make a really creditable
"picture" using a dot matrix printer. The computer merges the
processes of design and drafting by requiring the data needed in
these two processes to be entered only once, resulting in a two-way
information flow between calculations and graphics. The software is
able to interpret graphic information, which exists in its database as
numeric data, and insert these numeric data into calculations. The
results are then displayed alphanumeric information in tabular or
report form. This type of program is commonly known as a computer-
aided deisgn and drafting (CADD) system.
A standardized form of presenting luminaire data has been estab-
lished by the IES and a number of lighting fixture manufacturers.
Data needed by the computer to make the calculations are voluminous.
As a minimum, lamp data and coefficient of utilization tables, and
light loss factors for each luminaire, need to be entered. Availability
of these data in an electronic medium is essential in making interactive
CADD practical.

12.5.4 V C P Values

Many factors are involved in evaluation of the relative comfort of a

lighting installation: shape and size of room; reflectances of room
surfaces; illumination level; type, size, and light distribution of
luminaire used; number and location of luminaires; luminances and
their relationship in the entire field of view; location and line of sight
338 Chapter 10

Table 12.12 Typical VCP Values

Wall reflectance: 50%

Ceiling cavity reflectance: 80%
Effective floor cavity reflectance: 20%
Work plane illumination: 100 fc
Luminaire no.: 00
Room size: 60 χ 30 ft

Mounting
height Luminaires
above the —
floor (ft) Lengthwise Crosswise

8.5 68 67
10 69 69
13 71 70
16 74 73

of observer; and differences in observer sensitivity to glare. A com-

prehensive standard evaluation procedure taking all of the foregoing
factors into account has come about as the result of numerous exten-
sive investigations. This procedure provides a visual comfort prob-
ability (VCP) rating of a given system of lighting. The rating is in
terms of the precentage of people who will be expected to find the
given lighting system acceptable when they are seated in the most
undesirable location.
By means of several procedures outlined in the IES Lighting
Handbook, it is possible and useful to study proposed lighting s y s -
tem designs from the standpoint of visual comfort probability (VCP)
by preparing tables such as Table 12.12.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chen, Kao, New Concepts in Interior Lighting Design, IEEE Trans-

actions on Industry Applications, Sept./Oct. 1984, p p . 1179—1184.
DiLaura, D. L . , Whatever Happened to Equivalent Sphere Illumination,
Lighting Design and Application, Nov. 1982, p p . 17—18.
Illuminating Design Principles 339

IES Computer Committee Report, Available Lighting Computer Pro-

g r a m s , Lighting Design and Application, Sept. 1986.
Lighting Handbook, Chap. 1 of Application Volume, Illuminating
Engineering Society, New York, 1987.
Lighting Handbook, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield,
N . J . , Jan. 1976.
Rebane, Henn, Applying Computers for Lighting Design, Electrical
System Design, Sept./Oct. 1986, pp. 38-42.
Rowe, G. D . , Determining Illumination Requirements, Plant Engineering,
Feb. 4, 1982, pp. 69-72.
Sisson, William, Determining Cavity Ratios for Zonal Cavity Lighting
Calculations, Plant Engineering, Nov. 27, 1970, pp. 68-69.
13
Factors Affecting Industrial Illumination

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The purposes of industrial illumination are to help provide a safe

working environment, to provide efficient and comfortable seeing as
an aid to all types of industrial operation, and to reduce losses in
visual performance. It must be realized that several of the factors
that contribute to seeing are the task, the environment, and the
lighting.

13.2 FACTORS AND REMEDIES

In general, one sees by reflection, transmission, and silhouette.

Silhouette seeing involves detection of the presence of an object and
its contour because its darker outline is revealed by a contrast
against lighted surroundings. Transmission concerns the revealing
of details through the variation of transmission of white light, or the
changing of color through materials that are susceptible to penetra-
tion. By far the most common method of seeing is by reflected light,
where light and dark areas or details are revealed by a difference
in reflection. The principle of silhouette lighting is involved in
locations where low-level safety lighting is u s e d . This is involved
in protective lighting, emergency lighting, and outdoor passageways
and roadways. Seeing by transmission generally involves the inspec-
tion of translucent materials.

340
Factors Affecting Industrial Illumination 341

13.2.1 Specific Factors and Remedies

Quality of illumination pertains to the distribution of luminaires in

the visual environment. The term is used in a positive sense and
implies that all luminaires contribute favorably to visual performance.
However, glare, diffusion, reflection, uniformity, color, luminance,
and luminance ratio all have a significant effect on visibility and the
ability to see easily, accurately, and quickly. Certain seeing tasks
require much more careful analysis than others. Industrial installa-
tions of poor quality are easily recognized as uncomfortable and pos-
sibly hazardous. The cumulative effect of even slightly glaring con-
ditions can result in material loss of seeing efficiency and undue
fatigue. Some of the foregoing factors are discussed in more detail
below.

Direct Glare

When glare is caused by the source of lighting within the field of

view, whether daylight or electric, it is defined as direct glare. To
reduce direct glare, the following steps may be useful:

1. Decrease the brightness of light sources or lighting equipment,

or both.
2. Reduce the area of high luminance causing the glare condition.
3. Increase the angle between the glare source and the line of vision.
4. Increase the luminance of the area surrounding the glare source
and against which it is seen.

Unshaded factory windows are frequent causes of direct glare.

Luminaires that are too bright for their environment will often pro-
duce glare. This glare may be in the form of discomfort direct glare
or disability glare, or both. The former produces visual discomfort
without necessarily interfering with visual performance or visibility.
Disability glare reduces visual performance and is often accompanied
by visual discomfort.
To reduce direct glare, luminaires should be mounted as far above
the normal line of sight as possible and should be designed to limit
both the luminance and the quality of light emitted in the 45- to 85-
degree zone because such light may interfere with vision. This pre-
caution includes the use of supplementary lighting equipment. There
is such a wide divergence of tasks and environmental conditions that
it may not be possible to recommend a degree of quality satisfactory
to all needs. In production areas, luminaires within the normal field
of view should be shielded to at least 25 degrees from the horizontal,
preferably to 45 degrees.
342 Chapter 10

Reflected Clare

Reflected glare is caused by the reflection of high-luminance light

sources from shiny surfaces. In a manufacturing area this may be
a particularly serious problem where critical seeing is involved with
highly polished surfaces, such as polished sheet metal, vernier scales,
and machined metal surfaces. There are several ways in which re-
flected glare can be minimized or eliminated:

1. Use a light source of low luminance, consistent with the type of

work in process and the surroundings.
2. If the luminance of the light source cannot be reduced to a de-
sirable level, it may be possible to orient the work so that reflec-
tions are not directed in the normal line of vision.
3. Increasing the level of illumination by increasing the number of
sources will reduce the effect of reflected glare by reducing the
proportion of illumination provided on the task by sources located
in positions causing reflections.
4. In special cases it may be practical to reduce the specular reflec-
tion (and the resultant reflected glare) by changing the specular
character of the offending surface.

Distribution, Reflection, and Shadows

Uniform horizontal illuminance (maximum and minimum not more than

one-sixth above or below the average level) is usually desirable for
industrial interiors to permit flexible arrangements of operations and
equipment, and to assure more uniform luminance in the entire area.
Alternate areas of extreme luminance differences are undesirable be-
cause it tires the eyes to adjust to them. Reflections of light sources
in the task can be useful provided that the reflection does not create
reflected glare. In the machining and inspection of small metal parts,
reflections can indicate faults in contours, make scribe marks more
visible, and so on.
Shadows from the general illumination systems can be desirable
for accenting the depth and form of various objects, but harsh sha-
dows should be avoided. Shadows are softer and less pronounced
when large diffusing luminaires are used or the object is illuminated
from many sources. Clearly defined shadows are distinct aids in some
specialized operations, such as engraving on polished surfaces, some
type of bench layout work, or certain textile inspections. This type
of shadow effect can best be obtained by supplementary directional
lighting combined with ample diffused general illumination.

Luminance and Luminance Ratios

The ability to see details depends on the contrast between the detail
and its background. The greater the contrast difference in luminance,
Factors Affecting Industrial Illumination 343

the more readily the seeing task is performed. The eye functions
most comfortably and efficiently when the luminances within the re-
mainder of the environment are relatively uniform. In manufacturing,
there are many areas where it is not practical to achieve the same
luminance relationships as easily as in offices. Table 13.1 is shown
as a practical guide to recommended maximum luminance ratios for
industrial areas. To achieve the recommended luminance relationships,
it is necessary to select the reflectances of all the finishes of the
room surfaces and equipment as well as control of the luminance dis-
tribution of the lighting equipment. Table 13.2 lists the recommended
reflectance values for industrial interiors and equipment. High-reflec-
tance surfaces are desirable to provide the recommended luminance
relationships and high utilization of light.

Color Quality of Light

In general, for seeing tasks in industrial areas, there appears to be

no effect upon visual acuity by variations in color of light. How-
ever, where color discrimination or color matching are a part of the
work process, such as in the printing and textile industries, the
color of light should be carefully selected. Color always has an
effect on the appearance of the work space and on the complexions
of personnel. Therefore, the illuminating system and the decora-
tive scheme should be carefully coordinated.

Table 13.1 Recommended Maximum Luminance Ratios for Industrial

Areas

Environmental
Classification
A B C

(1) Between tasks and adjacent darker surroundings 3 to 1 3 to 1 5 to 1

(2) Between tasks and adjacent lighter surroundings 1 to 3 1 to 3 1 to 5
(3) Between tasks and more remote darker surfaces 10 to 1 20 to 1
(4) Between tasks and more remote lighter surfaces 1 to 10 1 to 20 *
(5) Between luminaires (or windows, skylights, etc.) and surfaces
adjacent to them 20 to 1
(6) Anywhere within normal field of view 40 to 1 * *
#
Luminance ratio control not practical.
A—Interior areas where reflectances of entire space can be controlled in line with recom-
mendations for optimum seeing conditions.
Β—Areas where reflectances of immediate work area can be controlled, but control of remote
surround is limited.
C—Areas (indoor and outdoor) where it is completely impractical to control reflectances and
difficult to alter environmental conditions.
344 Chapter 10

Table 13.2 Recommended Reflectance Values for Industrial Interiors

and Equipment

Reflectance*
Surfaces (percent)

Ceiling 80 to 90
Walls 40 to 60
Desk and bench tops, machines and equipment 25 to 45
Floors not less than 20

* Reflectance should be maintained as near as practical to recommended values.

Veiling Reflections

Since contrast is one of the chief factors affecting the visibility of

a seeing task, and since veiling reflections are directly involved with
loss of contrast, there is a subsequent loss of visibility. Figure 13.1
shows that light would reflect into eyes of viewer from the "offend-
ing zone" and defines the zone of veiling reflection. Veiling reflec-
tion would diminish visibility, but the viewer would be unaware of
it. In its RQQ Report 4, IES summed up that the contrast rendi-
tion factor (CRF) can be applied as a measure of the amount of
veiling reflection. The CRF is the task contrast under the lighting
system being studied, divided by the contrast the task would have
under equivalent sphere illumination. Thus a CRF value of 0.62
means that visibility contrast is roughly 62% of what the contrast
would be under a bright, but uniformly cloudy s k y . It should be
noted that the equivalent sphere illumination does not necessarily
minimize veiling reflections.
Another important factor developed by the IES-RQQ Committee
is the lighting effectiveness factor (LEF). An overall lighting s y s -
tem efficiency factor considers both the quality of light as reference
to equivalent sphere illumination, and the effects of veiling reflec-
tions. Increased awareness of the need to design for elimination of
veiling reflections has prompted manufacturers of light equipment to
develop luminaires with light distribution patterns that will help solve
veiling reflection problems. Light patterns cast by such luminaires
are called "batwing" patterns. Figure 13.2 shows the light distri-
bution curves of a typical batwing luminaire.

13.2.2 Daylighting

The daylight contribution should be carefully evaluated and should

always be coordinated with a planned electric lighting system.
Factors Affecting Industrial Illumination 345

OFFENDING ZONE

PERPENDICULAR
UMINAIRE ' T O TASK

ANGLE OF
/
VIEWING
INCIDENCE ,
/ ANGLE
(ANGLE OF
REFLECTION)

_ Z O N E OF
ANGLE OF TILT; VEILING REFLECTION
OF T A S K i

Figure 13.1 Diagram showing "offending zone" and zone of veiling

reflection.

Advantageous Factors

Several factors affect the advantageous use of daylight. These

include variations in the amount and direction of the incident sun-
light; luminance distribution of clear, partly cloudy, or overcast
skies; effect of local terrain, landscaping, and nearby buildings.

Fenestration

Fenestration has at least three useful purposes in industrial build-

ings:

1. For the admission, control, and distribution of daylight

2. For a distant focus for the e y e s , which relaxes the eye muscles
3. To eliminate the dissatisfaction many people experience in com-
pletely closed-in areas
346 Chapter 10

45

Figure 13.2 A typical "batwing" light distribution

An adequate electric lighting system should always be provided

because of the wide variation in daylight. The basic requirements
of the principal architectural and work surfaces are the same whether
the lighting is daylight, electric, or a combination of the two.

Building Orientation

Fenestration should suit the orientation, variations in topography,

and landscaping related to each exterior wall. All fenestration
should be equipped with control device appropriate to any luminance
problems. Special attention should be given to glare control for lati-
tudes where fenestration frequently receives direct sunlight. Diffuse-
glaring fixed or adjustable louvers are some of the control means
that may be applied.
For an industrial building, windows in the sidewalls admit day-
light and natural ventilation, and afford occupants a view out, all
of which may be desirable. Nevertheless, their uncontrolled lumi-
nance may be troublesome. There are many forms of lighting sec-
tions used by architects to admit some daylight into a factory. Each
will require some control means to make the daylight useful to worker's
seeing tasks, thus resulting in energy savings as the ultimate goal.
More discussions on Energy-saving aspects of day lighting are dis-
cussed further in Chapter 17.
Factors Affecting Industrial Illumination 347

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allphin, Willard, Minimizing; Veiling Reflections in Lighting Installa-

tions, Plant Engineering, June 1, 1972, pp. 62—63.
Lighting Handbook, Application Volume, Illuminating Engineering
Society, New York, 1987.
 14
System Components for Industrial
Illumination

14.1 LIGHT SOURCES

I n c a n d e s c e n t , f l u o r e s c e n t , a n d / o r h i g h - i n t e n s i t y - d i s c h a r g e (HID)
lamps are used in industrial lighting. They d i f f e r considerably in
physical dimensions, electrical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , spectral power distri-
b u t i o n , and operating performance. Some are b e t t e r suited than
o t h e r s to certain applications; however, sometimes two or more sources
may qualify to fulfill a specific lighting requirement.

14.1.1 Incandescant Filament Lamps

Initial efficacy of typical incandescent lamps (25 to 1000 W) r a n g e s
from approximately 10 to 23 lumens p e r watt. They are commonly
designed for approximately 1000 h of life. It has been pointed out
in Chapter 11 that incandescent lamps conform to the supply voltage.
A change of only a few volts can seriously affect both life and light
o u t p u t . T h e r e are special t y p e s of incandescent lamps:

1. Reflectorized (R, PAR, and ER) lamps. These lamps have

self-contained r e f l e c t o r s and are manufactured in a number of sizes,
from 30 to 1500 W, and in various light d i s t r i b u t i o n s . These lamps
in general have a better-maintained illuminance. ER lamps (50, 75,
and 120 W) control t h e i r beams such that they focus about 2 i n . in
f r o n t of t h e i r f a c e s . Especially u s e f u l in "baffled downlight" lumi-
n a i r e s , they permit high light utilization with attendant savings in
e n e r g y . Figure 14.1 shows an ER30 lamp and its beam f o c u s .
2. Rough service and vibration service lamps. These are spe-
cial t y p e s used in i n d u s t r y . Rough service lamps (from 25 to 500 W)

348
Components for Industrial Illumination 349

Figure 14.1 ER30 lamp.

a r e made with e x t r a filament s u p p o r t s to withstand mechanical shock,

and are u s e d principally with extension c o r d s . Vibration service
lamps (25 to 150 W) are made with a flexible filament s u p p o r t which
p r e c l u d e s early failure that vibration would cause to general service
lamps. Lower-voltage lamps, generally operated from t r a n s f o r m e r s ,
are much more r e s i s t a n t to both shock and vibration t h a n are s t a n d -
ard voltage t y p e s .
3. Silicone-rubber coated lamps. These lamps have special
r u b b e r - l i k e coatings that s e r v e to r e d u c e b r e a k a g e from both thermal
and mechanical s h o c k ; or should b r e a k a g e o c c u r , the glass f r a g m e n t s
nearly always remain i n t a c t . Available in sizes from 25 to 200 W,
they are especially suited to food-packaging i n d u s t r i e s and to o t h e r s
where m a n u f a c t u r i n g functions may subject lamps to mechanical dam-
age.
4. Extended service lamps. T h e s e operate for approximately
two to t h r e e times the normal r a t e d life. They are u s e f u l where cost
of lamp replacement is high and cost of power is low.
5. Thermal shock resistant or special service lamps. These are
available in various wattages and bulb shapes and are recommended
for applications where moisture may f r a c t u r e t h e hot b u l b .
6. Tungsten-halogen lamps. These employ halogens to p r e c l u d e
blackening of t h e t u b u l a r envelope. They have extremely good lumen
maintenance (approximately 97%) over a life of 2000 h or more. The
shape of the lamps enables t h e luminaire to provide excellent beam
control.
7. High-voltage general lighting lamps. These are available in
100 to 1500 W for 230- and 250 V c i r c u i t s . They have less r u g g e d
filament, r e q u i r e more s u p p o r t s , and are less efficient than a r e
120 V lamps of equal wattage.
350 Chapter 14

14.1.2 Fluorescent Lamps

T h e f l u o r e s c e n t lamp i s an e l e c t r i c d i s c h a r g e s o u r c e in which l i g h t
is p r o d u c e d b y t h e f l u o r e s c e n c e of p h o s p h o r s a c t i v a t e d b y u l t r a v i o l e t
e n e r g y from a l o w - p r e s s u r e m e r c u r y a r c . T h e lamp r e q u i r e s a b a l l a s t
to limit t h e c u r r e n t a n d , in many i n s t a n c e s , to t r a n s f o r m t h e s u p p l y
v o l t a g e . Lamp p e r f o r m a n c e is i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e
b a l l a s t a n d l u m i n a i r e , line v o l t a g e , ambient t e m p e r a t u r e , b u r n i n g
h o u r s p e r s t a r t , a n d a i r movement. F l u o r e s c e n t lamps a r e available
in many v a r i a t i o n s of " w h i t e " a n d in a n u m b e r of c o l o r s . Standard
"cool white" is most p o p u l a r f o r i n d u s t r i a l l i g h t i n g . T h e e f f i c a c y of
cool white lamps v a r i e s b e t w e e n 30 a n d 100 lumens p e r watt ( e x c l u -
s i v e of 20% p o w e r loss in t h e b a l l a s t ) . A l t h o u g h most f l u o r e s c e n t
lamps h a v e t u b u l a r e n v e l o p e s , t h e r e a r e special t y p e s , s u c h as c i r -
c u l a r , U - s h a p e d , r e f l e c t o r i z e d , a n d j a c k e t e d . F i g u r e 14.2 shows
major c o m p o n e n t s t h a t make u p a compact f l u o r e s c e n t lamp.

Figure 14.2 Major c o m p o n e n t s of a compact f l u o r e s c e n t lamp.

Components for Industrial Illumination 351

Ballasts
Most fluorescent lamps operate on one of t h r e e t y p e s of ballast circuit:
p r e h e a t , i n s t a n t s t a r t , or rapid s t a r t ( F i g u r e s 14.3 to 14.5). A few
can be operated with either p r e h e a t or r a p i d - s t a r t ballasts. Preheat
lamps up to 20 W can be operated on special r a p i d - s t a r t ( t r i g g e r -
s t a r t ) ballasts. Preheat lamps operated on preheat ballasts r e q u i r e
auxiliary ! t s t a r t e r s " to allow c u r r e n t to flow t h r o u g h the electrodes
for a few moments before the arc is established across t h e length of
the lamps. I n s t a n t s t a r t and slimline lamps r e q u i r e no s t a r t e r s . The
ballasts provide enough voltage to light the lamps i n s t a n t l y . Rapid-
s t a r t lamp operation is also s t a r t e r l e s s . R a p i d - s t a r t lamps are most
popular for new fluorescent lighting installations. They are available
for ballasts that provide 430-, 800-, 1000-, and 1500-mA loadings.
Fluorescent lamp ballasts are available for most secondary d i s t r i b u -
tion voltages.

l a g lamp

starter

l e a d lamp

starter

ballast

I OMPENSATOR

V
CAPACITOR

Figure 14.3 Preheat fluorescent ballast circuit.

 Ε ! l a g lamp F "

ί 3 l e a d lamp
E:
ballast

LINE

Figure 14.4 I n s t a n t - s t a r t fluorescent ballast circuit.

LAMP

LAMP

BLUE
BALLAST

BLACK YELLOW

YELLOW

LINE RED

WHITE

RED

Figure 14.5 R a p i d - s t a r t fluorescent ballast circuit.

352
Components for Industrial Illumination 353

Lamp Performance Factors

As discussed in C h a p t e r 1, because voltage changes affect lamp p e r -
formance, the specified voltage r a t i n g of t h e ballast should be main-
tained as close as possible. Low voltage as well as high voltage is
u n d e s i r a b l e . Both conditions may r e d u c e lamp life. Extreme low
voltage may even damage ballasts; excessive voltage may shorten
ballast life. Cold t e m p e r a t u r e r e d u c e s lamp lumen o u t p u t , as does
high t e m p e r a t u r e . Lamp life is affected by the number of h o u r s p e r
s t a r t ; a minimum number of s t a r t s f a v o r s lamp life.

14.1.3 High Intensity Discharge Lamps

High intensity d i s c h a r g e (HID) lamps a r e electric discharge s o u r c e s .
The basic d i f f e r e n c e from fluorescent lamps is that HID lamps operate
at a much h i g h e r arc p r e s s u r e . HID lamps include m e r c u r y , metal
halide, and h i g h - p r e s s u r e sodium lamps. Spectral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
d i f f e r from those of fluorescent lamps because the h i g h e r p r e s s u r e
arc emits a large portion of its visible l i g h t . HID lamps produce full
light o u t p u t only at full o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e usually several minutes
a f t e r s t a r t i n g . Most HID lamps contain both an inner and an o u t e r
b u l b . The i n n e r bulb is made of q u a r t z or poly crystalline aluminum;
the o u t e r bulb is generally of thermal s h o c k - r e s i s t a n t g l a s s . HID
lamps r e q u i r e current-limiting devices, which consume 10 to 20%
additional w a t t s .

Lamps
Mercury Lamps. These are low in efficacy compared to o t h e r HID
s o u r c e s , and a r e obsolescent for most industrial lighting applications.
They are available with either "clear" or phosphor-coated bulbs of
40 to 1000 W, and in various sizes and s h a p e s . Typical efficacy
r a n g e s from 30 to 63 lumens p e r watt, not including ballast loss.
"Clear" mercury lamps p r o d u c e light rich in yellow and green tones
while lacking in r e d . Phosphor-coated lamps provide improved color.
Special t y p e s include semireflector, r e f l e c t o r i z e d , and self-ballasted
lamps.

Metal Halide (MH) Lamps. These are similar in construction to

mercury lamps. The d i f f e r e n c e is in t h e arc t u b e , which contains
various metal halides in addition to m e r c u r y . They are available in
either clear or p h o s p h o r - c o a t e d bulbs from 175 to 1500 W. P r e s e n t
efficacies r a n g e from 70 to 125 lumens p e r watt, not including ballast
power loss. Color improvement is achieved by the metal halide
additives.

High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps. Light is produced by elec-

tricity p a s s i n g t h r o u g h sodium v a p o r . They are p r e s e n t l y available
354 Chapter 14

in sizes of 35 to 1000 W. Typical initial efficacies are about twice

that of mercury v a p o r : from 80 to 140 lumens p e r watt, not includ-
ing ballast power loss. Normally with clear o u t e r envelopes, they
may also be obtained with coatings that improve d i f f u s i o n . The color
of light produced is golden white. Figure 14.6 shows several 250-W
HPS lamps.

Low Pressure Sodium Lamps. These are p r e s e n t l y available in

35 to 180 W. Typical initial efficacies are h i g h : 137 to 183 lumens
p e r watt, exclusive of ballast power loss. Applications are limited
by v i r t u e of their monochromatic yellow color. Figure 14.7 shows a
typical l o w - p r e s s u r e sodium lamp.

Ballasts
The p r o p e r ballast will operate a HID lamp from any supply voltage,
usually 120 to 480 V. Certain lamp t y p e s a r e , however, particularly
suited for operation on 480 V c i r c u i t s . Ballast designs v a r y widely
and include t y p e s for o p e r a t i n g single lamps; o t h e r s , for two lamps.

Mercury Lamp Ballasts. The choice of a ballast d e p e n d s mainly

on economic considerations v e r s u s p e r f o r m a n c e . If t h e voltage can

Figure 14.6 250 W high p r e s s u r e sodium lamps.

Components for Industrial Illumination 355

Figure 14.7 Typical low p r e s s u r e sodium lamp.

be expected to remain within ±5%, reactor or h i g h - r e a c t a n c e t y p e s

are least costly. Regulated t y p e s hold average lamp watts closer to
normal even with considerable variation of primary voltage. Mercury
lamp will operate from metal halide ballasts, but t h e c o n v e r s e is not
always t r u e . Figure 14.8 shows electric circuit diagrams for several
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of ballasts for mercury lamps.

Metal Halide Lamp Ballasts. Most MH lamps operate on a special

ballast designed for metal halide lamps. The 1000-W t y p e may be
operated on a mercury vapor lamp r e a c t o r ballast if the ambient is
over 50°F. The metal halide ballast (Figure 14.9) is similar in cir-
c u i t r y to the mercury vapor lamp CWA ballast, but with modifications
to provide the h i g h e r s t a r t i n g voltage r e q u i r e d , and wave-shape
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to a s s u r e reignition of t h e arc each h a l f - c y c l e .

High Pressure Sodium Lamp Ballasts. Since no s t a r t i n g electrode

is incorporated in HPS lamps, t h e ballast must supply a high voltage
pulse of 2500 to 4000 V at least once p e r cycle for wattages o t h e r
than 1000 W. The 1000-W lamps r e q u i r e 4000 to 6000 V. The element
that does this is called a s t a r t e r or an i g n i t o r . At p r e s e n t , four
general t y p e s of ballasts are available to t h e HPS lamp u s e r . Each
has its a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s compared with the o t h e r s in
terms of lamp p e r f o r m a n c e , cost, and e n e r g y consumption.
1. Reactor or lag ballast. This can be made to have good lamp
voltage regulation for c h a n g e s in lamp voltages, b u t has poor r e g u l a -
tion for c h a n g e s in line voltage. It h a s a relatively high s t a r t i n g
 CO
cn
σ>

φ Φ ® Ο-
Φ
Two-winding Regulated output, Reactor, high Reactor, low High reactance,
regulated output auto-transformer power factor power factor normal power factor
(constant wattage) (constant wattage) (auto-transformer)

F i g u r e 14.8 E l e c t r i c c i r c u i t d i a g r a m s f o r m e r c u r y lamp b a l l a s t s .

ο
Ω
Ό
TO
"S
Components for Industrial Illumination 357

Lamp

Figure 14.9 Electric circuit diagram f o r metal halide ballast.

c u r r e n t , which can produce a desirably f a s t e r lamp warm-up. It is

relatively i n e x p e n s i v e , having low power losses and is small in size.
2. Lead ballast. This has fairly good regulation for line voltage
variation and has fair regulation for lamp voltage variation.
3. Magnetic-regulated ballast. This is essentially a voltage-
r e g u l a t i n g isolation t r a n s f o r m e r with its primary and secondary wind-
ings mounted on the same core, and containing a t h i r d capacitive
winding, which a d j u s t s magnetic flux with changes in either primary
or secondary voltage. It provides t h e best wattage regulation with
change of either input voltage or lamp voltage. It h a s a low line
s t a r t i n g c u r r e n t and a high power f a c t o r . It i s , however, the most
costly and has the g r e a t e s t wattage loss. Figure 14.10 shows t h e s e
t h r e e t y p e s of ballast c i r c u i t s .
4. Solid-state electronic ballasts. The major problem with exist-
i n g HPS lamp ballasts is t h e i r inability to operate the lamps at r a t e d
power. Electronically controlled ballasts have been designed and
built with a solid-state control circuit and a r e a c t o r . Figure 14.11
shows an electronically controlled HPS ballas, or " e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t "
ballast. The u s e of a solid-state switching device permits the control
winding to be s h o r t e d in a "phase-controlled" manner, t h u s providing
a smooth and continuous variation in the average inductance of the
ballast. The solid-state control circuit monitors lamp and line o p e r a t -
ing conditions and then establishes t h e p r o p e r value of ballast r e -
quired to operate the lamp at its r a t e d power.

Lamp Performance Factors

Ballast c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s affect HID lamp p e r f o r m a n c e . Ballast design
determines the ability to s t a r t t h e lamp at low t e m p e r a t u r e s , controls
the time r e q u i r e d for the lamp to reach full o u t p u t , and greatly de-
termines the tolerance of a lamp to voltage d i p s . Serious voltage
358 Chapter 14

Lamp
Starter

Reactor or Lag, h.p.f.

a

Starter
Lamp

Lead
b

Starter Lamp

Regulated, h.p.f.
c

Figure 14.10 Electric circuit diagram for HPS lamp ballasts, (a)
Reactor ballast circuit; (b) Lead-peaked ballast circuit; (c) Magnetic-
regulated ballast circuit.
Components for Industrial Illumination 359

ε
• ELECTRONIC
CONTROL
• CIRCUIT

Figure 14.11 Electronically controlled HPS lamp ballast c i r c u i t .

160C

140 ~ Lamp
Amperes
120"

100"

80"
Light Lamp
«3 Output Volts
£ 60"

14°"
20
δ ~
ω
Q. 005 2 4 6
Minutes —Warm-Up Time
a
Figure 14.12 Warm-up c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h r e e t y p e s of HID lamps,
(a) Mercury lamps; (b) Metal halide lamps; (c) High p r e s s u r e sodium
lamps.
360 Chapter 14

Minutes — Warm-Up Time

b

140

120

100

80

60
c
ο 40
ζ
ο
I 20
Ο
Φ
Ο-
ι0 2 4 6 8 10 12
r
Minutes —Warm-Up Time
c
Figure 14.12 ( c o n t i n u e d )
 Components for Industrial Illumination 361

dips or any power i n t e r r u p t i o n will extinguish the lamp, a f t e r which

t h e lamp must cool for several minutes before it can r e s t a r t . Figure
14.12 shows the warm-up c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h r e e t y p e s of HID lamps.
Because the voltage of HPS lamps is dependent on lamp wattage,
unlike the o t h e r HID lamps, which have relatively constant voltage
r e g a r d l e s s of wattage, and since lamp voltage r i s e s d u r i n g life, lamp
m a n u f a c t u r e r s have established trapezoid diagrams which define t h e
lamp voltage and wattage limits. Figure 14.13 is a trapezoid diagram
for a 400-W HPS lamp. It is noted that the u p p e r and lower lines
define the maximum and minimum wattage at which the lamp may be
operated u n d e r any conditions. The left line r e p r e s e n t s the minimum
anticipated lamp voltages, while the r i g h t line r e p r e s e n t s the voltages
at which the lamp may begin to cycle.

14.2 LUMINAIRES

T h e r e are many t y p e s of industrial luminaires. Selection of specific

t y p e s for an installation r e q u i r e s consideration of many f a c t o r s :
candlepower d i s t r i b u t i o n , efficiency, shielding and b r i g h t n e s s control,
mounting h e i g h t , lumen maintenance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , mechanical con-
s t r u c t i o n , environmental suitability for u s e in normal, h a z a r d o u s , or
special a r e a s . In g e n e r a l , t h e r e are five t y p e s of luminaires, in
accordance with CIE classification for interior applications:

475
Maximum Lamp Wattage
Minimum-
Lamp
Voltage
400
a> Ballast
tico Characteristic
CO
Ξ
CL
ε Maximum
CO
_1 Lamp
Voltage
280
Minimum Lamp Wattage

0 67 84 95 101 122 140 151

Lamp Voltage

Figure 14.13 Trapezoid diagram for a 400 W high p r e s s u r e sodium

lamp.
362 Chapter 14

14. 2.1 Direct Type

D i r e c t - t y p e u n i t s emit p r a c t i c a l l y all (90 to 100%) of t h e l i g h t down-
w a r d to t h e w o r k i n g a r e a . A l t h o u g h s u c h l u m i n a i r e s u s u a l l y p r o v i d e
t h e most e f f i c i e n t illumination on w o r k i n g s u r f a c e s , it is u s u a l l y at
t h e e x p e n s e of o t h e r f a c t o r s . For e x a m p l e , s h a d o w s may b e e x c e s -
s i v e u n l e s s t h e u n i t s h a v e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e luminous a r e a s o r a r e
m o u n t e d closer t o g e t h e r t h a n s u g g e s t e d maximum s p a c i n g - t o - m o u n t i n g
h e i g h t r a t i o s . B u t d i r e c t a n d r e f l e c t e d g l a r e may b e d i s t u r b i n g
b e c a u s e of t h e h i g h e r luminance d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t s o u r c e
a n d t h e d a r k e r s u r r o u n d . D i r e c t g l a r e can b e made low from a well-
designed luminaire.
Direct i n d u s t r i a l l i g h t i n g e q u i p m e n t is u s u a l l y c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g
to t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e d o w n w a r d component from " h i g h l y c o n c e n -
t r a t i n g " to " w i d e s p r e a d . " T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of l u m i n a i r e s i s e x p r e s s e d
in t e r m s of s u g g e s t e d s p a c i n g - t o - m o u n t i n g h e i g h t r a t i o s , which a r e
shown in T a b l e 1 4 . 1 . T h e w i d e s p r e a d c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s h i g h - i n t e n s i t y
d i s c h a r g e (HID) l u m i n a i r e s t h a t h a v e optical assemblies c o n s i s t i n g of
a r e f r a c t o r / r e f l e c t o r d e s i g n t h a t can p r o v i d e lamp concealment a n d
r e d u c e luminaire s u f f i c i e n t l y to permit a lower m o u n t i n g h e i g h t t h a n
would b e a c c e p t a b l e f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l HID l u m i n a i r e s . T h e d i s t r i b u -
tion of l o w - b a y u n i t s t e n d s to i m p r o v e v e r t i c a l illumination ( b e c a u s e
of t h e i r w i d e - a n g l e c o m p o n e n t ) a n d to p e r m i t s p a c i n g as much a s two
o r more times t h e i r m o u n t i n g h e i g h t a b o v e t h e work p l a n e .
Prismatic o r m i r r o r e d g l a s s o r s p e c u l a r aluminum r e f l e c t o r s p r o -
d u c e t h e more c o n c e n t r a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n s . T h e s e a r e u s e f u l when
l u m i n a i r e s f o r g e n e r a l l i g h t i n g must b e m o u n t e d at a h e i g h t equal to
o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h e width of t h e room, o r w h e r e h i g h m a c h i n e r y o r
processing equipment necessitates directional control for efficient
illumination b e t w e e n t h e e q u i p m e n t . T h e y a r e also u s e f u l f o r s u p p l e -

Table 14.1 Classification of Lumi-

n a i r e Direct Component E x p r e s s e d
in T e r m s of P e r m i s s i b l e S p a c i n g
Criteria

Spacing to Mounting
Height Ratio Luminaire
(Above Work-Plane) Classification

Up to 0.5 Highly
Concentrating
0.5 to 0.7 Concentrating
0.7 to 1.0 Medium Spread
1.0 to 1.5 Spread
Over 1.5 Wide Spread
Components for Industrial Illumination 363

m e n t a r y illumination. S p r e a d t y p e s a r e c o m p r i s e d of p r o c e l a i n - e n a m e l e d
r e f l e c t o r s , o t h e r white r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s , d i f f u s e aluminum, m i r r o r e d
o r p r i s m a t i c g l a s s o r p l a s t i c , a n d similar m a t e r i a l s . S p r e a d d i s t r i b u -
t i o n s a r e a d v a n t a g e o u s in low-bay a r e a s o r w h e r e t h e r e a r e many
vertical or near-vertical seeing t a s k s .
G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , c o n c e n t r a t i n g a n d medium s p r e a d d i s t r i b u t i o n s
a r e b e s t s u i t e d to h i g h - b a y a r e a s . W h e r e v e r t h e r e is a n e e d f o r
h i g h e r - t h a n - a v e r a g e g e n e r a l illumination f o r an i n s p e c t i o n o r s p e c i a l
work a r e a , h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t i n g l u m i n a i r e s s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d a b o v e
c r a n e s at m o u n t i n g h e i g h t s w h e r e t h e b a s i c h i g h - b a y l i g h t i n g s y s t e m
is l o c a t e d . For l a r g e a r e a s , low-luminance l u m i n a i r e s a r e p r e f e r r e d
to p r o v i d e l o w - r e f l e c t e d l u m i n a n c e . S u c h l u m i n a i r e s may c o n s i s t of
a d i f f u s i n g p a n e l on a s t a n d a r d t y p e of f l u o r e s c e n t r e f l e c t o r , an
i n d i r e c t l i g h t i n g h o o d , or a l a r g e luminous a r e a . In a v e r y d u s t y o r
c o r r o s i v e a r e a , l u m i n a i r e s with g a s k e t e d g l a s s o r p l a s t i c c o v e r s a r e
recommended.
A r e a l i g h t i n g e x t e n d i n g from wall to wall is a n o t h e r form of d i r e c t
l i g h t i n g in which l i g h t from s o u r c e s in a l a r g e c a v i t y of h i g h r e f l e c -
t a n s e is d i r e c t e d d o w n w a r d t h r o u g h cellular l o u v e r s o r t r a n s l u c e n t
o r r e f r a c t i n g g l a s s o r p l a s t i c . When t h e s e materials canceal t h e lamps
c o m p l e t e l y , t h e illumination c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e similar to t h o s e of
i n d i r e c t l i g h t i n g s y s t e m . Cellular l o u v e r s u s e d as t h e s h i e l d i n g
medium may p r e s e n t a r e f l e c t e d g l a r e p r o b l e m . T h i s s h o u l d b e mini-
mized in t h e d e s i g n . F i g u r e 14.14 shows a t y p i c a l 400-W h i g h - p r e s -
s u r e - s o d i u m luminaire t h a t is p o p u l a r in g e n e r a l f a c t o r y illumination.

14.2.2 Semi-direct Type

S e m i - d i r e c t u n i t s a r e t h o s e t h a t emit 60 to 90% of t h e i r l i g h t d o w n w a r d .
Utilization of l i g h t from t h e s e l u m i n a i r e s d e p e n d s g r e a t l y on ceiling
r e f l e c t a n c e . L i g h t - c o l o r e d c e i l i n g s u s u a l l y r e s u l t in i m p r o v e d u t i l i z a -
tion a n d v i s u a l c o m f o r t . T h e i n c r e a s e d ceiling illumination from t h e
s e m i - d i r e c t d i s t r i b u t i o n r e d u c e s t h e l u m i n a n c e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n ceil-
ing and luminaire, increases diffusion, and softens shadows. Appro-
p r i a t e l y d e s i g n e d r e f l e c t o r s o r r e f r a c t o r s will r e d u c e luminaire lumi-
n a n c e a n d p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l c o m f o r t . Most f l u o r e s c e n t a n d some HID
a n d i n c a n d e s c e n t l u m i n a i r e s may b e e q u i p p e d with l o u v e r s to f u r t h e r
increase shielding and reduce direct glare.

14.2.3 General Diffuse or D i r e c t - I n d i r e c t Type

In t h e s e l u m i n a i r e s , t h e d o w n w a r d a n d u p w a r d c o m p o n e n t s a r e a p p r o z i -
mately e q u a l : 40 to 60% of t h e total luminaire o u t p u t . G e n e r a l d i f f u s e -
t y p e l u m i n a i r e s emit light a b o u t e q u a l l y in all d i r e c t i o n s ; d i r e c t -
i n d i r e c t l u m i n a i r e s emit v e r y little l i g h t at a n g l e s n e a r t h e h o r i z o n t a l ,
which is p r e f e r r e d b e c a u s e of t h e i r lower luminance in t h e d i r e c t g l a r e
364 Chapter 14

z o n e . L u m i n a i r e s with s u c h a d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e widely u s e d in o f f i c e s
a n d l a b o r a t o r i e s , a n d t h e i r u s e in clean m a n u f a c t u r i n g a r e a s is i n -
creasing.

14.2.4 Semi-indirect Type

T h i s t y p e of luminaire emits most of t h e l i g h t (60 to 90%) u p w a r d .
T h e major p o r t i o n of t h e l i g h t r e a c h i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l work p l a n e
m u s t b e r e f l e c t e d from t h e ceiling a n d u p p e r walls; t h e r e f o r e , it is
necessary that these surfaces have high reflectance. The need for
h i g h r e f l e c t a n c e s a n d good m a i n t e n a n c e limits t h e u s e of i n d u s t r i a l
s e m i - i n d i r e c t s y s t e m s to a r e a s w h e r e it is n e c e s s a r y to minimize r e -
f l e c t e d g l a r e from s p e c u l a r work s u r f a c e s .

Figure 14.14 A t y p i c a l 400 W HPS luminaire f o r i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n .

Components for Industrial Illumination 365

14.2.5 Indirect Type

Indirect luminaires emitting from 90 to 100% of t h e i r light upward are
seldom used in i n d u s t r y . These u n i t s have the lowest utilization and
are more difficult to maintain. Figure 14.15 shows luminaires for
general lighting as classified by the CIE in accordance with t h e p e r -
centage of total luminaire output emitted above and below horizontal.

14.2.6 Supplementary Luminaire Types

Supplementary lighting units can be divided into five major t y p e s
accoridng to candlepower distribution and luminance:

1. Type S-I—directional: includes all concentrating u n i t s , such as

a reflector spot lamp or u n i t s employing concentrating r e f l e c t o r s
or l e n s e s .
2. Type S-II—spread, high—luminance: includes small area sources
such as incandescent or high intensity d i s c h a r g e . An open-bottom,
deep-bowl d i f f u s i n g reflector with a high intensity d i s c h a r g e lamp
is an example.
3. Type S-III—spread, moderate—luminance: includes all fluorescent
u n i t s h a v i n g a variation in luminance g r e a t e r than 2:1.
4. Type S-IV—uniform—luminance: includes all units h a v i n g less
than a 2:1 variation of luminance. Usually, this luminance is

0-10% 10-40% ι 40-60%

90-100% 60-90%ί 40-60%

DIRECT SEMI-DIRECT GENERAL DIFFUSE

40-60% 60-90% 90-100%

40-60% 10-40% 0-10%

DIRECT-INDIRECT SEMI-INDIRECT INDIRECT

Figure 14.15 General lighting luminance classifications.

366 Chapter 14

less t h a n 6800 candelas p e r s q u a r e meter (2000 footlamberts) .

An example of this t y p e is an arrangement of lamps behind a
d i f f u s i n g panel.
5. Type S-V—uniform—luminance with pattern: a luminaire similar
to t y p e S-IV, except that a p a t t e r n of s t r i p e s or lines is s u p e r -
imposed.

14.3 TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING SYSTEMS

14.3.1 Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks
The prime requirement for industrial lighting is to facilitate the
performance of visual t a s k s t h r o u g h high-quality illumination. With
such lighting, personnel will be able to observe and effectively control
t h e operation and maintenance of various t y p e s of machines and p r o -
c e s s e s . T h e r e are t h r e e t y p e s of lighting used in industrial a r e a s :
(1) g e n e r a l , (2) localized general, and (3) supplementary.

General Lighting
General lighting should be designed to provide the desired level of
illumination uniformly over the entire a r e a . The variation of light
level from point to point within the area should be within 17% of the
selected level. A good general lighting system makes it possible to
change the location of machinery without r e a r r a n g i n g the lighting,
and also permits full utilization of floor space. In general, uniform
spacing and continuous row installation of f i x t u r e s is usually the
most economical method where fluorescent is considered. Exceptionally
large machines with one or more areas of operation or control should
be studied to make s u r e that p r o p e r lighting levels are delivered to
t h e s e critical seeing a r e a s . Local lighting for bench work, assembly,
inspection, and so on, may sometimes be n e e d e d . But it will lose a
great deal of its e f f e c t i v e n e s s in the absence of good general l i g h t i n g .

Localized General Lighting

Within a general area t h e r e may be a few areas where t h e t a s k s p e r -
formed r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r quantity of light and a d i f f e r e n t quality of
l i g h t . An example would be a packing table within a warehouse,
where it is n e c e s s a r y to identify and count small p a r t s quickly, and
read or p r e p a r e o r d e r s to packing slips. In t h e s e c a s e s , additional
luminaires for local lighting will be r e q u i r e d . The specifications of
local lighting equipment should be given c a r e f u l consideration since
improper shielding or design could adversely affect the visual comfort
within the a r e a . Care must be exercised to eliminate direct or r e -
flected glare from the task and from o t h e r w o r k e r s . In c u t t i n g rooms
in the garment i n d u s t r y , the tables may be 100 ft long and 4 f t wide,
Components for Industrial Illumination 367

separated by narrow aisles possibly 3 ft wide. By lighting each

table s e p a r a t e l y , the overall r e s u l t is a general lighting system, even
though the space has been lighted using a local or supplementary
approach.

Supplementary Lighting
Supplementary lighting is specified for difficult seeing t a s k s that
r e q u i r e a specific amount or quality of light not readily obtained by
s t a n d a r d general lighting methods. Supplementary lighting is often
used to provide h i g h e r illumination levels for small or r e s t r i c t e d a r e a s .
Supplementary lighting is a valuable industrial lighting tool.
Many machine, assembly, and inspection operations involving difficult
seeing t a s k s may r e q u i r e more illumination or a d i f f e r e n t t y p e of
illumination than that provided by general lighting alone. Typical
problems arise where work is shielded from the general lighting
system by an o b s t r u c t i o n , or its b r i g h t n e s s is otherwise lowered;
where low c o n t r a s t , such as scribe marks on steel, may lead to visual
e r r o r s ; and where the product moves too rapidly to be seen clearly
by the unaided eye.
Supplementary equipment must be carefully shielded to p r e v e n t
glare from u s e r s and their c o - w o r k e r s . The luminance ratio should
be carefully controlled. To attain a good balance, it is important to
coordinate the design of supplementary and general lighting with
great c a r e .

14.3.2 Security Lighting

Security lighting p e r t a i n s to the lighting of building exterior and
s u r r o u n d i n g areas — out to and including the boundaries of the p r o p -
e r t y . In some areas it may be an integral p a r t of the industrial
lighting d e s i g n . Security lighting c o n t r i b u t e s to a sense of personal
security and to the protection of p r o p e r t y . This may be accomplished
through:

1. Surveillance lighting: lighting to detect and o b s e r v e i n t r u d e r s .

2. Protective lighting: lighting to discourage or d e t e r attempts at
e n t r a n c e , vandalism, and so o n . It may lead a potential i n t r u d e r
to believe detection highly possible and so not attempt e n t r y .
3. Lighting for safety: lighting to permit safe movement of g u a r d s
and other authorized p e r s o n s .

14.3.3 Emergency Lighting

Emergency lighting is the lighting provided for use when the power
supply for the normal lighting fails to e n s u r e that escape r o u t e s can
be effectively identified and u s e d . Standby lighting is that p a r t of
368 Chapter 14

emergency lighting that is sometimes provided to enable normal activi-

ties to continue. When the normal lighting of an occupied building
fails, r e g a r d l e s s of the cause, emergency lighting is r e q u i r e d to ful-
fill the following f u n c t i o n s :

1. Indicating clearly the escape r o u t e s

2. Providing illumination and a comforting visual environment along
the escape r o u t e s sufficient to facilitate safe movement along them
forward and t h r o u g h the exits and emergency exits provided
3. Permitting reading identification of all fire alarm call points and
f i r e f i g h t i n g equipment provided along the escape r o u t e s

The following are recommended minimum illumination requirements

for exit signs and e g r e s s r o u t e :

1. Internally illuminated signs. Where codes e x i s t , an illuminance

of 54 lux (5 fc) on the face of the sign is usually specified.
2. Externally illuminated exit signs. These v a r y so greatly in de-
s i g n , material, color, and p r i n t i n g that s t a n d a r d s are difficult
to establish. NFPA 101 r e q u i r e s 54 lux (5 fc) on t h e face of
the s i g n . However, consideration must be given to c o n t r a s t ,
glare, veiling reflectance, and reliability of the emergency power
source.
3. Egress route. The horizontal illuminance of any escape route
should not be less than 1% of the average provided by the normal
l i g h t i n g , with a minimum average of 5 lux ( 0 . 5 fc) at floor level.
A uniformity ratio ( E m a x / E m i n ) of up to 20:1 along the centerline
of an escape route is desirable for safe movement. A value of
40:1 should not be exceeded.
4. Location of egress luminaires. A luminaire should be provided
for each exit door and emergency exit door and at points where
it is n e c e s s a r y to emphasize the position of potential h a z a r d s ,
sufficient to light that area to a level of 30 lux (3 f c ) .
5. Power supply systems. Emergency lighting systems should p r o -
vide t h e r e q u i r e d illuminance within 10 s of i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e
normal lighting. If such a system is to be powered by a genera-
t o r , it is essential that the g e n e r a t o r can be r u n up to its r e -
quired o u t p u t within t h e specified p e r i o d , and that s t a r t u p be
automatic on failure of t h e normal l i g h t i n g . A b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d
emergency lighting system utilizing suitable rechargeable secondary
b a t t e r i e s may be designed for operation from a centrally located
b a t t e r y and c h a r g e r combination (central system) or from b a t t e r -
ies located at lamps themselves. The b a t t e r y / c h a r g e r combination
should be capable of s u p p o r t i n g t h e system for 1 - h o u r following
a 24-h r e c h a r g e p e r i o d .
Components for Industrial Illumination 369

All e m e r g e n c y l i g h t i n g s y s t e m s s h o u l d be t e s t e d a n d i n s p e c t e d
at l e a s t e v e r y 30 d a y s , no m a t t e r what t y p e of e m e r g e n c y p o w e r is
used.

14.3.4 General Summaries

In l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s , all t h r e e l i g h t i n g s y s t e m s ( s e e Section
1 4 . 3 . 1 ) may b e u s e d . In smaller a r e a s , h o w e v e r , localized g e n e r a l
l i g h t i n g may also s e r v e as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r g e n e r a l l i g h t i n g . In t h i s
c a s e additional s u p p l e m e n t a r y l i g h t i n g may b e r e q u i r e d to i n c r e a s e
t h e q u a n t i t y o r i m p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y of t h e illumination. Many f a c t o r s
must b e c o n s i d e r e d in s e l e c t i n g a l i g h t i n g s y s t e m , i n c l u d i n g c o s t ,
c o m f o r t , e a s e of m a i n t e n a n c e , a p p e a r a n c e , amount of l i g h t , color
r e n d i t i o n , p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d s e e i n g t a s k . Since all of t h e s e
f a c t o r s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d , it is not f e a s i b l e to recommend one o r two
s y s t e m s f o r all c o n d i t i o n s . B e c a u s e of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of ceiling
h e i g h t s to l i g h t u t i l i z a t i o n , most i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s call f o r e i t h e r
d i r e c t o r s e m i - d i r e c t l i g h t i n g s y s t e m s . For c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e
two t y p e s of l u m i n a i r e s , a review of S e c t i o n s 1 4 . 2 . 1 a n d 1 4 . 2 . 2 is
highly recommended.

14.3.5 Selection of the Equipment

In t h e selection of e q u i p m e n t — l i g h t s o u r c e s a n d l u m i n a i r e s — m a n y
v a r i a b l e s must b e c o n s i d e r e d . Some of t h e basic f a c t o r s a r e lamp
e f f i c a c y a n d l i f e , lumen m a i n t e n a n c e , b u r n i n g h o u r s p e r s t a r t , lumi-
naire efficiency, finish and distribution, b r i g h t n e s s and glare control,
t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y of e q u i p m e n t f o r m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d t h e amount of
d u s t a n d d i r t in t h e a i r . As with a n y list of v a r i a b l e s , it is n e c e s s a r y
f o r p u r p o s e s of comparison to hold some f a c t o r s c o n s t a n t . In i n d u s -
t r i a l l i g h t i n g t h a t f a c t o r is u s u a l l y m o u n t i n g h e i g h t a n d l o c a t i o n .

High-Bay Areas
In h i g h - b a y a r e a s t h e work g e n e r a l l y p r e s e n t s v i s u a l t a s k s t h a t a r e
not d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e of l a r g e m a c h i n e r y a n d o t h e r o b j e c t s . T h e r e is
little problem with r e f l e c t e d g l a r e , a n d color discrimination is not
i m p o r t a n t . U s u a l l y , o v e r h e a d c r a n e s a r e n e e d e d to h a n d l e l a r g e
p i e c e s of e q u i p m e n t .
Illuminance l e v e l s f o r h i g h - b a y a r e a s g e n e r a l l y r a n g e from 50 to
150 f c , a l t h o u g h more a n d more a r e a s a r e b e i n g l i g h t e d with 200 a n d
300 f c . At h i g h m o u n t i n g h e i g h t , it is p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n u n i f o r m
illumination b y u s i n g a few h i g h - w a t t a g e s o u r c e s r a t h e r t h a n a l a r g e r
n u m b e r of l o w - w a t t a g e s o u r c e s . For l u m i n a i r e s with medium o r n a r r o w
d i s t r i b u t i o n , g r e a t e r m o u n t i n g h e i g h t o r closer s p a c i n g is o r d i n a r i l y
r e q u i r e d f o r u n i f o r m g e n e r a l illumination.
370 Chapter 14

Regardless of mounting h e i g h t , wide-distribution luminaires are

well suited for use in areas that are wide in respect to mounting
h e i g h t . Unless the seeing t a s k is largely on vertical s u r f a c e s , narrow-
distribution luminaires are advisable for high and narrow a r e a s .
Illumination is then produced on the horizontal working area r a t h e r
than projected high on the walls where it is less u s e f u l . Large
machinery and objects do tend to cut off light and cast shadows.
Since this makes it difficult to see important vertical and angular
s u r f a c e s , broad light distribution is essential.
High intensity discharge or fluorescent luminaires for h i g h - b a y
lighting may be enclosed, ventilated open, or nonventilated open,
Enclosed luminaires are usually of a h e a v y - d u t y type with a gasketed
glass cover to protect the reflector and light source from collection
of d i r t . The initial luminaire efficiency is lower and the equipment
is more costly. Ventilated-open luminaires have largely replaced the
nonventilated t y p e . Ventilated units are recommended for all high-
bay applications except where the air has extremely high dirt content
or where fume might attack the r e f l e c t o r .
As f a r as choices of lamps are c o n c e r n e d , metal halide and HPS
are p r e f e r r e d over the mercury t y p e . The use of fluorescent lamps
in h i g h - b a y areas is limited. Only where the area proportions are
such that the room cavity ratios are in the r a n g e of 1 to 3, fluores-
cent lamps may be acceptable. But only high or e x t r a high output
fluorescent in 8-ft sizes are recommended.

Medium- and Low-Bay Areas

Seeing t a s k s in medium- and low-bay areas are usually more difficult
than those encountered in h i g h - b a y a r e a s . The t a s k s include preci-
sion and inspection work with smaller objects and machinery. The
provisions of good visibility and visual comfort are not always satis-
fied by the same characteristics of the system. Increasing the size
and r e d u c i n g the b r i g h t n e s s of the luminaires will improve visual
comfort and will usually improve the visibility of specular objects.
It may not improve the visibility of d i f f u s e three-dimensional objects.
Luminaires used for general lighting in medium-bay areas are
nearly always of the direct or semi-direct t y p e , either fluorescent or
wide-distribution HID. They may be of the ventilated or nonventilated
t y p e and may have the lamps shielded by l o u v e r s , b a f f l e s , or other
devices. All t h e s e accessories improve visual comfort, louvers usually
being the most e f f e c t i v e . For lower mounting, the t r e n d is toward
the semi-direct t y p e .
In some a r e a s , the seeing task consists of d i f f u s e three-dimen-
sional objects that can be well lighted with directional s o u r c e s . Some
of the visual t a s k s involve specular or semispecular objects, for which
optimum lighting might be an indirect system. The quality of fluores-
cent s o u r c e s , with their broad distribution of light, makes them a
Components for Industrial Illumination 371

prime selection f o r medium- and l o w - b a y l i g h t i n g . When t h e p r o p e r

q u a l i t y c o n t r o l can b e a t t a i n e d , l o w - w a t t a g e HID s o u r c e s a r e f i n d i n g
an i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of low-bay a p p l i c a t i o n s .

14.4 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

14.4.1 Lighting and Space Conditioning
With t h e u s e of h i g h e r illuminances, it is o f t e n p r a c t i c a l to combine
t h e l i g h t i n g , h e a t i n g , cooling, a n d a t m o s p h e r i c c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s
in an i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m . T h e l i g h t i n g s y s t e m can o f t e n p r o v i d e most
of t h e e n e r g y d u r i n g t h e h e a t i n g s e a s o n ,

14.4.2 High-Humidity or Corrosive Atmosphere

and Hazardous Location L i g h t i n g
Enclosed g a s k e t e d l u m i n a r i e s a r e u s e d in n o n - h a z a r d o u s a r e a s w h e r e
a t m o s p h e r e s c o n t a i n n o n - i n f l a m m a b l e d u s t s a n d v a p o r s . Steam p r o -
c e s s i n g , p l a t i n g a r e a s , wash a n d s h o w e r rooms, a n d o t h e r a r e a s of
h i g h h u m i d i t y a r e t y p i c a l a r e a s t h a t r e q u i r e enclosed l u m i n a i r e s .
H a z a r d o u s locations a r e a r e a s w h e r e a t m o s p h e r e s contain inflammable
d u s t s , v a p o r s , o r g a s e s in e x p l o s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . T h e y a r e g r o u p e d
b y t h e National Electrical Code on t h e b a s i s of t h e i r h a z a r d o u s c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s . L u m i n a i r e s a r e available specifically d e s i g n e d to o p e r a t e in
t h e s e a r e a s , which a r e n o t e d in Article 500 of t h e NEC a s c l a s s I ,
c l a s s II, a n d c l a s s III l o c a t i o n s . Luminaires u s e d in t h e s e a r e a s a r e
d e f i n e d as e x p l o s i o n - p r o o f , d u s t - t i g h t , d u s t - p r o o f , a n d enclosed and
gasketed.

14.4.3 Abnormal Temperature Conditions

Low ambient t e m p e r a t u r e must be r e c o g n i z e d as e x i s t i n g in s u c h a r e a s
as u n h e a t e d h e a v y i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s , f r o z e n - f o o d p l a n t s , a n d cold
s t o r a g e w a r e h o u s e s . Equipment s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d to o p e r a t e u n d e r
s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , and p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d to lamp s t a r t -
i n g a n d lumen o u t p u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s if f l u o r e s c e n t e q u i p m e n t is con-
s i d e r e d . With HID e q u i p m e n t , t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n h a s little e f f e c t
on lumen o u t p u t , b u t t h e p r o p e r s t a r t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must b e
p r o v i d e d . T h e r e a r e s t a r t i n g o r o p e r a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s with i n c a n d e s -
c e n t lamp e q u i p m e n t .
Abnormally h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s may b e common at t r u s s h e i g h t in
f o u n d r i e s , steel mills, f o r g e s h o p s , a n d t h e l i k e . Caution s h o u l d b e
e x e r c i s e d in s e l e c t i n g l i g h t i n g e q u i p m e n t f o r m o u n t i n g in s u c h loca-
t i o n s , T h e t e m p e r a t u r e limitations of f l u o r e s c e n t a n d HID b a l l a s t s
u n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d . T h e y may b e m o u n t e d
remotely to avoid e x c e s s i v e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ,
372 Chapter 14

14.4.4 Maintenance
Regular cleaning and prompt replacement of lamp outages are essential
in any well-operated industrial illuminating system. It is important
for the illuminating e n g i n e e r s to analyze luminaire construction and
reflector finish and to make provisions for maintenance access so that
the system can be serviced p r o p e r l y .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSI/IES S t a n d a r d Practice for Industrial Lighting, Illuminating

Engineering Society Publication 0-87995-014-5, 1983.
Chen, Kao, Fundamentals of Circuit Design and Characteristics of
Ballasts, lecture in advanced lighting c o u r s e , 1970, sponsored
by New J e r s e y Section of Illuminating Engineering Society.
C h e n , Kao, and Kane, R. Μ, , Achieving Optimum Performance in a
High P r e s s u r e Sodium Lighting System, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, J u l y / A u g . 1982, p p . 416-423.
Lighting Handbook, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield,
N . J * , J a n . 1976.
Various lamp catalogs, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield,
N . J . and North American Philips Lighting C o r p . , New York.
 15
Applications and Installations of
Industrial Illuminating Systems

15.1 INTRODUCTION

C h a p t e r 14 h a s d i s c u s s e d t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s t h a t make
u p an i n d u s t r i a l illuminating s y s t e m . T h i s c h a p t e r will c o v e r e x -
amples of t y p i c a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s which h a v e a c h i e v e d t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s of
various seeing t a s k s .

15.2 MACHINE SHOPS

Machining of metal p a r t s c o n s i s t s of s e t t i n g u p a n d o p e r a t i n g m a c h i n e s
s u c h as l a t h e s , g r i n d e r s , millers, s h a p e r s , a n d drill p r e s s e s , b e n c h
w o r k , a n d i n s p e c t i o n of metal s u r f a c e s . T h e p r e c i s i o n of s u c h machine
o p e r a t i o n u s u a l l y d e p e n d s on t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e s e t u p a n d c a r e f u l
u s e of t h e g r a d u a t e d f e e d - i n d i c a t i n g dials r a t h e r t h a n o b s e r v a t i o n of
t h e c u t t i n g tool o r i t s p a t h . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l s e e i n g problem is t h e
discrimination of detail on p l a n e o r c u r v e d metallic s u r f a c e s .
T h e visibility of s c r i b e d m a r k s d e p e n d s on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t h e s u r f a c e , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s c r i b e d m a r k , a n d t h e n a t u r e of
t h e l i g h t s o u r c e . Directional light p r o d u c e s good visibility of s c r i b e d
m a r k s on u n t r e a t e d c o l d - r o l l e d s t e e l if t h e m a r k s a r e o r i e n t e d f o r
maximum v i s i b i l i t y , s u c h t h a t t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e s o u r c e is r e f l e c t e d
from t h e s i d e of t h e s c r i b e d m a r k to t h e o b s e r v e r ' s e y e . Unfortu-
n a t e l y , t h i s t e c h n i q u e r e d u c e s t h e v i s i b i l i t y of o t h e r s c r i b e d m a r k s .
B e t t e r a v e r a g e r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d with a l a r g e - a r e a low-luminance
source.
T h e r e is an e v i d e n t a d v a n t a g e in t h e u s e of l a r g e - a r e a low-lumi-
n a n c e s o u r c e s f o r most v i s u a l t a s k s in t h e machining of metal p a r t s .

373
374 Chapter 14

The ideal general lighting system is one having a large indirect com-
p o n e n t . Both fluorescent and HID sources are used for general light-
i n g ; fluorescent luminaires in a grid p a t t e r n are usually p r e f e r r e d .
High-reflectance room s u r f a c e s improve visual performance. Figure
15.1 shows the r e s u l t of such a lighting system, which provides a
pleasant environment for die-making in a machine shop. Supplemen-
t a r y lighting is used to maintain close tolerances of die p r o d u c t i o n .
Green p l a n t s and modern wall treatment contribute to making a stimu-
lating a r e a .
Special t y p e s of luminaires are designed to illuminate three-dimen-
sional objects such as machinery, dials, spindles, p r e s s e s , panels,
and stacked materials. Light is contributed from many locations and
distances to minimize shadow, r e d u c e glare, and optimize visual com-
f o r t . This t y p e of luminaire has p r o v e n to be satisfactory for light-
ing machine s h o p s . Figure 15.2 shows a typical industrial plant
machine shop lighted with 250 W metal halide luminaires, with em-
p h a s i s on vertical s u r f a c e illumination.

Figure 15.1 Fluorescent lighting for a machine shop with supplemen-

t a r y lighting for die p r o d u c t i o n .
Installation of Industrial Illumination 375

Figure 15.2 Metal halide lighting for an industrial plant machine

shop.

15.3 GENERATING STATIONS

T u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r buildings usually have medium-high to high ceilings.

Seeing t a s k s include general inspection, meter and gauge r e a d i n g ,
and p e d e s t r i a n movement. In low- and medium-bay a r e a s , low-wattage
high intensity d i s c h a r g e or fluorescent industrial luminaires s u s p e n d e d
below major o b s t r u c t i o n s are a p p r o p r i a t e for general illumination.
When HID luminaires are utilized, r e f l e c t o r s with wide distribution
should be selected to a s s u r e e v e n e s s and a good vertical component,
and to minimize shadowing. Supplementary lighting is recommended
for vertical illumination on such equipment as control p a n e l s , switch-
g e a r , and motor control c e n t e r s . Luminaires with an upward com-
ponent c o n t r i b u t e to improved visual comfort. For h i g h - b a y a r e a s
(25 ft or h i g h e r ) , it may be a p p r o p r i a t e to use either HID or fluores-
cent luminaires. However, HID high-wattage luminaires are often
chosen for high mounting h e i g h t s .
376 Chapter 14

15.4 CONTROL ROOMS

T h e c o n t r o l room is t h e n e r v e c e n t e r of t h e power p l a n t or p r o c e s s
p l a n t a n d must be monitored c o n t i n u o u s l y . L i g h t i n g must b e d e s i g n e d
with special a t t e n t i o n to t h e comfort of t h e o p e r a t o r ; d i r e c t a n d r e -
f l e c t e d g l a r e a n d v e i l i n g r e f l e c t i o n s must b e minimized, a n d luminance
r a t i o s must b e low. Along with o r d i n a r y o f f i c e - t y p e s e e i n g t a s k s , it
is o f t e n n e c e s s a r y to r e a d m e t e r s 10 to 15 f t a w a y .
A l t h o u g h t h e p r a c t i c e is not s t a n d a r d i z e d , most c o n t r o l room
l i g h t i n g i n v o l v e s one of two g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s : d i f f u s e l i g h t i n g o r
d i r e c t i o n a l l i g h t i n g . D i f f u s e l i g h t i n g may b e from l o w - l u m i n a n c e ,
luminous i n d i r e c t l i g h t i n g e q u i p m e n t , solid luminous p l a s t i c c e i l i n g s ,
o r l o u v e r e d c e i l i n g s . D i r e c t i o n a l l i g h t i n g may b e from r e c e s s e d t r o f -
f e r s t h a t follow t h e g e n e r a l c o n t o u r of t h e c o n t r o l b o a r d .
A b a s i c conflict e x i s t s in t r y i n g to l i g h t a c o n t r o l room, since
some of t h e t a s k s a r e made more visible u n d e r r e d u c e d illumination,
while o t h e r t a s k s r e q u i r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r levels of illumination.
F o r t u n a t e l y , most of t h e t a s k s e n h a n c e d b y l i g h t - l e v e l r e d u c t i o n s a r e
not located at t h e same place w h e r e t a s k s r e q u i r i n g h i g h illumination
a r e to b e f o u n d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e l i g h t i n g system can be modified to
give a n o n u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n of light within t h e room.
T h e optimum d i s t r i b u t i o n of illumination f o r each c o n t r o l room
m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d on a c a s e - b y - c a s e b a s i s since t h e e q u i p m e n t
a r r a n g e m e n t s will v a r y in each i n s t a l l a t i o n . It may b e f o u n d n e c e s -
s a r y to u s e s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of l o u v e r s , l e n s e s , a n d d i f f u s e r s ,
sometimes in combination with one a n o t h e r , to a c h i e v e t h e optimum
d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r each p a r t i c u l a r room.

15.4.1 Cathode Ray Tube Display

C u r r e n t l y , t h e r e is a p r o l i f e r a t i o n of c a t h o d e r a y t u b e ( C R T ) d i s p l a y s
in all a r e a s of i n d u s t r y . L i g h t i n g f o r t h e s e a r e a s n e e d s special a t t e n -
t i o n . In t h e c a s e of f l u o r e s c e n t l i g h t i n g , t h e f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n is
to eliminate a n y f l u o r e s c e n t lamp r e f l e c t i o n in t h e face of t h e C R T .
T h i s can b e accomplished b y u s i n g t h e s p e c u l a r p a r a b o l i c w e d g e
l o u v e r , which h a s an a b s o l u t e c u t o f f of 45 d e g r e e s ; a n y lamp images
will b e r e f l e c t e d below t h e v i e w i n g a n g l e . CRT d i s p l a y is b e i n g u s e d
more a n d more in m a n u f a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , in addition
to t h e p a r a b o l i c w e d g e l o u v e r , a d e q u a t e l i g h t i n g is n e e d e d f o r t h e s e
d i f f i c u l t t a s k s (100 to 200 f c ) . A d i f f u s e r p o s i t i o n e d on top of t h e
l o u v e r can b e u s e f u l to avoid lamp r e f l e c t i o n s on c o m p u t e r i n p u t k e y s
and other specular surfaces.
All b r i g h t n e s s within t h e s p a c e must b e c o n t r o l l e d . Walls a n d
other s u r f a c e s should be d i f f u s e and have a light reflectance value
of l e s s t h a n 50%. Windows must b e c o v e r e d with b l a c k o u t c u r t a i n s
o r o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e s h i e l d i n g m a t e r i a l . R e f l e c t i o n s from s h i n y p l a s t i c
Installation of Industrial Illumination 377

k e y s on CRT k e y b o a r d s can cause glare problems. Some CRT manu-

f a c t u r e r s are now p r o d u c i n g terminals with matte-finish k e y s . All
d e s k s or work s u r f a c e s should be matte, or low-glare, nonreflective
s u r f a c e s . Another consideration is to position the CRTs so that they
are not parallel to each o t h e r , to avoid reflections between t h e two
CRTs.
The end r e s u l t of t h e s e precautions is a comfortable workstation
with good visibility on the CRT s c r e e n , little or no glare from the
keyboard or telephones, and easy visibility for occasional r e f e r e n c e s
to slick-page p r i n t e d or written t e x t s . The introduction of CRTs to
d e s k t o p s h a s c r e a t e d a difficult s u r f a c e to light, but it has not
created new lighting design p r i n c i p l e s . The techniques r e g a r d i n g
the luminous environment are the same today as they were the day
b e f o r e the b i r t h of CRTs. In general, the following points are u s e -
ful for lighting design involving CRTs and should t h e r e f o r e be fol-
lowed closely:

1. Test and experience the CRT workstation before d e s i g n .

2. To avoid reflected images, u s e the mirror test for the full r a n g e
of operator viewing angles and for all t y p e s of lighting, up or
down.
3. Design to avoid reflected and direct glare from any source, n a t u -
ral or artificial.
4. Illumination levels should not be diminished merely because of t h e
p r e s e n c e of a CRT.
5. Bright clothing a n d , for critical viewing, reflective jewelry should
be avoided.
6. Eyeglasses should be worn with t h e correct "near" p r e s c r i p t i o n
for acuity as well as a r a n g e of viewing angles.
7. Design should be critical of luminaire selection.

15.5 MANUFACTURING AREAS

Glass t u b i n g m a u u f a c t u r e is an important p a r t of fluorescent lamp

manufacturing o p e r a t i o n s . Near the end of the glass t u b i n g drawing
line, clippers and e n d - f o r m e r s are installed to complete t h e t u b i n g
manufacturing p r o c e s s . For this operation, ventilated fluorescent
f i x t u r e s with high o u t p u t and c e n t e r V shield r e f l e c t o r s are chosen
to deliver 100 fc on the horizontal work plane. V r e f l e c t o r s provide
adequate shielding for visual comfort. An u p w a r d component also

*The face of the CRT should be t r a v e r s e d with a small m i r r o r . Any

b r i g h t images reflected in the mirror should then be either moved,
removed, or c o v e r e d , or t h e finish should be changed to a d i f f u s e
finish with a reflectance of less than 30%.
378 Chapter 14

c o n t r i b u t e s to visual comfort by balance of luminances between lumi-

naires and t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s . Top openings help minimize dirt
accumulation. Figure 15.3 shows a fluorescent lighting installation
t h a t h a s p r o v e n satisfactory in all a s p e c t s essential to a difficult
industrial operation.
Fluorescent lighting was widely u s e d for industrial operations
p r i o r to the e n e r g y c r u n c h in the mid-1970s. During the last decade,
HID lighting h a s been becoming more popular in industrial p l a n t s ,
especially for r e t r o f i t t i n g d e s i g n s , not only because of the h i g h e r
lumen efficacies of the lamp and consequent lighting e n e r g y r e d u c t i o n ,
b u t also based on its overall good qualities for industrial applications.
An example of this application was t h e relighting program at an
automotive manufacturing facility. Since the automotive p r o c e s s is
continuous and i n t e g r a t e d , t h e f i x t u r e layout was designed to s a t i s f y
all t h e various seeing t a s k s involved in the fabrication and mating of
components. The production and maintenance staff h a s to keep t a b s
on t h e logic-programmed machines, r u n t e s t s , perform a d j u s t m e n t s ,
and a s s u r e that the manufactured components and subassembly are
in total compliance with the design specifications. The general light-
ing satisfies t h e s e requirements u s i n g evenly d i s t r i b u t e d illuminance.

Figure 15.3 High o u t p u t fluorescent luminaire with V r e f l e c t o r s for

m a n u f a c t u r i n g area l i g h t s .
Installation of Industrial Illumination 379

In h i g h - b a y a r e a s , 1000-W HPS luminaires, which provide some

uplight component t h r o u g h open and ventilated r e f l e c t o r s are used in
an approximate spacing-to-mounting height ratio of 1:1. For low-bay
a r e a s , 400 W luminaires with about a 16-ft mounting height provide
even candlepower distribution of light without glare u s i n g a faceted
aluminum reflector and a polycarbonate lens having r e f r a c t o r prism
elements. The optical assembly is totally enclosed, g a s k e t e d , and
filtered to keep contaminants from i n f i l t r a t i n g to the lamp and reflec-
tor or inside the l e n s . Since the lens prisms redirect some of the
high-angle lumen o u t p u t toward lower angles, these industrial units
provide adequate horizontal beam s p r e a d and vertical s u r f a c e illumi-
nation .
Generally, the spacing and mounting-height a r r a n g e m e n t s of both
low- and h i g h - b a y u n i t s provide approximately 60 fc horizontal main-
tained on a typical work s u r f a c e . All t h e f i x t u r e s are wired in a
c h e c k e r b o a r d p a t t e r n on 480 V t h r e e - p h a s e circuits. The overall
light level can be r e d u c e d 50% in a given zone by switching off half
the circuits in that zone from a convenient central point. T h u s e n e r g y
savings can be effected d u r i n g r e d u c e d production activity. Each
f i x t u r e is powered t h r o u g h a f u s e d plug and cord assembly which
permits easy replacement of the unit for r e p a i r .

15.6 WAREHOUSES

In warehouses with storage r a c k s , the objects to be lighted are on

the vertical s u r f a c e s of the s t a c k s , not on the floor. Some horizon-
tal illumination is n e c e s s a r y for o p e r a t o r s of material handling equip-
ment and for the floor cleaning. Designing a lighting system for a
warehouse might appear to be relatively simple. Install enough lumi-
naires to deliver enough light onto the stored material to permit
accurate selection, and in the area for o p e r a t o r s to see safely where
they are going. Over the y e a r s , a few rules of thumb have evolved
as offshoots of manufacturing area lighting p r a c t i c e . However, in
recent y e a r s the concept of storage h a s c h a n g e d . Warehouse are
l a r g e r , stacks are h i g h e r and d e e p e r , and operations have become
more and more automatic and computer controlled. In designing light-
ing for most new warehouses, illuminating e n g i n e e r s find t h e i r job
comparable to designing a system for a long, tall, narrow room for
which reflectances are unknown and in which luminaires can be placed
only in h i g h , inaccessible places.
In the p a s t ( b e f o r e the e n e r g y c r u n c h in 1974), fluorescent light-
ing was commonly used to illuminate vertical s u r f a c e s . Figure 15.4
shows h i g h - o u t p u t fluorescent luminaires operating on 277 V circuits
installed at a mounting height of 40 f t in a modern warehouse (built
380 Chapter 14

in 1966). It delivers satisfactory vertical illumination, especially near

t h e top of the s t a c k s .
Today, h i g h e r mounting h e i g h t s have necessitated t h e u s e of HID
lighting equipment. Because the light is emitted from an optically
small a r e a , an HID lamp permits finer optical control t h a n do line
source fluorescent lamps; luminaires can be designed with b e t t e r direc-
tional characteristics t h a n those of fluorescent luminaires.
Several f a c t o r s are unique to warehouse lighting. F i r s t , t h e r e
is the necessity of seeing on a vertical s u r f a c e r a t h e r t h a n on a hori-
zontal p l a n e . Second, the warehouse aisle is similar to a n a r r o w , long
room with high walls, where i n t e r r e f l e c t a n c e s influence t h e result to

Figure 15.4 High o u t p u t fluorescent lighting for warehouse aisles.

Installation of Industrial Illumination 381

a significant d e g r e e . T h i r d , the t y p e and amount of material in

warehouse aisles a r e subject to u n p r e d i c t a b l e fluctuation. A solid
wall of material, with 30% reflection t o d a y , may become a big black
hole tomorrow; or that black hole may allow the beam of t h e luminaire
in the adjacent aisle to p e n e t r a t e into t h e subject aisle.
Studies on warehouse aisle lighting have pointed out that lumi-
n a i r e s with maximum uplight provide s u p e r i o r vertical as well as
horizontal illumination at all locations for several aisle widths. The
uplight would be reflected from the ceiling, which would be advan-
tageous in a warehouse aisle setting with narrow aisles and high
mounting h e i g h t s . The s t u d y concluded that t h e amount of uplight
a p p e a r s to be an important factor and t h a t luminaire design a p p e a r s
to be one of t h e most critical elements in the production of vertical
illumination.
Figure 15.5 shows an empty warehouse lighted with 400 W HPS
luminaires, r e s u l t i n g in good vertical illumination. The HPS lamps
were also chosen because of the cost f a c t o r . The t r e n d in warehouses
h a s been toward n a r r o w e r and h i g h e r aisles, in which HID lamps be-
come mandatory.

Figure 15.5 400 W HPS lighting for a warehouse.

382 Chapter 14

15.7 ENGINEERING OFFICES, CONFERENCE ROOMS,

AND PLANT HOSPITAL ROOMS
15.7.1 Engineering Offices
Visual r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e n g i n e e r i n g a n d d r a f t i n g o f f i c e s demand h i g h -
q u a l i t y illumination s i n c e discrimination of f i n e detail is f r e q u e n t l y
r e q u i r e d f o r e x t e n d e d p e r i o d s . S i g n i f i c a n t g r a d u a t i o n of s h a d o w s
along Τ s q u a r e s a n d t r i a n g l e s r e d u c e s v i s i b i l i t y . H a r s h d i r e c t i o n a l
s h a d o w s from d r a w i n g i n s t r u m e n t s may r e d u c e e f f i c i e n c y . Illumi-
n a t i o n s y s t e m s t h a t avoid r e f l e c t i o n s a r e most i m p o r t a n t in p r o v i d i n g
maximum c o n t r a s t . S t u d i e s show t h a t ideal locations f o r l i g h t f i x t u r e s
w e r e at l e a s t 24 i n . from e i t h e r s i d e of t h e d r a f t i n g t a b l e . For a
room of 105 f t b y 44 f t t h a t is to b e b r o k e n into s i x - o r e i g h t - p e r s o n
w o r k i n g g r o u p s with 6 f t h i g h p a r t i t i o n s ; c o n t i n u o u s r o w s of l i g h t
f i x t u r e s m o u n t e d 12 f t on c e n t e r s would b e a s a t i s f a c t o r y a r r a n g e -
m e n t . T h e s e a r e r e c e s s e d 2 χ 4 f t p a r a b o l i c f l u o r e s c e n t t r o f f e r s with
4 i n . d e e p cells a n d f o u r l a m p s . P a r a b o l i c f i x t u r e s a r e also s u i t e d
f o r CRT v i e w i n g s in t h e same o f f i c e . S u c h a l i g h t i n g s y s t e m can

Figure 15.6 Combination of f l u o r e s c e n t and i n c a n d e s c e n t l i g h t i n g f o r

a f u n c t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e room.
Installation of Industrial Illumination 383

p r o d u c e virtually g l a r e - f r e e and adequate illumination at t h e c e n t e r

of the d r a f t i n g t a b l e s .

15.7.2 Conference Rooms

The diversity of work to be performed in the conference room s u g g e s t s
that the illumination should be flexible and the entire environment
should be comfortable and p l e a s a n t . The general lighting is provided
by the r e c e s s e d fluorescent in the 2 x 4 g r i d - t y p e ceiling. Specially
chosen r e f l e c t o r s provide high-level illumination without glare.
Incandescent (250 W PAR38) downlights with concentric louvers
are provided in t h e f r o n t stage and over the conference table. T h i s ,
in combination with dimmer-controlled general lighting, provides flexi-

Figure 15.7 Dimmer controlled fluorescent lighting for a engineering

manager's office.
384 Chapter 14

bility to c r e a t e a c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a s well as e y e comfort f o r all

s e e i n g t a s k s . F i g u r e 15.6 shows a h a n d s o m e l y d e c o r a t e d f u n c t i o n a l
c o n f e r e n c e room with t h e l i g h t i n g s y s t e m a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .

15.7.3 Engineering Manager's Office

The fluorescent luminaires for the engineering manager's office are
similar to t h a t of t h e c o n f e r e n c e room, to p r o v i d e a maximum of 200
f c . T h e l i g h t f i x t u r e s a r e p o s i t i o n e d to minimize b o t h d i r e c t a n d
r e f l e c t e d g l a r e . T h e room is p r o v i d e d with r i c h l y p a n e l e d walls a n d
d a r k V e n e t i a n b l i n d s to r e d u c e g l a r e . T h e illumination r e q u i r e d in
t h i s o f f i c e v a r i e s from t h a t n e c e s s a r y f o r c a s u a l s i g h t d u r i n g v i s i t s
to h i g h e r v a l u e s f o r p r o l o n g e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n on d i f f i c u l t s e e i n g t a s k s .
All l i g h t s a r e dimmer c o n t r o l l e d to p r o v i d e f l e x i b l e , smooth v a r i a t i o n
in t h e illumination n e e d e d f o r t h e d i v e r s i t y of t a s k s e n c o u n t e r e d .
F i g u r e 15.7 shows a b e a u t i f u l l y d e c o r a t e d m a n a g e r ' s o f f i c e with t h e
l i g h t i n g system as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .

Figure 15.8 Level c o n t r o l l e d f l u o r e s c e n t l i g h t i n g f o r a p l a n t h o s p i t a l

room.
Installation of Industrial Illumination 385

15.7.4 Plant Hospital Rooms

A plant hospital room is used for emergency a n d / o r simple treatments
only. It is s t a f f e d with a n u r s e and a part-time doctor. In the
hospital room a moderately high lighting level is needed for exami-
n a t i o n s . Ideally, a 50 fc level for local examination is recommended.
However, it is advantageous to use three-lamp or four-lamp fluores-
cent luminaires for t h e general illumination, switched or dimmed to
allow reduction in t h e light level d u r i n g certain p r o c e d u r e s . This
t y p e of room can be b e t t e r served with general illumination supple-
mented by a portable or fixed examination l i g h t . The general light
source should be of t h e color-improved t y p e . Figure 15.8 illustrates
a plant hospital room that is lighted with color-improved lamps and
level-controlled switching devices.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chen, K . , Case S t u d i e s : Offices Lighting, Building Operating

Management, J a n . 1970.
C h r i s t e n s e n , Morgan, Lighting Prescription for Areas Containing
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Displays, Lighting Design and Appli-
cation, May 1981, p p . 2 3 - 2 5 .
Feldhaus, Ron, The Look and Feel of Innovative Lighting—One Com-
p a n y ' s Approach, Electrical System Design, Mar. 1987, p p . 34—40.
Goodwin, Patricia, Warehouse Aisle Lighting, Lighting Design and
Application, J u n e 1985, p p . 3 0 - 4 2 .
Lighting Handbook, Sec. 9 of Application Volume, Illuminating Engi-
n e e r i n g Society, New York, 1987.
McGowan, T e r r y , and C h r i s t e n s e n , Morgan, Recent Findings in Ware-
house Lighting Design, Plant Engineering, Mar. 18, 1982, p p .
267-271.
Sledz, Roger J . , Control Room Lighting: An Application of Human
Factors E n g i n e e r i n g , IEEE-PES Winter Meeting Record, 1982.
Zekowski, G e r r y , Lighting for C R T ' s : Another View, Lighting
Design and Application, Nov. 1981, p p . 28—32.
 16
Floodlighting Design

16.1 INTRODUCTION

F l o o d l i g h t i n g a b u i l d i n g , m o n u m e n t , o r s t r u c t u r e is an e f f e c t i v e means
of i d e n t i f y i n g t h e object at n i g h t a n d t h e r e b y calling a t t e n t i o n to it
a n d i t s o w n e r . T h a n k s to r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d light s o u r c e s , lumi-
n a i r e s , a n d t e c h n i q u e s , l i g h t i n g e f f e c t s can b e t a i l o r e d to t h e t y p e
of b u i l d i n g or s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h e o w n e r w a n t s to give
i t . H o w e v e r , t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d t e c h n i q u e s must be u s e d i n t e l l i g e n t l y
a n d i m a g i n a t i v e l y , f o r it is e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g o r s t r u c t u r e ' s
form, b e a u t y , and architectural identity be neither d i s t u r b e d nor
obscured.
In g e n e r a l , f l o o d l i g h t i n g s h o u l d a c h i e v e c e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e s . First,
t h e s t r u c t u r e s u r f a c e should h a v e a b r i g h t n e s s s u c h t h a t it a p p e a r s
in p e r s p e c t i v e when viewed from a d i s t a n c e . S h a d o w s c a s t s h o u l d
look like t h o s e c a s t by t h e s u n ; t h e y should not d e s t r o y t h e b a s i c
form a n d d e p t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e ' s a r c h i t e c t u r e . Walls a n d o t h e r flat
s u r f a c e s s h o u l d b e illuminated to a level t h a t r e v e a l s t h e i r t e x t u r e
a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n . F i n a l l y , t h e s t r u c t u r e
s h o u l d b e i d e n t i f i e d with t h e a r e a a b o u t it b y illuminating s u f f i c i e n t
s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a ; t h a t i s , it s h o u l d not a p p e a r s u s p e n d e d b u t r a t h e r
o r i e n t e d with a d j a c e n t g r o u n d s , s l o p e s , a n d p l a z a s .

16.2 BASIC FLOODLIGHTING EFFECTS

16.2.1 Flat Lighting
Flat l i g h t i n g is uniform illumination of a s t r u c t u r e . It c r e a t e s few
h i g h l i g h t s a n d s h a d o w s and little modeling, b u t it can b e t h e most

386
Floodlighting Design 426 387

economical k i n d b e c a u s e i n s t a l l a t i o n is u s u a l l y simple a n d little of t h e

l i g h t p a t t e r n misses t h e b u i l d i n g . Luminaires can b e m o u n t e d on t h e
g r o u n d , on p o l e s , o r on t h e roof of a d j a c e n t b u i l d i n g o r b u i l d i n g s
a c r o s s t h e s t r e e t ( s e e Section 1 6 . 7 . 1 ) .

16.2.2 Grazing L i g h t i n g
G r a z i n g l i g h t i n g dramatically e x p r e s s e s t h e c h a r a c t e r of a b u i l d i n g
b y p r o d u c i n g s t r o n g h i g h l i g h t s a n d s h a d o w s . It i s a c h i e v e d b y
m o u n t i n g f l o o d l i g h t s close to t h e f a c a d e , so it is o f t e n u s e d w h e r e
m o u n t i n g s p a c e is r e s t r i c t e d . T h e b e s t l i g h t s o u r c e f o r tall b u i l d i n g s
is a h i g h i n t e n s i t y d i s c h a r g e (HID) lamp with i t s a r c t u b e along t h e
a x i s of a c o n c e n t r a t i n g s p e c u l a r r e f l e c t o r ( s e e Section 1 6 . 7 . 3 ) .

16.2.3 L i g h t i n g Patterns
L i g h t i n g p a t t e r n s can b e u s e d to emphasize o r s u b d u e a d j a c e n t a r c h i -
tectural elements, s t r e n g t h e n design concpets, or increase the attrac-
tion of an o t h e r w i s e plain s u r f a c e . T h e k e y to s u c c e s s in n o n u n i f o r m
l i g h t i n g is to c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e e f f e c t was p l a n n e d ( s e e
Section 1 6 . 7 . 4 ) .

16.2.4 Color L i g h t i n g
Color l i g h t i n g can s u p p l e m e n t t h e i n c r e a s i n g u s e of bold colors in
modern c o n s t r u c t i o n , b o t h in g e n e r a l f l o o d l i g h t i n g a n d a s a means of
e s t a b l i s h i n g h i g h l i g h t s a n d focal p o i n t s . It can b e a c h i e v e d e i t h e r
b y u s e of color f i l t e r s o r b y u t i l i z i n g t h e i n h e r e n t color d i f f e r e n c e s
among t h e l i g h t s o u r c e s . I n c a n d e s c e n t l i g h t i n g p r o d u c e s a n a t u r a l
look, c l e a r m e r c u r y l i g h t i n g t e n d s t o c a s t a s l i g h t g r e e n i s h color on
n e u t r a l c o l o r s , f l u o r e s c e n t l i g h t i n g s t r e n g t h e n s white o r l i g h t b l u e
c o l o r s , a n d sodium l i g h t i n g is r i c h in amber color a n d v e r y e f f e c t i v e
in a d d i n g w a r m t h .

16.2.5 Sparkle or Glitter

S p a r k l e o r g l i t t e r , which is a c h i e v e d with e x p o s e d l a m p s , comple-
m e n t s modern a r c h i t e c t u r e with i t s e m p h a s i s on line a n d p l a n e . The
lamp size r e q u i r e d f o r a s p a r k l e p a t t e r n d e p e n d s on t h e b r i g h t n e s s
of t h e a r e a a n d t h e e f f e c t d e s i r e d .

16.3 CHOOSING THE FLOODLIGHT SOURCES

T h e b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s of l i g h t s o u r c e s a r e i n c a n d e s c e n t , f l u o r e s c e n t ,
a n d HID l a m p . T a b l e 1 6 . 1 c o m p a r e s t h e c o s t s , life a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
c o l o r , s i z e , a n d a e s t h e t i c achievement of v a r i o u s l i g h t s o u r c e s .
 CO
00
Οθ

Tabl e 16. 1 C o m p a r i s o n of L i g h t S o u r c e s

Incandescent Mercury

Quartz- Metallic High-Pressure

Standard Iodine Fluorescent Standard Additive Sodium

Initial Cost Low Low Higher Higher Higher Higher

A n n u a l O p e r a t i n g Cost Medium Medium Low- Low Low Low

Service Life Fair Fair Good V e r y good Good Good

Color D e f i n i t i o n Good Very good Fair Fair Good Good

Beam Control Very good Good Poor Fair Good Good

Cold W e a t h e r O p e r a t i o n V e r y good Very good Fair Good Good Good

Long Range Projection

(narrow beam) V e r y good Fair Poor Fair Fair Fair

M e d i u m Range Projection Good Good Fair Good Good Good

Lumen Output Fair Fair Fair Good V e r y good Best

?ο
ο
Ό
δ"
"S
Oi
Floodlighting Design 426 389

16.3.1 Incandescent Lamps

I n c a n d e s c e n t lamps a r e p e r h a p s t h e most u s e f u l a n d v e r s a t i l e flood-
l i g h t s o u r c e . T h e i r light can b e d i r e c t e d easily b y l e n s e s a n d r e -
f l e c t o r s in beams of t h e d e s i r e d s h a p e , a n d t h e color of t h e i r l i g h t
is a c c e p t e d as " w h i t e . " E f f i c a c y u s u a l l y is a b o u t 20 lm/W.
T u n g s t e n h a l o g e n l a m p s , t h e new i n c a n d e s c e n t s o u r c e s , h a v e
e f f i c a c i e s of a b o u t 25 lm/W. T h e y c o n t a i n h a l o g e n t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y
r e m o v e s v a p o r i z e d t u n g s t e n d e p o s i t s from t h e q u a r t z e n v e l o p e a n d
r e d e p o s i t s it on t h e f i l a m e n t ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i r light o u t p u t r e m a i n s
almost c o n s t a n t o v e r t i m e i n s t e a d of d i m i n i s h i n g as a r e s u l t of t u n g s t e n
d e p o s i t i n g on t h e e n v e l o p e . T h e lamps u s e d f o r b u i l d i n g f l o o d l i g h t -
i n g a r e u s u a l l y a b o u t t h e size a n d s h a p e of p e n c i l s . Most f l o o d l i g h t s
d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e s e l i n e a r light s o u r c e s develop r e c t a n g u l a r beam
p a t t e r n s , which a r e h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t f o r many b u i l d i n g f l o o d l i g h t i n g
applications.
P r o j e c t o r lamps a r e d e v e l o p e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s . T h e 6 V
120 W PAR64 i n c a n d e s c e n t lamp p r o d u c e s a t h i n beam t h a t is v e r y
e f f e c t i v e f o r f l o o d l i g h t i n g tall b u i l d i n g s , c o l u m n s , s t e e p l e s , w a t e r
t o w e r s , a n d t h e l i k e . I t s beam s p r e a d of 4J d e g r e e s in one p l a n e b y
7 d e g r e e s in t h e o t h e r is a c h i e v e d b y m a s k i n g critical a r e a s of t h e
r e f l e c t o r to p r e v e n t r e f o c u s i n g of l i g h t .

16.3.2 Fluorescent Lamps

F l u o r e s c e n t lamps a r e lower in b r i g h t n e s s t h a n t h e o t h e r s o u r c e s ,
b u t more e f f i c i e n t t h a n most, F l u o r e s c e n t lamps r e q u i r e a l a r g e
s p e c u l a r r e f l e c t o r f o r p r e c i s e c o n t r o l of l i g h t , b u t e v e n with s u c h a
r e f l e c t o r , c o n t r o l is limited to t h e l i g h t p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e l e n g t h
of t h e lamp. T h e y a r e s e n s i t i v e to t e m p e r a t u r e b o t h in s t a r t i n g a n d
o p e r a t i n g , a l t h o u g h o u t d o o r - t y p e b a l l a s t s e n s u r e reliable s t a r t i n g down
to — 20°F. R e g a r d l e s s of ballast t y p e , h o w e v e r , l i g h t o u t p u t is r e -
d u c e d when t h e lamp is e x p o s e d to low t e m p e r a t u r e a n d moving a i r .

16.3.3 Mercury Lamps

M e r c u r y lamps a r e almost as e f f i c i e n t a s f l u o r e s c e n t lamps a n d some-
what more c o m p a c t . Color r e n d i t i o n in g e n e r a l is i n f e r i o r to t h a t of
i n c a n d e s c e n t l i g h t i n g , a l t h o u g h some m e r c u r y lamps h a v e r e l a t i v e l y
good color r e n d i t i o n .

16.3.4 Metal Halide Lamps

Metal halide lamps f u r n i s h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25 to 100 lm/W of white l i g h t .
In a d d i t i o n to t h e m e r c u r y a n d a r g o n g a s in t h e a r c t u b e g e n e r a l l y
a r e iodine c o m p o u n d s . T h e a d v a n t a g e s of metal halide lamps o v e r
m e r c u r y lamps a r e good color without t h e u s e of p h o s p h o r a n d a h i g h
390 Chapter 14

initial l i g h t o u t p u t . A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of metal halide lamps is t h a t

t h e r e i s some v a r i a t i o n in color u n i f o r m i t y from lamp to lamp. This
is i n f l u e n c e d b y f l u c t u a t i o n s in line v o l t a g e , ballast o u t p u t c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s , luminaire d e s i g n , a n d ambient t e m p e r a t u r e . H o w e v e r , a
metal h a l i d e l i g h t s o u r c e p r o d u c e s a wide r a n g e of l e s s s u b t l e c o l o r s ,
i n c l u d i n g yellow, r e d , g r e e n , a n d b l u e .

16.3.5 High Pressure Sodium Lamps

High p r e s s u r e sodium lamps h a v e a h i g h e f f i c a c y of 100 to 130 lm/W
of white l i g h t with a y e l l o w / o r a n g e t o n e , which p r o v i d e s a r i c h warm
a m b e r color t h a t s e r v e s b u i l d i n g material well. T h e a p p e a r a n c e of
n a t u r a l s u r f a c e s l i g h t e d with h i g h p r e s s u r e sodium lamps is similar
to t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e u n d e r warm white f l u o r e s c e n t of l o w - w a t t a g e i n -
c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s , b u t colors at t h e "cool" e n d of t h e s p e c t r u m a r e
substantially grayed down.

16.4 CHOOSING A LUMINAIRE

T h e f i r s t s t e p in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t y p e , n u m b e r , a n d size of flood-
l i g h t l u m i n a i r e s r e q u i r e d to l i g h t a b u i l d i n g is to choose a t e n t a t i v e
floodlight on t h e b a s i s of t y p e of light s o u r c e , s h a p e a n d size of
beam ( r o u n d o r r e c t a n g u l a r ; wide, medium, o r n a r r o w ) , a n d w a t t a g e
o r l i g h t o u t p u t (beam lumens) of t h e s o u r c e . As a g e n e r a l r u l e , if
a simple r e q u i r e m e n t must be m e t , t h e illuminating e n g i n e e r s simply
select t h e lamp a n d luminaire b e s t s u i t e d f o r t h e j o b . Where t h e r e
a r e no c l e a r - c u t r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e e n g i n e e r s compare t h e v a r i o u s
lamp a n d luminaire c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d weigh t h e i m p o r t a n c e of e a c h .
If more t h a n one l i g h t s o u r c e is s u i t a b l e , an economic s t u d y must be
made to d e t e r m i n e which would b e t h e b e s t choice f o r a n u m b e r of
y e a r s of s e r v i c e . T h e comparison of light s o u r c e in T a b l e 16.1 can
b e u s e d e f f e c t i v e l y as a q u i c k s e l e c t o r .
With t h e light s o u r c e c h o s e n , a luminaire can b e s e l e c t e d . Flood-
l i g h t l u m i n a i r e s a r e u s u a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e n t y p e s on t h e b a s i s of
beam s p r e a d . In T a b l e 16.2 it is n o t e d t h a t beam e f f i c i e n c i e s v a r y
with t h e t y p e of beam a n d lamp, as s h o w n . Two p o p u l a r t y p e s of
f l o o d l i g h t s a r e shown in F i g u r e s 16.1 a n d 1 6 . 2 .

16.5 DESIGN PROCEDURES

16.5.1 Determine the Level of Illumination
In T a b l e 16.3 a r e l i s t e d t h e recommended illumination levels f o r many
f l o o d l i g h t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e illumination s h o u l d not fall below t h e s e
l e v e l s at a n y time in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e c y c l e ; t h e r e f o r e , an allowance
 Floodlighting Design 391

Table 16.2 Floodlight Luminaire T y p e s

Minimum Efficiency (percent)

Incandescent Mercury Fluorescent
Beam Spread NEMA
( degrees) Type Effective Reflector Area (sq. in.)
Under Over Under Over
227 227 227 227 Any

10 to 18 1 34 35 — 20

18 to 29 2 36 36 22 30 25
29 to 4 6 3 39 45 24 34 35

4 6 to 70 4 42 50 35 38 42

70 to 100 5 46 50 38 42 50

100 to 130 6 — — 42 46 55

130 a n d u p 7 — 46 50 55

Source: National Electrical Manufacturers' Association. Asymmetrical-beam floodlights may be designated by a combination
type designation which indicates horizontal and vertical beam spreads in that order; e.g., a floodlight with a horizontal beam
spread of 75 degrees (Type 5) and vertical spread of 35 degrees (Type 3) would be designated as a Type 5x3floodlight.

Figure 16.1 A typical floodlight for 400 W HID lamps ( c o u r t e s y of

Westinghouse Electric C o r p . ) .
392 Chapter 14

Figure 16.2 A typical floodlight for 1000 W HID lamps.

for reasonable depreciation must be made in the d e s i g n . In flood-

lighting buildings, monuments, and the like, the reflectance of t h e
s u r f a c e and the b r i g h t n e s s of the s u r r o u n d i n g s must be considered
in o r d e r to determine the amount of light n e c e s s a r y . If a building
is located in an area that is normally crowded, it is advisable to
r e d u c e the b r i g h t n e s s on the lower portion of the building to p r e -
v e n t possible annoyance to p e d e s t r i a n s and motorists.

16.5.2 Choose Proper Spread

As already discussed in Section 16.4, floodlight equipment is divided
into seven t y p e s according to beam s p r e a d , which is defined as the
angle between the two directions in which the candlepower is 10% of
t h e maximum candlepower at or near the c e n t e r of the beam. Beam
efficiency is defined as the p e r c e n t a g e of the beam lumens bear to
the lamp lumens, the beam lumens being the lumens contained within
the beam s p r e a d .
Floodlighting Design 426 393

Table 16.3 Recommended Levels of Illumination for Floodlighting

Design Applications

Recommended Recommended
Footcandles Footcandles
(Minimum At (Minimum At
Any Time) Any Time)
Building- Parking Lots 5
General Construction 10 Self-Parking 1
E x c a v a t i o n Work 2
Attendant Parking 2
Building Exteriors and Monu-
m e n t s , Floodlighted— Piers, Freight and Passenger... 20
Bright Surroundings— Prison Yards 5
Light Surfaces 15
Dark Surfaces 50 Quarries 5
Dark Surroundings—
Light Surfaces 5 Railroad Yards—Classification
Dark Surfaces 20 Switch Points 2
B o d y of Yard 1
Bulletins and Poster Boards—
(Water Tanks or Stacks With Service Stations (At Grade)—
Advertising Messages, Flags) Light Surroundings—
Bright Surroundings— Approach 3
Light Surfaces 50 P u m p Island Area 30
Dark Surfaces 100 Service Areas 7
Dark Surroundings— Dark Surroundings—
Light Surfaces 20 Approach 1.5
Dark Surfaces 50 P u m p Island Area 20
Service Area 3
Coal Yards (Protective) 0.2
Shipyards-
Dredging 2 General 5
Ways 10
Loading Platforms 20 Fabrication Area 30

Lumber Yards 1 Storage Yards, Active 20

Although t h e choice of beam s p r e a d for a particular application

d e p e n d s on individual circumstances, t h e following general principles
apply:

1. T h e g r e a t e r t h e distance from t h e floodlight to t h e area to be

lighted, t h e narrower t h e beam s p r e a d d e s i r e d .
2. Since by definition t h e candlepower at t h e edge of a floodlight
beam is 10% of t h e candlepower near t h e c e n t e r of t h e beam, t h e
illumination level at t h e edge of t h e beam is o n e - t e n t h or less of
that at t h e c e n t e r . To obtain reasonable uniformity of illumina-
tion, t h e beams of individual floodlight must overlap each o t h e r
as well as t h e edge of t h e s u r f a c e to be lighted.
3. T h e p e r c e n t a g e of beam lumens falling outside t h e area to be
lighted is usually lower with narrow-beam units than with wide-
beam u n i t s . T h u s narrow-beam floodlights a r e p r e f e r a b l e where
they will provide t h e n e c e s s a r y d e g r e e of uniformity of illumina-
tion and t h e p r o p e r footcandle level.
394 Chapter 14

4. T h e location of f l o o d l i g h t i n g e q u i p m e n t is u s u a l l y d i c t a t e d b y t h e
t y p e of application a n d t h e p h y s i c a l s u r r o u n d i n g s . If t h e a r e a
is l a r g e , i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r s o r poles s p a c e d at r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s
may b e r e q u i r e d to light it e v e n l y ; smaller a r e a s may r e q u i r e only
one tower with all e q u i p m e n t c o n c e n t r a t e d on i t , o r a d j a c e n t b u i l d -
i n g s may be u s e d as floodlight l o c a t i o n s .

It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e light b e p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l e d . S t r o n g l i g h t
d i r e c t e d parallel to a h i g h w a y or r a i l r o a d t r a c k can b e a d a n g e r o u s
s o u r c e of g l a r e to oncoming t r a f f i c , a n d l i g h t t h r o w n i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y
on a d j a c e n t p r o p e r t y may b e a s e r i o u s n u i s a n c e .

16.5.3 Determine the Coefficient of Beam Utilization

To d e t e r m i n e t h e n u m b e r of f l o o d l i g h t s t h a t will b e r e q u i r e d to p r o -
d u c e a s p e c i f i e d level of illumination in a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n , it is n e c e s -
s a r y to know t h e n u m b e r of lumens in t h e beam of t h e floodlight a n d
t h e p e r c e n t a g e of t h e beam lumens s t r i k i n g t h e a r e a to be l i g h t e d .
T h e beam lumens may be o b t a i n e d from m a n u f a c t u r e d c a t a l o g s . The
r a t i o of t h e lumens s t r i k i n g t h e f l o o d l i g h t e d s u r f a c e to t h e beam lumens
is called t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of beam utilization ( C B U ) . When an a r e a is
u n i f o r m l y l i g h t e d , t h e a v e r a g e CBU of t h e f l o o d l i g h t s in t h e i n s t a l l a -
tion is always l e s s t h a n 1 . 0 .
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t of beam utilization f o r a n y i n d i v i d u a l floodlight
will d e p e n d on i t s l o c a t i o n , t h e point at which it is aimed, a n d t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of l i g h t within i t s b e a m . In g e n e r a l , t h e a v e r a g e CBU
of all t h e f l o o d l i g h t s in an installation s h o u l d fall within t h e r a n g e
0.60 to 0 . 9 0 . If l e s s t h a n 60% of t h e beam lumens a r e u t i l i z e d , it is
an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a more economical l i g h t i n g plan should b e p o s s i b l e
b y u s i n g d i f f e r e n t locations o r n a r r o w e r - b e a m f l o o d l i g h t s . On t h e
o t h e r h a n d , if t h e CBU is o v e r 0.90, it is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e beam
s p r e a d s e l e c t e d is too n a r r o w a n d t h e r e s u l t a n t illumination will b e
s p o t t y . An estimated CBU can b e d e t e r m i n e d b y e x p e r i e n c e o r b y
m a k i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r s e v e r a l p o t e n t i a l aiming p o i n t s a n d u s i n g t h e
average figure thus obtained.
To make s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e f l o o d l i g h t e d a r e a is s u p e r i m p o s e d
on t h e p h o t o m e t r i c g r i d , a n d t h e r a t i o of t h e lumens i n s i d e t h i s a r e a
to t h e total beam l u m e n s is d e t e r m i n e d . All h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s on a
b u i l d i n g a p p e a r as s t r a i g h t h o r i z o n t a l lines on t h e g r i d if t h e flood-
l i g h t is so aimed t h a t i t s beam axis is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to a h o r i z o n t a l
line on t h e f a c e of t h e b u i l d i n g . All v e r t i c a l lines e x c e p t t h e one
t h r o u g h t h e beam a x i s a p p e a r s l i g h t l y c u r v e d . F i g u r e 16.3 i l l u s t r a t e s
t h e s u p e r i m p o s e d method to d e t e r m i n e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of beam utiliza-
tion.
Floodlighting Design 426 395

C NOMINAL LAMI> DATA TOT WC5UUT»

WATT» . 1500 AV& MAX. CANDLEPOWER 23,500
/h VOLT» . MAM LUMCNS
•ULB — P3-52 C l e a r κ am efficiency
Ε Vd SERVICE O ^ n e r ·! NOR. «CAM SPREAD 9fi9 degree·
LUMENS ^.000 v e r t . mam spread .91
9 degreel
& TEST PROCEDURE AMD DATA fORU IN ACCORDANCE WITH I t.S AMD Ν C M A STANOARD»
0
*SOCANDLE CURVES LUMENS
G AVERAGE or RCf MT AHO LETT SO
l CS aviwage or wicmt and l c t t side»

L
50°

F
66 _58 »» 27 1» 209
146 111 88 53 26
30°

20°
280 2 2 8 158 86 *0 _Z22_
IF: E 0 = OL = 2 5 E" " c
AL= F L = 4 0 10°
502 588 .122 122 si
LD = 8 0 78» 5 8 1 3 1 0 1»5 62 ^ I 1882
oe G -O
THEN: ANGLE LFO = 3 2 # 88» 630 55 2
151 65
10°
EFO = 1 9 ° 65» »8l
ΒΓΕ = 3 2 0 20°
265 128 56
i 15βΗ

ο
GF0=4I 0 351 III 167 90 »1 " 923
30°
AFL = 4 5 °
CFE = 5 1 ° 40°
a V
£ 1»0 98 57 27
D
>>89
HFO = 6 0 ° OUTLINE 80 70 50 32
DFL = 6 4 ° 50° OF 2*6
BUILDING
TOTAL» O' VCfillCAt ZONCS
THE CBU OF THE FLOODLIGHT 391* 2 9 7 5 [ 1 7 M I 8 9 1 ! 3931 I 9922
0
AT F IS ABOUT . 8 1 5ο *0° 30° 20° 10° 10° 20° 30° So5"

Figure 16.3 S u p e r i m p o s e d method f o r determining· c o e f f i c i e n t of beam

utilization.

16.5.4 Estimate the Maintenance Factor

Lighting- e f f i c i e n c y is s e r i o u s l y impaired b y lamp d e p r e c i a t i o n a n d b y
d i r t on t h e r e f l e c t i n g a n d t r a n s m i t t i n g s u r f a c e s of t h e e q u i p m e n t .
To c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e g r a d u a l d e p r e c i a t i o n of illumination on t h e
floodlit a r e a , a m a i n t e n a n c e f a c t o r (MF) must be applied in t h e cal-
c u l a t i o n s to make allowance f o r t h e following:

1. Loss of l i g h t o u t p u t d u e to d i r t on t h e lamp, r e f l e c t o r , a n d c o v e r
g l a s s . U n d e r comparable c o n d i t i o n s , e n c l o s e d f l o o d l i g h t s h a v e a
h i g h e r m a i n t a i n e d e f f i c i e n c y t h a n t h a t of open u n i t s b e c a u s e t h e
c o v e r g l a s s p r o t e c t s b o t h t h e r e f l e c t o r and t h e lamp from t h e
accumulation of d i r t .
2. Loss in l i g h t o u t p u t of t h e lamp with l i f e . B e c a u s e some of t h e
l i g h t must p a s s t h r o u g h t h e b u l b more t h a n once b e f o r e l e a v i n g
t h e f l o o d l i g h t , b u l b b l a c k e n i n g also lowers floodlight e f f i c i e n c y ,
t h e r e d u c t i o n in beam lumens b e i n g a b o u t double t h e r e d u c t i o n
in b a r e lamp o u t p u t .
396 Chapter 14

M a i n t e n a n c e f a c t o r s a r e u s u a l l y e s t i m a t e d to b e from 0.65 to 0 . 8 5 .
H o w e v e r , if t h e f l o o d l i g h t s a r e c l e a n e d i n f r e q u e n t l y , or w h e r e lamps
a r e r e p l a c e d only on b u r n o u t , it is a d v i s a b l e to u s e lower m a i n t e n a n c e
f a c t o r s . D i f f e r e n c e in lumen m a i n t e n a n c e among lamp t y p e s a n d s i z e s
s h o u l d also b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . With n a r r o w - b e a m f l o o d l i g h t s ,
d i r t on t h e r e f l e c t o r a n d c o v e r g l a s s t e n d s to widen t h e beam s p r e a d ,
r e d u c i n g t h e maximum c a n d l e p o w e r more t h a n t h e total l i g h t o u t p u t .
T h u s f o r a small l i g h t e d a r e a u t i l i z i n g only t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of a beam,
a smaller p e r c e n t a g e of t h e beam l u m e n s will s t r i k e t h e t a r g e t a f t e r
t h e floodlight h a s become d i r t y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n in f o o t -
c a n d l e i n t e n s i t y will b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n in total l i g h t
o u t p u t , a n d it will be n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r t h i s in s e l e c t i n g a main-
tenance factor.

16.5.5 Determine the Number of Floodlights Required

area χ footcandies
n u m b e r of f l o o d l i g h t s =
beam l u m e n s χ CBU χ MF

w h e r e a r e a is t h e s u r f a c e a r e a to b e l i g h t e d in s q u a r e f e e t ; f o o t c a n d i e s
a r e a s s e l e c t e d from T a b l e 16.3. For t h e beam l u m e n s , r e f e r to m a n u -
f a c t u r e r s ' c a t a l o g s f o r e q u i p m e n t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Where s u p p l y
v o l t a g e d e v i a t e s from r a t e d v o l t a g e , t h e lamp lumen o u t p u t s h o u l d b e
adjusted accordingly.

16.5.6 Check for Coverage and Uniformity

A f t e r a t e n t a t i v e l a y o u t h a s b e e n m a d e , t h e u n i f o r m i t y may b e c h e c k e d
b y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y of illumination at a few p o i n t s on t h e
floodlit s u r f a c e . T h i s may b e done b y t h e p o i n t - b y - p o i n t method
d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 12, u s i n g e i t h e r a c a n d l e p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r v e
o r an i s o c a n d e l a d i a g r a m . If t h e u n i f o r m i t y is f o u n d to b e u n s a t i s -
f a c t o r y , a l a r g e r n u m b e r of u n i t s may h a v e to b e u s e d .

16.6 APPLICATION GUIDE

16.6.1 Buildings
T h e f l o o d l i g h t i n g of a b u i l d i n g is p r i m a r i l y a problem in e s t h e t i c s ,
a n d e a c h i n s t a l l a t i o n must b e s t u d i e d i n d i v i d u a l l y . U n d e r some c i r -
c u m s t a n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y with small, u t i l i t a r i a n b u i l d i n g s o r l a r g e r
b u i l d i n g s t h a t h a v e no special a r c h i t e c t u r a l f e a t u r e s , u n i f o r m illumi-
n a t i o n is d e s i r a b l e . To c r e a t e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of u n i f o r m b r i g h t n e s s
o v e r t h e e n t i r e f a c a d e of a b u i l d i n g , it is n e c e s s a r y to i n c r e a s e t h e
a c t u a l b r i g h t n e s s a p p r e c i a b l y t o w a r d t h e t o p . H i g h e r b r i g h t n e s s at
t h e t o p of a b u i l d i n g i n c r e a s e s i t s a p p a r e n t h e i g h t ( s e e Section 1 6 . 7 . 1 ) .
Floodlighting Design 426 397

With b u i l d i n g s of classical d e s i g n o r special a r c h i t e c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r ,

u n i f o r m illumination o f t e n d e f e a t s t h e p u r p o s e of t h e l i g h t i n g , which
s h o u l d aim to p r e s e r v e a n d b r i n g o u t t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m . B u i l d -
i n g s a r e d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y f o r daytime a p p e a r a n c e , when t h e l i g h t
comes from a b o v e . T h i s e f f e c t is almost impossible to d u p l i c a t e with
f l o o d l i g h t s , which must b e mounted in n e a r b y locations a n d u s u a l l y at
a h e i g h t no g r e a t e r t h a n t h e elevation of t h e b u i l d i n g . H o w e v e r , it
is o f t e n p o s s i b l e to a c h i e v e a r e s u l t t h a t is i n t e r e s t i n g a n d p l e a s i n g ,
a l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t from t h e daytime a p p e a r a n c e .
S h a d o w s a r e e s s e n t i a l to r e l i e f , a n d c o n t r a s t s in b r i g h t n e s s l e v e l s
o r sometimes in color can b e u s e d to b r i n g out i m p o r t a n t d e t a i l s a n d
to s u p r e s s o t h e r s . S c u l p t u r e o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e t a i l s r e q u i r e p a r t i c u -
l a r l y c a r e f u l t r e a t m e n t to avoid f l a t n e s s o r g r o t e s q u e s h a d o w s t h a t
may d i s t o r t t h e a p p e a r a n c e as c o n c e i v e d b y t h e a r c h i t e c t .

16.6.2 Color
Color can b e p r o v i d e d in f l o o d l i g h t i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s in a n y one of
several ways. Amber, blue, and red cover glasses are generally
available f o r s t a n d a r d enclosed f l o o d l i g h t s to r e p l a c e t h e r e g u l a r l e n s ,
o r t h e floodlight may b e r e c e s s e d in a n i c h e , t h e o p e n i n g of which is
c o v e r e d with a f i l t e r . Where smaller a m o u n t s of color l i g h t a r e n e e d e d ,
100 W PAR38 c o l o r t o n e ( r e d , p i n k , yellow, g r e e n , b l u e , o r b l u e - w h i t e )
lamps a r e a v a i l a b l e , o r a 300- or 500-W h a r d g l a s s R - 4 0 lamp may b e
u s e d with a colored l e n s . Any color f i l t e r a b s o r b s a l a r g e amount of
l i g h t , a n d t h i s loss must b e c o n s i d e r e d in d e s i g n i n g t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n .

16.7 EXAMPLES OF FLOODLIGHTING INSTALLATION

T h e following e x a m p l e s of f l o o d l i g h t i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s which w e r e d e -
s i g n e d b y t h e a u t h o r a r e c h o s e n to i l l u s t r a t e d i f f e r e n t t h e m e s a n d
m e t h o d s to a c h i e v e somewhat d i f f e r e n t aims in e a c h c a s e , a s d i s c u s s e d
in t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s .

16.7.1 Westinghouse Lamp Division Headquarters Building

In t h e p a s t , i n c a n d e s c e n t lamps w e r e t h e most u s e f u l a n d v e r s a t i l e
s o u r c e . H o w e v e r , from an e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d c o s t - s a v i n g s t a n d -
p o i n t , a e s t h e t i c l i g h t i n g can b e a c h i e v e d with more e f f i c i e n t HID
s o u r c e s w h e r e v e r f e a s i b l e . A good example is t h e f l o o d l i g h t i n g of t h e
W e s t i n g h o u s e Lamp Division H e a d q u a r t e r s B u i l d i n g . T h e b u i l d i n g h a d
b e e n f a c e - l i f t e d with a marble c h i p f i n i s h . T h e d e s i g n s p e c i f i e d 10
l u m i n a i r e s f i t t e d with 400 W HPS lamps m o u n t e d on t h e roof of a g a r a g e
some 50 f t away from t h e b u i l d i n g . Each u n i t was a d j u s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y
to a p r o p e r aiming a n g l e to a c h i e v e a u n i f o r m illumination of 10 fc
398 Chapter 14

o v e r t h e b u i l d i n g f a c e . T h e s e f l o o d l i g h t s h a v e c r e a t e d a color of
warmth a n d u n m i s t a k a b l e i d e n t i t y , viewed b y t h o u s a n d s of m o t o r i s t s
t r a v e l i n g t h e G a r d e n S t a t e P a r k w a y at n i g h t . F i g u r e 16.4 shows t h e
b u i l d i n g f a c e f l o o d l i g h t e d with HPS l u m i n a i r e s .

16.7.2 Floodlighting a Water Tower

F l o o d l i g h t i n g a s i g n on a c i r c u l a r w a t e r t o w e r , without spill o r s c a t t e r ,
r e q u i r e s r a t h e r more t h a n r u l e - o f - t h u m b d e s i g n . T h e l i g h t s o u r c e s
c h o s e n h a d to b e an economical lamp t h a t would p r o d u c e a n a r r o w

Figure 16.4 O f f i c e b u i l d i n g f l o o d l i g h t e d with HPS l i g h t s o u r c e .

Floodlighting Design 426 399

searchlight t y p e of beam and project all of the light exactly where it

was aimed.
In this installation, low-voltage 120 W PAR64 v e r y - n a r r o w - s p o t
lamps accomplished t h i s . The bottom p a r t of the tank and the u p p e r
tower legs were silhouetted with 500 W PAR64 n a r r o w - s p o t lamps
o p e r a t i n g on a 120 V circuit. The 120 W PAR64 lamps operate on a
6 V circuit and can produce a controlled pencil-thin beam which is
v e r y effective for uplighting buildings, columns, steeples, towers, and
the like. Its beam s p r e a d is 4i d e g r e e s by 7 d e g r e e s and is achieved
by masking critical areas of the reflector to p r e v e n t r e f o c u s i n g of the
l i g h t . A matte black light shield p r o d u c e s an extremely s h a r p beam
c u t o f f . Mounted precisely in relation to the r e f l e c t o r ' s focal point, a

180
A-120 PAR 6 4
Β - 5 0 0 FAR64
160
\A

140

120
δ
ο
ο
x 100
Β
(Ζ
LU

ο
CL
80
LU
-J
Q
< 60
ο

40

20

8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10

VERTICAL 'HORIZONTAL
DISTRIBUTION ] DISTRIBUTION

Figure 16.5 Candlepower distribution c u r v e s of 120 W and 500 W

PAR64 lamps.
400 Chapter 14

specially designed filament yields a maximum beam candlepower of

170,000. Figure 16.5 shows t h e candlepower distribution of the 120
W PAR64 v e r y - n a r r o w - s p o t lamp and the 500 W PAR64 n a r r o w - s p o t
lamp.
The water tank s t a n d s 100 ft above g r a d e . The overall diameter
of t h e tank is 22 f t . The corporate sign is approximately 12 ft in
diameter and 120 ft above g r a d e . The lighting b a n k s p e p p e r the sign
from two sides: from the n e a r b y building roof and from an erected
pole. Each is located approximately 30 f t above the g r o u n d . The
b a n k located on a n e a r b y building roof consists of six 120 W and t h r e e
500 W PAR64 lamps. The bank located on the top of a new pole con-
sists of four 120 W and two 500 W PAR64 lamps. Figure 16.6 shows
a sketch of the scheme with all essential dimensions of the tower and
mounting locations from both field measurements and calculations.
Figure 16.7 shows the pole with floodlights mounted on its t o p .
All lamps are contained in a weatherproof cast-aluminum unit
equipped with clear h i g h - h e a t - t r e a t e d tempered lenses, and adjustable
cast arms permit exact aiming of the u n i t s . Raintight aluminum wire-
ways are used to connect the floodlight u n i t s at each b a n k , where
t h e lower row of luminaires is aimed at t h e bottom of the tank and t h e
u p p e r row at the sign. Figure 16.8 shows the water tower floodlighted

22 FT

3 8 FT

1 0 0 FT
33°
A 27.5C 42°
36c c
Β
3 FT

3 0 FT 30FT

1 3 0 FT 1 0 0 FT

Figure 16.6 Sketch of dimensions and locations of floodlights for a

water tower.
Floodlighting Design 426 401

Figure 16.7 Pole-mounted floodlights.

402 Chapter 14

by PAR64 lamps as the light s o u r c e . The wiring scheme for the en-
t i r e installation is shown in Figure 16.9. A three-pole s t a r t e r is used
to control power for the lighting u n i t s , which can be t u r n e d on and
off by an astronomical clock. The time s e t t i n g s are a d j u s t e d to sea-
sonal v a r i a t i o n s . The 500 W lamps are wired across a s i n g l e - p h a s e ,
t h r e e - w i r e system and controlled by two outdoor disconnect switches.
The t h i r d contact is u s e d to supply a 120 V source to a 120/12 V
t r a n s f o r m e r r a t e d at 1.5 kVA. The secondary is a r r a n g e d to form a
parallel-series circuit so that two 6 V lamps are series-connected across
a 12 V c i r c u i t . The main disconnect switch, line s t a r t e r , timer, and
step-down t r a n s f o r m e r are installed in a n e a r b y shed so that indoor
equipment can be u s e d . 120 V f e e d e r s are enclosed in steel conduit,

Figure 16.8 The water tower floodlighted with PAR64 light s o u r c e .

 Floodlighting Design 403

12
20AMPS ΙΑ
JLf
11

10
IB

2 4

IC
3

7 8 9

1—230/ 115-voit, three-wire, 60-cps service.

2—Existing service line in shed.
3— 3 A-inch-3 No. 10 RHW.
4—Safety switch mounted in shed.
5—Tork timer to control on and off.
6—Line starter.
7—120/ 12-volt transformer, lVfe-kVa,
mounted in shed.
8—Six 120-watt, six-volt PAR64 very nar-
row spots mounted on roof.
9—Four 120-watt, six-volt PAR64 narrow
spots on new pole.
10—Two 500-watt, 120-volt PAR64 narrow
spots on new pole.
11—Three 500-watt, 120-volt PAR64 narrow
spots on roof.
12—S.P. disconnect switch, outdoors at
pole and on nearby shed.

Figure 16.9 Wiring scheme for floodlighting a water tower.

404 Chapter 14

w h i l e 12 V c i r c u i t s i n t h e form of u n d e r g r o u n d c a b l e s a r e d i r e c t l y
b u r i e d in t h e g r o u n d from t h e c o n t r o l s t a t i o n to t h e p o l e .

16.7.3 Pan Am Building

T h e main f a c e s ( n o r t h a n d s o u t h ) of t h i s New York o f f i c e b u i l d i n g
a r e f l o o d l i g h t e d from t h e t e n t h floor s e t b a c k u p to t h e t o p of t h e
59th f l o o r , a d i s t a n c e of 550 f t . To a c h i e v e s u c h l i g h t i n g , special
s e a r c h l i g h t - t y p e l u m i n a i r e s were d e v e l o p e d to h o u s e a specially d e -
s i g n e d i n c a n d e s c e n t lamp.
T h e lamp h a d to h a v e t h e most compact filament p o s s i b l e to e n a b l e
t h e l u m i n a i r e m i r r o r s to p r o j e c t n a r r o w b u t i n t e n s e beams to t h e top
of t h e b u i l d i n g . At t h e same time, e n o u g h s p r e a d is n e e d e d to e n -
able t h e l u m i n a i r e s to c o v e r t h e lower a r e a s , a n d a b u r n i n g life of
more t h a n a y e a r is d e s i r a b l e . T h e lamp d e v e l o p e d h a s a g l o b u l a r
b u l b of h a r d g l a s s 8 i n . in diameter a n d a special 80 V filament
o p e r a t i n g at 2000 W. A collector g r i d t r a p s t u n g s t e n p a r t i c l e s as t h e
filament v a p o r i z e s , p r e v e n t i n g b u l b b l a c k e n i n g a n d t h e r e b y a s s u r i n g
good lumen m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e special l u m i n a i r e s h a v e c a s t aluminum
h o u s i n g with m i r r o r e d g l a s s r e f l e c t o r s a n d c l e a r t e m p e r e d l e n s e s .
Each of t h e 170 u n i t s p r o d u c e s 2,750,000 c a n d e l a s .
T h e smaller f a c e s of t h e b u i l d i n g a r e floodlit with 1000 W q u a r t z -
iodine lamps in l u m i n a i r e s t h a t s u p p l y t h e same light d i s t r i b u t i o n p r o -
v i d e d b y t h e s e a r c h l i g h t s on t h e l a r g e r s i d e s . As shown in F i g u r e
16.10 t h e f l o o d l i g h t e d b u i l d i n g s t a n d s o u t with n i g h t city b a c k g r o u n d .

16.7.4 New Fluorescent Lamp Plant

In t h i s c a s e t h e o b j e c t i v e s a r e to l i g h t t h e f r o n t a n d e n d s of an o f f i c e
b u i l d i n g b r i g h t l y a n d flatly so t h a t it would s t a n d out a g a i n s t t h e
b a c k g r o u n d of t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g b u i l d i n g b e h i n d i t , w h i c h , a l t h o u g h
l e s s b r i g h t l y l i g h t e d , is to h a v e e n o u g h illumination to d e f i n e i t s mass
c l e a r l y . T h e office b u i l d i n g is illuminated to a minimum i n t e n s i t y of
15 fc b y l i g h t i n g u p w a r d from g r o u n d level with w e a t h e r p r o o f f l u o -
r e s c e n t f l o o d l i g h t s . Special f l u o r e s c e n t lamps t h a t h a v e a low silhou-
e t t e a r e u s e d in t h e f i x t u r e .
For t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g b u i l d i n g , t w e n t y - s e v e n 1500 W q u a r t z -
iodine f l o o d l i g h t s a r e located at g r o u n d l e v e l , 14 f t from t h e wall on
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 f t c e n t e r s , to p r o v i d e a p a t t e r n on t h e b u i l d i n g f a c e
a n d c r e a t e a "glow" as b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e h i g h l i g h t e d o f f i c e b u i l d i n g
a n d t h e s h r u b b e r y . To d e l i n e a t e t h e p a t t e r n of t h e f a c a d e , all
f l o o d l i g h t s a r e aimed at 45 d e g r e e s from p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e b u i l d i n g
f a c e a n d u p w a r d to p r o v i d e t h e e f f e c t of t h e s u n s h i n i n g on t h e
b u i l d i n g at a 4 5 - d e g r e e a n g l e . One floodlight is o p p o s i t e each column
a n d e a c h c o r n e r , with t h e o t h e r s located as r e q u i r e d to give a d e q u a t e
Floodlighting Design 426 405

Figure 16. TO Pan Am building floodlighted with specially designed

luminaires and lamps.
406 Chapter 14

Figure 16.11 A b r i g h t l y floodlighted office building.

overlapping of p a t t e r n s . This installation was one of t h e earliest

application of the newly developed 1500 W quartz-iodine floodlight
luminaires.
The s h r u b b e r y s u r r o u n d i n g the office building is illuminated by
b a t t e r i e s of floodlights on the building roof along both e n d s . The
best color for most s h r u b s is provided by mercury lighting, so 100 W
PAR38 mercury lamps are u s e d . They are mounted in h e a v y - d u t y
cast-aluminum outdoor floodlighting luminaires, which are neat and
small for good a p p e a r a n c e , and so aimed t h a t t h e y do not project
light and glare toward viewers of t h e scene. Figure 16.11 shows a
b r i g h t l y floodlit office building in t h e f o r e g r o u n d of t h e manufacturing
building. Figure 16.12 shows a fluorescent lamp manufacturing plant
building that h a s s u n s e t p a t t e r n floodlighting.

Figure 16.12 A p a t t e r n formed floodlighting for t h e manufacturing

plant building.
Floodlighting Design 426 407

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chen, K . , Floodlighting Technique for a Water Tower, Illuminating

Engineering, May 1967, p p . 305-307.
C h e n , Kao, Lighting Esthetics with Energy Saving Ideas, IEEE Trans-
actions on Industry Applications, J a n . / F e b . 1976, p p . 3 5 - 3 8 .
Chen, Kao, What's New in Floodlighting, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, J u l y / A u g . 1977, p p . 343-347.
Chen, K . , and K a r n s , Ε. B . , New Techniques Enhance Effectiveness
of Building Floodlighting, Westinghouse Engineer, July 1968,
p p . 118-121.
Floodlighting with High-Pressure-Sodium, Data Sheet, Lighting Design
and Application, J u n e 1972.
Lighting Handbook, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Bloomfield,
N . J . , 1976.
17
Energy Conservation in
Illuminating Systems

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Continuing i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e e f f i c i e n c y of g e n e r a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u -
tion e q u i p m e n t d u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s of i n c a n d e s c e n t l i g h t i n g h e l p e d
d r i v e e n e r g y c o s t s down s t e a d i l y . S i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n s in e n e r g y
c o s t s h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d which would h a v e more t h a n h a l v e d t h e cost
of e l e c t r i c l i g h t i n g s i n c e 1913 e v e n if lamp p e r f o r m a n c e h a d not im-
p r o v e d at all. H o w e v e r , t h i s t r e n d h a s b e e n r e v e r s e d since t h e
e n e r g y s h o r t a g e in 1974.
T h e a v e r a g e cost of o b t a i n i n g a g i v e n amount of l i g h t t a k e s i n t o
a c c o u n t t h e r e d u c t i o n in e n e r g y c o s t , t h e r e d u c t i o n in lamp p r i c e ,
t h e i n c r e a s e in lamp e f f i c a c y , a n d t h e i n c r e a s e in lamp l i f e . T h e
r e c o r d of t h e Edison E l e c t r i c I n s t i t u t e shows t h a t l i g h t i n g c o s t s in
1945 w e r e 1.3% of what t h e y were in 1882. About 60% of t h e s a v i n g s
s i n c e 1923 is a t t r i b u t a b l e to r e d u c t i o n s in t h e cost of e l e c t r i c e n e r g y ,
a b o u t 30% to i n c r e a s e in lamp e f f i c a c y , a n d a b o u t 10% to r e d u c t i o n s
in lamp p r i c e s . C h e a p e n e r g y in t h e United S t a t e s h a s b e e n a most
i n f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r in t h e f l o u r i s h i n g i n c a n d e s c e n t l i g h t i n g i n d u s t r y f o r
several decades. However, since the e n e r g y crisis the lighting
i n d u s t r y h a s b e e n f a c i n g one of i t s t o u g h e s t c h a l l e n g e s to d a t e . On
t h e one h a n d , l i g h t i n g p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t role in e v e r y walk of life
a n d s h o u l d b e allowed to p e r f o r m i t s i n t e n d e d f u n c t i o n . On t h e o t h e r
h a n d , t h e l i g h t i n g i n d u s t r y h a s b e e n called u p o n to make c o n t r i b u -
t i o n s to e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n . To p u t t h e role of l i g h t i n g a s it r e -
l a t e s to e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n in p e r s p e c t i v e , we must look at t h e
impact of l i g h t i n g on total e n e r g y r e s o u r c e c o n s u m p t i o n in t h e United
S t a t e s . C u r r e n t l y , 80% of t h e r e s o u r c e s u s e d in t h i s c o u n t r y a r e
fossil f u e l s (coal, oil, a n d n a t u r a l g a s ) , t h e most c r i t i c a l f u e l s in

408
Energy Conservation in Illumination 409

t e r m s of e s t i m a t e d r e s o u r c e s c o n s u m e d ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25% a r e u s e d
to g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y . Of t h a t 25%, a b o u t 20% e n d s u p a s l i g h t i n g .
In o t h e r w o r d s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5% of t h e total e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s c o n -
sumed in t h i s c o u n t r y e n d s u p in t h e form of l i g h t i n g .
With t h e s e f a c t s , why is l i g h t i n g a t a r g e t f o r e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n ?
T h e r e a s o n i s t h a t l i g h t i n g is " v i s i b l e . " In a d d i t i o n , in t e r m s of t h e
e n d u s e r , l i g h t i n g r e p r e s e n t s 30 to 50% of t h e o p e r a t i n g cost of a
b u i l d i n g . L i g h t i n g e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n is i m p o r t a n t in t e r m s of t h e
total r e s o u r c e s a n d o p e r a t i n g cost f o r t h e b u i l d i n g o w n e r . As u t i l i t y
r a t e s c o n t i n u e to i n c r e a s e , t h e impact of l i g h t i n g on o p e r a t i n g cost
will become more a p p a r e n t .

17.2 ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHT SOURCES

A l t h o u g h it c o n s t i t u t e s only one component in an illuminating s y s t e m ,

t h e l i g h t s o u r c e is o f t e n t h e major f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o v e r a l l
e f f i c i e n c y of t h e e n t i r e illuminating s y s t e m . T y p i c a l l i g h t s o u r c e s
c o v e r a wide r a n g e of e f f i c a c i e s , t h a t i s , how well t h e l i g h t s o u r c e
c o n v e r t s e l e c t r i c e n e r g y to visible l i g h t . T h e e x p r e s s i o n u s e d to
m e a s u r e t h e e f f i c a c y of light s o u r c e s is lumens p e r watt (lm/W).

17.2.1 Incandescent Light Source

R e c e n t t e c h n i c a l a d v a n c e s h a v e made p o s s i b l e a line of e n e r g y - s a v i n g
i n c a n d e s c e n t lamps t h a t u s e r a r e k r y p t o n g a s as a fill g a s . The
k r y p t o n allows h o t t e r filament o p e r a t i o n without t h e u n d e s i r a b l e s h o r t
l i f e . T h e r e s u l t is a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e in t h e e f f i c a c y . For e x a m p l e ,
a 100 W, 2500 h life e x t e n d e d s e r v i c e lamp can b e r e p l a c e d with a
93 W e n e r g y - s a v i n g lamp with k r y p t o n fill which p r o d u c e s t h e same
l i g h t o u t p u t a n d same l i f e .
E n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l also e x i s t s f o r i n c a n d e s c e n t lamps w h e r e
r e f l e c t o r lamps can b e u s e d . I n c a n d e s c e n t lamps u s i n g b u i l t - i n r e -
f l e c t o r s o f f e r b e t t e r utilization of t h e l i g h t p r o d u c e d b y t h e lamp com-
p a r e d to a n o n r e f l e c t o r t y p e . In t h i s family of lamps t h e r e a r e R
l a m p s , i n d o o r r e f l e c t o r l a m p s ; a n d PAR lamps o r p a r a b o l i c aluminized
r e f l e c t o r l a m p s . A new line of i n d o o r r e f l e c t o r lamps called E R , o r
elliptical r e f l e c t o r l a m p s , allow r e d u c t i o n of 50% o r more in e n e r g y
c o n s u m p t i o n in many i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
In a d d i t i o n , i n c a n d e s c e n t lamps with special r a d i a t i o n c o v e r i n g
e n v e l o p e s a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d . Compact h i g h - e m i s s i v i t y f i l a m e n t s
a r e r e q u i r e d to a b s o r b i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n r e f l e c t e d from specially
c o a t e d e n v e l o p e s . T h e e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e new lamps
could b e as much as 60% c o m p a r e d with e q u i v a l e n t c o n v e n t i o n a l i n -
candescent lamps.
410 Chapter 14

17.2.2 Fluorescent Light Source

Since the early 1970s there has been available a line of energy-saving
replacements for standard fluorescent lamps. Krypton gas is again
employed to improve the efficacy, up to a level of 100 lm/W. Energy-
saving lamps are now available in all popular sizes and colors for
most applications. Limitations of energy-saving reduced-wattage lamps
are:

1. Should be used only where ambient temperature does not drop

below 60°F
2. Should be used only on high power factor fluorescent ballasts
3. Not to be used where drafts or cold-air ducts would be directed

Typical energy savings are about 17 W per lamp for the popular
4-ft 40 W replacement and 17.5 W per lamp for the popular 8-ft slim-
line 75 W replacement. Savings in energy cost normally pay back the
new lamp cost in a year at typical power rates and lamp costs.
A recently developed arc-discharge lamp, called a compact fluo-
rescent, can replace an incandescent light source in particular appli-
cations. These compact, twin-tube lamps are gaining popularity
because they are energy efficient and fit into a small enclosed housing.
A number of the compact fluorescent lamps use trichromatic phosphor
coating, which provides peak response to the human eye in the three
primary colors, red, green, and blue.
The so-called PL lamps are available in 7-, 9-, and 12 W ratings,
which provide equal-light-output alternatives to 40-, 60- , and 75 W
incandescent lamps. They are suitable for exit signs, information
signs, and entrance and hallway security fixtures. Another recent
compact lamp developed is the SL lamp (see Figure 14.2), which is
a double-folded, bent-tube assembly that can be retrofitted to a
standard medium-base socket.

17.2.3 H I D Light Source

Mercury light sources are available in many popular wattages, ranging

from 40 to 1000 W, in several phosphor colors. However, the newer
HID sources offer higher efficacy and superior color-rendering prop-
erties compared to mercury lamps, This has practically eliminated
standard mercury from new installations where energy conservation
is a deciding factor.
Metal halide lamps in 325- , 400- , and 1000 W ratings have been
designed for direct replacement of mercury lamps in existing mercury
fixtures to gain up to 42% more light output. However, these retro-
fit lamps should be applied carefully, since they are compatible with
only a few mercury ballasts. If used with existing reflector, the
metal halide lamp may cause undesirable light distribution.
Energy Conservation in Illumination 411

One recently developed high pressure sodium lamp eliminates the

high-voltage pulse starting by using a tungsten wire heater wrapped
around the arc tube. When power is applied to the lamp, the tungsten
coil heats the thin arc tube to the required 300°C and, when full
light output is reached, the heater circuit is opened. The heated-
tube lamp is available in 150-, 215-, 310-, and 360 W sizes for use
on existing mercury reactor or lag-type autotransformer ballasts rated
175, 250, 375, and 400 W, respectively. The changeover to a more
efficient light source in an industrial fixture can be done by a simple
lamp replacement. This changeover can be practical if the existing
fixture is still in good condition. The average rated life of the HPS
in many popular sizes is 24,000 h. This long life plus excellent
lumen maintenance (90% mean lumens over the lamp life) gives HPS
lighting systems an advantage in applications in industrial facilities.
Low pressure sodium lamps have a decidedly yellow color, which
limits their application, but they are widely used as "night lights"
in retail stores and wherever long burning hours are a factor and
color discrimination is not important. They are the most energy-
efficient general light source available today (see Figure 14.7).

17.3 ENERGY-EFFICIENT BALLASTS

To assure optimum performance, ballasts are manufactured within a

rigid tolerance to supply a lamp with specified voltages and currents.
ANSI specifies the standards as well as the methods used to test the
ballast (C82) and lamp (C78) performance. The Certified Ballast
Manufacturers Association (CBM) sets the performance criteria in
accordance with the ANSI standards. These ballasts are designated
as CBM ballasts.

17.3.1 Intrinsic Ballast Parameters Affecting Efficiency

Ballasts are designed to operate fluorescent lamps over a range of

±10% about the rated center voltage. Over this operating range, the
power input and light output tend to decrease with decreasing input
voltage. The system efficiency increases slightly as the input voltage
decreases over this range by 2 to 4%.
In general, the relative ballast losses are less for a 40 W ballast
than a 20 W ballast. A two-lamp ballast is more efficient than a one-
lamp ballast. With the recent increase in energy costs, ballast manu-
facturers have introduced an energy-efficient ballast that minimizes
ballast losses. Ballast efficiencies have improved, which has resulted
in an 8 to 10% increase in system efficiency.
It is well known that fluorescent lamps driven at high frequency
are more efficient. Electronic ballasts are now available for the F40,
412 Chapter 14

Τ12, t h e s l i m l i n e , the new F8 lamps, and other energy-saving fluo-

rescent lamps on both 120- and 277 V circuits. Operation of an
electronic ballast involves the use of transistor circuitry to rectify
the 60-Hz ac branch-circuit supply to a dc component and then invert
it back to an ac sine-wave component having the frequency range 10
to 30 kHZ. When the frequency of the on-off operation of the mercury
arc within the lamp is increased from 60 Hz to many times that value,
the lamp efficecy can be raised by nearly 12%. At the same time,
with the absence of the magnetizing losses within a core-coil ballast,
the relative efficiency of the ballast is increased. Although the elec-
tronic ballast costs more than the standard core-coil ballast, the
operating factors should reflect an appreciable reduction in life-cycle
costs for a lighting system.

17.3.2 Extrinsic Ballast Parameters Affecting Efficiency

High- and low-core ballasts are available with means to operate fluo-
rescent lamps at either 100% or 50% light output. These ballasts can
be used in simple low-cost dimming systems where the need to change
illumination levels is infrequent.
There are two types of dimming ballasts: core and electronic.
Core ballasts can dim fluorescent lamps over a wide range of light
levels. Auxiliary switching equipment is required to reduce the duty
cycle or limit the current. These systems are energy effective where
a substantial portion of the time lamps can be operated well below
100%. High-frequency ballasts can readily be used to dim fluorescent
lamps over a wide range of light levels. No major auxiliary equipment
is required, as the light levels are controlled through the ballasts'
internal reactance. All external control wiring is low-voltage wiring.
The great advantage of electronic systems is the ease of controlling
the dimming circuitry with external sensors.
New fluorescent lamps rated at slightly less wattage have been
introduced that present a new load to the ballasts. For example,
34/35 W lamps are available that can be used in place of 40 W lamp
with 40 W ballasts. In this application, both the power and light
levels are proportionally reduced with no net change in efficiency.
Some manufacturers have introduced ballasts that are optimized for
35 W lamps; the systems are slightly more efficient than with the
40 W ballasts. However, in applications where ballasts need not be
replaced, the slight increase in efficiency does not justify the cost
of refitting these ballasts. Table 17.1 summarizes the input watts
for typical fluorescent lamp ballasts. The reduction in input watts
for the new energy-saving ballasts versus standard ballasts are shown
clearly in this table.
 Table 17.1 Typica l Fluorescen t Lamp Ballast Input Watts

System Input (W)

Nominal Nominal
Lamp Lamp Standard Ballasts Energy-Saving Ballasts Circuit
Lamp Type Current (W) One-Lamp Two-Lamp One-Lamp Two-Lamp Type

F20T12 0.380 20 32 53 — — Rapid start, preheat lamp

F30T12 0.430 30 46 81 — — Rapid start
F30T12, ES 0.460 25 42 73 — — Rapid start
F32T8 0.265 32 — — 37 71 Rapid start
F40T12 0.430 40 57 96 50 86 Rapid start
F40T12, ES 0.460 34/35 50 82 43 72 Rapid start
F48T12 0.425 40 61 102 — — Instant start
F96T12 0.425 75 100 173 — 158 Instant start
F96T12, ES 0.455 60 83 138 — 123 Instant start
F48T12, - 8 0 0 ma 0.800 60 85 145 — — Rapid start
F96T12, - 8 0 0 ma 0.800 110 140 257 — 237 Rapid start
F96T12, — ES, 800 ma 0.840 95 125 227 — 207 Rapid start
F48 - 1 5 0 0 ma 1.500 115 134 242 — — Rapid start
F96 - 1 5 0 0 ma 1.500 215 230 450 — — Rapid start

4 / 2 2 / 8 3 RWW

Λ.
μ-*
CO
414 Chapter 14

17.3.3 Electronic Ballasts for H I D Lamps

Electronic ballasts can be designed to have a steady, constant wattage

output with changes in the source impedance as well as excellent
regulation. The circuit of one such ballast, called an "energy-effi-
cient" ballast, is shown in Figure 14.11. The electronic ballast is
designed to maintain a light level at the minimum power level. Dur-
ing the life of a high pressure sodium lamp, electronic ballasts can
save 20% more energy by maintaining a constant wattage output in
addition to the 15% intrinsic energy savings compared to the equiva-
lent core-coil ballasts.
A number of manufacturers offer HID dimming systems for such
applications as meeting rooms, assembly halls, auditoriums, and so
on. This equipment differs in construction and function, since not
all system can control all HID lamp types.
With automatic level control, a photocell is used to read average
illumination in an area similar to the method used in a fluorescent
system. As lamps age and luminaires become dirty, the control unit
gradually increases power to the system's dimming ballasts. Also, if
daylight enters the space, the control system reduces the lamp power
in proportion to the amount of daylight received. Important factors
in HID dimming system are energy costs, burning hours, quantity of
supplemental daylight, and the lamp wattage selected. Table 17.2
summarizes the input watts for typical HID lamp ballasts. No data
for the electronic ballasts are included in the table.

17.4 NEW LUMINAIRES FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT

L I G H T SOURCES

Proper luminaire design is the key to lighting efficiency. For high-

pressure sodium, it is extremely important that luminaires with pre-
cise optical design and control be matched to the smaller arc sources.
Using reflectors originally designed for phosphor-coated mercury
lamps can result in poor light distribution and lack of footcandle uni-
formity. Newly developed luminaires use prismatic glass reflectors
especially made for high pressure sodium lamps. In addition to
achieving maximum light utilization, they redirect the intense HPS
light source with excellent light cutoff and high-angle brightness
control. Luminaire manufacturers recommend aluminum reflectors for
all general-purpose industrial applications, and glass-coated reflectors
where environmental conditions are severe and where maintenance
practice is compatible with servicing glass.
 Table 17.2 Typical HID Lamp Ballast Input Watts

Ballast Type
High Reactance Constant Wattage Constant Wattage High Reactance
ANSI Autotransformer Autotransformer Regulated Regulated
Lamp Type Designation Watts Reactor (LAG) (CWA) (CW) (Regulated Lag)

Mercury H46 50 68 74 74 — —

H43 75 94 91-94 93-99 — —

H38/44 100 115-125 117-127 118-125 127 —

H39 175 192-200 200-208 200-210 210 —

H37 250 272-285 277-286 285-300 292-295 —

H33 400 430-439 430-484 450-454 460-465 —

H36 1000 1050-1070 — 1050-1082 1085-1102 —

Metal-halide M57 175 _ — 210 — —

M58 250 — — 292-300 — —

M59 400 — — 455-465 — —

M47 1000 1050 — 1070-1100 — —

M48 1500 — — 1610-1630 — —

High-pressure S76 35 43 — — — —

sodium S68 50 60-64 68 — — —

S62 70 82 88-95 95 — 105

S54 100 115-117 127-135 138 — 144
S55 150 170 188-200 190 — 190-204
(55 V)
S56 150 170 188 188 — —

(100 V)
S66 200 220-230 — 245-248 — 254
S50 250 275-283 296-305 300-307 — 310-315
S67 310 335-345 — 365 — 378-380
S51 400 463-440 464-470 465-480 — 480-485
S52 1000 1060-1065 1090-1106

Cn
416 Chapter 14

17.4.1 Construction

The amount of dirt that will accumulate on the lamp and luminaire
reflector is affected by luminaire construction. IES recognizes five
degrees of ambient dirt conditions: very clean, clean, medium, dirty,
and very dirty. Different manufacturers have different philosophies
regarding the best way to keep dirt from accumulating on the critical
surfaces of luminaires. Construction of HID luminaires for lighting
of manufacturing areas can be placed into four general classes: open
bottom, open bottom with open top, enclosed sealed and gasketed,
and sealed and filtered.

17.4.2 Beam Spread

IES classifies luminaires by light distribution as highly concentrating,

concentrating, medium spread, spread, and wide spread. Luminaire
manufacturers will provide candle power distribution curves and/or
isolux curves for the luminaires in line. Most HID luminaires de-
signed for indoor applications have symmetrical light distribution pat-
terns. But asymmetrical versions are available and may be applied
to the solution of special lighting problems. For lighting the perim-
eter of manufacturing areas, luminaires are available that throw almost
all light downward and inward, so that it is not wasted on the wall
surfaces.

17.4.3 T y p e s of Reflector Material

HID luminaires are offered with prismatic glass, anodized aluminum,

and bonded glass-to-aluminum reflectors.

1. Prismatic glass reflector. This reflector has excellent durability,

and strong cleaning agents can be used repeatedly. Optical
control is provided primarily by the prism constructions on the
reflector surface rather than by the specific shape of the reflec-
tor.
2. Anodized aluminum reflector. Most HID luminaires utilize anodized
aluminum reflectors produced by the Alzak process.
3. Bonded glass to aluminum reflector. Glass is bonded to an
anodized or chemically brightened aluminum reflector to provide
a more durable and cleanable finish.

17.5 COST ANALYSIS

Energy management and energy-efficient design have a tremendous

impact on cost. The final decision as to which lighting system to
install depends heavily on the cost. These costs should include not
Energy Conservation in Illumination 417

only the initial cost of the installation, but also the operating and
maintenance costs. With the rise in energy cost and inflation in all
sectors of economy, an inexpensive system (low initial cost) could
cost the owner many times more to operate and maintain.

Initial Cost

Energy-efficient design will result in an increase of initial cost over

the traditional approach of "make it cheap." Many factors are in-
volved, so a decision as to which system to use should not be made
on the basis of initial cost alone.

Maintenance Cost

Maintenance cost is tied directly to the selection of lighting equipment,

which affects initial cost. In general, the initial cost will increase
for equipment with better maintenance characteristics. A good main-
tenance program will minimize light loss from dirt accumulation and
surface deterioration, which would avoid increasing light to compen-
sate for such losses.

Operating Cost

Operating cost is tied into the amount of power consumed. System

design in terms of light source efficacy and overall system efficiency
will determine the operating cost.

Cost Summary

There are a number of methods of economic analysis by which the

choices available may be reviewed. Types of analysis precently in
use are the payback period, the internal rate of return, precent
value, and the savings investment ratio. With the rapid increase in
the cost of energy in recent times, an inflationary factor is critical
to an analysis of operating costs.

17.5.1 Payback Period Method

A major lamp manufacturer designed an energy cost management

analyzer that contains essential lamp information and fixture data,
and provides parallel working spaces for the present lighting system
and the new energy-saving lighting system, side by side. Each
contains items such as annual energy charges per fixture, annual
lamp replacement cost per fixture, annual cleaning cost per fixture,
and so on. The total of these items is equal to the annual operating
cost for the present system or the proposed system. From the dif-
ference between the two systems, one will be able to calculate return
on investment (ROI). Figure 17.1 shows such an analyzer.
 Your Present Lighting System
Lamp:

Number of lamps per fixture:

Number of fixtures: (Enter this number in box number 17)

Energy Costs Lamp Replacement Cleaning Costs

Costs
6

Lamp cost pertixture

Lamp change labor

per fixture

1 8

kW input per fixture

2 9

$ Energy charge Annual burning hours

per kWH

3 10 13

Cleaning labor per

4 11 14

Annual burning hours Lamp life Cleaning factor

5 12 15 16 17

Annual energy charges Annual lamp replace- Annual cleaning cost Annual operating cost Number of fixtures Annual operating cost
per fixture ment cost per fixture per fixture per fixture Present System

Calculate return on investment

37 38 39 40 41 42

New fixture cost, each Lamp cost per new Installation labor cost Installed cost per Number of new fixtures Installed cost
fixture per new fixture new fixture ·

43 44 45

Annual operating cost Annual operating cost Annual Operating

Present System New System Savings
from Step 18 from Step 36

Figure 17.1 Lighting energy cost management analyzer.

 Your New Energy Saving Lighting System

Energy Costs Lamp R e p l a c e m e n t Cleaning Costs

Costs

Lamp cost per fixture

Lamp change labor

per fixture

19 26

kW input per fixture

20 27

$Energy charge Annual burning hours

per kWH

21 28 31

Cleaning labor per

fixture

22 29

Annual burning hours Lamp life Cleaning factor

23 30 33 34 " 35 36
+

Annual energy charges Annual lamp replace- Annual cleaning cost Annual operating cost Number of fixtures Annual operating cost
per fixture ment cost per fixture per fixture per fixture New System

Years to pay off the

New System with the
savings alone

Figure 17.1 (Continued)

419
420 Chapter 14

There are many other forms that one can use to make a relight-
ing study. However, none is more complete and thorough than the
cost analysis form proposed by IES and/or major lighting manufacturers.
Figure 17.2 shows a typical lighting cost analysis form. A number of
lamp and luminaire manufacturers offer computer services for evaluat-
ing lighting system alternatives.

17.5.2 Life-Cycle Costing

Life-cycle costing (LCC) is simply the evaluation of a proposal over

a reasonable time period considering all pertinent costs and the time
value of the money. The evaluation can take the form of a present
value analysis or uniform annual cost analysis. More sophisticated
analysis would include sinking fund and rate of return on extra in-
vestment. This method of analysis is not intended to be a detailed
study of various systems. It is to be used by practicing engineers
as a guide for comparing the advantages of alternative design cases.
A more detailed analysis taking into account other items, such as
future costs, could be performed. The method given here utilizes
differential costs to provide a direct comparison of systems. Figure
17.3 shows an outline of one method of determining costs, called
"life-cycle cost analysis."

17.5.3 Examples of Cost Analysis

A comprehensive cost analysis comparing an existing mercury lighting

system with four alternative systems was made for an industrial plant.
It served as a basis for selecting a best system which is not only
more efficient, but delivers better-quality light at the same time.
Table 17.3 exhibits the comparative cost analysis. Figure 17.4 ex-
hibits an economic analysis for two lighting systems in a 30 ft by
30 ft classroom, to illustrate the use of the life-cycle cost method;
it is not intended to show the benefits of one lighting system over
another.

17.6 ENERGY-SAVING LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

17.6.1 Using Incandescent Systems

As discussed in Section 17.2.1, recent technical advances have made

possible a line of energy-saving incandescent lamps that use rare
krypton gas as a fill gas. In addition, energy saving can be accom-
plished with incandescent lamps, and a variety of choices are avail-
able: (1) use of lower-wattage lamps where less light is acceptable,
(2) use of shorter-life high-efficacy lamps, (3) use of reflectorized
lamps in place of standard lamps, and (4) use of transformer fixtures
 Energy Conservation in Illumination 421

Lighting System Parameter Base II

|

1. Rated initial lamp lumens per luminaire

2. Rated lamp life (hours) at hours per start

3. Group replacement interval (hours)

4. Average watts per lamp

5. Input watts per lumaire (including ballast losses)

Basic Data

6. Coefficient of utilization

7. Ballast factory (fluorescent)

8. Lamp depreciation factor

9. Dirt depreciation factor

10. Effective maintained lumens per luminaire (1 · 6 · 7 · 8 · 9)

ο
10A. Average footcandles on work surface ( 1 0 -r ft /luminaire)

11. Relative number of luminaires needed for equal maintained footcandles

( 1 0 of base system -r 10 of system compared)

12. Net cost of one luminaire

13. Wiring and distribution system cost per luminaire

14. Installation labor cost per luminaire

15. Net initial lamp cost per luminaire

Initial Costs

16. Total initial cost per luminaire (12 + 13 + 14 + 15)

17. Annual owning cost per luminaire (15% of 12 + 13 + 14)

18. Relative initial cost for equal maintained footcandles

(16 · 11 of system compared -f 16 of base system)

19. Burning hours per year

20. Number of lamps group replaced per year (19 · = lamps/unit -r 3)

21. Number of interim spot replacements ( 2 0 · = burn outs in GR interval)

21 A. Number of lamps spot replaced per year — N o group relamping (19 · lamps/unit -r 2)

22. Replacement lamp cost per year ( 2 0 or 21A · net lamp cost)
Operating Costs

23. Labor cost for group replacements ( 2 0 · group labor rate/lamp) at $ / lamp

24. Labor cost for spot replacements (21 · spot labor rate/lamp at $ / lamp

25. Cost of cleaning per luminaire per year

26 Annual energy cost per year (5 · 19 · έ/kWH + 1 0 0 0 0 0 at έ kWH

27. Total annual operating cost per luminaire (22 + 23 + 24 + 25 + 26)

28. Relative annual operating cost for equal maintained footcandles

(27 · 11 of system compared + 27 of base system)

29. Total annual cost — owning and operating — per luminaire (17 + 27)
Total

30. Relative total annual cost for equal maintained footcandles

(29 · 11 of system compared -r 29 of base system)

Figure 17.2 A typical lighting cost analysis form.

Life cycle cost analysis for _
Luminaire Luminaire
Layout —Layout

A. Lighting and air conditioning installed costs (initial)

1. Luminaire installed costs: luminaire, lamps,
material, labor
2. Total kW lighting: J<W kW
3. Tons of air conditioning required for lighting:
(3.41 X kW/12) tons .tons
4. First cost of air-conditioning machinery: @
$ /ton $_
5. Reduction of first cost of heating equipment: $_
6. Other differential costs: $_
$-
$_
$-
$_
$-
7. Subtotal mechanical and electrical installed $_
$-
cost: $_
8. Initial taxes: $.
$_
9. Total costs: $- (A1) $_ (B1)
10. Installed cost per square foot: $- $-
11. Watts per square foot of lighting: $- watts watts
$_
12. Salvage (at y years): (As) (Bs)
$- $_
B. Annual power and maintenance costs
$- $_
1. Lamps: burning hours X kW X $/kWh
2. Air conditioning: operation-hours X tons $. $_
X kW/ton X $/kWh $. $-
3. Air conditioning maintenance: tons X $/ton $. $_
4. Reduction in heating cost fuel used: $. $-
5. Reduced heating maintenance: MBtu X $/MBtu
$. $-
6. Other differential costs:
$. $-
$. $.

7. Cost of lamps: (No. of lamps

% $ /lamp per Λ/) (Group relamp-
ing every Ν years, typically every one, two or
three years, depending on burning schedule.)
8. Cost of ballast replacement:
(No. of ballasts $ /ballast per n)
(n = number of years of ballast life.)
9. Luminaire washing cost: No. of
luminaires @$ each. (Cost to
wash one luminaire includes cost to replace or
wash lamps.)
10. Annual insurance cost:
11. Annual property tax cost:
12. Total annual power and maintenance cost:
13. Cost per square foot:

Notes on analysis
A. 1. An estimate is prepared for material
and labor of the installation.
2. In the example that follows a 40-W
rapid-start lamp with ballasts loss is consid-
ered one 48-W load, and the 150-W HPS with
ballasts is considered 175-W.
4. First cost of machinery will vary from
$1000 to $2000/ton. Use the same value for
both systems.

Figure 17.3 Life cycle cost analysis f o r m .

422
 Energy Conservation in Illumination 423

Table 17.3 Comprehensive Cost Analysis for Five Illuminating Systems

Existing 4 0 0 W 2 5 0 W Metal- 4 0 0 W Metal- 2 5 0 W HPS 4 0 0 W HPS
Mercury System Halide System Halide System System System

N u m b e r of iuminaires r e q u i r e d 108 97 68 70 42

L u m j n a i r e spacing ( s q u a r e g r i d ) , f t 9.62 10.15 12.13 11.95 15.43

I n i t i a l l a m p l u m e n s per l a m p 22,500 20,500 34,000 30,000 50,000
Lamp lumen depreciation factor 0.78 0.83 0.75 0.90 0.90
E s t i m a t e d l a m p l i f e , hr 24,000 10,000 15,000 24,000 24,000
A v e r a g e l a m p r e p l a c e m e n t s per y e a r 18 38.8 18.13 11.67 7
L a m p net cost, dollars per l a m p 10.23 23.55 22.35 38.40 36.00
Luminaire input watts 450 285 460 300 475
A v e r a g e w a t t s per sq ft 4.9 2.8 3.1 2.1 2.0
Total connected load, k w 48.6 27.65 31.28 21 19.95
L u m i n a i r e per u n i t c o s t , d o l l a r s -0- 68 85 145 150
I n s t a l l a t i o n l a b o r per u n i t , d o l l a r s -0- 36 36 36 36
I n s t a l l a t i o n cost s u m m a r y
L u m i n a i r e cost, dollars -0- 6,596.00 5,780.00 10,150.00 6,300.00
Initial lamp cost, dollars -0- 2,284.35 1,519.80 2,688.00 1,512.00
Installation labor cost, dollars -0- 3,492.00 2,448.00 2,520.00 1,512 00
T o t a l installation costs, dollars -0- 12,372.35 9,747.80 15,358.00 9,324.00

A n n u a l operating cost s u m m a r y
Lamp cost, dollars 184.18 913.74 405.28 448.00 252.00
Maintenance labor, dollars 180.00 388.00 181.33 116.67 70.00
Energy cost, dollars 7,776.00 4,423.20 5,004.80 3,360.00 3,192.00
Total annual operating cost, dollars 8,140.14 5,724.94 5,591.41 3,924.67 3,514 00
Relative operating cost, percent 100.00 70.33 68.69 48.21 43.17

T o t a l a n n u a l cost s u m m a r y
Annual owning cost, dollars -0- 1,513.20 1,234.20 1,900.50 1.171.80
O w n i n g and operating cost, dollars 8,140.14 7,238.14 6,825.61 5,825.17 4,685.80
Relative o w n i n g and operating cost, percent 100.00 88.92 83.85 71.56 57.56
A n n u a l cost per fc p e r sq f t , d o l l a r s 0.8107 0.7216 0.6832 0.5819 0.4681
Lighting investment p a y b a c k s u m m a r y
Annual operating cost, dollars 8,140.14 5,724.94 5,591.41 3,924.67 3.514.00
O p e r a t i n g c o s t savings, d o l l a r s -0- 2,415.20 2,548.73 4,215.47 4,626.14
T o t a l new· i n v e s t m e n t , d o l l a r s -0- 12,372.35 9,747.80 15,358.00 9,324.00
Simple investment p a y b a c k interval, years -0- 5.12 3.82 3.64 2.02
Simple return on investment, percent -0- 19.52 26.15 27.45 49.62
Adjusted discounted
investment payback interval, m o n t h s -0- 90.4 60.7 57.0 28.3
S u m m a r y of costs over n e x t 2 0 years
Met ( a m p c o s t s , d o l l a r s 3,682.80 17,132.62 7,345.70 7,616.00 4,284.00
Lamp replacement labor
costs (at $ 1 0 per l a m p ) , d o l l a r s 3,600.00 7,760.00 3,626.67 2,333.33 1 ,400.00
Energy c o n s u m p t i o n , k w h 3,888,000 2,211,600 2,502,400 1,680,000 1,596,000
T o t a l energy costs, dollars 155,520.00 88,464.00 100,096.00 67,200.00 63,840.00
T o t a l i n i t i a l costs, d o l l a r s -0- 12,372.35 9,747.80 15,358.00 9,324.00
T o t a l 2 0 year life-cycle costs, dollars 162,802.80 125,728.97 120,816.17 92,507.33 78,848.00
•Basis: 1 0 , 0 0 0 sq ft m a n u f a c t u r i n g area illumin ated to 1 0 0 fc, 4 0 0 0 biurning hours per year, e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l energy rate ( i n c l u d ing
d e m a n d and other charges· 4 C / k w h , average di rt c o n d i t i o n s , 2 0 year a m o r t i z a t i o n at interest rate of 1 0 p e r c e n t .

that accomodate low-voltage lamps. More detailed discussions of each

method are given below.

Use of Lower-Wattage Lamps

Substitution of lower-wattage lamps will result in loss of light output.

The effects on task performance may not be acceptable. However,
the variety of wattages available with direct interchangeability makes
this approach a consideration that should not be passed over.
 System A Floor Plan (not to scale)
2- X 4-ft Fluorescent Luminaires
with Two F40CW RS Lamps per
Luminaire
(rated 96 W each)

R o o m dimensions 30 X 30 X 10 ft
Reflectances 80/50/20
Work plane height 2.5 ft
Mounting height 10 ft
Light loss factor 0.75
Relative light output 1.0
Maintained
footcandle level 70.
Building life 30 years
Opportunity rate 10.5 percent

System Β Floor Plan (not to scale)

• •
HID Luminaire System
with One 150-W HPS Lamp
(rated 175 W each)
•

• • •
R o o m dimensions 30 f X 30 f X 10 ft
Reflectances 80/50/20
W o r k plane height 2.5 ft
Mounting height 10 ft
Light loss factor 0.75
1.0

•
Relative light output
Maintained
footcandle level 70.0 • •
Building life 30 years
Opportunity rate 10.5 percent

An outline of one method of determining costs is illustrated as follows:

Life cycle cost analysis for 900 ft 2 Classroom
Luminaire A Luminaire Β
Layout A Layout Β

A. Lighting and air conditioning installed costs

(initial)
1. Luminaire installed costs: luminaire,
lamps, material, labor $ 1438 $ 1688
2. Total kW lighting: 2.02 kW 1.58 kV\
3. Tons of air conditioning required for
lighting: (3.41 X kW/12) 0.57 tons 0.45 ton;
4. First cost of air conditioning machinery:
% $ 1500 /ton $ 860 $ 672
5. Reduction of first cost of heating
equipment: $ [138]* $ [108]"
6. Other differential costs: $ $
$ $
$ $
$ $
7. Sub-total mechanical and electrical
installed cost: $ 2160 $ 2252
8. Initial taxes: $ 108 $ ^ 113
9. Total costs: $ 2268 (A1) $ ' 2365 (B1)
10. Installed cost per square foot: $ 2.52 $ 2.63
11. Watts per square foot of lighting 2.24 watts 1.76 watts
12. Salvage (at y years): $ 227 (As) $ 237 (Bs)

Figure 17.4 An economic analysis for two lighting systems in a

30 χ 30 classroom.

424
Energy Conservation in Illumination 425

Β. Annual power and maintenance costs

1. Lamps: burning hours X kW X $/kWh $ 314 $ 246
2. Air conditioning operation hours X tons
X kW/Ton X $/kWh $ 72 $ 56
3. Air conditioning maintenance: tons X $/ton $ 86 $ 67
4. Reduction in heating cost fuel used: coal $ [23]' $ [ 1β]*
5. Reduced heating maintenance: MBtu
X $/MBtu $ [14]* $ [11]*
6. Other differential costs: $ $—
$ $
$ $
$ $
7. Cost of lamps: (No. of lamps
4
l mm /lamp per
(Group relamping every Ν years, typically
every one, two or three years, depending on
burning schedule.) $ 15 $ 51
8. Cost of ballast replacement: (No. of
ballasts £ ( © H y i l S el /ballast
per n) (n = number of years of ballast life.) $ 41 $ 58
Labor A = 0.8 hrs, Β = 1.0 hrs;
Rate = 14.50/hr
9. Luminaire washing cost: No. of
luminaires jf (αϊ $ ^Jf each.
(Cost to wash one luminaire includes cost
to replace or wash lamps.) $ 152 $ 65
Labor A &B = 0.5 hr; rate = 14.50/ hr
10. Annual insurance cost: $ 27 $ 28
11. Annual property tax cost: $ 136 $ 142
12. Total annual power and maintenance cost: $ 806 (Ap) $ 684 (Bp)
13. Cost per square foot: $ 0.90 $ 0.76

" Bracket indicates negative values.

PAYOUT (Example)
(Sys. A) = ($2268 - $227) = $2041

(Sys. B) = ($2365 - $237) = $2128

Xt = ($2128 - $2041) = $87

X 2 = ($806 - $684) = $122

122
χ = = 13.36
(.105 X 87)

a = 1.105

b = 13.36
= 1.081
12.36
In 1.081
y = = 0.78 years before Sys. Β begins to be the more economical system. C
In 1.105

Figure 17.4 (Continued).

426 Chapter 14

Use of Shorter-Life High-Efficacy Lamps

A basic characteristic of incandescent lamps is the interrelationship

between life and lumens. This seesaw effect is demonstrated in
Table 17.4. When a 100 W lamp of 3500 h life design is replaced, an
equal amount of light can be obtained from a 75 W lamp of 850 h life
design. An energy saving of 25 W and a cost saving of $4 per year
will result. A more important aspect of the energy-saving ideas be-
yond energy and dollar savings may be the necessity to comply with
government regulations.

Use of Reflectorized Lamps

Reflector (and PAR) lamps are designed to put light on the work
surface efficiently. The filament is positioned optically within the
reflector during lamp making to further maximize the efficacy of this
source. In many instances, a reflector lamp of only half the wattage
of a standard lamp can be substituted quickly with very nearly the
same lighting results on the work surface. Table 17.5 provides a
direct substitution guide for this energy-saving scheme.

Use of Low-Voltage Lamps

Low-voltage lamps are inherently more efficient than lamps of standard

voltage design with equal life values. These gains vary by wattage
and range in the vicinity of 10 to 30%. A relatively simple method
is available to switch to low voltage. A change to track lighting
could be the answer. Many track lighting fixtures accommodate re-
flector low-voltage lamps, thus providing efficiency gains in two ways.

Table 17.4 Lumen Comparison Chart

Average Life in Hours

Wattage Standard 2500 Hours 3500 Hours

40 480 415 400

60 890 740 670
75 1210 1000 —

100 1710 1480 1280

150 2850 2350 2150
200 3900 3250 2890
 Tabl e 17.5 Direct Substitute Guide fo r Incandescent Lighting

Present " O Ο Ο ) " Ό Ο Ο

Lamp
60A 1000 hr 60/991F (2500 hr )
< c
75A(850 hr) 75R30/FL i2000hr!
I
100A I 750 hr) 100 '99IF ι 2500 hr) 150PAR FL (2000 150R/FL ί2000 200A (750 hr)

«cn^>
75R30-'FlX
II' r/l
*<D "<D < D •IIIQ I 2000 hr ^-l •iiiQ^ •IIIQ^ « α
Substitute 30R20 ί 2000 hr) 50R20 ?2000 hr! I > 75PAR/FL(2000 hr ι
V /75PAFί FL 150PAR/FL(2000 hr!
) hr ί U-^ 2000I 1OOPARF
/ L (200(D hr.) 100PAR/FL (200Ohr)
<1) Ο S5PAR/FL '200C
) o
) )
50R20 (2000 hr i 50R20 i'2000 hr Ϊ 60A (1OOO hr ! KL 75A(850 hr j
/5ER30\
' 2000 h r i

100% 200+% 175% 125% 200+%

Light Level* 200+% 75% 150% 200+% 70% 150% 200+%
200% 80%
55PAR/FL !3000 hr} 200%

30 10 25 25 25
Watts Saved 10 20 25 50 50 50
5 15 25 25

Annual Energy $4.80 $1.60 $4.00 $4.00 $4.00

Cost Savings $3.20 $4.00 $8.00 $8.00 $8.00
$1.60 $ .80 $2.40 $4.00 $4.00
Per Socket**
' E x p r e s s e d as % of present level Specific cases may vary depending on conditions **Based on 4.000 hours/year and $0 0 4 / K W H

CSD
-si
428 Chapter 14

New Developments

Recent developments in incandescent sources prompted primarily by

the energy crunch have occurred in the following areas:

1. N e w wattage sizes: i n t r o d u c t i o n of 5 5 - , 1 0 0 - , a n d 200 W PAR

lamps
2. New bulb shapes: introduction of ER lamps
3. New coatings: the use of special coatings in a number of new
incandescent lamps
4. Basic design modifications: the use of krypton fill gas instead
of argon

17.6.2 Using Fluorescent Systems

There are some 900 million fluorescent sockets in place in the United
States, so short-range reduction in the use of lighting energy must
depend on modifications that can be made to existing systems without
major retrofit and conversion costs. With this in mind, lighting manu-
facturers have developed a line of energy-saving lamps and various
types of energy-efficient ballasts and luminaires in the last decade.
Today numerous possible combinations can be selected to suit any
particular application.

Energy-Efficient Lamps
As discussed in Section 17.2.2, reduced wattage fluorescent lamps
use krypton fill gas as a first response to the need for energy sav-
i n g s . However, because fluorescent ballasts tend to operate lamps
at constant current, there is a limit to the lamp manufacturers'
ability to reduce lamp wattage without compromising system reliability.
In practice, light output and wattage reductions have amounted to
18 to 20% for instant-start circuits, but only 10 to 14% for rapid-start
circuits, which make up almost three-fourths of sockets installed.

Energy-Efficient Ballasts

The intrinsically higher efficiency of reduced-wattage lamps suggested

a low-loss high-performance ballast specifically designed for them.
For various energy-efficient ballasts, reference should be made to
Section 17.3.

Fluorescent System Considerations

Fluorescent lamps are sensitive to ambient temperatures. By using

reduced-wattage lamps or low-loss ballasts, less heat will be gene-
rated and the operating temperature point of the lamps will probably
change. The critical area is the coldest spot on the bulb surface.
Energy Conservation in Illumination 429

Most fluorescent lamps will peak in light output at around 100°F cold-
spot temperature. For enclosed luminaire types which ordinarily
operate the lamps at higher temperature, replacing standard lamps
with high-efficacy reduced-wattage lamps may result in a net increase
in luminaire output even though the reduced-wattage lamps are rated
for less output than that of standard lamps.

Economics of Energy-Saving Fluorescent Lamps

For the purpose of cost comparison between 40 W and energy-saving

lamps, although 34 W lamps can be operated on low-loss ballasts to
further reduce energy consumption, conventional ballasts are assumed,
which makes the analysis applicable to retrofit as well as new instal-
lations. Within limits of conventional design practices, low-wattage
lamps can provide illuminating engineers with a new flexibility to
more closely tailor illumination levels to specific standards or require-
ments while simultaneously reducing owner's life-cycle costs. Figure
17.5 illustrates a fluorescent substitution guide for energy-saving
schemes.

17.6.3 Using High Intensity Discharge Systems

The HID light source can provide many energy-saving opportunities,

due to their high efficacy. Retrofitting or relighting with a light
source of higher efficacy is an essential technique to achieve energy
savings in a HID illuminating system.

Retrofit Options for a Mercury System

The operating cost of a mercury lighting system is second only to
that of an incandescent system. For maximum savings, a mercury
system can be replaced by a high pressure sodium system, or if
color discrimination is important, a metal halide system. Two basic
retrofit options can be applied to a mercury system. The first option
is to replace the luminaire ballasts with metal halide or high pressure
sodium lamps. The second option is to replace with special retrofit
MH or HPS lamps designed to operate on mercury ballasts. Ballast
change-out permits conventional lamps to be used in the luminaire.
Replacing ballasts require a larger cash expenditure, but the long-
term benefits are greater. Although retrofit lamps produce sub-
stantial savings when applied to an existing mercury system, they
generally cost more and have a shorter life, or lower efficacy or
lumen maintenance than those of standard MH or HPS lamps operated
on companion ballasts. Most ballasts manufacturers and some lumi-
naire manufacturers offer remote-mounting retrofit ballasts that can
be mounted outside the luminaire for conversion. However, retrofit
lamps cannot be used on all mercury systems. Each prospective
430 Chapter 14

To Save Energy Light Level

Instead of Watts Saved
Use This Lamp Will Be

S a m e or 5
Slightly L e s s
Type 1 Low Energy L a m p S t a n d a r d 4 0 Watt 4 Foot
3 5 Watts R a p i d Start

Per L a m p

} S a m e or
Slightly Less
Type 1 Low Energy L a m p S t a n d a r d 75 Watt 8 Foot
6 0 Watts Slimline L a m p

15

Per L a m p

S a m e or 20
Slightly L e s s Per L a m p
Type 1 Low Energy L a m p S t a n d a r d 115 Watt 8 Foot
9 5 Watts High Output Lamp — 8 0 0 MA

3 3 % Less
30
Light Than
Per
1 S t a n d a r d 4 0 Watt L a m p 2 Standard
Type 2 " 3 3 " Low Energy L a m p Pair
Operating on a 2 L a m p Lamps
Ballast

> 1 S t a n d a r d 4 0 Watt L a m p
5 0 % Less
Light T h a n
2 Standard
46
Per
Type 2 "50" Low Energy L a m p Pair
Operating on a 2 L a m p Lamps
Ballast

Low Energy Lamp Designation

Type 1 — L o w Energy Lamp: Available from 34 to 36 watts. Does not affect light output of other
lamp on a 2 lamp ballast.
Type 2 — Low Energy Lamp: Replaces one standard 40 watt lamp of a two lamp pair operating on
a 2 lamp series lead ballast. Light output of the pair is r e d u c e d by
either 33% (Type 2, "33") or 50% (Type 2 "50").

Figure 17.5 A energy-saving substitute guide for fluorescent lighting.

retrofit project should be checked with the lamp manufacturer for

advise.
At the present time, retrofit HPS lamps in wattages of 150, 215,
and 360 can be used on mercury systems using 175-, 250-, and
400 W lamps respectively. One manufacturer offers an 880 W HPS
lamps for use in existing 1000 W mercury luminaire.
Retrofit metal Halide lamps are available in 400- and 1000 W ver-
sions which are intended for use with CW/CWA type mercury ballasts.
The 1000 W metal halide can reduce wattage per luminaire by either
Energy Conservation in Illumination 431

35 or 85 W, d e p e n d i n g on the type of ballast it is used with. A new

addition is the 325W MH lamp which saves about 70 W per luminaire
while delivering 40% more light than 400 W mercury lamp it replaces.
Figure 17.6 illustrates some sample retrofit schemes as discussed in
this section.

Relight with High Pressure Sodium System

The most effective way of achieving energy savings with a HID s y s -

tem is to replace existing incandescent or mercury system, even
fluorescent lighting, with a properly chosen HPS light source. This
replacement operation is called a "relighting program" in most indus-
trial plants. In making a relighting study, the most difficult and

Light Level Watts Saved

Use This Lamp Instead of Will Be** Per Socket*

Higher 70
325 Watt High 4 0 0 Watt M e r c u r y
Efficiency Metal (Single-lamp C W / C W A
Halide L a m p Regulator Ballasts)

M u c h Higher 85
1000 Watt M e r c u r y
( C W / C W A Regulator
Ballasts)

1000 Watt High

Efficiency Metal
Halide L a m p M u c h Higher 35

1000 Watt M e r c u r y
(lag or rector
ballasts)

Μ Ι Ι ^ Γ ^
Higher 40
150 Watt High
Pressure S o d i u m 175 Watt M e r c u r y
Lamp

Higher 65
215 Watt High
Pressure S o d i u m 250 Watt M e r c u r y
Lamp

Figure 17.6 A energy-saving substitute guide for mercury lighting.

432 Chapter 14

perhaps the most controversial determination is the approach that one

would take to tackle the problems. A necessary first step is to obtain
a plot plan of the plant property, showing all buildings with struc-
tural dimensions, and lighting layout drawings and construction bills
of material to help identify and confirm the number, type, and watt-
age of all light sources. The next step is to identify and categorize
by wattage and lamp type each light source in all areas, working
within one defined area at a time. Information on the efficacies of
various light sources should be assembled both for the types of lights
used in the plant and for other types that will be proposed. Data
on lamp life of various light sources should be available from lamp
manufacturers. Ballast losses should also be determined. If they
are not available, 10% of lamp watts can be used as an approximation.
Tasks to be performed in each area should be established so that
appropriate lighting level can be determined accordingly.
After all necessary data are gathered, the information can be
plugged into various study forms (see Figures 17.1 and 17.2). In
going through the forms, one will soon be confronted with some
puzzling questions as to the best criteria for conducting the study.
In making a relighting study, the following basic guiding principles
must be observed:

Fixture for Fixture Replacement. This pattern of relighting

represents one of the simplest conditions. A typical case for such
a system is to replace 1000 W mercury lights with 400 W HPS on a
one-for-one basis. Usually, the spacing-to-mounting height ratio is
suitable for the new light source. The existing wire sizes are usually
adequate and connections can easily be made. The overall installa-
tion costs of the relighting program will be low, and the ROI will be
about 50%. The lighting level will stay practically the same as be-
fore. However, the energy savings realized in this program amount
to 60% of the original consumption. Figure 17.7 shows a typical
industrial relighting program of this nature. On the left, one hun-
dred seventy-eight 1000 W mercury luminaires were used to light the
plant; on the right, the same number of 400 W HPS new luminaires
are in place. The ROI in this case is 58%.

Energy Savings Plus Improvement of Lighting Quality. In some

cases the relighting program can result in not only energy savings,
but also improved lighting quality, such as increased illumination
levels and greater visibility. Warehouses lighted with high-wattage
incandescents usually fall under this category. Due to higher
efficacy of the HPS light source and usually ample mounting height,
the number of new fixtures that will deliver a desirable higher illu-
mination level can be reduced. Consequently, this type of relighting
program can result in energy savings as well as operating cost sav-
Energy Conservation in Illumination 433

Figure 17.7 A typical industrial relighting program—400 W HPS

replacing 1000 W mercury.

ings. In addition, improvements in lighting quality are achieved as

a bonus.

Lumen for Lumen Replacement. T h e l u m e n o u t p u t of o n e 400 W

HPS luminaire is approximately equal to that of two 400 W mercury,
two super-high-output fluorescent, or six 500 W incandescent units.
These simple relationships can provide a convenient replacement
scheme as long as the spacing-to-mounting height ratio of the new
HPS luminaires remains satisfactory. The replacement scheme can
result in the reduction of luminaires required to deliver a lighting
level equivalent to that of an existing system. Energy savings can
readily be achieved.
434 Chapter 14

Unfavorable Conditions. Favorable situations may not always

exist. If the relighting program cannot achieve both energy savings
and improvements in lighting quality, a fair standard must be set as
a guideline for the program, to determine whether it can be justified.
The fair standard would be that the relighting program be judged on
its capacity to give an equal illumination level and visibility as the
existing system, yet it can result in considerable energy and cost
savings.

Identifying Problems and Possible Solutions

in a HPS Lighting System

In recent years, most of the old problems that existed in applying

HID light sources to industrial plants have been overcome. However,
despite the many significant improvements, premature component
failures, glare, and color rendition, and so on, remain as the major
concern of the HPS lighting system. The more important problems
are discussed below.

Low Lighting Level. Lamp lumen output is nearly proportional

to lamp wattage, and lamp wattage is dependent on the ballast design
and the lamp voltage. Therefore, it follows that reducing the lamp
voltage will, in turn, reduce the light output. Low lighting levels
for HPS lighting system usually result from (1) low lamp arc voltage,
(2) a steep slope of the ballast characteristic curve, (3) low capaci-
tance in the lead ballast circuit, (4) low line voltage, and (5) dirt
accumulation on the luminaire. ANSI specifications allow a production
range of 85 to 115 V. If the lamps are made with their arc voltages
near the lower limit, they will deliver a low lighting level when in-
stalled.

Excessive Voltate Rise. HPS lamp voltage increases during lamp

life. When a lamp starts, the amalgam is fully condensed and the
lamp voltage is low. As the lamp warms up, the amalgam vaporizes,
causing the voltage to increase. If the voltage stabilizes at a value
below the drop-out voltage, the lamp will operate properly. How-
ever, if the lamp voltage exceeds the drop-out voltage, the lamp will
extinguish. One of the more common causes of voltage rise results
from operating the lamp above its wattage value, which produces arc
tube blackening and sodium loss. Another problem arises from using
ballasts that are not matched to the input voltage.

Starting Difficulties. When a HPS lamp does not start, one

generally looks at the starter. There are devices available to detect
whether there is a voltage pulse of sufficient magnitude to start the
lamp. Starters fail from overheating due to component failure from
the heat within the luminaire, or from repeated attempts to light an
Energy Conservation in Illumination 435

inoperative lamp previously used in that socket. The pulse circuit

utilizes the ballast windings to develop the high starting voltage and
it must be connected directly to the eyelet of the socket, not to the
shell or ground. If both the lamp and starter are functioning, it
may be that the supply voltage is too low or the output voltage of
the ballast is insufficient.

Color Rendition. HPS lamps have a spectral distribution richer

in golden white than other types of lamps. Because tests show that
there is little difference in the ability of the human eye to identify
safety colors under incandescent, metal halide, or high pressure
sodium lighting, the overall color-rendering properties of HPS light-
ing are satisfactory. Thus any concern about or negative reactions
to the color of these lights are more psychological than factual. In
a very rare case, the yellow color may actually cause difficulty in
color distinction. If this happens, supplementary lighting such as
fluorescent or even incandescent should be used to assist the task.
HPS lamps are now available with substantially better color rendition
than the standard line.

Glare. Due to the inherent nature of HID light sources, regard-

less of the types of fixtures, there is a hot spot that can cause a
glare sensation when one views from a specific distance. However,
at a normal 30-in. working plane, one will not be bothered by the
hot spot. Diffused HPS lamps can reduce glare; however, their light
output is somewhat lower. Nevertheless, they do offer a choice for
the industrial users should glare become a serious problem.

Future Prospects of HPS Lighting System

Electric energy saved from lighting with HPS light source can have
a significant impact on the national economy. Some of the problems
discussed in previous sections can be minimized or eliminated in the
planning stages by careful examination of the components selected
for the lighting system. While short-term goals tend to concentrate
on improvements in lamp performance, a longer-range perspective
suggests some interesting possibilities with the system. Shorter arc
source lengths, more sophisticated optical design, more efficient
ballasts, and better color offer an attractive alternatives to present-
day spot and floodlighting system. As the use of HPS lighting ex-
pands to include commercial and eventually residential establishments,
the luminaire manufacturers will be encouraged to develop new lines
of decorative and compact luminaires.
436 Chapter 14

17.6.4 Using Daylighting

Daylighting should be dealt with by first analyzing it and then estab-

lishing a design technique to integrate it with the electric lighting
system. In Section 13.2.2 we discussed some basic aspects of day-
lighting.

Analysis of Daylight

The primary difficulty in daylighting is the variability of daylight

with respect to the time of day and year with respect to environmental
conditions. These variations in the quality and quantity of light re-
sult in variations in the interior environment.

Interior Environment. The daylight entering a space may be

analyzed in terms of the quantity and quality of the light. Daylight
may be adequate in quantity to reduce the electric lighting level and
result in false energy conservation if the quality of the light is not
analyzed. Poor quality of daylight may lead to discomfort and a loss
in visibility that may result in a decrease in human performance and
productivity.

Quality of Daylight. The quality of daylighting in a space affects

the physical and psychological impact on the human occupants. The
physical effects of daylighting can be investigated in terms of the
visual, thermal, and acoustical environment.

Daylighting Design from Windows

Assuming suitable sun control, a southern exposure is preferred to
optimize the daylight contribution into a space. Sufficient daylight-
ing must be provided to replace electric lighting if energy conserva-
tion is to be realized. Longhand calculational procedures are based
on the data and procedures presented in the IES Lighting Handbook.
Although the computer program may be more complex, it offers a
more complete and accurate profile of the daylight contribution. The
longhand design procedure involves two steps:

1. Determine the quantity of illumination coming to the window sur-

face.
2. Use that quantity to determine the daylight contribution to the
interior part of the space.

Once the contribution of illumination to the window surface has

been calculated, two longhand methods are available for determining
the illumination contribution to the space. Two methods of calcula-
tion can be applied. The first method is to follow the point-by-point
procedure, which makes two assumptions: (1) interreflected com-
Energy Conservation in Illumination 437

ponent is ignored, and (2) the window is a uniform diffuse emitter.

The second method is a lumen method that calculates illumination
values at three points defined as the maximum, midway, and minimum.
The second procedure includes both the direct and interreflected com-
ponents of illumination. It also assumes that the illumination coming
to the window is uniformly distributed across the surface of the win-
dow. References should be made to Sections 12.3 and 12.4 for the
detailed procedures of both methods.

17.6.5 Lighting Controls

Electrical and electronic controls can be used to conserve energy by

reducing light levels by turning off lamps or by dimming. The
inclusion of switching provisions for reduced lighting is a cost item
in an initial installation, but can result in relatively large savings.
Dimming is a more sophisticated manner of control that can most
readily be justified when variable light levels are desired in addition
to energy conservation. Chapter 18 will be devoted entirely to the
latest lighting control schemes and techniques.

17.7 L I G H T I N G AND ENERGY STANDARDS

Early in 1974, the document "Energy Conservation Guidelines for

Existing Office Buildings" was published by the General Services
Administration and the Public Building Services (GSA/PBS). At
approximately the same time, the National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
prepared the document "Design and Evaluation Criteria for Energy
Conservation in New Buildings" for the National Conference of States
on Building Codes and Standards (NCSBCS) covering lighting for
new construction. NCSBCS asked the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) to prepare
a standard on energy conservation for new buildings based on this
NBS document. ASHRAE turned to the Illuminating Engineering
Society (IES), and the IES Task Committee on Energy Budgeting
procedures was formed. The work of this committee culminated in
recommendations that were published by ASHRAE as Chapter 9 of
the ASHRAE 90-75 and by IES as "IES Recommended Lighting Power
Budget Determination Procedures EMS-1." NCSBCS also adopted it
as part of its Model Building Code. Both documents established a
procedure for determining a "lighting power budget."
In 1975, Congress passed Public Law 94-163, entitled "Energy
Policy and Conservation Act of 1975," which was amended by Public
Law 94-385, "Energy Conservation Standards for New Building Act
of 1976." Public Law 94-164 makes mandatory certain lighting effi-
ciency standards set forth in Public Laws 94-163 and 94-385.
438 Chapter 14

In 1976, the Energy Research and Development Association (ERDA)

contracted with NCSBCS to codify ASHRAE 90-75. The resulting
document was called "The Model Code for Energy Conservation in New
Building," or more simply, the "Model Code." The Model Code has
been adopted by a number of states to satisfy the requirements of
Public Laws 94-163 and 94-385.
In June 1976, the IES Board of Directors adopted important re-
visions to Chapter 9 of ASHRAE 90-75 that tightened the lighting
power budget procedure to assure energy conservation. These re-
visions were included in 90-75R but did not become part of the
NCSBCS Model Code.
ASHRAE 90-75R was cosponsored by IES and ASHRAE and sub-
mitted to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in late
1977 for adoption as an ANSI standard. The document that resulted
will be known as ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90, "Energy Conserva-
tion in New Buildings."
In 1975, work was begun by IES on a series of six documents
that deal with energy standards for existing buildings. The docu-
ments cover low-rise residential, high-rise residential, commercial,
industrial, institutional, and public assembly occupancies. Several
of these documents have since become ANSI standards.
There have been several revisions on the ANSI/ASHRAE/IES 90-
75R since then. All were included in the lighting portion of ANSI/
ASHRAE/IES 90A-1980, "Energy Conservation in New Building Design,"
and in EMS-1-1981, "IES Recommended Lighting Power Budget Deter-
mination Procedure."
As a means for simplifying and shortening the EMS-1 procedure,
the IES developed a Unit Power Density (UPD) Procedure and pub-
lished it as EMS-6 in 1980. The present LEM-1-1982, "Lighting Power
Limit Determination," is a further refinement which combines EMS-6
and EMS-1 and, as such, supersedes both. LEM-1 is concerned only
with the determination of lighting power limit; lighting control guide-
lines are contained in LEM-3, "Design Considerations for Effective
Building Lighting Energy Utilization."
Since 1982, IES has published the LEM series. In addition to
LEM-1 and LEM-3 are LEM-2, "Lighting Energy Limit Determination,"
LEM-4, "Energy Analysis of Building Lighting Design and Installa-
tion," and LEM-6, "IES Guidelines for Unit Power Density (UPD) for
new Roadway Lighting Installation."
ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90-75R was by far the most popular
energy conservation design standard. It has been adopted as energy
codes by most states within the United States and serves as a model
standard in many other countries. Although this standard under-
went a revision in 1980, major revisions were not made to incorporate
new practices and technology. The proposed standard 90. IP takes
a totally new approach compared to earlier versions of standard 90.
Energy Conservation in Illumination 439

Three parallel and alternative paths for compliance are provided:

prescriptive, system performance, and building energy methods.
Each of these methods may be used selectively and interchangeably
when determining building subsystems compliance. Standard 90. IP
will be the standard of the future for energy-conserving building
design and operations. The interaction between the three compliance
methods fulfills needs that arise during the various phases of the
building process. Although the document is in its infant stage, on-
going analysis and reevaluation will assure that the standard will
mature into a useful, practical standard.
In the meantime, the U . S . Department of Energy published in
the Federal Register of May 6, 1987, note of a proposed interim rule
entitled "Energy Conservation Voluntary Performance Standards for
New Commercial and Multi-family High-Rise Residential Buildings."
This rule, when issued, will be mandatory for all federal buildings
and a voluntary recommendation for nonfederal buildings. There is
industry concern that these standards may be adopted by states and
thus would become the standard for all buildings. Section 3 on light-
ing is similar to the proposed ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90. IP
second review draft, dated August 22, 1986. The major exception
is the inclusion of the 1992 Unit Power Density Values for lighting
which become mandatory on January 1, 1992. Therefore, all lighting
professionals should seriously review and take a close look at these
values before the interim rule becomes mandatory.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANSI/IEEE 739-1984, Energy Conservation and Cost-Effective Planning

in Industrial Facilities.
Benton, C. C . , Daylighting Can Improve the Quality of Lighting and
Save Energy, Architectural Lighting, Nov. 1986, pp. 46—48.
Chen, Kao, Lighting Esthetics with Energy Saving Ideas, IEEE Trans-
actions on Industry Applications, Jan./Feb. 1976, p p . 35—38.
Chen, Kao, The Energy Oriented Economics of Lighting Systems,
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Jan./Feb. 1977,
pp. 6 2 - 6 8 .
Chen, Kao, and Guerdan, E. R . , Resource Benefits of Industrial
R e l i g h t i n g P r o g r a m , IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
May/June 1979.
Chen, Kao, and Kane, R. M., Achieving Optimum Performance in a
High-Pressure-Sodium Lighting System, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, July/Aug. 1982, pp. 416-423.
Chen, Kao, and Lally, William, Update: Fluorescent Lighting Econo-
m i c s , IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, May/June
1983, pp. 328-333.
440 Chapter 14

Chen, Kao, and Main, George, J r . , Industrial Relighting Program:

Its Purpose, Progress, and Prospects, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, Mar./Apr. 1981, pp. 217-221.
Chen, Kao, and Murray, W. Α . , Energy, Incandescent Lighting,
and 100 Years, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
May/June 1980.
Chen, K . , Unglert, M. C . , and Melafa, R. L . , Energy-Saving Light-
ing for Industrial Applications, IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, July/Aug. 1978.
Hart, A. L . , Cutting Lighting Costs by Applying Energy Efficient
Lighting Sources, Plant Engineering, Mar. 8, 1979.
IES Committee Report on Life Cycle Cost Analysis, Lighting Design
and Application, May 1980, pp. 4 3 - 4 8 .
1986 IES Progress Report, Lighting Design and Application, Nov.
1986, pp. 25-42.
Peery, R . , Daylighting and Energy Conservation, Lighting Design
and Application, Oct. 1974, pp. 2 7 - 2 9 .
Recommended Procedure for Lighting Power Limit Determination,
Illuminating Engineering Society Publication LEM-1-1982.
Tao, William, Lighting Compliance Procedures of ANSI/ASHRAE/IES
Standard 90. IP, Lighting Design and Application, Sept. 1985,
pp. 3 6 - 4 0 .
18
Lighting Controls

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Lighting controls have become increasingly sophisticated in the recent

y e a r s , mainly due to dire need for energy savings and advancements
in the solid-state control devices. As the cost of energy has continued
to rise, increasing effort has gone into minimizing the energy consump-
tion of lighting installations. This effort has evolved along three
major directions: the development of new energy-efficient lighting
equipment, the utilization of improved lighting design practice, and
finally, improvements in lighting control systems. The lighting indus-
try has been introducing more efficient lighting components and s y s -
tems, which cost more to install but result in a lower total cost (oper-
ating plus initial). End users begin to base their decisions on the
ROI or the life-cycle cost. These decisions should lead to much
greater application of cost-effective lighting control systems.
In the last decade, many new lighting control hardwares have
appeared on the market. In this chapter we review all important
types of lighting controls for industrial illuminating systems and offer
some guidelines for selection to suit individual needs and achieve
optimum energy savings.

18.2 TYPES OF CONTROLS

All lighting controls, whether a simple switch or a sophisticated pro-

grammable controller, can normally be classified in two basic cate-
gories: (1) on-off controls and (2) level controls. In its simplest
form, lighting control can be accomplished manually by means of a

441
442 Chapter 14

switch located on a wall, in a luminaire or a panel box. Even though

manual on-off switches for lighting control are used in commercial and
industrial facilities, the current trend is toward greater use of light-
ing contactors. However, this type of control cannot be used con-
veniently to change lighting levels. Many circumstances require a
varied level of illumination. Dimming devices are the most used means
of providing the level controls.
Lighting controls can also be grouped into two general categories:
centralized controls and local controls. The main difference between
them falls into the realm of function of the area considered. Centra-
lized controls are used in buildings where it is desirable to control
large areas of the building on the same schedule. An example of
centralized controls is a microprocessor that turns all lights on and
off on a preprogrammed schedule. Localized controls are designed to
affect only specific areas. Examples of localized controls are a per-
sonnel detector or a photocell controlling each office within a suite of
offices.
Since a centralized system can be utilized to activate local controls ,
a time clock (centralized control) can be used to energize the building's
entire lighting system on a time-of-day schedule, while a personnel
detector (local control) located in a specific office overrides the cen-
tralized control to turn lighting in the specific offices on and off as
demanded by occupancy. Figure 18.1 shows a matrix of the functions
required for lighting control systems, with the type of control de-
signed to perform that function or functions. No attempt is made to
differentiate the actual technology utilized by manufacturers.

18.3 ON-OFF CONTROLS

As discussed previously, lighting control can be accomplished by

means of a switch or a breaker, which will not be repeated here.
However, various other types of on-off controls are discussed below.

18.3.1 Power Lighting Contactors

Power contactors can be divided into three general categories: power

lighting contactors rated up to 1200 A, multipole contactors with up
to 12 poles, and single-pole contactors with low voltage control.
More popular sizes range from 60 to 225 A. Since small contactors
can be used for control stations and an unlimited number of stations
can be used for each power lighting contactor, the illuminating engi-
neers can be liberal with the number of control stations used. A
typical installation is the Twin Towers of World Trade Center in New
York City. Four 225 A power lighting contactors are used for each
floor. They are in turn controlled by two master controllers. Being
 Lighting Controls 443

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Ι δ - · ϊ ϊ ί § s u . | g,
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I I r 1 f ο I 5 51 §
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Type of Control
Centralized Controls: Functions*
C o m p u t e r operated χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ χ

Over-the-wire controller clock Χ Χ Χ Χ Χ X X Χ X X

P r o g r a m m a b l e control Χ Χ Χ Χ Χ X X X X χ

Localized Controls:
Daylight control (dimmable) 1 X X X X χ

Daylight control (non-dimmable) X X X X X

ln-fixture d a y l i g h t i n g control Χ Χ X X X

Solid state d i m m i n g
(no d i m m i n g ballast) X X X X X χ

X X X χ
People sensors
2 X X X X X χ
A m b i e n t light co-ordinators
Χ Χ Χ Χ Χ χ
Timer control
1
Requires d i m m i n g ballast in each luminaire
C o m p e n s a t e s for light loss factors
* M a n y f u n c t i o n s can be added; check w i t h manufacturer

Figure 18.1 Lighting control matrix.

mechanically held, they can be controlled by:

1. A manually operated three-position switch with a center-off posi-

tion
2. Auxiliary relays as a function of photoelectric cells
3. A time switch with a single-pole, double-throw contact
4. Control relays in an energy management system ( e . g . , programm-
able controllers)

18.3.2 Multipole Lighting Contactors

Multiple contactors are available up to 12 poles with contacts usually

limited to a 20 A rating. The latest multipole contactors can be
provided with optical solid-state control modules that provide two-wire
control, three-wire control, or stop/start control. A typical six-pole
lighting contactor with a solid-state two-wire control module is shown
in Figure 18.2.
444 Chapter 14

T o d a y ' s m u l t i p o l e l i g h t i n g c o n t a c t o r s a r e of shallow c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
p e r m i t t i n g them to b e m o u n t e d in p a n e l b o a r d s a n d in some c a s e s
m o u n t e d in a 4 - i n . s t u d - c o n s t r u c t i o n wall ( F i g u r e 1 8 . 3 ) . Magnetically
h e l d 20 A multipole l i g h t i n g c o n t a c t o r s a r e also a v a i l a b l e . T h e y a r e
o f t e n f u r n i s h e d , a s s e m b l e d a n d p r e w i r e d , in e n c l o s u r e s with e l e c t r o n i c
t r a n s c e i v e r s f o r c o n n e c t i o n to p r o g r a m m a b l e c o n t r o l l e r s t h a t utilize
card r e a d e r s , telephone interfaces, card p r i n t e r s , and other external
components as n e e d e d .

18.3.3 Low-Voltage Relays

Low-voltage relays are usually single-pole and used for individual
b r a n c h - c i r c u i t o r luminaire c o n t r o l . T h e s e r e l a y c o n t a c t s a r e normally
r a t e d f o r a 20 A t u n g s t e n filament load at 125 V ac a n d a r e mechanical-
ly l a t c h i n g , r e q u i r i n g only a momentary 24 V r e c t i f i e d ac switch c i r -
cuit p u l s e to e i t h e r o p e n or close t h e local c o n t a c t s . A s t e p - d o w n
t r a n s f o r m e r is r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e l o w - v o l t a g e p o w e r f o r r e l a y a c t u a -
t i o n . With a 40 VA r a t i n g , one t r a n s f o r m e r can s u p p l y p o w e r f o r u p
to 15 r e l a y s with No. 14 AWG w i r i n g .

Figure 18.2 Six pole 20 A l i g h t i n g c o n t a c t o r ( C o u r t e s y of Automatic

Switch C o m p a n y ) .
Lighting Controls 445

Figure 18.3 Multi-pole l i g h t i n g c o n t a c t o r f o r f l u s h m o u n t i n g ( C o u r t e s y

of Automatic Switch C o . ) .

18.3.4 Timing Controls

A b r o a d v a r i e t y of time s w i t c h e s a r e available f o r c o n t r o l l i n g l i g h t i n g
l o a d s . T h e y may b e u s e d f o r d i r e c t o n - o f f c o n t r o l of l i g h t s o r f o r
c o n t r o l of l i g h t i n g c o n t a c t o r s . T w e n t y - f o u r - h o u r dial t i m e r s a r e
available with one o r more s e t s of o n / o f f t r i p p e r s . A d a y - o m i t t i n g
d e v i c e is o p t i o n a l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s in which l i g h t i n g is not u s e d on
w e e k e n d s . Astronomic dial t i m e r s t u r n l i g h t s on at s u n s e t a n d off
at a p r e s c r i b e d time. S e v e n - d a y - c a l e n d e r dial t i m e r s a r e u s e d w h e n
t h e o n / o f f p r o g r a m is s e t on o n e d i a l . O p e r a t i o n can b e omitted on
s e l e c t e d d a y s . T r i p p e r will r e q u i r e p e r i o d i c r e s e t t i n g to conform to
seasonal c h a n g e s .
P r o g r a m dial t i m e r s a r e u s e d f o r multiple daily o p e r a t i o n s o r f o r
s h o r t - d u r a t i o n n e e d s , s u c h as t u r n i n g l i g h t s on a n d off f o r c l e a n i n g
c r e w s a n d s e c u r i t y g u a r d s . A t o t a l of 48 o n / o f f o p e r a t i o n s can b e
p r o g r a m m e d d a i l y . T h e y a r e available in multidial v e r s i o n s a n d with
d a y - o m i t t i n g c a p a b i l i t y . R e s e t t i m e r s i n c o r p o r a t e a manual c o n t r o l
a n d a t i m e r . T h e y a r e t y p i c a l l y u s e d b y s e c u r i t y g u a r d s on p a t r o l ;
t h e g u a r d can t u r n on s e l e c t e d l i g h t s w h e n e n t e r i n g t h e a r e a , a n d
t h e t i m e r s t u r n off t h e l i g h t s a f t e r a p r e s c r i b e d time h a s e l a p s e d .
Digital t i m e r s a r e u s e d w h e r e multiple c i r c u i t s , a c c u r a c y , a n d
more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o g r a m m i n g a r e r e q u i r e d . T h e y can b e s c h e d u l e d
446 Chapter 14

a y e a r in advance for holidays and so o n . However, t h e y have a

limited l o a d - c a r r y i n g capacity, typically 3 A at 24 V ac per circuit.
This requires interfacing with a lighting contactor or relay and a
s t e p - d o w n transformer. Figure 18.4 shows the front-panel illustra-
tion of digital timers for controlling eight lighting c i r c u i t s .
Phototimers combine a remotely mounted photo-control and a s e v e n -
day dial timer. It controls three c i r c u i t s , each with its own program.
One circuit p r o v i d e s on and off operation by photocontrol; in the
s e c o n d , photocontrol t u r n s the circuit on and a time switch t u r n s it
o f f ; and in the third, on and off control are both provided by a time
switch. Built-in manual b y p a s s e s maintain any circuit in on and off
operation for prolonged periods without a f f e c t i n g the other circuits
or the master program.

18.3.5 Sensors

S e n s o r s for lighting controls can be divided into two categories:

photoelectric s e n s i n g and p r e s e n c e d e t e c t o r s .

PROGRAMMING FEATURES
Astronomic data can be conveniently copied
into other channels without repeating settings
Only need to enter latitude to set astronomic
feature
Flashing LED's prompt the user through
correct sequence of settings
Instant entry at the touch of a key
Positive touch keys
Audible signals confirm each setting and notify
errors
LED's visible from sides and distance
Only one entry need be made for the same event
on several different days
Easy to go back and change a part of any entry
All loads remain functioning during re-schedul-
ing — then Z400 gives instant look back to
execute the new program
Automatically calculates day after entering date
and year

Figure 18.4 Front panel of a digital timer with self-prompting LED

f e a t u r e s ( C o u r t e s y of Tork C o . ) .
Lighting Controls 447

Photoelectric Sensors

When used for control of outdoor lighting, photoelectric sensors are

normally set to switch lighting on at dusk and off at dawn. Adjust-
ments can be made to change response to higher or lower light levels.
Built-in time delay helps to eliminate nuisance switching in response
to sources other than natural ambient light.

Personnel Sensors

A variety of personnel sensors have recently been developed. Per-

sonnel sensors are complete control systems that sense when a space
or room is occupied and automatically turn the lights on for a preset
period. If no further occupancy is sensed during this time interval,
the lights are then turned off automatically. There are many types
of personnel sensors; they differ only in their method of sensing
occupancy. Some of these methods include passive and active infra-
red, ultrasonic, and acoustic sensing. Two of the most commonly
used methods are passive infrared and ultrasonic.

Passive Infrared Sensors. These detect and respond to changes

in radiated heat within a room caused by the presence and movement
of a human body. They consist of two components, the sensor and
the control unit. The sensor, which contains the passive sensing-
element optics system and the electronic logic circuitry, is designed
to be mounted in the ceiling panel. The control unit, which contains
the low-voltage power supply for the system and the load relay used
to switch the lighting load, is typically mounted above the ceiling.
The sensor includes a timer circuit that keeps the lights on as long
as changes in infrared energy are detected. If no changes are de-
tected for a certain period, the lights are turned off automatically.
The most common passive infrared sensors have a coverage area
of approximately 200 ft^. If a larger area needs to be covered,
multiple sensors can be connected to a single control unit, as shown
in Figure 18.5, which indicates placement of three 200-ft 2 sensors
for coverage of a 20 ft by 20 ft L-shaped office.
There are many design considerations in the use of personnel
sensors. The sensors must be placed so as to cover areas of the
room where occupants are expected to be. Care must be taken to
ensure that the sensors cover all potential occupant locations. The
sensor should not be placed too close to the entry; otherwise, people
walking in an outside corridor past an open door will activate the
lights. Passive infrared sensors should also be placed where they
will not sense any nonhuman heat sources, such as an HVAC register
or baseboard heater.
448 Chapter 14

Passive
Infrared
Scnx>r H

Passive
Infrared
\ibur
Passive Infrared
Sensor •

Figure 18.5 Placement of s e n s o r s for coverage of 400 f t ^ office.

Ultrasonic Sensors. An ultrasonic sensor c r e a t e s an ultrasonic

field in the room being monitored. When a person e n t e r s t h e room,
t h e field is d i s t u r b e d ; t h e sensor d e t e c t s the d i s t u r b a n c e and acti-
v a t e s t h e room l i g h t s . A typical ultrasonic sensor unit contains all
t h e s e n s i n g and local control equipment, is mounted on the ceiling,
and can provide up to 900 f t 2 of c o v e r a g e . A single unit often con-
tains multiple s e n s o r s .
Each t y p e of ultrasonic sensor h a s a coverage p a t t e r n that de-
p e n d s on the number of s e n s o r s mounted in the u n i t . The p a t t e r n
may include two d i f f e r e n t coverage a r e a s for the same u n i t : an area
within which large body motions, such as walking, are d e t e c t e d , and
a smaller coverage a r e a , within which small body motions, such as
t h e movement of an arm, are d e t e c t e d . Careful placement of the
ultrasonic s e n s o r s e n s u r e s p r o p e r operation of the system. Sensors
must be placed such that they do not detect motion outside t h e room
being controlled. Another consideration in the application of u l t r a -
sonic s e n s o r s is the acoustics of t h e room. Room acoustics can affect
Lighting Controls 449

the coverage pattern and therefore the appropriate number and place-
ment of sensors.
Ultrasonic sensors are available in many different styles, each
providing specific coverage patterns. There are also ultrasonic sen-
sors designed for wall mounting as a direct replacement for a doorway
light switch. Personnel sensors are ideal for controlling lights in
any space with random and intermittent occupancy patterns. Some
spaces that meet this criterion include enclosed offices, rest rooms,
storage rooms, library stacks, conference rooms, and classrooms.

18.3.6 Programmable Control System

Control systems are now available that employ microprocessor logic

to replace hard wiring with soft wiring. Coded commands can be
multiplexed to control points over a pair of low-voltage wires. Con-
trol points have receiver/switches, the latter component generally a
low-voltage relay or lighting contactor. Logic functions can be pro-
grammed into a control device to turn lighting on and off over a 24-h
or 1-week period. Overrides are available, and some systems can be
accessed with Touchtone telephones. Such systems, which control
lighting in both time and space, save considerable energy compared
with past control practices. The heart of such systems is the pro-
grammable controller, which holds in memory a series of on-off instruc-
tions to the lighting circuits throughout a building. They can provide
minute-by-minute control of an entire lighting scheme according to a
user-determined schedule, with pulse initiation of the control signal
generated from its internal clock.
Multiplexed signals from the programmable controller can be sent
throughout a building via twisted low-capacitance wire. Signals can
also be sent via existing power wiring to the receiver control modules
(see the section below on power-line carrier systems). The codes
from the controller are transmitted to the transceivers, where they
may be combined with other signals ( e . g . , photocontrol relay output).
In turn, signals are provided to low-voltage relays or lighting con-
tactors, which require only a momentary electrical pulse to operate
its latching or mechanical mechanism to the on or off position.
Control of the lighting pattern is not limited to the programmable
controller keyboard. In addition, a manually operated, momentary
contact switch connected to the transceiver can provide signals to
operate not only those relays, or contactors connected to it, but also
relays or contactors located anywhewre throughout the building via
the data line back to the programmable controller.

Power-Line Carrier System

The power-line carrier system contains electronic transmitters and

receivers that use the building power wiring system as a communica-
450 Chapter 14

tions pathway. The transmitter accepts a control signal input, con-

verts the control signal into digital form, and injects it onto the
power wiring system. The low-voltage digital signal is transmitted
at a frequency anywhere from 25 to 250 kHz, depending on the spe-
cific transmitter design. The control signals can be inserted onto
120 to 480 V lines. It is important to note that host signals cannot
pass through transformers; bypass devices are usually required at
each transformer.
One interesting use of power-line carrier technology is a high
intensity discharge (HID) dimming ballast that has a receiver built
into it. Control signals carry dimming information to all ballasts
equipped with integral receivers. This system can be connected to
a photosensor to provide for either daylighting compensation or lumen
maintenance control. A power-line carrier system can be economically
used in large facilities with many control points, such as factories
and warehouses where control cabling would be lengthy and expen-
sive. The technology is also suitable for existing buildings, where
the cost of installing new lighting control wiring can be prohibitive.

18.4 LEVEL CONTROLS

18.4.1 Dimmers

Many circumstances require a varied level of illumination. Dimmers

are the most used means of providing lighting level control. The
original dimmers were of the resistance type. In the last decade,
solid-state dimmers have taken over 90% of the market. By means of
an electronic switch, the electronic dimmers turn off the current to
the load for a portion of the cycle, thus delivering less power to the
load. Electronic dimmers are now available for incandescent, fluores-
cent, and HID lighting.

Types of Dimmers

Conventional Dimmers. The modern SCR (silicon-controlled recti-

fier) dimmer operates on the principle of switching on the current a
proportional distance through each half-cycle. An SCR is nothing
more than a very fast switch. Dimmers operate simply by delaying
the turning on of these switches by an amount of time inversely
proportional to the incoming control voltage. In the simplest of
examples, a dimmer set at 50% will delay halfway through each half-
cycle and then turn on.

Digital Dimmers. The digital dimmer uses the same very fast
switch (SCR), but instead of using a voltage to change a capacitor
and turn on the switch, the digital dimmer counts a number of steps
through each half-cycle, then turns on the switch.
Lighting Controls 451

Another term that is often used when referring to new technology

dimmers is multiplexing. Multiplexing refers to the use of a single
cable to carry data to a group of dimmers. Multiplexing is a concept
that can be used on both analog and digital dimmers.

Comparison of Digital Dimmers and Analog Dimmers. The digital

dimmer would have some significant advantages over a conventional
analog dimmer:

1. The digital dimmer would communicate with the controller over a

digital communication link, sending numbers rather than analog
voltages. This communication technique has the distinct advan-
tage of having much higher immunity to noise and distortion.
2. Analog dimmer components are very sensitive to changes in tem-
perature. The digital dimmer is counting in reference to a crystal
and will maintain its accuracy.
3. Analog dimmers using components that have manufacturer varia-
tions of as much as 2% will vary greatly from dimmer to dimmer.
Thus sophisticated trimming is required to balance dimmer to
dimmer.
4. Analog dimmers use a series of components to curve the output
of the dimmer to approximate accepted standards of controller
setting versus apparent lumens. A digital dimmer looks up these
curve data in a table and can perform within 1/2 of 1% of the
accepted standards. The digital dimmer has the added advantage
of being able to reproduce any standard or nonstandard curve.

Intelligent Dimmers. Intelligent dimmers communicate with the

controller in the same way as does the digital dimmer except that it
has the intelligence to recognize data other than the setting of the
controller. The scope of what these data could include is as broad
as the scope of what the intelligent controller can produce.

Technology of Patching. As dimmer per light system becomes

more and more clearly the wave of the future, moving the job of
patching out of the controller and into the dimmer makes more and
more sense. If in this data stream the intelligent dimmer is being
informed that it is patched to channel 5 and that whenever it sees
data for channel 5 it should use them, the number of dimmers that
can be patched to any control channel will be limitless.
One problem when lights are patched together in a single control
channel is that the light produced when that channel is active may
not be uniform across an area. If a proportional level is part of the
data that the intelligent dimmer stores and uses, all the dimmers
patched to one channel can be balanced to make the lighting uniform.
It is possible for an intelligent dimmer to communicate information
452 Chapter 14

gathered back to the controller so that the controller can make adjust-
ments and/or communicate this information to the operator. For years,
conventional analog dimmers have used feedback information to adjust
the operation of dimmers—line regulation, load regulation, and current
limiting being most common.
The intelligent dimmer will be able to do as many of these func-
tions as engineers deem desirable. The intelligent dimmer will run a
program like any other computer, and this program can be changed.
The scope and capabilities offered by it are going to be important
parts of control technology in the future.

18.4.2 Computer/Microprocessor

More sophisticated lighting control now consists of a microcomputer

with an oscillator as its controller and a receiver switch as decoder.
The microcomputer is programmed for various lighting patterns and
addresses of the luminaires. The address and condition codes gene-
rated are modulated by the oscillator and superimposed on the build-
ing electrical system line frequency. At the receiver/switch, a
decoder takes the message off the line, and if the address code cor-
responds to the one given that switch, the condition codes are
executed and turn the luminaire fully on, halfway on, or off. One
such system contains all programming, logic circuitry, and hardware.
Discretionary control and override functions can also be incorporated.
Printers can be connected to the microcomputer to provide hard-copy
records of all control activities. This feature gives information to
the system operator about the frequency and time of any local over-
ride activities. Video display terminals and recent software have
made the system much easier to use, which promotes prompt revision
of control schedules. Transceivers are available in 16- and 32-output
versions. The control relays are capable of switching a 20 A inductive
load. Figure 18.6 shows a typical scheme for such a control system
as described above.

18. 4. 3 Daylighting

Contemporary lighting design practices require that illumination meet-

ing a specified design criterion be provided whenever building is
occupied. The sole use of daylighting does not meet such a criterion,
because daylighting illumination levels change continually with time,
season, and sky conditions. To exploit daylighting as a source of
illumination, it is necessary to establish an interactive link between
ambient lighting conditions and the electric lighting system. This
can be achieved with a photoelectrically controlled lighting system
that adjusts the output of the electric lighting system based on the
amount of prevailing daylight. Lighting control hardware that links
Lighting Controls 453

SOURCE

SERVICE
EQUIPMENT

OCD

OFFICE LIGHTING

LIGHTING -TRANSCEIVER
PANELBOARD MODULE

OCD

COMMUNICATIONS
OCCUPANCY MANUAL DATA LINE
SENSOR CONTROL

FEEDER DISCONNECT
TYPE LIGHTING
CONTACTOR
PRINTER

TRANSCEIVER' MANUAL
MODULE CONTROL CONTROLLER

TIME
CLOCK

PHOTOELECTRIC
CELL

INDUSTRIAL BAY LIGHTING

LIGHTING
PANELBOARD
PARKING LOT LIGHTING

Figure 18.6 Programmable lighting control scheme (Courtesy of

Automatic Switch C o . ) .
454 Chapter 14

electric lighting to available daylighting generally falls into two

categories:

1. Continuously dimmable electric lighting systems controlled by

photosensors, which continually adjust the electric lighting level
in response to the amount of daylight striking the control photo-
sensors. At the heart of the system is the controllable output
ballast or dimming ballast.
2. Photo-relay-based systems, which automatically switch off perim-
eter lighting when daylighting is sufficient to meet lighting needs.

The lighting control system shown in Figure 18.6 can be used to

achieve the above described lighting level control scheme with the aid
of photosensors located within the task zones. Photosensor information
is used by the microcomputer to control zone lighting levels, which
can be controlled from 100% to 0%. In zones where natural light is
available, the system automatically takes advantage of this resource
and incorporates it into the space. The electric lighting in daylight
zones is used as fill-in lighting to provide even illumination across
the space. The amount of usable daylight is dependent on the windows
and skylight types and sizes, window and skylight treatments (drapes,
blinds, glazing, e t c . ) , building design, interior design, and furnish-
ings.
Another scheme of utilizing daylighting to conserve energy is
shown in Figure 18.7. Indicated herein is a method of wiring two
luminaires with a two-lamp ballast to achieve three-step control. As
more daylighting is available, more rows near the window are switched
o f f . This may appear to be a crude method, but it is an economical
approach that requires no elaborate control hardware. The wiring
method responds to daylighting in the following manner:

Sequence Illumination (%)

Power on to ballasts X and Y 100

Switch off power to either X or Y 50
Switch off power to both X and Y 0

18.5 E N E R G Y - S A V I N G S T A T I S T I C S FROM
D I F F E R E N T TYPES OF L I G H T I N G CONTROLS

Data collected from various projects that have been successfully com-
pleted and put into operation in the recent years are presented in
Table 18.1. Although each project is different in its space, lighting
control, system installed cost, and resultant energy savings, the
Lighting Controls 455

WINDOW
π — π - π

One t w o - l a m p b a l l a s t c o n t r o l s one l a m p in the l u m i n a i r e a n d one

lamp in t h e a d j a c e n t l u m i n a i r e . I l l u m i n a t i o n of each row can be ad-
j u s t e d in 3-steps in r e s p o n s e to d a y l i g h t i n g in the f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r :
SEQUENCE ILLUMINATION
Power on to b a l l a s t s 100%
X and Y
S w i t c h - o f f power to 50%
either ballast X or Y
S w i t c h - o f f power to 0%
both b a l l a s t s X a n d Y
As m o r e d a y l i g h t i n g is available, m o r e r o w s near the w i n d o w are
switched off.

Figure 18.7 Method of wiring for three-step control.

 ca
Oi

Table 18.1 E n e r g y - S a v i n g Statistics from Lighting Controls 8

System Resultant
Type of Space Lighting installed energy Payback Cost
Project building C ft 2) control cost savings (years) ($/ft2)

A Headquarter 120,000 CCS (central $ 19,000 $40,000 0.,5 0.,158

offices control system) at $0. 06/kWh
Β Offices and 384,000 HP computer and $ 59,140 $23,000 2 . .6 0.,154
manufacturing telephone inter- at $0. 015/kWh
face
C Offices (commer- 250,000 GE-PLC and $ 37,000 $32,300 1., 1 0.148
cial building) telephone inter- at $0. 04/kWh
face
D Offices 800,000 Microprocessor $154,400 $56,000 3 0. 193
transceivers at $0. 10/kWh
and relays

a
No elaborate dimming controls are involved in the projects listed.
Ο
^
Ω
Xi
Γ-+
CO
"S
00
Lighting Controls 457

unit costs in dollars per square foot are fairly consistent. None of
the projects listed include elaborate dimming controls, which would
certainly have increased the cost of the project.
The equation below shows a simple relationship between the elec-
tricity costs and control system unit cost in dollars per square foot.
The figures are derived from a simple payback formula expressed in
terms of most relevant factors involved in evaluating an effective
cost an end user could be expected to pay for a lighting control
system.

Payback years = R x UPD x H R/1000 χ PA

where

A = area, f t 2
UPD = unit power density for interior lighting design, W/ft 2
Ρ = electricity cost, dollars/kWh
C = unit cost of lighting control system, dollars/ft 2
R = percent energy reduction
HR = annual operating hours

18.6 BASES FOR SELECTING L I G H T I N G CONTROLS

TO A T T A I N OPTIMUM SAVINGS

18.6.1 Guidelines for Minimum Number of Lighting Controls

Table 18.2 represents an attempt to establish some guidelines for a

minimum number of lighting controls to be installed with reference
to the area size and unit power density of a lighting system. The
lighting controls used are either on-off devices or dimming controls.

18.6.2 Medium-Sized Offices

An assessment of the cost-effectiveness of photoelectric control equip-

ment was made for three medium-sized offices:

1. A fully automated mixed control system would be unlikely to be

cost-effective for single offices.
2. A partially automated on-off system would be cost-effective in
new buildings at present energy cost.
3. A partially automated mixed system for new buildings would
probably be cost-effective only if designed to control luminaires
in several offices.
458 Chapter 14

Table 18.2 Recommended Minimum Number of Lighting Controls 8

UPD (W/ft 2 )

A (ft2) <1.5 1.5-3 >3

<125 1 2 2
125-250 1 2 2+
251-500 1 2+ 4
501-1000 2 3+ 5+
1001-2000 3 4+ 6
>2000 3+ 5+ 6+
a
When multiple controls are used, it is generally installed to permit
reducing the general lighting in the space by at least one-half in
either a uniform pattern or by zones, as most appropriate.

The results of this study are summarized in Table 18.3. From

a close examination of Table 18.3 it would seem sensible to include a
dimming line to each luminaire during its installation in new buildings.
This would involve only a small extra capital cost, but would keep
open the option of installing a dimming system later without the neces-
sity for complete rewiring. In another study, when due considera-
tions were given to the daylight factor, it appeared that it is generally
best to control only those luminaires nearest the windows.

18.6.3 Factors A f f e c t i n g Selection of Lighting Controls

In general, there do not appear to be any general rules or guide-

lines that conveniently lead one to select specific controls. The
following factors will have a bearing on the selection of lighting
controls.

Size of the Facility

A large facility may justify a building management system or pro-

grammable controllers that provide centralized lighting control. On
the other hand, a small facility may obtain optimum savings by select-
ing a simple time switch control. From experience, large computers
often cost around $500 per hour to operate, whereas a minicomputer
costs no more than $10 per hour to operate.
 Lighting Controls 459

Table 18.3 Cost-Effectiveness of Photoelectric Control Systems a

New buildings Existing buildings

Types of
control Single office Multioffice Single office Multioffice

Fully automated 2 1 2 2
1 on-off + 1 dimming
Partially automated
1 on-off 1 1 3 3
1 on-off + 2 1 2 3
1 dimming
a
l , Cost-effective within 15 years; 2, not cost-effective within 15 years;
3, depending on energy costs.

Size of individual Lighting Area

If the current drawn by an individual lighting area exceeds 20 A, a

power contactor may be the choice. Small areas such as individual
offices would be candidates for low-voltage relays. In either case,
these devices would be controlled by timers, photoelectric sensors,
and the like. In recent years, the trend has been to control smaller
individual lighting areas.

Availability of Daylighting

As discussed previously, energy savings from daylighting depends

on many factors: climate conditions, building form and design, and
the activities within the building. Only a portion of a building can
be daylit; however, in most cases, 30% of the floor space is suffi-
ciently close to the perimeter to be daylit. There is little documented
research in this field. As a general guide, the average energy sav-
ings from daylighting for an entire building will be in the neighbor-
hood of 15%.

Type of Usage in the Facility

If the facility provides commercial rental of office space, considera-

tion is often given to flexible controls, such as low-voltage relays.
In the institutional facilities where lighting requirements are more
fixed, other types of controls should be considered.
460 Chapter 14

New Installation or Modification of Existing Facility

From Table 18.3 it becomes evident that a more elaborate photoelectric

control system or even a sophisticated lighting management system can
be easily justified for a new building. However, for an existing
building, an extensive lighting control system may not be cost-effec-
tive. In this case a control system that utilizes existing power wiring
for signal transmission would be preferred (see Table 18.1, project
A).

18.6.4 Comparison of Lighting Control Systems

Table 18.4 shows a simple comparison of different systems according

to how well each meets the needs of both the occupant and the build-
ing management. The relative performance rating of each system is
often a judgement call. Individual manufacturers for a single system
may vary sharply in system performance and cost. The objective
here is to show a process, not pass final judgement or provide hard
pricing guidelines. Some of the reasoning that went into the relative
rating for each function shown in Table 18.4 is given below.
1. Occupancy sensitivity. From an occupant's perspective,
individual wall switches work just fine. Contactors on most building
automation systems can be a real disadvantage, since they do not
normally allow the occupant to override for after-hour usage. Pro-
grammable lighting control caters to the occupant. When he or she
enters the building after-hours, the person's particular working area
can be lit in anticipation of his or her arrival with a single phone
call. Similarly, when a person is staying late, his or her office and
related work space can both be kept on with a phone call or switch
override.
2. Occupant-level selection. This is a function affected by both
control system capacity and floor layout. Individual office layouts
with manual switching of split-wired fixtures or several lighting
sources within the space give most occupants the degree of control
they need. The dimmable solid-state ballast approach provides an
even better method for allowing the occupant to adjust the overhead
lighting.
3. Energy-saving potential. The only surprise here is in the
"good" rating for switches in individual offices and the "poor" rating
for the same devices used to control a zone. In practice, what
happens is that when more than one person is in a zone, the first
in turns it on and the last out never looks back.
4. Management data. This term reflects system monitoring,
analysis, and reporting capabilities. These require a communications
capability not normally inherent in switches or occupancy sensors.
 Tabl e 18. 4 Comparison o f Various Lighting Controls

Light Energy
Occupant Level Savings Management Integration Space
Sensitivity Selection Potential Data Capability Adaptability Cost

Standard Wall Switches Good Fair Fair No No Poor Medium

(Individual offices)
Contactor Control Via Poor Poor Poor Yes Yes Good Low
Building Automation System
Programmable Lighting Excellent Fair Good Yes Yes Good Medium
Control Relay Based
Programmable Lighting Excellent Excellent Excellent Yes Yes Good High
Control Dimming Based
Occupancy Sensor Fair Poor Good No No Poor High

σ>
μ
462 Chapter 14

5. Space adaptability. The important point here is that devices

physically linked to the occupant's walls or ceiling pose problems when
it is time to rearrange a space.
6. Costs. These are for illustration purpose only. The solid-
state ballast cost, in particular, represents a combination of functions
not presently available in the market. Perhaps the biggest surprise
is that individual office switches are not cheap. They typically cost
$0.50 per square foot. Occupancy sensors may reduce the installa-
tion labor, but the added hardware content still means a relatively
high total cost. Both switches and sensors incur added cost for
office rearrangements.
In conclusion, regardless of the type and/or size of the facility
illuminating engineers may deal with, there will always be a suitable
type of control for them to choose from. The engineers must become
knowledgeable in the field of lighting controls and exercise their
sound judgment in the selection of control schemes to achieve a high-
quality lighting system with optimum energy savings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ailing, W. R . , The Integration of Microcomputers and Controllable

Output Ballast—A New Dimension in Lighting Control, IEEE Trans-
actions on Industry Applications, vol. IA-20, no. 5, Sept./Oct.
1984.
Chen, Kao, New Concepts in Interior Lighting Design, IEEE Trans-
actions on Industry Applications, vol. IA-20, no. 5, Sept./Oct.
1984.
Chen, Kao, and Castenschiold, Rene, Selecting Lighting Controls for
Optimum Energy Savings, IEEE-IAS Annual Meeting Proceedings,
Oct. 1985.
Crisp, V. H. C . , Preliminary Study of Automatic Daylighting Control
of A r t i f i c i a l L i g h t i n g , Lighting Research & Technology, vol. 9,
no. 1, 1977.
Dunlop, R . , Management of Lighting Loads with Controls, Electric
Power Research Institute Publication EPRI EM-3866, Project 2285-7
Proceedings, Jan. 1985.
Hunt, D. R. G., and Crisp, V. H. C . , Lighting Controls: Their
Current Use and Possible Improvement, CIE Seminar, Electricity
Council Research Center, Capenhurst, England, July 1978.
Pearlman, Gordon W., The Emergence and Future of Intelligent Dim-
mers, Lighting Design and Application, June 1982, pp. 22—23.
Peterson, D . , Integrated Lighting Management, Lighting Design and
Application, Sept. 1988, pp. 14-19.
Peterson, D . , and Rubinstein, F. , Effective Lighting Control, Light-
ing Design and Application, Feb. 1983.
Index

Active power, 199, 200 Association of Edison Illuminating

Aerial cable, 244 Companies (AEIC), 250
Air circuit breakers, 135, Asymmetrical factor, 66—69, 72,
160-161 74-76
Aluminum conductors, 231 — 232 Automatic data-processing (ADP)
Alzak process, 416 system, 295
American National Standards Automatic throwover, 152—153
Institute (ANSI), 2, 3 - 4 - Autotransformer starter, 213—214
American Society of Heating, Auxiliary relays, 135
Refrigerating, and Air
Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE), 437, 438 Ballasts, 31, 32, 351-352, 3 5 4 -
American Wire Gauge (AWG), 357, 411-414
240, 241 Basic impulse level, 156
Ammeters, 223-224 Batwing, 344
Analog dimmer, 451 Beam spread, 392, 416
Analog signal, 278 Belleville washer, 256
Anodized aluminum reflector, Blackouts, 276
416 Bolted pressure switches, 150—
Apparent power, 199 151
Arc furnaces, 15 Bonding, 101
Arcing faults, 85 Brightness, 376
Arresters, 104, 137-14 contrast, 311-312
station class, 140 photometric, 312
intermediate class, 140 Brownouts, 276
distribution class, 140 Buffer, 286, 294
Askarel (PCB), 189 Busways
installation, 273-274

463
464 Index

[Busways] Circuit breakers

lighting, 266-267 molded case, 135, 170-173
metal-enclosed, 274 oil, 166
p l u g - i n , 48, 266-267 over 600 V, 158-166
standards, 266, 268-270 power, 135, 166, 170
trolley, 266, 267-268 service protectors, 133
B y p a s s , 287-288, 294 tie, 39, 42
under 600 V, 166-167, 170, 173
Coaxial conductors, 298
Cable Coefficient
aerial, 244 ceiling cavity luminance (LCcc),
conductors, 231-232, 238 330
connectors, 255 — 256, 258 reflected radiation (RRC), 330
faults, locating, 252-254 wall direct radiation (WDRC),
installation, 238, 244 332
insulation, 232 wall reflected radiation (WRRC),
limiters, 48, 156, 239 331
low voltage, 237 Coefficient of Beam Utilization,
medium voltage, 238 394-395
ratings, 238-239, 242, 253 Coefficient of Utilization (CU),
sheaths, 232, 235, 257 312, 326-327
splicing devices, 261 — 264 Color
stranded, 232 filament lamps, 389
terminations, 231, 257-261 floodlighting, 397
thermoplastic, 232-234 fluorescent lamps, 389
thermosetting, 232-234 HID, 389-390
t e s t i n g , 249-252 Color Preference Index (CPI),
Cable b u s , 248, 264-268 312
Cable trays, 238, 245 Color Rendering Index (CRI),
Candela, 312, 396 312
Candle power, 314, 392, 400 Computers, 1, 33, 280-282
Candle power distribution Conductive floor, 102
c u r v e s , 392, 395 Conductors
Capacitors aluminum, 231, 232
banks, 34 copper, 231, 232
harmonic currents, 34, 207 maintenance, 249—254
power factor improvements, power loss, 239
204 resistance measurement, 253
ratings, 200 size, 231, 239
surge voltage, 207 Conduits, 238, 246-247
Cathode ray tube (CRT), Connectors, cable, 255—256
376-377 Contactors, 136, 442-443
Cavity, 325-326 Contrast Rendition Factor (CRF),
cavity ratio, 325, 326 335, 344
Certified Ballast Manufacturers Coordination s t u d y , 141—143
Association (CBM), 411 Corona, 236, 250, 277
I ndex 465

Creepage, 258 Disconnecting switches, 136

Current Distance relays, 133
active, 199-200 Distribution substation, 197
reactive, 199-200 Disturbance , 6 , 8
Current capacity, 239, 268, 272 Diversity Factor, 10
Current-limiting power f u s e s , Duty
See Fuses close, 80-81
Current transformers, 132, 143, interrupting, 80—81
227 latching, 8 0 - 8 1
core - balance, 132 monentary, 80—81
Current wave
asymmetrical, 55, 56, 158
symmetrical, 55, 56, 160 Earth, grounding connections to,
104-106
Economics, 7, 311
Daylighting, 344, 4 3 6 - 4 3 7 , 452, Edison Electric Institute (EEI), 4
454, 459 Efficacy, lamps, 348, 350, 353,
Decrement 409
alternating current, 55-57 Efficiency, equipment, 193, 209-
direct current, 55—57 210
Dedicated line, 277, 284 Electrical energy conservation
Demand factor, 9 energy efficient ballasts, 414,
Demand meters, 227 428
Design considerations, 6—8 high efficiency motors, 209-210
Devices by number lighting, 408-439
21, 133 utility rates, 15
27, 121 Electrical metallic tubing, 246—247
32, 114 Electric power distribution systems
40, 113 busways, See Busways
46, 113 cable system, See Cable
50, 114 e n e r g y conservation, See Elec-
51, 114 trical e n e r g y conservation
59, 121 fault-current calculations, See
60, 130 Fault-current calculations
63, 134 grounding, See Grounding
67, 113, 125 power factor, See Power factor
86, 135 protective devices, See Pro-
87, 113, 127 tective devices
Differential relays, 127-129 system planning, 6—18
Digital dimmer, 451 voltage considerations, See
Dimming, 384, 442, 450-452 Voltage considerations
Directional ground relays, Electrodes
See Relays grounding, 106
Directional overcurrent relays, made, 106-107
See Relays Electromagnetic Interference
Dips, voltage, 8, 16 (EMI), 280
Discharge voltage, 103 Electronic data processing, 13
466 Index

Elliptical Reflector (ER), 348, Gapless metal-oxide arresters,

349, 409 140
Enclosures, grounding, 97 General diffuse lighting, 311
Equivalent contrast, 321-323 General Service Administration,
Equivalent impedance, 55, 58 437
Expanded radial system, 36—37 Generators
Expansion, system, 8, 35 induction, 53
Expulsion-type f u s e s , 157 protection of, 128-130
synchronous, 52
Glare, 312-313, 341-342, 376,
Factor K, 80 384
Fault current calculations Glitter, 387
direct method, 58 Grounded systems
examples, 60-62 reactance, 92
fundamentals, 55-57 resistance, 91, 133, 296
per unit method, 58 resonant, 92
procedures, 54, 57, 61 solid, 91
source of fault current, Ground faults
52-53 arcing, 88, 110, 111
Feeder busway, 267 intermittent, 88, 110, 111
Fenestration, 345-346 restriking, 88, 110, 111
Ferroresonnance, filters, 34 Ground, isolated, 16, 298-299
Fiber optics, 298 Ground relays, 131-133
Floodlighting Grounding
application, 396-397 cable system, 237
design procedures, 390—396 connection to earth, 104, 296
e f f e c t s , 386-387, 397 electrodes, 97, 104, 106, 107
footcandle levels, 390, 393 equipment, 9 6 - 9 8 , 295-296
NEMA floodlight classifica- grids, 106
tion, 390 single point, 296
Frequency static & lightning protection,
deviations, 278, 281 100
meters, 223 system, 92, 93, 295
relays, 16
Fuses
boric-acid, 157 Halogen lamps, 349
current-limiting, 136, 155, Harmonic distortion, total (THD),
157-160 293
expulsion, 157 Harmonic restraint type relays,
low-voltage, 154-156 120
medium-voltage, 156 Harmonics, 3 3 - 3 4 , 207
noncurrent-limiting, 154, Hazardous areas, 2 4 8 - 2 4 9 , 371
155-157 High intensity discharge (HID)
power, 157-160 lamps, 31, 353-354
types and ratings, 154—157 High potential t e s t , 250-252
I ndex 467

High resistance grounded s y s - [ Instruments ]

tems, 9 1 - 9 2 , 133 recording, 225
Hybrid power conditioners, switchboard & panel instru-
285-286, 289 ments, 223
Instrument transformers, 223,
227
Illuminance levels, 314, 316-320 Insulated Cable Engineers Asso-
Illuminating Engineering Society ciation (ICEA), 250
(IES), 334, 337, 338, Insulation
344, 437 cable, 232-234
Illumination level, 7, 24
direct component, 328 life, 18
distribution of, 312 transformers, 191
Equivalent Sphere (ESI), 313, withstand characteristics, 137
334-336 Insulator flashover, 141
horizontal, 379 Interface, 302
reflected component, 330—332 Interrupting capacity, 79
vertical, 375, 380 Interrupting ratings, 7, 54, 60,
Impedance, 54 79-81
Impulse method, 254 Ionization, 102
Incandescent lamps, 31, 348—349 Isocandela diagram, 396
Induction-disk overcurrent
relays, 114-117
Induction motors Kilovarhour meters, 226
capacitor selection, 202—204 Kilowatthour meters, 225
high efficiency, 209-210 Korndorfer connection, 213
power factor, 200, 203 Krypton, 409, 410
source of fault current, 53
squirrel-cage, 208
Τ-frame & U-frame, 28, 33, Lamps
204 filament
wound-rotor, 53, 208 e n e r g y saving schemes, 420,
Industrial lighting, 373-385 423, 426-428
Industrial plants, 6 operating characteristics, 31,
large, 113-114 303, 305
small, 112 t y p e s , 3 4 8 - 3 4 9 , 389
Industry Applications Society fluorescent
(IAS), 2 e n e r g y saving schemes,
Inspections, 8, 18 428-429
Installation c o s t s , 49 ballast, 31
Instantaneous relays, 114 operating characteristics, 31,
Institute of Electrical & Elec- 303-305, 351-353
tronics Engineers (IEEE), t y p e s , 350, 389
2 HID
Instruments e n e r g y saving schemes,
auxiliary devices, 227 429-434
portable, 223-224 mercury vapor, 353, 389
468 Index

[Lamps ] Load flow, 16

operating characteristics, 31, Load interrupter, 151 — 152
303-305 Load shedding, 16, 42
self-ballasted, 353 Load s u r v e y , 8 — 13
t y p e s , 353 Loading cycle, 231
metal halide, 353, 389 Localized general lighting, 366
high pressure sodium (HPS), Locked rotor reactance, 53
353, 389 Loop system, 43—45
performance, 357—361 Loss of excitation relay, 113
low pressure sodium (LPS), Low-resistance grounded system,
354 91, 92
lumen depreciation (LLD), 313 Low voltage systems
LEM series (Lighting Energy cable for, 237-238
Management Series pub- circuit breakers, 166, 167, 170,
lished by IES), 437-439 173
Life cycle costing, 311, 420, 441 definition of, 19
Light instruments & meters used,
baffled downlight, 348 223-226
loss factor (LLF), 313 fault calculation, 54—55
units and measurement, 312 f u s e s , 154-156
Lighting power factor considerations,
controls, 311, 437, 441-462 200, 202-204
daylighting, 344, 4 3 6 - 4 3 7 , secondary distribution systems,
4 5 2 - 4 5 4 , 459 50-51
economics, 308, 311, 416-420 selection of, 24, 28
effectiveness factor (LEF), utilization equipment, 29—32
335, 344 Lumen, 312
emergency, 367-369 output, 303-305
high bay, 369-370, 375, 379 lamp lumen depreciation (LLD),
medium & low bay, 370-371, 313
375 Lumen method, 313, 326-327
quality, 310, 341 Luminaires, 31, 311, 361-365,
quantity, 310 390
security, 367 luminaire dirt depreciation
s e n s o r s , 446—449 (LDD), 313
supplementary, 367 supplementary t y p e s , 365-366
task-ambient, 311 Luminance, 310, 312, 342
track, 426 ratios, 342
Lightning, 16, 103, 137
arresters, 104
rod, 103 Maintenance
Liquid-filled transformers, 189, considering in system design,
190, 192 8, 17
Load break switches, 151 — 152 floodlighting, 395-396
Load center, 8, 14 general lighting, 417
Load current, 15, 231, 239 light loss factor (LLF), 313
Load factor, 10, 239 Measurement, See Tests
I ndex 469

Medium voltage systems National Electrical Code (NEC),

cable for, 238 2, 15, 17, 36, 84, 151,
definition, 19 187, 231, 296, 371
grounding, 93 National Electrical Manufacturers
power factor considerations, Association (NEMA), 3,
205-206 156, 170, 176, 191, 218,
primary distribution lines, 391
42-45 National Electrical Safety Code,
Megohmmeters, 225 17
Metal-enclosed b u s , 183-184, National Fire Protection Associa-
266-269 tion (NFPA), 2, 3, 17, 368
Metal-enclosed switchgear, 7, National Institute of Standards
86, 176-185 and Technology (NIST),
Metallic conduit, 246-247 See NBS
Metallic raceway, 246-248 Negative-sequence voltage relays,
Metal oxide arresters, 139 125
Meters, 225-226 Network protector circuit breaker,
Microprocessor, 442, 452 45
Mirror t e s t , 377 Noise, 17
Molded-case circuit breaker, common mode, 277-278, 285,
135, 170-173 298-299
Momentary duty, 80 transverse mode, 277 — 278,
Motors 285, 298-299
capacitor selection, 202-204 Nominal system voltage, 23, 24,
control center, 219-220 26
control circuit, 220 Nonmagnetic (aluminum or non-
control equipment, 34, 210 metallic) raceways, 246
dc, 209 Noncurrent-limiting f u s e s , 154—
differential protection, 222 155
grounding of, 16 Nonstandard nominal system volt-
harmonic, generation of, 221 age, 26
high efficiency, 209-210
induction, 33, 208-209
protection, 220, 222, 223 Occupational Safety & Health
synchronous, 33, 209 Administration (OSHA), 4
starters, 211-218 One-line diagram, 60, 142
starting, 16, 211 Outage, momentary, 6
three-phase, 208 Overcurrent relays, See Relays
wound rotor, 208-209 Overlapping, 112
Murray loop t e s t , 253 Overvoltage, 86, 95
operation of lamps, 303-305
e f f e c t s on computer operation,
National Bureau of Standards 277
( N B S ) , 3, 19, 84, 114, Overvoltage relays, 121-125
156, 218, 280
470 Index

Panelboards Power follow current, 139

power distribution, 187 Power f u s e s , 157
lighting & appliance, 187 Power interruptions, 35
multi-section, 187 Power line carrier systems, 449 —
NEC rules, 187-188 450
Panel instruments, 223 Pressure-sensitive relays, 134—
Parabolic aluminized reflector 135
(PAR), 409, 426 Primary feeder, 41, 42
Parabolic wedge louver, 376, Primary loop system, 14, 43
382 Primary selective system, 14, 42
Peak load, 10 Programmable controller, 1, 442,
Pellet-type arresters, 138 444, 449
Percentage differential relays, Protective devices
127, 129 auxiliary relays, See Relays
Phase-balance current compari - differential relays, See Relays
son relays, 113 directional relays, See Relays
Phase-voltage unbalance, 293 example for large industrial
Photocell, 414, 447, 459 plant system, 113 — 114
Pilot-wire relays, 133 example for small industrial
Plug-in busways, 8, 267 plant system, 112
Point-by-point calculations, frequency relays, See Relays
327-334, 396 ground-fault relaying, See
Portable instruments, 223-224 Relays
Potheads, 237, 257, 258 low-voltage f u s e s , See Fuses
Power circuit breakers, 160, overcurrent relays, See Relays
166, 167, 170 pilot-wire relays, See Relays
Power conditioning equipment, proximity e f f e c t , 239
284-289 temperature-sensitive relays,
Power factor and related con- See Relays
siderations voltage relays, See Relays
automatic control equipment,
204
capacitor and motor selec- Raceways, 246-249
tion, 202-204 Radial system, 14, 35
capacitor standards and Radio-frequency interference
operating characteristics, (RFI), 17
200 Reactance
capacitor switching, 205-206 negative-sequence, 94
conductor loss, 207 positive-sequence, 91, 92, 94
definition of, 199 subtransient, 52—53, 143
economics, 204, 205 transient, 5 2 - 5 3 , 143
fundamental of, 200 synchronous, 52—53, 143
release of system capacity, zero-sequence, 91, 92, 94
205 Reactive power, 199—200
resonances & harmonics, Reactors, 92, 95
207-208 Recording instruments, 226
voltage improvement, 205 — 207 Rectifiers, 286
I ndex 471

Reflectance, 314, 376 [Relays]

Reflected radiation coefficient voltage-controlled overcurrent,
(RRC), 330 117
Reflection voltage-restrained overcurrent,
veiling, 310, 344, 376 117
specular, 312 zero-sequence, 132
d i f f u s e , 312 Reliability, system, 6-7, 14, 35,
spread, 312 39, 42, 45, 308
Reflectors, 416 Resistance-grounded system,
Regulator, 285 91-92
Relays Resistance welding, 270-274
auxiliary, 135 Resonances, 34, 86, 88, 207
current balance, 130, 131 Restriking ground faults, 86, 88,
differential, 112, 113, 1 2 7 - 92
129 Return on investment (ROI),
directional ground, 127 432, 441
directional overcurrent, 113, Room position multiplier (RPM),
125, 127 330-331
distance, 133 Rotating machinery, 16
frequency, 16, 134, 278, 284 Rotary filter (UPS), 16, 286,
frequency compensated voltage 289
relays, 122
ground fault, 92
ground fault relaying, 131 — Safety switches, 150, 151
133 Secondary-network system, 14,
harmonic restraint, 120 35, 45
instantaneous, 114 Secondary-selective system, 14,
inverse-time overcurrent, 114, 35, 39
115, 117 Secondary spot network, 47—48
loss of excitation, 113 Semi-direct lighting, 311
negative-sequence voltage, Semi-indirect lighting, 311
113, 125 Service continuity, 85
overcurrent, 113-115, 117, Service protectors, 173, 175
120 Shadow, 342, 382, 386, 387
overvoltage, 121 Sheaths, cable, 232, 235, 257
percentage differential, 129 Shielding, 235-236, 2 5 7 - 2 5 8 ,
phase-balance current, 113 298
phasing relay, 48 Shields, 236-237
pilot wire, 112, 113, 133 Short circuit
p r e s s u r e - s e n s i t i v e , 134-135 bolted, 109
solid-state, 114, 125, 131 calculations, See Fault Current
temperature-sensitive, 134 Calculations
third harmonic filtered over- double p h a s e - t o - g r o u n d , 109
voltage, 122, 125 phase-to-ground, 109
time-delay, 114 p h a s e - t o - p h a s e , 109
undervoltage, 121 single p h a s e - t o - g r o u n d , 109
voltage, 121-125 ratings, 78, 79, 268
472 Index

[Short circuit] [Surge arresters]

temperature limits, 240 selection, 138, 139
three phase, 109 valve type, 139
Shunts, 228 Surge capacitors, 113, 140
Silhouette, 340 Surge voltage, 8, 32, 136, 137,
Silicone carbide arresters, 139 141, 281
Simple radial system, 35—36 insulation voltage withstand
Single phase systems, 24 characteristics, 136
Skin conduction, 278 protection against, 103, 137,
Skin e f f e c t , 239 140-141
Slew rate, 293 travelling wave behavior, 136
Solidly grounded systems, 91 Switchboard instruments, 223
Solid-state ballast, 357 Switches, 136, 150-154
Solid-state equipment, 32 bolted p r e s s u r e , 150, 151
Sparkle, 387 disconnecting, 136, 150, 151
Specular, 342 load interrupter, 42, 43, 45,
Spikes, 276, 278, 282 150-152
Splices, 261, 264 s a f e t y , 150, 151
Spot network, 47 selector, 42
Spread band, 27 transfer, 150, 152-153, 288,
Squirrel-cage motors, 203, 208 289, 294
Static power factor controllers, Switchgear
240 application guide, 186
Static protection grounding, 100 classifications
Static uninterruptible power metal-clad, 176-177
supply, 286, 289 interrupter, 176, 177-179
Station class surge arresters, low-voltage power circuit
140 breaker, 176, 180
Standard voltages, 19, 24 low-voltage metal-enclosed
Standby power, 301 distribution, 176-180
Starters, motor, 211-219 control power, 185 — 186
Steady-state, 52 definitions, 176
Stress cones, 257-258 ratings, 182, 185
Substations Switching s u r g e , 86
distributed network t y p e , 51 Switching transients, 16, 138
load factor, 50 Synchronous condensers, 53
outdoor, 199 Synchronous generators, 53
primary, 21 Synchronous motors, 53
transformers, 21, 188, 190 Synchronous reactance, 53
unit, 36, 41, 196-197 System planing, 7—18
Subtransient reactance, 52, 80
Supplementary lighting, 365
Surge arresters, 93, 113 Task-ambient, 311
characteristics, 137-139 Task-visual, 310, 311
class, 138-140 Temperature
gapless metal oxide, 139 ambient effect on lamps, 353,
ratings, 140 357
I ndex 473

[Temperature] [Transformers]
effect on lighting in room, voltage taps, 21
353, 357, 359, 360 Transient over voltages, 16, 137,
Temperature sensitive relay, 138, 278, 281, 282
134 Transient reactance, 52
Terminators, 257-261 Transient stability, 16
Tests Transient suppressor, 277, 284
cable, 249-254 Trapezoid diagram, 361
conductor resistance, 253, Trolley busway, 266-268
254
high-potential ( h i - p o t ) ,
250-252 U-frame motors, 33, 202
installation, 274 Underground cable, 14, 248
insulation, 250-252 Undervoltage relays, 121
Murray loop, 253 Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Varley loop, 253 (UL), 3, 155, 211, 216
Three-phase systems, 24 Uniformity of coverage, 396
Thyristors, 32, 137 Uninterruptible power supply
Time-constant, 53 (UPS), 113, 278, 284, 286,
Time-delay relays, See Relays 291-294, 301
Time dial, 117 Unit substation, 196-199
Timers, 445-446 Unity power density, 438
Tolerance limits, voltage, 19, Utilities
22, 27 source of fault current, 52
Transducers, 227 substations, 21
Transfer voltage supplied b y , 21, 24
forward, 286, 288-289 Utilization equipment, 7, 28, 29
r e v e r s e , 286, 288-289 Utilization voltage, 21, 23, 24,
Transformers 28
classifications, 188
connections, 193-194
current, 227 Vacuum circuit breakers, 161
differential protection, 127, Valve-type a r r e s t e r s , 139
130 Varley loop t e s t , 253
distribution, 21, 190 Varmeters, 223
efficiency, 192-193 Visibility, 314, 377
evaluating losses, 191 — 193 Visibility meter, 321
impedance, 194—195 Visual comfort probability (VCP),
insulation, 195 313, 3 3 7 - 3 3
isolation, 278, 282-285, 291 Voltage considerations
power & voltage ratings, 191 classes, 19, 24, 26
protection of, 120, 127-130 control, 2 1 - 2 3 , 27, 28
sound level, 191 depressions, 7
specifications, 190 dips, 8, 16, 278, 281
taps, 21, 27, 193 drops, 239, 269-270
termination facilities, 191 effect on lamp operation,
voltage (potential) t y p e , 226 303-305
474 Index

[Voltage considerations] Voltage unbalance factor, 32

excursions, 19 Voltmeter, 224
harmonics, 33, 34 Volt-ohm meters, 224
improvement, 205—206
instability, 277
nonstandard, 26 Wall direct radiation coefficient
phase-voltage unbalance, (WDRC), 331, 332
32-33 Wall reflected radiation coefficient
ratings, 19, 28, 29 (WRRC), 331
r i s e s , 206 Watthour meters, 225
selection, 2 6 - 2 8 Wattmeters, 223
spread band, 2 7 - 2 8 Wave (steep f r o n t ) , 13
standards, 19—20 Waveform, 293
tolerance limits, 19, 2 1 - 2 2 Weighting factor, 315, 321, 322
variations, 29 — 31 Welders, 272
Voltage controlled overcurrent Window-type current transfor-
relay, 117 mers, 133, 228
Voltage regulator, 21, 277, 285, Wireway, 247-248
291, 305
Voltage (potential) transformers,
226 Zero-sequence current transfor-
Voltage relays, 121-125 mers, 132
Voltage-restrained overcurrent Zero-sequence relays, 132
relays, 117 Zinc-oxide arresters, 139
Voltage s t r e s s , 137 Zonal cavity method, 325
Voltage transients, 8, 16, 276